Full text of "The Encyclopaedia Britannica : a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information"

ENCYCLOREWA
BRI1ANNICA

EIJEVENTH
EDITION

i m .

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 17681771.

SECOND ten 17771784.

THIRD eighteen 17881797.

FOURTH twenty 1801 1810.

FIFTH twenty 18151817.

SIXTH twenty 18231824.

SEVENTH twenty-one 18301842.

EIGHTH twenty-two 18531860.

NINTH twenty-five 18751889.
TENTH ninth edition and eleven

supplementary volumes, 1902 1903.

ELEVENTH ,, published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 1911.

in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention

by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS

of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

DICTIONARY

ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL

INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME VI

CH^TELET to CONSTANTINE

Cambridge, England:

at the University Press

New York, 35 West 32nd Street
1910

E. 5

E.3

by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.

INITIALS USED IN VOLUME VI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL

CONTRIBUTORS,! WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE

ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.

A. Bo.*
A. B. G.*
A. B. R.

A. C. Be.
A. C. C.

A. C. McG.

A. C. S.
A. D.
A. E. B.

A. F. L.

A. G.

A. Go.*
A. H.*

A. He.*
A. H. J. G.

A. J. G.

4 Church, Dean.

AUGUSTE BOUDINHON, D.D., D.C.L. [Conclave;

Professor of Canon Law in the Catholic University of Paris. Editor of the Canoniste ~\ Concordat;
contemporain. Author of Biens d'eglise et peines canoniques; &c. I Consistorv

ALICE B. GOMME. f

Hon. Member of the Folk-lore Society. Author of Dictionary of Traditional Games ( Children's Games.
of Great Britain and Ireland; Children's Singing Games. (,

ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. f fwn.- R

Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of Text Book on Classifi- ( L, aolan y>
cation of Flowering Plants; &c. I Coflee: Botany.

ARTHUR CHRISTOPHER BENSON, C.V.O., M.A., F.R.HisT.S.
See the biographical article: BENSON, EDWARD WHITE.

ALBERT CURTIS CLARK, M.A. I"

Fellow and Tutor of Queen's College, Oxford, and University Reader in Latin. "! Cicero.
Editor of Cicero's Speeches (Clarendon Press). I

ARTHUR CUSHMAN MCGIFFERT, D.D., PH.D., M.A. I"

Professor of Church History in Union Theological Seminary, New York. Author of i Church History (in part).
A History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age; &c.

ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE.

See the biographical article: SWINBURNE, A. C.

AUSTIN DOBSON.

See the biographical article : DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN.

REV. ANDREW EWBANK BURN, M.A., D.D.

Vicar of Halifax and Prebendary of Lichfield. Author of An Introduction to the
Creeds and the Te Deum; Niceta of Remesiana; &c.

ARTHUR FRANCIS LEACH, M.A.

Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Charity Commissioner for England and Wales. .
Formerly Assistant Secretary of the Board of Education. Fellow of All Souls'
College, Oxford, 1874-1881. Stanhope Prizeman, 1872.

MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908).

H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgate;
Secrets of the Prison House; &c.

; Congreve, William.

I Chesterfield, 4th Earl of.

Church.

Chicheley.

Children's Courts.

REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A.

Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester.

f Chemnitz;
\ Cochlaeus.

ALBERT HAUCK, D.TH., PH.D., D.JURIS. ("

Professor of Church History in the University of Leipzig. Director of the Collection

of Ecclesiastical Archaeology. Member of the Royal Saxon Society of Arts and J rv,,i, ;*+,. I * A
Sc|ences. Formerly Professor in the University of Erlangen. Editor of the 3 rd Cnl tory (m part).
edition of Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopddie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche.
Author of Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands; Tertullians Leben und Schriften; &c.

AUGUSTINE HENRY, M.A., F.L.S.

Reader in Forestry, Cambridge University. Formerly Official in Chinese Imperial J |M,i na .
Maritime Customs. Explorer of the Flora of the interior of China, Formosa and 1 wun *-
Hainan.

ABEL HENDY JONES GREENIDGE, M.A., D.LITT. (Oxon.) (d. 1905). f

Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Hertford College, Oxford, and of St John's College,
Oxford. Author of Infamia in Roman Law; Handbook of Greek Constitutional! Comitia.
History; Roman Public Life; History of Rome. Joint-author of Sources of Roman
History, 133-70 B.C.

REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. (Lond.).

Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent J _, . . , . ,

College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University and Member of] Clement I. (in part).
Mysore Educational Service.

'A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.

1975

vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

{Chile: Geography and
Statistics;
Colombia: Geography and
Statistics.

A. LO. AUGUSTE LONGNON. . -

Professor at the College de France. Director of the Ecole des Hautes Etudes. J chatillon.

Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Member of the Institute. Author of Geographic |
de la Gatde au VI' siecle.

BUR WILLIAM CLAYDEN, M.A. f

Christ's College, Cambridge. Principal of the Royal Albeit Memorial College, i Cloud.
Exeter. Author of Cloud Studies; The Clouds of Venus; &c.

de la Gaule au VI' siecle.

A. W. C. ARTHUR WILLIAM CLAYDEN, M.A.

Christ's College, Cambridge. P
Exeter. Author of Cloud Studies; The Clouds of Venus; &c.

A. W. Po. ALFRED WILLIAM POLLARD, M.A.

Assistant Keeper of Printed Books, British Museum. Fellow of King B College, J Chaucer;
London. Hon. Secretary, Bibliographical Society. Editor of Books about Books { coloohon
and Bibliographica. Joint-editor of the Library. Chief Editor of the " Globe "
Chaucer. I

A. W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B.

Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws i Compensation.
of England. I

C. EARL OF CREWE. J Cherbuliez.

See the biographical article: CREWE, EARL OF. I

C. A. MacM. CHARLES ALEXANDER MACMUNN, M.A., M.D., F.C.S. f colours of Animals-

Formerly Physician and Pathologist to Wolverhampton General Hospital. Author -
of Outlines of Clinical Chemistry; The Spectroscope in Medicine; &c.

C. B.* CHARLES BEMONT, D.Lnr. (Oxon.). / Chronicle;

See the biographical article: BEMONT, C. I Commlnes.

C. BL REV. CHARLES BIGG, M.A., D.D. (1840-1908). r

Regius Professor of Ecclesiastical History, Oxford, 1901-1908. Examining] Clement Of Alexandria
Chaplain to Bishop of London. Author of Neoplatonism; The Christian Platonists] /
of Alexandria; &c. Editor of St Augustine's Confessions; De Imitatione; &c. [_ v

C. E.* CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. f Chemistry;

Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford. \Circle (in part).

C. E. A. C. E. AKERS. f

Formerly Times Correspondent in Buenos Aires. Author of A History of Southi Chile: History (in part).
America, 1854-1904. I

C. H. Ha. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, D.D. f

Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member J Clement VI.;

of the American Historical Association. Author of An Introduction to the Sources 1 Clement VIII.: antipope

relating to the Barbarian Invasions. [

0. J. H. CHARLES JOHN HOLMES, M.A. f

Director, Keeper and Secretary of the National Portrait Gallery. Slade Professor I China: Chinese Art (Sculpture);
of Fine Art, Oxford, 1904-1910. Author of Constable; Constable and his Influence 1 Constable, John.
on Landscape Painting ; Notes on the Science of Picture Making ; &c. I

C. M. K. SIR CHARLES MALCOLM KENNEDY, K.C.M.G., C.B. (1831-1908).

Head of Commercial Department, Foreign Office, 1872-1893. Lecturer on Inter-
national Law, University College, Bristol. Commissioner in the Levant, 1870-1871 ; -\ Commercial Treaties.
at Paris, 1872-1886. Plenipotentiary, Treaty of the Hague, 1882. Author of
Diplomacy and International Law.

C. PI. CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D. ES L. r Childebert; Chilperic;

Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of -I Clotaire; Clotilda, Saint;
Etudes sue le regne de Robert le Pieux; &c. [ Clovis

C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HisT.S. r

Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow

of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography, i Columbus, Christopher.
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of
Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c. L

C. S. HON. CARL SCHURZ, LL.D. f

See the biographical article: SCHURZ, CARL. "^ Clay, Henry.

C. W. R. C. CHARLES WALLWYN RADCLIFFE COOKE. r

President, National Association of English Cider-makers. M.P. for Walworth, -{ Cider.
1885-1892, and for Hereford, 1893-1900. Author of A Book about Cider and Perry. (.

C. W. W. SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907). f

Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary

Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com- J ... . / .\

mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General ] CUlCla (in part).

of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; Life of

Lord Clive; &c.

D. F. T. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. rMiMni.

Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis, comprising the J *
Classical Concerto; The Goldberg Variations; and analyses of many other classical") Chorale;
works. t Concerto.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

vii

0.0. H.

D. H.

D. Mn.

E. B. P.

E.C.B.
E.C. Q

E.E.H.
E.G.

E. G. J. H.

E. Gr.
E. H. H.

E. K. C.

E.Ma.
Ed. M.

E. 0.*

E.V.

E. W. C.

F. C. G.

P. E. W.-S.
F. 0. H. B.
F. G. P.

F.H.*

F. H. B.
F. J. J.-S.

DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. f

Keeper of the Ashmdean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. CillCla (in part);
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis, 18991 Colophon;
and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906^1907. Director, British School at Comana.
Athens, 1897-1900; Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.

DAVID HANNAY. f ciS%ir Pi,

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal Navy, J f ' s enaru,
1217-1688; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. Coastguard;

I Codrington, Sir Edward.

REV. PUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A. C

Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Director of the London -| Concordance.
Missionary Society. Author of Constructive Congregational Ideals.

EDWARD BAGNALL POULTON, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D.. F.R.S. f

Hope Professor of Zoology in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Jesus College, I Colours of Animate.
Oxford. Author of The Colours of Animals; Essays on Evolution; Darwin and the\ Bionomics
Original Species; &c. I

RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.Lnr. (Dublin).
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath.

EDMUND CROSBY QUIGGIN, M.A.

Fellow and Lecturer in Modern Languages and Monro Lecturer in Celtic, Gonville
and Caius College, Cambridge.

EDWARD EVERETT HALE

See the biographical article: HALE, E. E.

EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D.

See the biographical article: GOSSE, E.

E. G. J. MOYNA, F.R.G.S.
New College, Oxford.

ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A.

See the biographical article : GARDNER, PERCY.

ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A.

Lecturer in Palaeography in the University of Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant
Librarian, and formerly Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge.

EDMUND KERCHEVER CHAMBERS.

j Cistercians; Clara, Saint;
\Clares, Poor; Cluny.

Columba, Saint.

* Clarke, James Freeman.

[Choi-iambic Verse; Clanvowe;
I Collins, William;
j Conscience, Hendrik;
I Constable, Henry.

| Chile: History (in part).

/Chios (in part);
I Cithaeron; Clazomenae.

Chersonese;

Cimmerii.

EDWARD MANSON. r

Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Joint-editor of Journal of Comparative Legislation; < Company.
Law of Trading Companies; Practical Guide to Company Law; &c.

Chosroes.

EDUARD MEYER, D.Lrrr. (Oxon.), PH.D., LL.D.

Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Member of the Royal
Prussian Academy. Author of Geschichle des Alterlhums; Forschungen zur alien
Geschichte ; &c.

EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.

Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, -j Cleft Palate and Hare Lip.
Great Ormond Street. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.

REV. EDMUND VENABLES, M.A., D.D. (1819-1895).

Canon and Precentor of Lincoln. Author of Episcopal Palaces of England.

- Cloister.

ETTRICK WILLIAM CREAK, C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. r

Captain, R.N. Formerly Superintendent of Compasses, Hydrographic Department, { Compass (in part).
Admiralty. Author of many papers on magnetic subjects.

FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.TH. (Giessen). f Christmav

Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. 4 .
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals- &c [ tonsecratlon '

FRANCIS EDWARD WENTWORTH-SHEILDS, M.lNST.C.E.
Docks Engineer, London & South-Western Railway.

FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A.

Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge.

- Concrete

fCimbri;
I Crenwulf.

FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. f

Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer onj rnnlnm and tarnu MAmhrariA*

Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. 1 C * Dranes.

Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. I

FREDERICK HIRTH, PH.D. r

Professor of Chinese in Columbia University, New York. Author of China and the \ China' History (in part)

Roman Orient; The Ancient History of China to the End of the Ghon Dynasty; &c.

FRANCIS H. BUTLER, M.A. J .

Associate of the Royal School of Mines. \ Compass (in part).

REV. FREDERICK JOHN jERvis-Smra, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. f

Millard Lecturer in Experimental Mechanics and Engineering, Trinity College, { Chronograph.
Oxford. Formerly University Lecturer in Mechanics.

viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

p. K. FRIEDRICH WILHELM EDUARD KEUTGEN, PH.D.

Professor of History in the University of Hamburg. Formerly Professor of Medieval

and Modern History in the University of Jena. Author of Die Hanse und England -^ Commune: Medieval.

im 14. Jahrhundert ; Untersuchungen iiber den Ursprung der deutschen Stadtverfassung ;

Urkunden zur stddtischen Verfassungsgeschichte; Amter und Zunfte; &c.

F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D. (Leipzig), F.S.A. f

Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, I
Oxford. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the j Oneops.
Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial German Archaeological Institute. I

F. H. M. COL. FREDERIC NATUSCH MAUDE, C.B.

Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of War and the! Conscription.
World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign; The Jena Campaign. I

F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. J Congo;

Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. \ Congo Free State (in part).

F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Chrysoberyl; Chrysoprase;

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. -1. _. * . *
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.

G. LORD GRIMTHORPE. f C ] ock i in

See the biographical article: GRIMTHORPE, IST BARON. |_

G. A. B. GEORGE A. BOULENGER, F.R.S. f cichlid-

In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British J. _ .
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. [ Loa -

G. C. W. GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, Lrrr.D. f _. . _

Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures; Life of Richard I Clouet, Francois,
Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of new edition | Clouet, Jean,
of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers.

G. E. REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HisT.S. f/,v.i IT- . /

Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. I Cnile: History (in part),
Employed by British Government jn preparation of the British case in the British | Colombia: History.
Guiana- Venezuelan and British Guiana-Brazilian boundary arbitrations. I

G. Fa. G. FAUR. \ Conjuring (in part).

G. G. Co. GEORGE GORDON COULTON, M.A. f

Birkbeck Lecturer in Ecclesiastical History, Trinity College, Cambridge. Author J Concubinage,
of Medieval Studies; Chaucer and his England; &c.

G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, M.R.I.A. f

Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: J, Coleoptera.
their Structure and Life. {.

G. H. Fo. GEORGE HERBERT FOWLER, PH.D., F.Z.S., F.L.S. r

Formerly Berkeley Fellow of Owens College, Manchester, and Assistant Professor of J Coelentera.
Zoology at University College, London. Member of Council of Linnean Society. [

G. J. GEORGE JAMIESON, C.M.G., M.A. r

Formerly Consul-General at Shanghai, and Consul and Judge of the Supreme Court, J China (in part).
Shanghai.

G. J. T. GEORGE JAMES TURNER. r

Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden J Clarendon, Constitutions of.
Society ;&c.

G. L. GEORG LUNGE, PH.D., F.C.S. f r , T

See the biographical article: LUNGE, GEORG. ^ v

G. S. C. SIR GEORGE SYDENHAM CLARKE, G.C.M.G., G.C.I.E., F.R.S.

Governor of Bombay. Author of Imperial Defence; Russia's Great Sea Power; The J Coaling-Stations.
Last Great Naval War; &c.

G. W. Kn. REV. GEORGE WILLIAM KNOX, D.D., LL.D. r

Professor of Philosophy and History of Religion, Union Theological Seminary, New ]_,... ..
York. Author of The Reliion of Jesus; The Direct and Fundamental Proofs of thel Christianity.
Christian Religion; &c.

H. A. Gl. HERBERT ALLEN GILES, M.A., LL.D.

Professor of Chinese in the University of Cambridge. Member of the China Consular
Service, 1867-1893. Author of a Chinese-English Dictionary; A Chinese Biographical '

Dictionary; History of Chinese Literature.
H. B. HILARY BAUERMANN, F.G.S. (d. 1909).

China: Language, Literature,
Religion.

IRY UAUERMANN, J-.li.b. (a. 1909;. ("maif A rt-

Formerly Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Ordnance College, Woolwich. Author of J ~ u * *"*"' '
4 Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron. [^ Coke.

H. C. H. REV. HORACE CARTER HOVEY, A.M., D.D. r

Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Geological J fi-i---.
Society of America, NationalGeographicSociety and Societe de Speleologie (France). ] l/olos5 '
Author of Celebrated American Caverns; Handbook of Mammoth Cave of Kentucky; &c. (_

H. E. W. HENRY EDWARD WATTS. [

Editor of the Melbourne Argus. Author of Life of Cervantes. Translator of Don -| Cid, The.
Quixote. [_

H. H. C. SIR HENRY HARDINGE CUNYNGHAME, K.C.B.; M.A. f

Assistant Under-Secretary, Home Office; Vice- President, Institute of Electrical-! Clock.
Engineers. Author of various works on Enamelling, Electric Lighting, &c. (.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

H. L. C. HUGH LONGBOURNE CALLENDAR, LL.I )., F.R.S. r

Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, London. Formerly Professor of J r n i,Hiii/,i f n..
Physics in McGill College, Montreal, and in University College, London. \ COT He * t>

H. M. R. HUGH MUNRO Ross. r

Formerly ^Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. Editor of " The Times " -I Coal ( in hnrt)
Engineering Supplement. Author of British Railways.

H. M. W. HARRY MARSHALL WARD, F.R.S., D.Sc. (d. 1905). r

Formerly Professor of Botany, Cambridge University. President of the British J

Mycological Society. Author of Timber and some of its Diseases; The Oak; Diseases } Cohn, Ferdinand Julius.
in Plants; &c.

H. M. Wo. HAROLD MELLOR WOODCOCK, D.Sc. r

Assistant to the Professor of Proto-Zoology, London University. Fellow of Uni- J _
versity College, London. Author of " Haemoflagellates " in Professor Ray Lan- 1 Cocc ""a.
kester's Treatise of Zoology, and of various scientific papers.

H. S. J. HENRY STUART JONES, M.A.

Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. Director of the British School at -I Constantino I
Rome, 1903-1905. Author of The Roman Empire; &c.

H. St. HENRY STURT, M.A. !

Author of Idola Theatri; The Idea of a Free Church; Personal Idealism; &c. | Condillac.

H. S. Wl. HENRY SMITH WILLIAMS; M.D., B.Sc. r

Formerly Lecturer in the Hartford School of Sociology, U.S.A. Editor of The I Chronology (in Part)
Historians' History of the World. Author of The Story of Nineteenth Century Science ; 1 Civilization
The History of the Art of Writing; The Lesson of Heredity; &c. I

H. Wh. HORACE WHITE, LL.D. f

Formerly Editor of the New York Evening Post. Sometime Editor of Chicago I Clnvnland Rrnvar
Tribune. Author of Money and Banking Illustrated by American History; The\
Tariff Question; The Cold Question; The Silver Question; &c. L

H. W. S. H. WICKHAM STEED. J

Correspondent of The Times at Rome, 1897-1902, and at Vienna. \ Cialdini.

H. Y. SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I., C.B. f

See the biographical article: YULE, SIR HENRY. \ China: History (in part).

I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.

Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge.
Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A -
Short History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c.
Edited Jewish Quarterly Review, 1888-1908.

J. A. Cl. JOHN ALGERNON CLARKE. f

Author of Fen Sketches; &c. | Conjuring (in part).

J. A. P. JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., M.I.E.E. f

Fender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow of
University College, London.^ Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, -I Conduction Electric

and Lecturer on Applied Mechanics in the University. Author of Magnets and
Electric Currents.

(

J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. f

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. 1 Clay-with-Flints.

J. A. R. VERY REV. JOSEPH ARMITAGE ROBINSON, D.D. f

Dean of Westminster. Fellow of the British Academy. Hon. Fellow of Christ's
College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge, and NorrisianJ rinmnnf f a-
Professor of Divinity in the University. Author of Some Thoughts on the Incarnation ; ' ^

&c. [

J. C. Sc. JOHN CHRISTOPHER SCHWAB, A.M., PH.D. r

Librarian, Yale University. Editor of Yale Review. Author of The Confederate J Confederate States of America
States of America; History of New York Property Tax; &c.

J. D. SIR JAMES DONALDSON. f _.

See the biographical article: DONALDSON, SIR J. \ Clement of Alexandria (in part).

J. D. v. d. W. JOHANNES DIDERIK VAN DER WAALS, PH.D.

Professor of Physics at the University of Amsterdam.' Author of The Continuity of 4 Condensation of
the Liquid and Caseous States.

J. E. F. REV. JAMES EVERETT FRAME, A.M. (Harvard). r

Edward Robinson Professor of Biblical Theology in Union Theological Seminary, < Colossians, Epistle to the
New York. Author of Purpose of New Testament Theology.

J. E. S.* JOHN EDWIN SANDYS, M.A., Lrrr.D., LL.D. f

Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of St John's College, J Classics
Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of History of Classical]
Scholarship; &c. I

J. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, LL.D. (Edin.).

Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and\ Clare: Family.
Pedigree; &c. L

J. J. T. SIR JOSEPH JOHN THOMSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., LL.D., PH.D. f

Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics, Cambridge. Professor of Physics, Conduction Electric- Tkrnuih
Royal Institution, London. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. President \ '

of the British Association, 1909-1910. Awarded Nobel Prize for Physics, 1906.
Author of Conduction of Electricity through Gases; Recent Researches in Electricity
and Magnetism; Application of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry; &c.

X
J. Le.

J. L. M.

J. MO.
J. M. H.

J. H. Ro.

J. N. H.
J. P.-B.

J. P. E.

J. R. C.
J. S. F.

J. S. K.

J. T. C.

J. T. S.*
J. V. B.

K. S.

L. B.
L.D.*

L. Gi.

L. J. S.
L.V.*

H. E. S.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

Confucius.

(jitium

Comic.

| Conjuring (in part).

/Chippendale;
I Clock (in part).

REV. JAMES LEGGE.

See the biographical article: LEGGE, JAMES.

JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A.

Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Formerly
Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient Geography, University of
Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical Archaeology in University of Oxford.

VISCOUNT MORLEY OF BLACKBURN.

See the biographical article: MORLEY, VISCOUNT.

JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. f r.h

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer on Classics at East London "J Cleistnenes:
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. I Colchis.

JOHN MACKINNON ROBERTSON, M.P.

Author of Montaigne and Shakespeare; Modern Humanists; Buckle and his Critics; 1 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor.
&c. M.P., Tyneside Division of Northumberland.

JOHN NEVIL MASKELYNE.

Author of Modern Spiritualism ; Sharps and Flats ; &c.

JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST.
Editor of the Guardian, London.

JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN. f"

Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. I Chatelet;
Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours elementaire d'histoire du droit | code Napoleon.
franfais; &c. L

JOSEPH ROGERSON COTTER, M.A.

Assistant to the Professor of Physics, Trinity College, Dublin.

edition of Preston's Theory of Heat. (.

JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. fClay;

Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in j Concretion*
Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby | r ' t

Medallist of the Geological Society of London.

JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., F.S.S., F.S.A. (Scot.). I

Secretary, Koyal Geographical Society. Knight of Swedish Order of North Star. _ _</ _A

Commander of the Norwegian Order of St Olaf. Hon. Member, Geographical \ Con S *r ee State (in part).
Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, &c. Editor of Statesman's Year Book. Editor of
the Geographical Journal. I

JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. f

Lecturer on Zoology at South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow of I Chiton;
University College, Oxford, and Assistant Professor of Natural History in the Uni- 1 Cockle.
versity of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. I

JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D.

Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City.

JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. (St Andrews).

Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of The Apostolic
Age; &c.

Editor of 2nd -I Colour.

j Colbert, Jean Baptiste.

Clementine Literature;
Congregationalism.

fChelys; Cheng; Chorus;
j Cithara; Cittern; Clarina;
1 Clarinet; Clavichord;
[ Clavicytherium; Concertina.

/China: Chinese Art.
/Clement II.

KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER.

Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra.

LAURENCE BINYON.

See the biographical article: BINYON, L.

LOUIS DUCHESNE.

See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, L. M. O.

LIONEL GILES, M.A. f

Assistant, Oriental Department, British Museum. Author of Sun Tzu on the Art -I China: Language (in part),
of War. {_

LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. f Childrenite; Chlorite;

Assistant, Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney J Chromite; Chrysocolla;
Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineralogical'] Clintonite; Cobaltite;
Magazine. [colemanite; Columbite.

LUIGI VILLARI. f cibrario; CoUeoni;

Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department). Formerly Newspaper Corre- rniutta- Pnlnnna-
spondent in East of Europe Italian Vice-Consul in New OrieaBTw6; Phil- J 9,, "*' , DI ! a -
adelphia, 1907; and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town Colonna, Vlttoria;
and Country; &c. [ Confalonieri.

MICHAEL ERNEST SADLER, M.A., LL.D.

Professor of the History and Administration of Education in the University of
Manchester. Formerly Director of Special Enquiries and Reports to the Board of
Education. Student and Steward of Christ Church, Oxford. Editor of Continua-
tion Schools in England and elsewhere; Moral Instruction and Training in Schools; &c.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

M. G. D.

M. N. T.
M. 0. B. C.
N. V.

N. W. T.

0. Ba.
0. J. R. H.

0. M.*
P. A. H.

P. C. Y.

P. La.

R. de C. W.

R. H.*

R. J. M.
R. K. D.

R.L.*

R. N. B.
R. P. S.

Coleridge, J. D. C., 1st Baron.

RT. HON. SIR MOUNTSTUART ELPHINSTONE GRANT-DUFF, G.C.S.I., F.R.S. (1829-

1906).

M.P. for the Elgin Burghs. 1857-1881. Under-Secretary of State for India, 1868-
1874. Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, 1880-1881. Governor of Madras,
1881-1886. President of the Royal Geographical Society, 1889-1893. President
of the Royal Historical Society, 1892-1899. Author of Studies in European Politics;
Notes from a Diary ; &c.

MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. J

Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. | Ueomenes.
Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum.

MAX OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A.

Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birming- 1 Chios (in part).
ham University, 1905-1908.

JOSEPH MARIE NOEL VALOIS.

Member of Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, Paris. Honorary Archivist I Clement VII.: antipope.
at the Archives Nationales. Formerly President of the Societe de 1'Histoire del Constance Council of
France and the Societe de 1'Ecole de Charles. Author of La France et le grand
schisme d' Occident ; &c.

NORTHCOTE WHITBRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. f"

Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the I
Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and | vial ice.

Marriage in A ustralia ; &c. I

OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A.

Editor of the Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the '
Honourable Society of the Baronetage.

OSBERT JOHN RADCLIFFE HOWARTH, M.A. f

Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1901. Assistant Secretary of the < Coal (in part).
British Association. . I

OCTAVE MAUS, LL.D. (Brussels).

Advocate of the Court of Appeal at Brussels. Director of L'Art Moderne and of

La Libre Esthetique. President of the Association of Belgian writers. Officer oH Clays, Paul Jean.

the Legion of Honour. Author of Le Theatre de Bayreuth; Aux Ambassadeurs;

Malta, Constantinople et la Crimee; &c.

PERCY ALEXANDER MACMAHON, D.Sc., F.R.S. f

Late Major, R.A. Deputy Warden of the Standards, Board of Trade. Joint I combinatorial Analysis
General Secretary of the British Association. Formerly Professor of Physics, 1 *' OB inatorlal Analysis.
Ordnance College. President of London Mathematical Society, 1894-1896. I

Clanricarde, 1st Earl of;
Clanricarde, Marquess of;
Clarendon, 1st Earl of;
Clifford of Chudleigh;
Colepeper.

Collar.

PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A.
Magdalen College, Oxford.

PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. f

Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly I

of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 1 vmna. tjeology.
Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Kayser's Comparative Geology. [

ROBERT DE COURCY WARD, A.M. (Harvard). f

Assistant Professor of Climatology in the University of Harvard. Fellow of Royal I n:-*., an( i
Meteorological Society, London. Sometime Editor of American Meteorological 1 *- umale
Journal. Author of Climate considered especially in Relation to Man ; &c.

SIR ROBERT HUNTER, C.B., M.A.

Solicitor to the Post Office. Author of The Preservation of Open Spaces and of J. Commons.
Footpaths and other Rights of Way; &c.

RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A.

Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law.
Gazette, London.

Formerly Editor of the St James's

Chichester of Belfast;
Clare, 1st Earl of.

SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS.

Formerly Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Keeper of Oriental .

Printed Books and MSS. at British Museum, 1892-1907. Member of the Chinese -{ China: History (in part}.

Consular Service, 1858-1865. Author of The Language and Literature of China;

China; Europe and the Far East; &c.

Che vro tain; Chimpanzee;
China: Fauna;
Chiroptera; Chiru;
Clouded Leopard.

f Chmielnicki;

RICHARD LYDEKK.ER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.

Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of
Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum ; The Deer of
all Lands; &c.

ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).

Formerly Assistant Librarian, British Museum. Author of Scandinavia: the Political J '

History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, 1613 to 1725; | Christian II., III., IV.;

Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796; &c. [ Christina Of Sweden.

R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I. B. A. r Chimney (in part);

Formerly Master of Architectural School and Surveyor, Royal Academy, London. Chimnevpiece'
Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, J rhn - r .
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Ferguson's vHOir,
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. I Column.

Xll
S. A. C.

S. J. L.

S. N.
S. P. T.

T. A. I.
T.As.
T. Ba.

T. F. C.
T. G. Br.

T. H. H.*

T. K. C.
T. Mu.

T. Se.

V. C.

W. A. B. C.

W. A. P.

W. B. B.
W. C. D. W.

W. F. C.
W. G. F.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A.

Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and
formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew,
and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic
Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old
Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c.

SIDNEY JAMES Low, M.A.

Fellow of King's College, London.

Chronicles, Books of

(in part).

__ ___- -, Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Formerly

Editor of the St James's Gazette. Joint-editor of the Dictionary of English History. 1 Churchill, Lord Randolph.
Author of The Governance of England. Joint-author of vol. xii. of Longman's

Political History of England, 1837-1901.

SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., D.C.L.

See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON.

SILVANUS PHILLIPS THOMPSON, M.D., D.Sc^ F.R.S.

Principal and Professor of Physics in the City and Guilds Technical College, Fins- .
bury. Formerly President of Physical Society, of Institution of Electrical Engineers,
and of Rontgen Society. Author of Lectures on Light; Michael Faraday; &c.

THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D.
Trinity College, Dublin.

Comet.

Compass (in part).

f Child, Sir Josiah; Children,
I Law Relating to (in part) ;
I Chiltern Hundreds; Clearing
I House; Confession: Law.

THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT. (Oxon.), F.S.A. f Chioggia (in part) ;

Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Director of British School of Archaeo- J CirceiUS Mons; Clodia, Via;
logy at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. Craven 1 Clusium; Collatia; Como;
Fellow, Oxford, 1897. [ Concordia.

SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P. f

Member of the. Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council,
of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems
of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910.

Conquest.

DR THEODORE FRELINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D.

Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass., U.S.A.

Clement VIII.-XIV.

Chitral.

Cherubim.

THOMAS GREGOR BRODIE, M.D., F.R.S.

Professor of Physiology in the University of Toronto. Author of Essentials CM Connective Tissues.
Experimental Physiology. t

COL. SIR THOMAS HUNGERPORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc. f

Superintendent Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S.,
London, 1887. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Countries of the King's
Award; India; Tibet; &c.

REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE, D.D., D.LITT.
See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K.

THOMAS MUIR, C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S. (Edin.). ,

Superintendent-General of Education in Cape Colony. Formerly Assistant Pro-
fessor of Mathematics in the University of Glasgow. Vice-Chancellor of the J Circle (in part).
University of the Cape of Good Hope till 1901. Author of Theory of Determinants |
in the Historical Order of Development; History of Determinants; Text-Book of De- [
terminants; &c.

THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. (

Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, J (Jhenier Andre de
University of London. Assistant Editor, Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-
1900. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c.

VALENTINE CHIROL.

Director of the Foreign Department of The Times. Author of The Middle Eastern { China: History (in part).
Question ; The Far Eastern Question ; &c. I

REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., D.Pn. (Bern).
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of-
the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in
History; &c. ^ Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889, &c.

WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.

Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, "1
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; The War of Greek Independence; &c.

Chaux de Fonds, La;
Coire; Como, Lake of;
Constance;
Constance, Lake of.
Chimere; Choir;
Church History (in part) ;
Clement VII.;
Confessional; Congress;
Constable.

' Coast Defence.

W. BAKER BROWN.

Lieut.-Col., Commanding Royal Engineers at Malta.

WILLIAM CECIL DAMPIER WHETHAM, M.A., F.R.S. f ronHnrtiAn

Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Theory of Solution; \ w nnuc Mon,
Recent Development of Physical Science; &c. L * Liquids.

WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. ("

New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, J Children, Law relating to
King's College, London. Author of Craies on Statute Law. Editor of Archbold's | (i n part).
Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). L

WILLIAM GEORGE FREEMAN, B.Sc. (London), A.R.C.S.

Joint-author of Nature Teaching; The World's Commercial Products. Joint-editor
of Science Progress in the Twentieth Century.

Cocoa;
Coffee.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

Xlll

W. K. S. WILLIAM KIRBY SULLIVAN, PH.D., D.Sc.

President of Queen's College, Cork, 1873-1890.

Author of Celtic Studies; Sue.

W. L. R. C. WILLIAM LIEST READWIN GATES (1821-1895).

Editor of Dictionary of General Biography. Author of A History of England from
the Death of Edward the Confessor to the Death of King John ; &c. Part author of
Encyclopaedia of Chronology.

W. M. R. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.

See the biographical article : ROSSETTI, D. G.

W. N. WALTER NERNST, PH.D.

Professor of Physical Chemistry in the University of Berlin. Director of the
Physico-Chemical Institute in the University. Member of the Royal Prussian
Academy of Science. Author of Theoretische Chemie ; &c.

W. 0. B. VEN. WINFRID OLDFIELD BURROWS, M.A.

Archdeacon of Birmingham. Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford, 1884-1891, and
Principal of Leeds Clergy School, 1891-1900.

W. R. S.* WILLIAM ROY SMITH, M.A., PH.D.

Associate Professor of History, Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania.
Sectionalism in Pennsylvania during the Revolution ; &c.

W. R. S. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.

See the biographical article : SMITH, W. R.

W. W. F.* WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A.

Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-Rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer,
Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans;
The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period; &c.

W. W. R.* WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL.

Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York.
Author of Die Doppelehe des Landgrafen Philipp von Hessen.

Clan.

-j Chronology (in part).

/ Cimabue;

I Claude of Lorraine.

1 Chemical Action.

J Confession: Religion;
\ Confirmation.

Author of -I Compromise Measures of 1850.
| Chronicles, Books of (in part).

Club: Greek and Roman.
Clement III., IV, V.

PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES

Chatham, Earl of.

Chatterji.

Chatterton.

Cheering.

Chess.

Chicago.

Child.

Chilean Civil War.

Chile-Peruvian War.

Chillingworth.

Chino-Japanese War.

Chlorine.

Cholera.

Chopin.

Christian Science.

Chrysanthemum.

Chrysostom.

Churchill, Charles.

Cibber.

Cinque Ports.

Civil List.

Civil Service.

Clausewitz.

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty.

Clemenceau.

Clive, Lord.

Club-foot.

Cnossus.

Cobbett.

Cobden.

Cock-fighting.

Coco-nut Palm.

Code.

Coke, Sir Edward.

Collier, Jeremy.

Colony.

Colorado.

Colours, Military.

Commerce.

Common Order, Book of.

Communism.

Compositae.

Condorcet.

Condottiere.

Confirmation of Bishops.

Congreve, Sir William.

Conic Section.

Connecticut.

Conservative Party.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME VI

CHATELET (from Med. Lat. castella), the word, sometimes
also written castillet, used in France for a building designed for the
defence of an outwork or gate, sometimes of great strength or
size, but distinguished from the ch&teau, or castle proper, in
being purely defensive and not residential. In Paris, before the
Revolution, this word was applied both to a particular building
and to the jurisdiction of which it was the seat. This build"ing,
the original Chatelet, had been first a castle defending the ap-
proach to the Cite. Tradition traced its existence back to Roman
times, and in the i8th century one of the rooms in the great
tower was still called the chambre de Cesar. The jurisdiction was
that of the provostship (pr&vdte) and viscountship of Paris, which
was certainly of feudal origin, probably going back to the counts
of Paris.

It was not till the time of Saint Louis that, with the appoint-
ment of Etienne Boileau, the provostship of Paris became a
prevote en garde, i.e. a public office no longer put up to sale.
When the baillis (see BAILIFF AND BAILIE) were created, the
provost of Paris naturally discharged the duties and functions
of a bailli, in which capacity he heard appeals from the seigniorial
and inferior judges of the city and its neighbourhood, keeping,
however, his title of provost. When under Henry II. certain
bailliages became presidial jurisdictions(presidiaux) , i.e. received
to a certain extent the right of judging without appeal, the
Chatelet, the court of the provost of Paris, was made a presidial
court, but without losing its former name. Finally, various
tribunals peculiar to the city of Paris, i.e. courts exercising
jurisdictions outside the common law or corresponding to certain
fours d'exceplion which existed in the provinces, were united with
the Chatelet, of which they became divisions (chambres). Thus
the lieutenant-general of police made it the seat of his juris-
diction, and the provost of the lie de France, who had the same
criminal jurisdiction as the provosts of the marshals of France
in other provinces, sat there also. As to the personnel of the
Chatelet, it was originally the same as in the bailliages, except
that after the i4th century it had some special officials, the
auditors and the examiners of inquests. Like the baillis, the
provost had lieutenants who were deputies for him, and in
addition gradually acquired a considerable body of ex officio
councillors. This last staff, however, was not yet in existence at
the end of the uth century, for it is not mentioned in the Registre
criminel du Chdlelet (1389-1392), published by the Societe des
Bibliophiles Francab. In 1674 the whole personnel was doubled,
at the time when the new Chatelet was established side by side
with the old, the two being soon after amalgamated. On the eve
of the Revolution it comprised, beside the provost whose office
had become practically honorary, the lieutenant civil, who
presided over the chambre de pr&vdte au pare civil or court of first
instance; the lieutenant criminel, who presided over the criminal

VI. I

court; two lieutenants particuliers, who presided in turn over
the chambre du presidial or court of appeal from the inferior
jurisdictions; a juge auditeur; sixty-four councillors (con-
seillers); the procureur du roi, four avocals du roi, and eight
substituts, i.e. deputies of the procureur (see PROCURATOR), beside
a host of minor officials. The history of the Chatelet under the
Revolution may be briefly told: the Constituent Assembly em-
powered it to try cases of lese-nation, and it was also before this
court that was opened the inquiry following on the events of
the sth and 6th of August 1789. It was suppressed by the law
of the i6th of August 1790, together with the other tribunals of
the ancien regime. (J. P. E.)

CHATELLERAULT, a town of western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Vienne, 19 m. N.N.E.
of Poitiers on the Orleans railway between that town and
Tours. Pop. (1906) 15,214. Chatellerault is situated on the
right and eastern bank of the Vienne; it is connected with the
suburb of Chateauneuf on the opposite side of the river by a
stone bridge of the i6th and I7th centuries, guarded at the
western extremity by massive towers. The manufacture of
cutlery is carried on on a large scale in villages on the banks of
the Clain, south of the town. Of the other industrial establish-
ments the most important is the national small-arms factory,
which was established in 1815 in Chateauneuf, and employs
from 1500 to 5500 men. Chatellerault (or Chatelherault :
Castellum Airaldi) derives its name from a fortress built in
the loth century by Airaud, viscount of its territory. In 1515
it was made a duchy in favour of Francois de Bourbon, but it
was not long after this date that it became reunited to the
crown. In 1548 it was bestowed on James Hamilton, 2nd earl
of Arran (see HAMILTON).

CHATHAM, WILLIAM PITT, ist EARL OF (1708-1778), English
statesman, was born at Westminster on the isth of November
1708. He was the younger son of Robert Pitt of Boconnoc,
Cornwall, and grandson of Thomas Pitt (1653-1726), governor
of Madras, who was known as " Diamond " Pitt, from the fact
of his having sold a diamond of extraordinary size to the regent
Orleans for something like 135,000. It was mainly by this
fortunate transaction that the governor was enabled to raise
his family, which was one of old standing, to a position of wealth
and political influence. The latter he acquired by purchasing
the burgage tenures of Old Sarum.

William Pitt was educated at Eton, and in January 1727 was
entered as a gentleman commoner at Trinity College, Oxford.
There is evidence that he was an extensively read, if not a
minutely accurate classical scholar; and it is interesting to
know that Demosthenes was his favourite author, and that he
diligently cultivated the faculty of expression by the practice of
translation and re-translation. An hereditary gout, from which

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME VI

CHATELET (from Med. Lat. caslella), the word, sometimes
also written castillet, used in France for a building designed for the
defence of an outwork or gate, sometimes of great strength or
size, but distinguished from the chateau, or castle proper, in
being purely defensive and not residential. In Paris, before the
Revolution, this word was applied both to a particular building
and to the jurisdicticn of which it was the seat. This building,
the original Chatelet, had been first a castle defending the ap-
proach to the Cite. Tradition traced its existence back to Roman
times, and in the i8th century one of the rooms in the great
tower was still called the chambre de Cesar. The jurisdiction was
that of the provostship (prevote) and viscountship of Paris, which
was certainly of feudal origin, probably going back to the counts
of Paris.

It was not till the time of Saint Louis that, with the appoint-
ment of Etienne Boileau, the provostship of Paris became a
prevote en garde, i.e. a public office no longer put up to sale.
When the baillis (see BAILIFF AND BAILIE) were created, the
provost of Paris naturally discharged the duties and functions
of a bailli, in which capacity he heard appeals from the seigniorial
and inferior judges of the city and its neighbourhood, keeping,
however, his title of provost. When under Henry II. certain
bailliages became presidial ]urisdictions(pr^sidiaux) , i.e. received
to a certain extent the right of judging without appeal, the
Chatelet, the court of the provost of Paris, was made a presidial
court, but without losing its former name. Finally, various
tribunals peculiar to the city of Paris, i.e. courts exercising
jurisdictions outside the common law or corresponding to certain
tours d'exception which existed in the provinces, were united with
the Chatelet, of which they became divisions (chambres). Thus
the lieutenant-general of police made it the seat of his juris-
diction, and the provost of the lie de France, who had the same
criminal jurisdiction as the provosts of the marshals of France
in other provinces, sat there also. As to the personnel of the
Chatelet, it was originally the same as in the bailliages, except
that after the i4th century it had some special officials, the
auditors and the examiners of inquests. Like the baillis, the
provost had lieutenants who were deputies for him, and in
addition gradually acquired a considerable body of ex officio
councillors. This last staff, however, was not yet in existence at
the end of the i4th century, for it is not mentioned in the Registre
criminel du Chdtelet (1389-1392), published by the Societe des
Bibliophiles Francab. In 1674 the whole personnel was doubled,
at the time when the new Chatelet was established side by side
with the old, the two being soon after amalgamated. On the eve
of the Revolution it comprised, beside the provost whose office
had become practically honorary, the lieutenant civil, who
presided over the chambre de prevote au pare civil or court of first
instance; the lieutenant criminel, who presided over the criminal

VI. I

court; two lieutenants particuliers, who presided in turn over
the chambre du presidial or court of appeal from the inferior
jurisdictions; a juge auditeur; sixty-four councillors (con-
seillers); the procureur du roi, four avocals du roi, and eight
substituts, i.e. deputies of the procureur (see PROCURATOR), beside
a host of minor officials. The history of the Chatelet under the
Revolution may be briefly told: the Constituent Assembly em-
powered it to try cases of lese-nation, and it was also before this
court that was opened the inquiry following on the events of
the 5th and 6th of August 1789. It was suppressed by the law
of the 1 6th of August 1790, together with the other tribunals of
the ancien regime. (J. P. E.)

CHATHAM, EARL OF

he had suffered even during his school-days, compelled him to
leave the university without taking his degree, in order to travel
abroad. He spent some time in France and Italy; but the
disease proved intractable, and he continued subject to attacks
of growing intensity at frequent intervals till the close of his life.
In 1727 his father had died, and on his return home it was
necessary for him, as the younger son, to choose a profession.
Having chosen the army, he obtained through the interest of his
friends a cornet's commission in the dragoons. But his military
career was destined to be short. His elder brother Thomas
having been returned at the general election of 1734 both for
Oakhampton and for Old Sarum, and having preferred to sit for
the former, the family borough fell to the younger brother by the
sort of natural right usually recognized in such cases. Accord-
ingly, in February 1735, William Pitt entered parliament as
member for Old Sarum. Attaching himself at once to the formid-
able band of discontented Whigs known as the Patriots, whom
Walpole's love of exclusive power had forced into opposition
under Pulteney, he became in a very short time one of its most
prominent members. His maiden speech was delivered in April
1736, in the debate on the congratulatory address to the king on
the marriage of the prince of Wales. The occasion was one of
compliment, and there is nothing striking in the speech as re-
ported; but it served to gain for him the attention of the house
when he presented himself, as he soon afterwards did, in debates
of a party character. So obnoxious did he become as a critic of
the government, that Walpole thought fit to punish him by
procuring his dismissal from the army. Some years later he had
occasion vigorously to denounce the system of cashiering officers
for political differences, but with characteristic loftiness of spirit
he disdained to make any reference to his own case. The loss
of his commission was soon made up to him. The heir to the
throne, as was usually the case in the house of Hanover, if not
in reigning families generally, was the patron of the opposition,
and the ex-cornet became groom of the bed-chamber to the
prince of Wales. In this new position his hostility to the govern-
ment did not, as may be supposed, in any degree relax. He had
all the natural gifts an orator could desire a commanding pres-
ence, a graceful though somewhat theatrical bearing, an eye of
piercing brightness, and a voice of the utmost flexibility. His
style, if occasionally somewhat turgid, was elevated and passion-
ate, and it always bore the impress of that intensity of conviction
which is the most powerful instrument a speaker can have to sway
the convictions of an audience. It was natural, therefore, that
in the series of stormy debates, protracted through several years,
that ended in the downfall of Walpole, his eloquence should have
been one of the strongest of the forces that combined to bring
about the final result. Specially effective, according to contem-
porary testimony, were his speeches against the Hanoverian
subsidies, against the Spanish convention in 1739, and in favour
of the motion in 1 742 for an investigation into the last ten years
of Walpole's administration. It must be borne in mind that the
reports of these speeches which have come down to us were made
from hearsay, or at best from recollection, and are necessarily
therefore most imperfect. The best-known specimen of Pitt's
eloquence, his reply to the sneers of Horatio Walpole at his youth
anddeclamatory manner,which has found a place in somanyhand-
books of elocution, is evidently, in form at least, the work, not of
Pitt, but of Dr Johnson, who furnished the report to the Gentle-
man's Magazine. Probably Pitt did say something of the kind
attributed to him, though even this is by no means certain in view
of Johnson's repentant admission that he had often invented not
merely the form, but the substance of entire debates.

In 1742 Walpole was at last forced to succumb to the long-
continued attacks of opposition, and was succeeded as prime
minister by the earl of Wilmington, though the real power in
the new government was divided between Carteret and the
Pelhams. Pitt's conduct on the change of administration was
open to grave censure. The relentless vindictiveness with
which he insisted on the prosecution of Walpole, and supported
the bill of indemnity to witnesses against the fallen minister,
was in itself not magnanimous; but it appears positively un-

worthy when it is known that a short time before Pitt had offered,
on certain conditions, to use all his influence in the other direction.
Possibly he was embittered at the time by the fact that, owing
to the strong personal dislike of the king, caused chiefly by the
contemptuous tone in which he had spoken of Hanover, he did
not by obtaining a place in the new ministry reap the fruits of
the victory to which he had so largely contributed. The so-called
" broad-bottom " administration formed by the Pelhams in
1744, after the dismissal of Carteret, though it included several
of those with whom he had been accustomed to act, did not at
first include Pitt himself even in a subordinate office. Before
the obstacle to his admission was overcome, he had received a
remarkable accession to his private fortune. The eccentric
duchess of Marlborough, dying in 1744, at the age of ninety,
left him a legacy of 10,000 as an " acknowledgment of the
noble defence he had made for the support of the laws of England
and to prevent the rum of his country." As her hatred was
known to be at least as strong as her love, the legacy was probably
as much a mark of her detestation of Walpole as of her admiration
of Pitt. It may be mentioned here, though it does not come in
chronological order, that Pitt was a second time the object of a
form of acknowledgment of public virtue which few statesmen
have had the fortune to receive even once. About twenty years
after the Marlborough legacy, Sir William Pynsent, a Somerset-
shire baronet to whom he was personally quite unknown, left
him his entire estate, worth about three thousand a year, in
testimony of approval of his political career.

It was with no very good grace that the king at length consented
to give Pitt a place in the government, although the latter did
all he could to ingratiate himself at court, by changing his tone
on the questions on which he had made himself offensive. To
force the matter, the Pelhams had to resign expressly on the
question whether he should be admitted or not, and it was only
after all other arrangements had proved impracticable, that they
were reinstated with the obnoxious politician as vice- treasurer
of Ireland. This was in February 1746. In May of the same
year he was promoted to the more important and lucrative office
of paymaster-general, which gave him a place in the privy council,
though not in the cabinet. Here he had an opportunity of display-
ing his public spirit and integrity in a way that deeply impressed
both the king and the country. It had been the usual practice
of previous paymasters to appropriate to themselves the interest
of all money lying in their hands by way of advance, and also to
accept a commission of \ % on all foreign subsidies. Although
there was no strong public sentiment against the practice, Pitt
altogether refused to profit by it. All advances were lodged by
him in the Bank of England until required, and all subsidies
were paid over without deduction, even though it was pressed
upon him, so that he did not draw a shilling from his office
beyond the salary legally attaching to it. Conduct like this,
though obviously disinterested, did not go without immediate
and ample reward, in the public confidence which it created,
and which formed the mainspring of Pitt's power as a statesman.

The administration formed in 1746 lasted without material
change till 1754. It would appear from his published corre-
spondence that Pitt had a greater influence in shaping its policy
than his comparatively subordinate position would in itself have
entitled him to. His conduct in supporting measures, such as
the Spanish treaty and the continental subsidies, which he
had violently denounced when in opposition, had been much
criticized; but within certain limits, not indeed very well
defined, inconsistency has never been counted a vice in an English
statesman. The times change, and he is not blamed for changing
with the times. Pitt in office, looking back on the commencement
of his public life, might have used the plea " A good deal has
happened since then," at least as justly as some others have
done. Allowance must always be made for the restraints and
responsibilities of office. In Pitt's case, too, it is to be borne in
mind that the opposition with which he had acted gradually
dwindled away, and that it ceased to have any organized existence
after the death of the prince of Wales in 1731. Then in regard
to the important question with Spain as to the right of search,

CHATHAM, EARL OF

Pitt has disarmed criticism by acknowledging that the course
he followed during Wapole's administration was indefensible.
All due weight being given to these various considerations, it
must be admitted, nevertheless, that Pitt did overstep the
limits within which inconsistency is usually regarded as venial.
His one great object was first to gain office, and then to make
his tenure of office secure by conciliating the favour of the king.
The entire revolution which much of his policy underwent in
order to effect this object bears too close a resemblance to the
sudden and inexplicable changes of front habitual to placemen
of the Tadpole Stamp to be altogether pleasant to -con template
in a politician of pure aims and lofty ambition. Humiliating
is not too strong a term to apply to a letter in which he expresses
his desire to " efface the past by every action of his life," in order
that he may stand well with the king.

In 1754 Henry Pelham died, and was succeeded at the head of
affairs by his brother, the duke of Newcastle. To Pitt the change
brought no advancement, and he had thus an opportunity of
testing tfce truth of the description of his chief given by Sir
Robert Walpole, " His name is treason." But there was for a
time no open breach. Pitt continued at his post; and at the
general election which took place during the year he even
accepted a nomination for the duke's pocket borough of Aid-
borough. He had sat for Seaford since 1747. When parliament
met, however, he was not long in showing the state of his feelings.
Ignoring Sir Thomas Robinson, the political nobody to whom
Newcastle had entrusted the management of the Commons,
he made frequent and vehement attacks on Newcastle himself,
though still continuing to serve under him. In this strange
state matters continued for about a year. At length, just after
the meeting of parliament in November 1751, Pitt was dismissed
from office, having on the debate on the address spoken at great
length against a new system of continental subsidies, proposed by
the government of which he was a member. Fox, who had
just before been appointed secretary of state, retained his place,
and though the two men continued to be of the same party, and
afterwards served again in the same government, there was
henceforward a rivalry between them, which makes the celebrated
opposition of their illustrious sons seem like an inherited quarrel.
. Another year had scarcely passed when Pitt was again in
power. The inherent weakness of the government, the vigour
and eloquence of his opposition, and a series of military disasters
abroad combined to rouse a public feeling of indignation which
could not be withstood, and in December 1756 Pitt, who now
sat for Okehampton, became secretary of state, and leader of
the Commons under the premiership of the duke of Devonshire.
He had made it a condition of his joining any administration
that Newcastle should be excluded from it, thus showing a
resentment which, though natural enough, proved fatal to the
lengthened existence of his government. With the king un-
friendly, and Newcastle, whose corrupt influence was still
dominant in the Commons, estranged, it was impossible to
carry on a government by the aid of public opinion alone, how-
ever emphatically that might have declared itself on his side.
In April 1757, accordingly, he found himself again dismissed
from office on account of his opposition to the king's favourite
continental policy. But the power that was insufficient to keep
him in office was strong enough to make any arrangement that
excluded him impracticable. The public voice spoke in a way
that was not to be mistaken. Probably no English minister
ever received in so short a time so many proofs of the confidence
and admiration of the public, the capital and all the chief towns

I voting him addresses and the freedom of their corporations.
From the political deadlock that ensued relief could only be had
by an arrangement between Newcastle and Pitt. After some
weeks' negotiation, in the course of which the firmness and
moderation of " the Great Commoner," as he had come to be
called, contrasted favourably with the characteristic tortuosities
sf the crafty peer, matters were settled on such a basis that,
while Newcastle was the nominal, Pitt was the virtual head of
the government. On his acceptance of office he was chosen
member for Bath.

This celebrated administration was formed in June 1757, and
continued in power till 1761. During the four years of its
existence it has been usual to say that the biography of Pitt is
the history of England, so thoroughly was he identified with the
great events which make this period, in so far as the external
relations of the country are concerned, one of the most glorious
in her annals. A detailed account of these events belongs to
history; all that is needed in a biography is to point out the
extent to which Pitt's personal influence may really be traced
in them. It is scarcely too much to say that, in the general
opinion of his contemporaries, the whole glory of these years
was due to his single genius; his alone was the mind that planned,
and his the spirit that animated the brilliant achievements of
the British arms in all the four quarters of the globe. Posterity,
indeed, has been able to recognize more fully the independent
genius of those who carried out his purposes. The heroism of
Wolfe would have been irrepressible, Clive would have proved
himself " a heaven-born general," and Frederick the Great
would have written his name in history as one of the most skilful
strategists the world has known, whoever had held the seals of
office in England. But Pitt's relation to all three was such as to
entitle him to a large share in the credit of their deeds. It was
his discernment that selected Wolfe to lead the attack on Quebec,
and gave him the opportunity of dying a victor on the heights of
Abraham. He had personally less to do with the successes in
India than with the other great enterprises that shed an undying
lustre on his administration; but his generous praise in parlia-
ment stimulated the genius of Clive, and the forces that acted
at the close of the struggle were animated by his. indomitable
spirit. Pitt, the first real Imperialist in modern English history,
was the directing mind in the expansion of his country, and
with him the beginning of empire is rightly associated. The
Seven Years' War might well, moreover, have been another
Thirty Years' War if Pitt had not furnished Frederick with
an annual subsidy of 700,000, and in addition relieved him of
the task of defending western Germany against France.

Contemporary opinion was, of course, incompetent to estimate
the permanent results gained, for the country by the brilliant
foreign policy of Pitt. It has long been generally agreed that
by several of his most costly expeditions nothing was really won
but glory. It has even been said that the only permanent
acquisition that England owed directly to him was her Canadian
dominion; and, strictly speaking, this is true, it being admitted
that the campaign by which the Indian empire was virtually won
was not planned by him, though brought to a successful issue
during his ministry. But material aggrandizement, though
the only tangible, is not the only real or lasting effect of a war
policy. More may be gained by crushing a formidable rival than
by conquering a province. The loss of her Canadian possessions
was only one of a series of disasters suffered by France, which
radically affected the future of Europe and the world. Deprived
of her most valuable colonies both in the East and in the West,
and thoroughly defeated on the continent, her humiliation was
the beginning of a new epoch in history. The victorious policy
of Pitt destroyed the military prestige which repeated experience
has shown to be in France as in no other country the very life
of monarchy, and thus was not the least considerable of the many
influences that slowly brought about the French Revolution.
It effectually deprived her of the lead in the councils of Europe
which she had hitherto arrogated to herself, and so affected the
whole course of continental politics. It is such far-reaching
results as these, and not the mere acquisition of a single colony,
however valuable, that constitute Pitt's claim to be considered
as on the whole the most powerful minister that ever guided the
foreign policy of England.

The first and most important of a series of changes which
ultimately led to the dissolution of the ministry was the death
of George II. on the 2Sth of October 1760, and the accession of
his grandson, George III. The new king had, as was natural, new
counsellors of his own, the chief of whom, Lord Bute, was at once
admitted to the cabinet as a secretary of state. Between Bute
and Pitt there speedily arose an occasion of serious difference.

CHATHAM, EARL OF

The existence of the so-called family compact by which the
Bourbons of France and Spain bound themselves in an offensive
alliance against England having been brought to light, Pitt urged
that it should be met by an immediate declaration of war with
Spain. To this course Bute would not consent, and as his refusal
was endorsed by all his colleagues save Temple, Pitt had no
choice but to leave a cabinet in which his advice on a vital
question had been rejected. On his resignation, which took
place in October 1761, the king urged him to accept some signal
mark of royal favour in the form most agreeable to himself.
Accordingly he obtained a pension of 3000 a year for three lives,
and his wife, Lady Hester Grenville, whom he had married in
1754, was created Baroness Chatham in her own right. In con-
nexion with the latter gracefully bestowed honour it may be
mentioned that Pitt's domestic life was a singularly happy one.

Pitt's spirit was too lofty to admit of his entering on any
merely factious opposition to the government he had quitted.
On the contrary, his conduct after his retirement was dis-
tinguished by a moderation and disinterestedness which, as
Burke has remarked, " set a seal upon his character." The war
with Spain, in which he had urged the cabinet to take the initia-
tive, proved inevitable; but he scorned to use the occasion
for " altercation and recrimination," and spoke in support of
the government measures for carrying on the war. To the
preliminaries of the peace concluded in February 1763 he offered
an indignant resistance, considering the terms quite inadequate
to the successes that had been gained by the country. When the
treaty was discussed in parliament in December of the preceding
year, though suffering from a severe attack of gout, he was carried
down to the House, and in a speech of three hours' duration,
interrupted more than once by paroxysms of pain, he strongly
protested against its various conditions. The physical cause
which rendered this effort so painful probably accounts for the
infrequency of his appearances in parliament, as well as for much
that is otherwise inexplicable in his subsequent conduct. In
1763 he spoke against the obnoxious tax on cider, imposed by
his brother-in-law, George Grenville, and his opposition, though
unsuccessful in the House, helped to keep alive his popularity
with the country, which cordially hated the excise and all con-
nected with it. When next year the question of general warrants
was raised in connexion with the case of Wilkes, Pitt vigorously
maintained their illegality, thus defending at once the privileges
of Parliament and the freedom of the press. During 1765 he
seems to have been totally incapacitated for public business.
In the following year he supported with great power the pro-
posal of the Rockingham administration for the repeal of the
American Stamp Act, arguing that it was unconstitutional to
impose taxes upon the colonies. He thus endorsed the contention
of the colonists on the ground of principle, while the majority of
those who acted with him contented themselves with resisting the
disastrous taxation scheme on the ground of expediency. The
Repeal Act, indeed, was only passed pari passu with another
censuring the American assemblies, and declaring the authority
of the British parliament over the colonies " in all cases what-
soever "; so that the House of Commons repudiated in the most
formal manner the principle Pitt laid down. His language in
approval of the resistance of the colonists was unusually bold,
and perhaps no one but himself could have employed it with
impunity at a time when the freedom of debate was only im-
perfectly conceded.

Pitt had not been long out of office when he was solicited to
return to it, and the solicitations were more than once renewed.
Unsuccessful overtures were made to him in 1763, and twice
in 1765, in May and June the negotiator in May being the
king's uncle, the duke of Cumberland, who went down in person
to Hayes, Pitt's seat in Kent. It is known that he had the
opportunity of joining the marquis of Rockingham's short-lived
administration at any time on his own terms, and his conduct
in declining an arrangement with that minister has been more
generally condemned than any other step in his public life. In
July 1766 Rockingham was dismissed, and Pitt was entrusted by
the king with the task of forming a government entirely on his

own conditions. The result was a cabinet, strong much beyond
the average in its individual members, but weak to powerlessness
in the diversity of its composition. Burke, in a memorable
passage of a memorable speech, has described this " chequered
and speckled " administration with great humour, speaking of
it as " indeed a very curious show, but utterly unsafe to touch
and unsure to stand on." Pitt chose for himself the office of
lord privy seal, which necessitated his removal to the House of
Lords; and in August he became earl of Chatham and Viscount
Pitt.

By the acceptance of a peerage the great commoner lost at
least as much and as suddenly in popularity as he gained in
dignity. One significant indication of this may be mentioned.
In view of his probable accession to power, preparations were
made in the city of London for a banquet and a general illumina-
tion to celebrate the event. But the celebration was at once
countermanded when it was known that he had become earl of
Chatham. The instantaneous revulsion of public feeling was
somewhat unreasonable, for Pitt's health seems now to have
been beyond doubt so shattered by his hereditary malady, that
he was already in old age though only fifty-eight. It was natural,
therefore, that he should choose a sinecure office, and the ease of
the Lords. But a popular idol nearly always suffers by removal
from immediate contact with the popular sympathy, be the
motives for removal what they may.

One of the earliest acts of the new ministry was to lay an
embargo upon corn, which was thought necessary in order to
prevent a dearth resulting from the unprecedentedly bad
harvest of 1 766. The measure was strongly opposed, and Lord
Chatham delivered his first speech in the House of Lords in
support of it. It proved to be almost the only measure intro-
duced by hisgovernment in which hepersonally interes ted himself .
His attention had been directed to the growing importance of
the affairs of India, and there is evidence in his correspondence
that he was meditating a comprehensive scheme for transferring
much of the power of the company to the crown, when he was
withdrawn from public business in a manner that has always
been regarded as somewhat mysterious. It may be questioned,
indeed, whether even had his powers been unimpaired he could
have carried out any decided policy on any question with a
cabinet representing interests so various and conflicting; but,
as it happened, he was incapacitated physically and mentally
during nearly the whole period of his tenure of office. He
scarcely ever saw any of his colleagues though they repeatedly
and urgently pressed for interviews with him, and even an offer
from the king to visit him in person was declined, though in the
language of profound and almost abject respect which always
marked his communications with the court. It has been in-
sinuated both by contemporary and by later critics that being
disappointed at his loss of popularity, and convinced of the
impossibility of co-operating with his colleagues, he exaggerated
his malady as a pretext for the inaction that was forced upon
him by circumstances. But there is no sufficient reason to doubt
that he was really, as his friends represented, in a state that
utterly unfitted him for business. He seems to have been freed
for a time from the pangs of gout only to be afflicted with a
species of mental alienation bordering on insanity. This is the
most satisfactory, as it is the most obvious, explanation of
his utter indifference in presence of one of the most momentous
problems that ever pressed for solution on an English statesman.
Those who are able to read the history in the light of what
occurred later may perhaps be convinced that no policy whatever
initiated after 1766 could have prevented or even materially
delayed the declaration of American independence; but to the
politicians of that time the coming event had not yet cast so
dark a shadow before as to paralyse all action, and if any man
could have allayed the growing discontent of the colonists and
prevented the ultimate dismemberment of the empire, it would
have been Lord Chatham. The fact that he not only did nothing
to remove existing difficulties, but remained passive while his
colleagues took the fatal step which led directly to separation,
is in itself clear proof of his entire incapacity. The imposition

CHATHAM

of the import duty on tea and other commodities was the project
of Charles Townshend, and was carried into effect in 1 767 without
consultation with Lord Chatham, if not in opposition to his
wishes. It is probably the most singular thing in connexion
with this singular administration, that its most pregnant measure
should thus have been one directly opposed to the well-known
principles of its head.

For many months things remained in the curious position that
he who was understood to be the head of the cabinet had as little
share in the government of the country as an unenfranchised
peasant. As the chief could not or would not lead, the sub-
ordinates naturally chose their own paths and not his. The
lines of Chatham's policy were abandoned in other cases besides
the imposition of the import duty; his opponents were taken
into confidence; and friends, such as Amherst and Shelburne,
were dismissed from their posts. When at length in October
1768 he tendered his resignation on the ground of shattered
health, he did not fail to mention the dismissal of Amherst and
Shelburne as a personal grievance.

Soon after his resignation a renewed attack of gout freed
Chatham from the mental disease under which he had so long
suffered. He had been nearly two years and a half in seclusion
when, in July 1769, he again appeared in public at a royal levee.
It was not, however, until 1770 that he resumed his seat in the
House of Lords. He had now almost no personal following,
mainly owing to the grave mistake he had made in not forming
an alliance with the Rockingham party. But his eloquence was
as powerful as ever, and all its power was directed against the
government policy in the contest with America, which had
become the question of all-absorbing interest. His last appear-
ance in the House of Lords was on the 7th of April 1778, on the
occasion of the duke of Richmond's motion for an address
praying the king to conclude peace with America on any terms.
In view of the hostile demonstrations of France the various
parties had come generally to see the necessity of such a measure.
But Chatham could not brook the thought of a step which
implied submission to the " natural enemy " whom it had been
the main object of his life to humble, and he declaimed for a
considerable time, though with sadly diminished vigour, against
the motion. After the duke of Richmond had replied, he rose
again excitedly as if to speak, pressed his hand upon his breast,
and fell down in a fit. He was removed to his seat at Hayes,
where he died on the nth of May. With graceful unanimity
all parties combined to show their sense of the national loss.
The Commons presented an address to the king praying that the
deceased statesman might be buried with the honours of a public
funeral, and voted a sum for a public monument which was
erected over his grave in Westminster Abbey. Soon after the
funeral a bill was passed bestowing a pension of 4000 a year
on his successors in the earldom, He had a family of three
sons and two daughters, of whom the second son, William,
was destined to add fresh lustre to a name which is one of the
greatest in the history of England.

Dr Johnson is reported to have said that " Walpole was a
minister given by the king to the people, but Pitt was a minister
given by the people to the king," and the remark correctly
indicates Chatham's distinctive place among English statesmen.
He was the first minister whose main strength lay in the support
of the nation at large as distinct from its representatives in the
Commons, where his personal following was always small. He
was the first to discern that public opinion, though generally
slow to form and slow to act, is in the end the paramount power
in the state; and he was the first to use it not in an emergency
merely, but throughout a whole political career. He marks the
commencement of that vast change in th.e movement of English
politics by which it has come about that the sentiment of the
great mass of the people now tells effectively on the action of
the government from day to day, almost from hour to hour.
He was well fitted to secure the sympathy and admiration of his
countrymen, for his virtues and his failings were alike English.
He was often inconsistent, he was generally intractable and
overbearing, and he was always pompous and affected to a

degree which, Macaulay has remarked, seems scarcely compatible
with true greatness. Of the last quality evidence is furnished
in the stilted style of his letters, and in the fact recorded by
Seward that he never permitted his under-secretaries to sit in
his presence. Burke speaks of " some significant, pompous,
creeping, explanatory, ambiguous matter, in the true Chathamic
style." But these defects were known only to the inner circle
of his associates. To the outside public he was endeared as a
statesman who could do or suffer " nothing base," and who had
the rare power of transfusing his own indomitable energy and
courage into all who served under him. " A spirited foreign
policy " has always been popular in England, and Pitt was the
most popular of English ministers, because he was the most
successful exponent of such a policy. In domestic affairs his
influence was small and almost entirely indirect. He himself
confessed his unfitness for dealing with questions of finance. The
commercial prosperity that was produced by his war policy was
in a great part delusive, as prosperity so produced must always
be, though it had permanent effects of the highest moment in the
rise of such centres of industry as Glasgow. This, however, was
a remote result which he could have neither intended nor foreseen.
The correspondence of Lord Chatham, in four volumes, was
published in 1838-1840; and a volume of his letters to Lord Camel-
ford in 1804. The Rev. Francis Thackeray's History of the Rt. Hon.
William Pitt, Earl of Chatham (2 vols., 1827), is a ponderous and
shapeless work. Frederic Harrison's Chatham, in the " Twelve
English Statesmen " series (1905), though skilfully executed, takes a
rather academic and modern Liberal view. A German work, William
Pitt, Graf von Chatham, by Albert von Ruville (3 vols., 1905; English
trans. 1907), is the best and most thorough account of Chatham,
his period, and his policy, which has appeared. See also the separate
article on William Pitt, and the authorities referred tc, especially
the Rev. William Hunt's appendix i. to his vol. x. of The Political
History of England (1905).

CHATHAM, also called MIRAMICHI, an incorporated town and
portof entryin Northumberland county, New Brunswick, Canada,
on the Miramichi river, 24 m. from its mouth and 10 m. by rail
from Chatham junction on the Intercolonial railway. Pop. (1901)
5000. The town contains the Roman Catholic pro-cathedral,
many large saw-mills, pulp-mills, and several establishments
for curing and exporting fish. The lumber trade, the fisheries,
and the manufacture of pulp are the chief industries.

CHATHAM, a city and port of entry of Ontario, Canada, and
the capital of Kent county, situated 64 m. S.W. of London,
and 1 1 m. N. of Lake Erie, on the Thames river and the Grand
Trunk, Canadian Pacific and Lake Erie & Detroit River railways.
Pop. (1901) 9068. It has steamboat connexion with Detroit and
the cities on Lakes Huron and Erie. It is situated in a rich agri-
cultural and fruit-growing district, and carries on a large export
trade. It contains a large wagon factory, planing and flour mills,
manufactories of fanning mills, binder-twine, woven wire goods,
engines, windmills, &c.

CHATHAM, a port and municipal and parliamentary borough
of Kent, England, on the right bank of the Medway, 34 m.
E.S.E. of London by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway.
Pop. (1891) 31,657; (1901) 37,057. Though a distinct borough
it is united on the west with Rochester and on the east with
Gillingham, so that the three boroughs form, in appearance, a
single town with a population which in 1901 exceeded 110,000.
With the exception of the dockyards and fortifications there are
few objects of interest. St Mary's church was opened in 1903, but
occupies a site which bore a church in Saxon times, though the
previous building dated only from 1786. A brass commemorates
Stephen Borough (d. 1584), discoverer of the northern passage
to Archangel in Russia (1553). St Bartholomew's chapel,
originally attached to the hospital for lepers (one of the first in
England), founded by Gundulph, bishop of Rochester, in 1070,
is in part Norman. The funds for the maintenance of the hospital
were appropriated by decision of the court of chancery to the
hospital of St Bartholomew erected in 1863 within the boundaries
of Rochester. The almshouse established in 1592 by Sir John
Hawkins for decayed seamen and shipwrights is still extant, the
building having been re-erected in the 1 9th century; but the fund
called the Chatham Chest, originated by Hawkins and Drake in

CHATHAM ISLANDS

1588, was incorporated with Greenwich Hospital in 1802. In
front of the Royal Engineers' Institute is a statue (1890) of
General Gordon, and near the railway station another (1888) to
Thomas Waghorn, promoter of the overland route to India. In
1905 King Edward VII. unveiled a fine memorial arch com-
memorating Royal Engineers who fell in the South African War.
It stands in the parade ground of the Brompton barracks, facing
the Crimean arch. There are numerous brickyards, lime-kilns
and flour-mills in the district neighbouring to Chatham; and the
town carries on a large retail trade, in great measure owing to
the presence of the garrison. The fortifications are among the
most elaborate in the kingdom. The so-called Chatham Lines
enclose New Brompton, a part of the borough of Gillingham.
They were begun in 1758 and completed in 1807, but have been
completely modernized. They are strengthened by several
detached forts and redoubts. Fort Pitt, which rises above the
town to the west, was built in 1779, and is used as a general
military hospital. It was regarded as the principal establishment
of the kind in the country till the foundation of Netley in Hamp-
shire. The lines include the Chatham, the Royal Marine, the
Brompton, the Hut, St Mary's and naval barracks; the garrison
hospital, Melville hospital for sailors and marines, the arsenal,
gymnasium, various military schools, convict prison, and finally
the extensive dockyard system for which the town is famous.
This dockyard covers an area of 516 acres, and has a river
frontage of over 3 m. It was brought into its present state by
the extensive works begun about 1867. Before that time there
was no basin or wet-dock, though the river Medway to some
extent answered the same purpose, but a portion of the adjoin-
ing salt-marshes was then taken in, and three basins have been
constructed, communicating with each other by means of large
locks, so that ships can pass from the bend of the Medway at
Gillingham to that at Upnor. Four graving docks were also
formed, opening out of the first (Upnor) basin. Subsequent
improvements included dredging operations in the Medway to
improve the approach, and the provision of extra dry-dock
accommodation under the Naval Works Acts.

The parliamentary borough returns one member. The town
was incorporated in 1890, and is governed by a mayor, six alder-
men and eighteen councillors. Area, 4355 acres. The borough
includes the suburb (an ecclesiastical parish) of Luton, in which
are the waterworks of Chatham and the adjoining towns.

Chatham (Ceteham, Chetham) belonged at the time of the
Domesday Survey to Odo, bishop of Bayeux. During the
middle ages it formed a suburb of Rochester, but Henry VIII.
in founding a regular navy began to establish dockyards, and the
harbour formed by the deep channel of the Medway was utilized
by Elizabeth, who built a dockyard and established an arsenal
here. The dockyard was altered and improved by Charles I.
and Charles II., and became the chief naval station of England.
In 1708 an act was passed for extending the fortifications of
Chatham. During the excavations on Chatham Hill after 1 758 a
number of tumuli containing human remains, pottery, coins, &c.,
suggestive of an ancient settlement, were found. Chatham was
constituted a parliamentary borough by the Reform Bill of 1832.
In the time of Edward III. the lord of the manor had two fairs,
one on the 24th of August and the other on the 8th of September.
A market to be held on Tuesday, and a fair on the 4th, 5th and
6th of May, were granted by Charles II. in 1679, and another
provision market on Saturday by James II. in 1688. In 1738
fairs were held on the 4th of May and the 8th of September, and
a market every Saturday.

CHATHAM ISLANDS, a small group in the Pacific Ocean,
forming part of New Zealand, 536 m. due E. of Lyttelton in the
South Island, about 44 S., 177 W. It consists of three
islands, a large one called Whairikauri, or Chatham Island, a
smaller one, Rangihaute, or Pitt Island, and a third, Rangatira,
or South-east Island. There are also several small rocky islets.
Whairikauri, whose highest point reaches about 1000 ft., is
remarkable for the number of lakes and tarns it contains, and for
the extensive bogs which cover the surface of nearly the whole
of the uplands. It is of very irregular form, about 38 m. in

length and 25 m. in extreme breadth, with an area of 321 sq. m.
a little larger than Middlesex. The geological formation is
principally of volcanic rocks, with schists and tertiary limestone;
and an early physical connexion of the islands with New Zealand
is indicated by their geology and biology. The climate is colder
than that of New Zealand. In the centre of Whairikauri is a
large brackish lake called Tewanga, which at the southern end
is separated from the sea by a sandbank only 1 50 yds. wide, which
it occasionally bursts through. The southern part of the island
has an undulating surface, and is covered either with an open
forest or with high ferns. In general the soil is extremely fertile,
and where it is naturaDy drained a rich vegetation of fern and
flax occurs. On the north-west are several conical hills of basalt,
which are surrounded by oases of fertile soil. On the south-
western side is Petre Bay, on which, at the mouth of the river
Mantagu, is Waitangi, the principal settlement.

The islands were discovered in 1791 by Lieutenant W. R.
Broughton (1762-1821), who gave them the name of Chatham
from the brig which he commanded. He described the natives
as a bright, pleasure-loving people, dressed in sealskins or mats,
and calling themselves Morioris or Maiorioris. In 1831 they
were conquered by 800 Maoris who were landed from a European
vessel. They were almost exterminated, and an epidemic of
influenza in 1839 killed half of those left; ten years later there
were only 90 survivors out of a total population of 1 200. They
subsequently decreased still further. Their language was allied
to that of the Maoris of New Zealand, but they differed somewhat
from them in physique, and they were probably a cross between
an immigrating Polynesian group and a lower indigenous Melan-
esian stock. The population of the islands includes about 200
whites of various races and the same number of natives (chiefly
Maoris). Cattle and sheep are bred, and a trade is carried on in
them with the whalers which visit these seas. The chief export
from the group is wool, grown upon runs farmed both by Euro-
peans and Morioris. There is also a small export by the natives
of the flesh of young albatrosses and other sea-birds, boiled down
and cured, for the Maoris of New Zealand, by whom it is reckoned
a delicacy. The imports consist of the usual commodities '
required by a population where little of the land is actually
cultivated.

There are no indigenous mammals; the reptiles belong to
New Zealand species. The birds the largest factor hi the fauna
have become very greatly reduced through the introduction
of cats, dogs and pigs, as well as by the constant persecution of
every sort of animal by the natives. The larger bell-bird (Anlh-
ornis melanocephala) has become quite scarce ; the magnificent
fruit-pigeon (Carpophaga chathamensis), and the two endemic
rails (Nesolimnas dieffenbachii and Cabalus modes tits), the one of
which was confined to Whairikauri and the other to Mangare
Island, are extinct. Several fossil or subfossil avian forms, very
interesting from the point of view of geographical distribution,
have been discovered by Dr H. O. Forbes, namely, a true species
of raven (Palaeocorax moriorum), a remarkable rail (Diaphora-
pteryx), closely related to the extinct Aphanapteryx of Mauritius,
and a large coot (Palaeolimnas chathamensis). There have also
been discovered the remains of a species of swan belonging to
the South American genus Chenopis, and of the tuatara (Halteria)
lizard, the unique species of an ancient family now surviving only
in New Zealand. The swan is identical with an extinct species
found in caves and kitchen-middens hi New Zealand, which was
contemporaneous with the prehistoric Maoris and was largely
used by them for food. One of the finest of the endemic flower-
ing plants of the group is the boraginaceous " Chatham Island
lily " (Myositidium nobile), a gigantic forget-me-not, which grows
on the shingly shore in a few places only, and always just on
the high-water mark, where it is daily deluged by the waves;
while dracophyllums, leucopogons and arborescent ragworts are
characteristic forms in the vegetation.

See Bruno Weiss, Funpig Jahre auf Chatham Island (Berlin,
1900) ; H. O. Forbes, " The Chatham Islands and their Story,"
Fortnightly Review (1893), vol. liii. p. 665, "The Chatham Islands,
their relation to a former Southern Continent," Supplementary

CHATILLON CHATTANOOGA

Paper}, R.G.S., vol. iii. (1893); J. H. Scott, "The Osteology of
the Maori and the Moriori," Trans. New Zealand Institute, vol. xxvi.
(1893); C. W. Andrews, "The Extinct Birds of the Chatham
Islands," Novitates Zoologicae, vol. ii. p. 73 (1896).

CHATILLON, the name of a French family whose history has
furnished material for a large volume in folio by A. du Chesne,
a learned Frenchman, published in 1621. But in spite of its
merits this book presents a certain number of inaccurate state-
ments, some of which it is important to notice. If, for instance,
it be true that the Chatillons came from Chatillon-sur-Marne
(Marne, arrondissement of Reims), it is now certain that, since
the nth century, this castle belonged to the count of Cham-
pagne, and that the head of the house of Chatillon was merely
tenant in that place. One of them, however, Gaucher of Chatillon,
lord of Cr6cy and afterwards constable of France, became in
1290 lord of Chatillon-sur-Marne by exchange, but since 1303 a
new agreement allotted to him the countship of Porcien, while
Chatillon reverted to the domain of the counts of Champagne.
It may be well to mention also that, in consequence of a resem-
blance of their armorial bearings, du Chesne considered wrongly
that the lords of Bazoches and those of Chateau-Porcien of the
j 2th and i3th centuries drew their descent from the house of
Chatillon.

The most important branches of the house of Chatillon were
those of (i) St Pol, beginning with Gaucher III. of Chatillon,
who became count of St Pol in right of his wife Isabelle in 1205,
the last male of the line being Guy V. (d. 1360); (2) Blois,
founded by the marriage of Hugh of Chatillon-St Pol (d. 1 248)
with Mary, daughter of Margaret of Blois (d. 1230), this branch
became extinct with the death of Guy II. in 1397; (3) Porcien,
from 1303 to 1400, when Count John sold the countship to Louis,
duke of Orleans; (4) Penthievre, by the marriage of Charles of
Blois (d. 1364) with Jeanne (d. 1384), heiress of Guy, count of
Penthievre (d. 1331), the male line becoming extinct in 1457.

See A. du Chesne, Histoire genealogique de la maison de Chastillon-
sur-Marne (1621); Anselme, Histoire genealogique de la maison
royale de France, vi. 91-124 (1730). (A. Lo.)

CHATILLON-SUR-SEINE, a town of eastern France, capital
of an arrondissement in the department of C6te-d'Or, on the
Eastern and Paris-Lyon railways, 67 m. N.N.W. of Dijon,
between that city and Troyes. Pop. (1906) 4430. It is situated
on both banks of the upper Seine, which is swelled at its
entrance to the town by the Douix, one of the most abundant
springs in France. Chatillon is constructed on ample lines and
rendered attractive by beautiful promenades. Some ruins on
an eminence above it mark the jite of a chateau of the dukes of
Burgundy. Near by stands the church of St Vorle of the loth
century, but with many additions of later date; it contains a
sculptured Holy Sepulchre of the i6th century and a number of
frescoes. In a fine park stands a modern chateau built by
Marshal Marmont, duke of Ragusa, born at Chatillon in 1774.
It was burnt in 1871, and subsequently rebuilt. The town
preserves several interesting old houses. Chatillon has a sub-
prefecture, tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a school
of agriculture and a communal college. Among its industries
are brewing, iron-founding and the manufacture of mineral and
other blacks. It has trade in wood, charcoal, lithographic and
other stone. Chatillon anciently consisted of two parts, Chau-
mont, belonging to the duchy of Burgundy, and Bourg, ruled by
the bishop of Langres; it did not coalesce into one town till the
end of the i6th century. It was taken by the English in 1360 and
by Louis XI. in 1475, during his struggle with Charles the Bold.
Chatillon was one of the first cities to adhere to the League, but
suffered severely from the oppression of its garrisons and gover-
nors, and in 1 595 made voluntary submission to Henry IV. In
modern times it is associated with the abortive conference of
1814 between the representatives of Napoleon and the Allies.

CHATSWORTH, a village of Derbyshire, England, containing
a seat belonging to the duke of Devonshire, one of the most
splendid private residences in England. Chatsworth House is
situated close to the left bank of the river Derwent, 2$ m. from
Bakewell. It is Ionic in style, built foursquare, and enclosing a
large open courtyard, with a fountain in the centre. In front,

a beautiful stretch of lawn slopes gradually down to the riverside,
and a bridge, from which may best be seen the grand facade of
the building, as it stands out in relief against the wooded ridge
of Bunker's Hill. The celebrated gardens are adorned with
sculptures by Gabriel Gibber; Sir Joseph Paxton designed the
great conservatory, unrivalled in Europe, which covers an acre;
and the fountains, which include one with a jet 260 ft. high, are
said to be surpassed only by those at Versailles. Within the
house there is a very fine collection of pictures, including the
well-known portraits by Reynolds of Georgiana, duchess of
Devonshire. Other paintings are asccribed to Holbein, Dtirer,
Murillo, Jan van Eyck, Dolci, Veronese and Titian. Hung in the
gallery of sketches there are some priceless drawings attributed
to Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Raffaelle, Correggio, Titian
and other old masters. Statues by Canova, Thorwaldsen,
Chantrey and R. J. Wyatt are included among the sculptures.
In the state apartments the walls and window-panes are in some
cases inlaid with marble or porphyry; the woodcarving, mar-
vellous for its intricacy, grace and lightness of effect, is largely
the work of Samuel Watson of Heanor (d. 1715). Chatsworth
Park is upwards of n m. in circuit, and contains many noble
forest-trees, the whole being watered by the Derwent, and
surrounded by high moors and uplands. Beyond the river, and
immediately opposite the house, stands the model village of
Edensor, where most of the cottages were built in villa style, with
gardens, by order of the 6th duke. The parish church, restored
by the same benefactor, contains an old brass in memory of
John Beaton, confidential servant to Mary, queen of Scots, who
died in 1570; and in the churchyard are the. graves of Lord
Frederick Cavendish, murdered in 1882 in Phoenix Park,
Dublin, and of Sir Joseph Paxton.

Chatsworth (Chetsvorde, Chetdsvorde, " the court of Chetel ")
took its name from Chetel, one of its Saxon owners, who held it
of Edward the Confessor. It belonged to the crown and was
entrusted by the Conqueror to the custody of William Peverell.
Chatsworth afterwards belonged for many generations to the
family of Leech, and was purchased in the reign of Elizabeth
by Sir William Cavendish, husband of the famous Bess of
Hardwick. In 1557 he began to build Chatsworth House, and
it was completed after his death by his widow, then countess of
Shrewsbury. Here Mary, queen of Scots, spent several years of
her imprisonment under the care of the earl of Shrewsbury.
During the Civil War, Chatsworth was occasionally occupied
as a fortress by both parties. It was pulled down, and the
present house begun by William, ist duke of Devonshire in 1688.
The little village consists almost exclusively of families employed
upon the estate.

CHATTANOOGA, a city and the county-seat of Hamilton
county, Tennessee, U.S.A., in the S.E. part of the state, about
300 m. S. of Cincinnati, Ohio, and 150 m. S.E. of Nashville,
Tennessee, on the Tennessee river, and near the boundary line
between Tennessee and Georgia. Pop. (1860) 2545; (1870)
6093; (1880) 12,892; (1890) 29,100; (1900)30,154, of whom 994
were foreign-born and 13,122 were negroes; (U. S. census, 1910)
44,604. The city is served by the Alabama Great Southern (Queen
and Crescent), the Cincinnati Southern (leased by the Cincinnati,
New Orleans & Texas Pacific railway company), the Nashville,
Chattanooga & St Louis (controlled by the Louisville & Nash-
ville), and its leased line, the Western & Atlantic (connecting
with Atlanta, Ga.), the Central of Georgia, and the Chattanooga
Southern railways, and by freight and passenger steamboat
lines on the Tennessee river, which is navigable to and beyond
this point during eight months of the year. That branch of
the Southern railway extending from Chattanooga to Memphis
was formerly the Memphis & Charleston, under which name it
became famous in the American Civil War. Chattanooga
occupies a picturesque site at a sharp bend of the river. To the
south lies Lookout Mountain, whose summit (2126 ft. above the
sea; 1495 ft. above the river) commands a magnificent view.
To the east rises Missionary Ridge. Fine driveways and electric
lines connect with both Lookout Mountain (the summit of which
is reached by an inclined plane on which cars are operated by

CHATTANOOGA

cable) and Missionary Ridge, where there are Federal reserva-
tions, as well as with the National Military Park (15 sq. m.;
dedicated 1895) on the battlefield of Chickamauga (q.v.); this
park was one of the principal mobilization camps of the United
States army during the Spanish-American War of 1898. Among
the principal buildings are the city hall, the Federal building,
the county court house, the public library, the high school and
the St Vincent's and the Baroness Erlanger hospitals. Among
Chattanooga's educational institutions are two commercial
colleges, the Chattanooga College for Young Ladies (non-
sectarian), the Chattanooga Normal University, and the Uni-
versity of Chattanooga, until June 1907, United States Grant
University (whose preparatory department, " The Athens
School," is at Athens, Tenn.), a co-educational institution under
Methodist Episcopal control, established in 1867; it has a school
of law (1899), a medical school (1889), and a school of theology
(1888). East of the city is a large national cemetery containing
more than 13,000 graves of Federal soldiers. Chattanooga is
an important produce, lumber, coal and iron market, and is the
principal trade and jobbing centre for a large district in Eastern
Tennessee and Northern Georgia and Alabama. The proximity
of coalfields and iron mines has made Chattanooga an iron
manufacturing place of importance, its plants including car
shops, blast furnaces, foundries, agricultural implement and
machinery works, and stove factories; the city has had an
important part in the development of the iron and steel industries
in this part of the South. There are also flour mills, tanneries
(United States Leather Co.), patent medicine, furniture, coffin,
woodenware and wagon factories, knitting and spinning mills,,
planing mills, and sash, door and blind factories the lumber
being obtained from logs floated down the river and by rail. The
value of the city's factory products increased from $10,517,886
in 1900 to $15,193,909 in 1905 or 44-5%.

Chattanooga was first settled about 1835, and was long known
as Ross's Landing. It was incorporated in 1851 as Chattanooga,
and received a city charter in 1866. Its growth for the three
decades after the Civil War was very rapid. During the American
Civil War it was one of the most important strategic points in
the Confederacy, and in its immediate vicinity were fought two
great battles. During June 1862 it was threatened by a Federal
force under General O. M. Mitchel, but the Confederate army
of General Braxton Bragg was transferred thither by rail from
Corinth, Miss., before Mitchel was able to advance. In
September 1863, however, General W. S. Rosecrans, with the
Union Army of the Cumberland out-manceuvred Bragg, con-
centrated his numerous columns in the Chickamauga Valley, and
occupied the town, to which, after the defeat of Chickamauga
(q.v.), he retired.

From the end of September to the 24th of November the Army
of the Cumberland was then invested in Chattanooga by the
Confederates, whose position lay along Missionary Ridge from
its north end near the river towards Rossville, whence their
entrenchments extended westwards to Lookout Mountain, which
dominates the whole ground, the Tennessee running directly
beneath it. Thus Rosecrans was confined to a semicircle of
low ground around Chattanooga itself, and his supplies had to
make a long and difficult detour from Bridgeport, the main road
being under fire from the Confederate position on Lookout and
in the Wauhatchie valley adjacent. Bragg indeed expected that
Rosecrans would be starved into retreat. But the Federals once
more, and this time on a far larger scale, concentrated in the face
of the enemy. The XI. and XII. corps from Virginia under
Hooker were transferred by rail to reinforce Rosecrans; other
troops were called up from the Mississippi, and on the i6th of
October the Federal government reconstituted the western
armies under the supreme command of General Grant. The
XV. corps of the Army of the Tennessee, under Sherman, was
on the march from the Mississippi. Hooker's troops had already
arrived when Grant reached Chattanooga on the 23rd of October.
The Army of the Cumberland was now under Thomas, Rosecrans
having been recalled. The first action was fought at Brown's
Ferry in the Wauhatchie valley, where Hooker executed with

complete precision a plan for the revictualling of Chattanooga,
established himself near Wauhatchie on the 28th, and repulsed
a determined attack on the same night. But Sherman was still
far distant, and the Federal forces at Knoxville, against which
a large detachment of Bragg's army under Longstreet was now
sent, were in grave danger. Grant waited for Sherman's four
divisions, but prepared everything for battle in the meantime.
His plan was that Thomas in the Chattanooga lines should
contain the Confederate centre on Missionary Ridge, while
Hooker on the right at Wauhatchie was to attack Lookout
Mountain, and Sherman farther up the river was to carry out
the decisive attack against Bragg's extreme right wing at the
end of Missionary Ridge. The last marches of the XV. corps
were delayed by stormy weather, Bragg reinforced Longstreet,
and telegraphic communication between Grant and the Federals
at Knoxville had already ceased. But Grant would not move
forward without Sherman, and the battle of Chattanooga was
fought more than two months after Chickamauga. On the 23rd
of November a forward move of Thomas's army, intended as a

Confederate line of defence. X X X X Union troops, ..^m

demonstration, developed into a serious and successful action,
whereby the first line of the Confederate centre was driven in
for some distance. Bragg was now much weakened by successive
detachments having been sent to Knoxville, and on the 24th the
real battle began. Sherman's corps was graudally brought over
the river near the mouth of Chickamauga Creek, and formed up
on the east side.

The attack began at i P.M. and was locally a complete success.
The heights attacked were in Sherman's hands, and fortified
against counter-attack, before nightfall. Hooker in the mean-
while had fought the " Battle above the Clouds " on the steep
face of Lookout Mountain, and though opposed by an equal
force of Confederates, had completely driven the enemy from
the mountain. The 24th then had been a day of success for the
Federals, and the decisive attack of the three armies in concert
was to take place on the 25th. But the maps deceived Grant
and Sherman as they had previously deceived Rosecrans.
Sherman had captured, not the north point of Missionary Ridge,
but a detached hill, and a new and more serious action had to be
fought for the possession of Tunnel Hill, where Bragg's right now
lay strongly entrenched. The Confederates used every effort to
hold the position and all Sherman's efforts were made in vain.
Hooker, who was moving on Rossville, had not progressed far,
and Bragg was still free to reinforce his right. Grant therefore
directed Thomas to move forward on the centre to relieve the

CHATTEL CHATTERJI

pressure on Sherman. The Army of the Cumberland was, after
all, to strike the decisive blow. About 3.30 P.M. the centre
advanced on the Confederate's trenches at the foot of Missionary
Ridge. These were carried at the first rush, and the troops were
ordered to lie down and await orders. Then occurred one of
the most dramatic episodes of the war. Suddenly, and without
orders either from Grant or the officers at the front, the whole
line of the Army of the Cumberland rose and rushed up the ridge.
Two successive lines of entrenchments were carried at once.
In a short time the crest was stormed, and after a last attempt
at resistance the enemy's centre fled in the wildest confusion.
The pursuit was pressed home by the divisional generals, notably
by Sheridan. Hooker now advanced in earnest on Rossville,
and by nightfall the whole Confederate army, except the troops
on Tunnel Hill, was retreating in disorder. These too were
withdrawn in the night, and the victory of the Federals was
complete. Bragg lost 8684 men killed, wounded and prisoners
out of perhaps 34,000 men engaged; Grant, with 60,000 men,
lost about 6000.

CHATTEL (for derivation see CATTLE), a term used in English
law as equivalent to " personal property," that is, property
which, on the death of the owner, devolves on his executor or
administrator to be distributed (unless disposed of by will)
among the next of kin according to the Statutes of Distributions.
Chattels are divided into chattels real and chattels personal.
Chattels real are those interests in land for which no " real
action " (see ACTION) lies; estates which are less than freehold
(estates for years, at will, or by sufferance) are chattels real.
Chattels personal are such things as belong immediately to the
person of the owner, and for which, if they are injuriously
withheld from him, he has no remedy other than by a personal
action. Chattels personal are divided into chases in possession
and chases in action (see CHOSE).

A chattel mortgage, in United States law, is a transfer of
personal property as security for a debt or obligation in such
form that the title to the property will pass to the mortgagee
upon the failure of the mortgagor to comply with the terms of
the contract. At common law a chattel mortgage might be
made without writing, and was valid as between the parties,
and even as against third parties if accompanied by possession
in the mortgagee, but in most states of the Union legislation
now requires a chattel mortgage to be in writing and duly
recorded in order to be valid against third parties. At common
law a mortgage ran be given only of chattels actually in existence
and belonging to the mortgagor, though if he acquired title
afterwards the mortgage would be good as between the parties,
but not as against subsequent purchasers or creditors. In
equity, on the other hand, a chattel mortgage, though not good
as a conveyance, is valid as an executory agreement.

Goods and chattels is a phrase which, in its widest signification,
includes any property other than freehold. The two words,
however, have come to be synonymous, and the expression,
now practically confined to wills, means merely things movable
in possession.

CHATTERIS, a market town in the Wisbech parliamentary
division of Cambridgeshire, England, 25^ m. N. by W. of Cam-
bridge by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 4711. It lies in the midst of the flat Fen country. The
church of St Peter is principally Decorated; and there are
fragments of a Benedictine convent founded in the loth century
and rebuilt after fire in the first half of the i4th. The town has
breweries, and engineering and rope-making works. To the
north runs the great Forty-foot Drain, also called Vermuyden's,
after the Dutch engineer whose name is associated with the fen
drainage works of the middle of the i7th century.

CHATTERJI, BANKIM CHANDRA [BANKIMACHANDRA
CHATTARADH-VAYA] (1838-1894), Indian novelist, was born in
the district of the Twenty-four Parganas in Bengal en the 27th
of June 1838, and was by caste a Brahman. He was educated
at the Hugli College, at the Presidency College in Calcutta, and
at Calcutta University, where he was the first to take the degree
of B.A. (1858). He entered the Indian civil service, and served

as deputy magistrate in various districts of Bengal, his official
services being recognized, on his retirement in 1891, by the
title of rai bahadur and the C.I.E. He died on the 8th of April
1894.

Bankim Chandra was beyond question the greatest novelist
of India during the igth century, whether judged by the amount
and quality of his writings, or by the influence which they have
continued to exercise. His education had brought him into
touch with the works of the great European romance writers,
notably Sir Walter Scott, and he created in India a school of
fiction on the European model. His first historical novel, the
Durges-Nandini or Chiefs Daughter, modelled on Scott, made
a great sensation in Bengal; and the Kapala-Kundala and
Mrinalini, which followed it, established his fame as a writer
whose creative imagination and power of delineation had never
been surpassed in India. In 1872 he brought out his first social
novel, the Bisha-Brikkha or Poison Tree, which was followed by
others in rapid succession. It is impossible to exaggerate the
effect they produced; for over twenty years Bankim Chandra's
novels were eagerly read by the educated public of Bengal,
including the Hindu ladies in the zenanas; and though numerous
works of fiction are now produced year by year in every province
of India, his influence has increased rather than diminished.
Of all his works, however, by far the most important from its
astonishing political consequences was the Ananda Math, which
was published in 1882, about the time of the agitation arising
out of the Ilbert Bill. The story deals with the Sannyasi (i.e.
fakir or hermit) rebellion of 1772 near Purmea, Tirhut and
Dinapur, and its culminating episode is a crushing victory won
by the rebels over the united British and Mussulman forces,
a success which was not, however, followed up, owing to the
advice of a mysterious " physician " who, speaking as a divinely-
inspired prophet, advises Satyananda, the leader of " the
children of the Mother," to abandon further resistance, since a
temporary submission to British rule is a necessity; for Hinduism
has become too speculative and unpractical, and the mission of
the English in India is to teach Hindus how to reconcile theory
and speculation with the facts of science. The general moral
of the Ananda Math, then, is that British rule and British
education are to be accepted as the only alternative to Mussulman
oppression, a moral which Bankim Chandra developed also in
his Dharmatattwa, an elaborate religious treatise in which he
explained his views as to the changes necessary in the moral and
religious condition of his fellow-countrymen before they could
hope to compete on equal terms with the British and Mahom-
medans. But though the Ananda Math is in form an apology
for the loyal acceptance of British rule, it is none the less inspired
by the ideal of the restoration, sooner or later, of a Hindu
kingdom in India. This is especially evident in the occasional
verse? in the book, of which the Bande Mataram is the most
famous.

As to the exact significance of this poem a considerable
controversy has raged. Bande Mataram is the Sanskrit for
" Hail to thee, Mother!" or more literally " I reverence thee,
Mother!", and according to Dr G. A. Grierson (The Times,
Sept. 12, 1906) it can have no other possible meaning than an
invocation of one of the " mother " goddesses of Hinduism, in
his opinion Kali " the goddess of death and destruction." Sir
Henry Cotton, on the other hand (ib. Sept. 13, 1906), sees in
it merely an invocation of the " mother-land " Bengal, and
quotes in support of this view the free translation of the poem
by the late W. H. Lee, a proof which, it may be at once said,
is far from convincing. But though, as Dr Grierson points out,
the idea of a " mother-land " is wholly alien to Hindu ideas, it is
quite possible that Bankim Chandra may have assimilated it
with his European culture, and the true explanation is probably
that given by Mr J. D. Anderson in The Times of September 24,
1906. He points out that in the nth chapter of the ist book of
the Ananda Math the Sannyasi rebels are represented as having
erected, in addition to the image of Kali, " the Mother who Has
Been," a white marble statue of " the Mother that Shall Be,"
which " is apparently a representation of the mother-land.

CHATTERTON

The Bande Mataram hymn is apparently addressed to both
idols."

The poem, then, is the work of a Hindu idealist who personified
Bengal under the form of a purified and spiritualized Kali.
Of its thirty-six lines, partly written in Sanskrit, partly in
Bengali, the greater number are harmless enough. But if the
poet sings the praise of the " Mother "

" As Lachmi, bowered in the flower
That in the water grows,"

he also praises her as " Durga, bearing ten weapons," and lines
10, ii and 12 are capable of very dangerous meanings in the
mouths of unscrupulous agitators. Literally translated these
run, " She has seventy millions of throats to sing her praise,
twice seventy millions of hands to fight for her, how then
is Bengal powerless?" As S. M. Mitra points out (Indian
Problems, London, 1908), this language is the more significant
as the Bande Mataram in the novel was the hymn by singing
which the Sannyasis gained strength when attacking the British
forces.

During Bankim Chandra Chatterji's lifetime the Bande
Mataram, though its dangerous tendency was recognized, was
not used as a party war-cry; it was not raised, for instance,
during the Ilbert Bill agitation, nor by the students who flocked
round the court during the trial of Surendra Nath Banerji in
1883. It has, however, obtained an evil notoriety in the agita-
tions that followed the partition of Bengal. That Bankim
Chandra himself foresaw or desired any such use of it is impossible
to believe. According to S. M. Mitra, he composed it " in a fit
of patriotic excitement after a good hearty dinner, which he
always enjoyed. It was set to Hindu music, known as the
Mallar-Kawali-Tal. The extraordinarily stirring character of
the air, and its ingenious assimilation of Bengali passages with
Sanskrit, served to make it popular."

Circumstances have made the Bande Mataram the most
famous and the most widespread in its effects of Bankim
Chandra's literary works. More permanent, it may be hoped,
was the wholesome influence he exercised on the number of
literary men he gathered round him, who have left their im-
press on the literature of Bengal. In his earlier years he served
his apprenticeship in literature under Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar,
the chief poet and satirist of Bengal during the earlier half of the
1 9th century. Bankim Chandra's friend and colleague, Dina
Bandhu Mitra, was virtually the founder of the modern Bengali
drama. Another friend of his, Hem Chandra Banerji, was a poet
of recognized merit and talent. And among the younger men
who venerated Bankim Chandra, and benefited by his example
and advice, may be mentioned two distinguished poets, Nalein
Chandra Sen and Rabindra Nath Tagore.

Of Bankim Chandra's novels some have been translated into
English by H. A. D. Phillips and by Mrs M. S. Knight.

CHATTERTON, THOMAS (1752-1770), English poet, was born
at Bristol on the 2oth of November 1752. His pedigree has a
curious significance. The office of sexton of St Mary Redcliffe,
at Bristol, one of the most beautiful parish churches in England,
had been transmitted for nearly two centuries in the Chatter-
ton family; and throughout the brief life of the poet it was
held by his uncle, Richard Phillips. The poet's father, Thomas
Chatterton, was a musical genius, somewhat of a poet, a numis-
matist, and a dabbler in occult arts. He was one of the sub-
chanters of Bristol cathedral, and master of the Pyle Street free
school, near Redcliffe church. But whatever hereditary ten-
dencies may have been transmitted from the father, the sole
training of the boy necessarily devolved on his mother, who was
in the fourth month of her widowhood at the time of his birth.
She established a girls' school, took in sewing and ornamental
needlework, and so brought up her two children, a girl and a
boy, till the latter attained his eighth year, when he was admitted
to Colston's Charity. But the Bristol blue-coat school, in which
the curriculum was limited to reading, writing, arithmetic and
the Church Catechism, had little share in the education of its
marvellous pupil. The hereditary race of sextons had come to
regard the church of St Mary Redcliffe as their own peculiar

domain; and, under the guidance of his uncle, the child found
there his favourite haunt. The knights, ecclesiastics and civic
dignitaries, recumbent on its altar tombs, became his familiar
associates ; and by and by, when he was able to spell his way
through the inscriptions graven on their monuments, he found
a fresh interest in certain quaint oaken chests in the muniment
room over the porch on the north side of the nave, where parch-
ment deeds, old as the Wars of the Roses, long lay unheeded
and forgotten. They formed the child's playthings almost from
his cradle. He learned his first letters from the illuminated
capitals of an old musical folio, and learned to read out of a
black-letter Bible. He did not like, his sister said, reading out
of small books. Wayward, as it seems, almost from his earliest
years, and manifesting no sympathy with the ordinary pastimes
of children, he was regarded for a time as deficient in intellect.
But he was even then ambitious of distinction. His sbter relates
that on being asked what device he would like painted on a bowl
that was to be his, he replied, " Paint me an angel, with wings,
and a trumpet, to trumpet my name over the world."

From his earliest years he was liable to fits of abstraction,
sitting for hours in seeming stupor, or yielding after a time to
tears, for which he would assign no reason. He had no one near
him to sympathize in the strange world of fancy which his
imagination had already called into being; and circumstances
helped to foster his natural reserve, and to beget that love of
mystery which exercised so great an influence on the develop-
ment of his genius. When the strange child had attained his
sixth year his mother began to recognize his capacity; at eight
he was so eager for books that he would read and write all day
long if undisturbed; and in his eleventh year he had become a
contributor to Felix Farley's Bristol Journal. The occasion of
his confirmation inspired some religious poems published in this
paper. In 1763 a beautiful cross of curious workmanship, which
had adorned the churchyard of St Mary Redcliffe for upwards of
three centuries, was destroyed by a churchwarden. The spirit
of veneration was strong in the boy, and he sent to the local
journal on the 7th of January 1764 a clever satire on the parish
Vandal. But his delight was to lock himself in a little attic
which he had appropriated as his study; and there, with books,
cherished parchments, saved from the loot of the muniment room
of St Mary Redcliffe, and drawing materials, the child lived in
thought with his 15th-century heroes and heroines. The first of
his literary mystifications, the duologue of " Elinoure and Juga,"
was written before he was twelve years old, and he showed his
poem to the usher at Colston's hospital, Thomas Phillips, as the
work of a 15th-century poet.

Chatterton remained an inmate of Colston's hospital for
upwards of six years, and the slight advantages gained from
this scanty education are traceable to the friendly sympathy of
Phillips, himself a writer of verse, who encouraged his pupils to
write. Three of Chatterton's companions are named as youths
whom Phillips's taste for poetry stimulated to rivalry; but
Chatterton held aloof from these contests, and made at that
time no confidant of his own more daring literary adventures.
His little pocket-money was spent in borrowing books from a
circulating library; and he early ingratiated himself with book
collectors, by whose aid he found access to Weever, Dugdale
and Collins, as well as to Speght's edition of Chaucer, Spenser
and other books.

His "Rowleian" jargon appears to have been chiefly the
result of the study of John Kersey's Dictionarium Anglo-Bri-
tannicum, and Prof. W. W. Skeat seems to think his knowledge
of even Chaucer was very slight. His holidays were mostly
spent at his mother's house; and much of them in the favourite
retreat of his attic study there. He had already conceived the
romance of Thomas Rowley, an imaginary monk of the isth
century, and lived for the most part in an ideal world of his own,
in that elder time when Edward IV. was England's king, and
Master William Canynge familiar to him among the recum-
bent effigies in Redcliffe church still ruled in Bristol's civic
chair. Canynge is represented as an enlightened patron of
literature, and Rowley's dramatic interludes were written for

CHATTERTON

1 1

performance at his house. In order to escape a marriage urged
by the king, Canynge retired to the college of Westbury in
Gloucestershire, where he enjoyed the society of Rowley, and
eventually became dean of the institution. In " The Storie of
William Canynge," one of the shorter pieces of his ingenious
romance, his early history is recorded.

" Straight was I carried back to times of yore,
Whilst Canynge swathed yet in fleshly bed,
And saw all actions which had been beiore,

And all the scroll of Fate unravelled ;
And when the fate-marked babe acome to sight,
I saw him eager gasping after light.
In all his sheepen gambols and child's play,

In every merrymaking, fair, or wake,
I kenn'd a perpled light of wisdom's ray ;

He ate down learning with the wastel-cake ;
As wise as any of the aldermen,
He'd wit enow to make a mayor at ten."

This beautiful picture of the childhood of the ideal patron of
Rowley is in reality that of the poet himself " the fate-marked
babe," with his wondrous child-genius, and all his romantic
dreams realized. The literary masquerade which thus consti-
tuted the life-dream of the boy was wrought out by him in
fragments of prose and verse into a coherent romance, until the
credulous scholars and antiquaries of his day were persuaded
into the belief that there had lain in the parish chest of Redcliffe
church for upwards of three centuries, a collection of MSS. of
rare merit, the work of Thomas Rowley, an unknown priest of
Bristol in the days of Henry VI. and his poet laureate, John
Lydgate.

Among the Bristol patrons of Chatterton were two pewterers,
George Catcott and his partner Henry Burgum. Catcott was one
of the most zealous believers in Rowley, and continued to collect
his reputed writings long after the death of their real author.
On Burgum, who had risen in life by his own exertions, the blue-
coat boy palmed off the de Bergham pedigree, and other equally
apocryphal evidences of the pewterer's descent from an ancestry
old as the Norman Conquest. The de Bergham quartering,
blazoned on a piece of parchment doubtless recovered from the
Redcliffe muniment chest, was itself supposed to have lain for
centuries in that ancient depository. The pedigree was pro-
fessedly collected by Chatterton from original records, including
" The Rowley MSS." The pedigree still exists in Chatterton's
own handwriting, copied into a book in which he had previously
transcribed portions of antique verse, under the title of " Poems
by Thomas Rowley, priest of St. John's, in the city of Bristol ";
and in one of these, " The Tournament," Syrr Johan de Berg-
hamme plays a conspicuous part. The ennobled pewterer
rewarded Chatterton with five shillings, and was satirized for
this valuation of a noble pedigree in some of Chatterton's
latest verse.

On the ist of July 1767, Chatterton was transferred to the office
of John Lambert, attorney, to whom he was bound apprentice
as a clerk. There he was left much alone; and after fulfilling
the routine duties devolving on him, he found leisure for his own
favourite pursuits. An ancient stone bridge on the Avon, built
in the reign of Henry II., and altered by many later additions
into a singularly picturesque but inconvenient thoroughfare,
had been displaced by a structure better adapted to modern
requirements. In September 1768, when Chatterton was in the
second year of his apprenticeship, the new bridge was partially
opened for traffic. Shortly afterwards the editor of Felix Farley's
Journal received from a correspondent, signing himself Dunelmus
Bristoliensis, a " description of the mayor's first passing over the
old bridge," professedly derived from an ancient MS. William
Barrett, F.S.A., surgeon and antiquary, who was then accumu-
lating materials for a history of Bristol, secured the original
manuscript, which is now preserved in the British Museum, along
with other Chatterton MSS., most of which were ultimately
incorporated by the credulous antiquary into a learned quarto
volume, entitled the History and Antiquities of the City of Bristol,
published nearly twenty years after the poet's death. It was
at this time that the definite story made its appearance over

which critics and antiquaries wrangled for nearly a century
of numerous ancient poems and other MSS. taken by the elder
Chatterton from a coffer in the muniment room of Redcliffe
church, and transcribed, and so rescued from oblivion, by his
son. The pieces include the " Bristowe Tragedie, or the Dethe
of Syr Charles Bawdin," a ballad celebrating the death of the
Lancastrian knight, Charles Baldwin; " JEMa.," a "Tragycal
Enterlude," as Chattertpn styles it, but in reality a dramatic
aoem of sustained power and curious originality of structure;
" Goddwyn," a dramatic fragment; " Tournament," " Battle
of Hastings," " The Parliament of Sprites," " Balade of Charitie,"
with numerous shorter pieces, forming altogether a volume of
poetry, the rare merit of which is indisputable, wholly apart from
the fact that it was the production of a mere boy. Unfortunately
for him, his ingenious romance had either to be acknowledged as
his own creation, and so in all probability be treated with con-
tenipt, or it had to be sustained by the manufacture of spurious
antiques. To this accordingly Chatterton resorted, and found
no difficulty in gulling the most learned of his credulous dupes
with his parchments.

The literary labours of the boy, though diligently pursued at
bis desk, were not allowed to interfere with the duties of Mr
Lambert's office. Nevertheless the Bristol attorney used to
search his apprentice's drawer, and tear up any poems or other
manuscripts that he could lay his hands upon; so that it was
only during the absences of Mr Lambert from Bristol that he
was able to expend his unemployed time in his favourite pursuits.
But repeated allusions, both by Chatterton and others, seem to
indicate that such intervals of freedom were of frequent occur-
rence. Some of his modern poems, such as the piece entitled
" Resignation," are of great beauty; and these, with the satires, in
which he took his revenge on all the local celebrities whose
vanity or meanness had excited his ire, are alone sufficient to fill
a volume. The Catcotts, Burgum, Barrett and others of his
patrons, figure in these satires, in imprudent yet discriminating
caricature, along with mayor, aldermen, bishop, dean and other
notabilities of Bristol. Towards Lambert his feelings were of too
keen a nature to find relief in such sarcasm.

In December 1768, in his seventeenth year, he wrote to
Dodsley, the London publisher, offering to procure for him
" copies of several ancient poems, and an interlude, perhaps
the oldest dramatic piece extant, wrote by one Rowley, a priest
in Bristol, who lived in the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV."
To this letter he appended the initials of his favourite pseudonym,
Dunelmus Bristoliensis, but directed the answer to be sent to
the care of Thomas Chatterton, Redcliffe Hill, Bristol. To this,
as well as to another letter enclosing an extract from the tragedy
of "jElla," no answer appears to have been returned. Chatter-
ton, conceiving the idea of finding sympathy and aid at the hand
of some modern Canynge, bethought him of Horace Walpole,
who not only indulged in a medieval renaissance of his own, but
was the reputed author of a spurious antique in the Castle of
Otranto. He wrote to him offering him a document entitled
" The Ryse of Peyncteyne yn Englande, wroten by T. Rowleie,
1469, for Mastre Canynge," accompanied by notes which included
specimens of Rowley's poetry. To this Walpole replied with
courteous acknowledgments. He characterized the verses as
" wonderful for their harmony and spirit," and added, " Give me
leave to ask you where Rowley's poems are to be had ? I should
not be sorry to print them; or at least a specimen of them, if
they have never been printed." Chatterton replied, enclosing
additional specimens of antique verse, and telling Walpole that
he was the son of a poor widow, and clerk to an attorney, but
had a taste for more refined studies; and he hinted a wish that
he might help him to some more congenial occupation. Walpole's
manner underwent an abrupt change. The specimens of verse
had been submitted to his friends Gray and Mason, the poets,
and pronounced modern. They did not thereby forfeit the
wonderful harmony and spirit which Walpole had already
professed to recognize in them. But he now coldly advised the
boy to stick to the attorney's office; and " when he should
have made a fortune," he might betake himself to more favourite

CHATTERTON

studies. Chatterton had to write three times before he recovered
his MSS. Walpole has been loaded with more than his just
share pf responsibility for the fate of the unhappy poet, of
whom he admitted when too late, " I do not believe there ever
existed so masterly a genius."

Chatterton now turned his attention to periodical literature
and politics, and exchanged Felix Farley's Bristol Journal for
the Town and County Magazine and other London periodicals.
Assuming the vein of Junius then in the full blaze of his
triumph he turned his pen against the duke of Grafton, the
earl of Bute, and the princess of Wales. He had'just despatched
one of his political diatribes to the Middlesex Journal, when he
sat down on Easter Eve, lyth April 1770, and penned his " Last
Will and Testament," a strange satirical compound of jest and
earnest, in which he intimated his intention of putting an end
to his life the following evening. Among his satirical bequests,
such as his " humility " to the Rev. Mr Camplin, his " religion "
to Dean Barton, and his " modesty " along with his " prosody
and grammar " to Mr Burgum, he leaves " to Bristol all his
spirit and disinterestedness, parcels of goods unknown on its
quay since the days of Canynge and Rowley." In more genuine
earnestness he recalls the name of Michael Clayfield, a friend to
whom he owed intelligent sympathy. The will was probably
purposely prepared in order to frighten his master into letting
him go. If so, it had the desired effect. Lambert cancelled his
indentures; his friends and acquaintance made him up a purse;
and on the 25th or 26th of the month he arrived in London.

Chatterton was already known to the readers of the Middlesex
Journal as a rival of Junius, under the nom de plume of Decimus.
He had also been a contributor to Hamilton's Town and County
Magazine, and speedily found access to the Freeholder's Magazine,
another political miscellany strong for Wilkes and liberty. His
contributions were freely accepted; but the editors paid little
or nothing for them. He wrote in the most hopeful terms to his
mother and sister, and spent his first earnings in buying gifts
for them. His pride and ambition were amply gratified by the
promises and interested flattery of editors and political adven-
turers; Wilkes himself had noted his trenchant style, " and
expressed a desire to know the author "; and Lord Mayor
Beckford graciously acknowledged a political address of his,
and greeted him " as politely as a citizen could." But of actual
money he received but litUe. He was extremely abstemious,
his diligence was great, and his versatility wonderful. He could
assume the style of Junius or Smollett, reproduce the satiric
bitterness of Churchill, parody Macpherson's Ossian, or write in
the manner of Pope, or with the polished grace of Gray and
Collins. He wrote political letters, eclogues, lyrics, operas and
satires, both in prose and verse. In June 1 7 70 after Chatterton
had been some nine weeks in London he removed from Shore-
ditch, where he had hitherto lodged with a relative, to an attic
in Brook Street, Holborn. But for most of his productions the
payment was delayed; and now state prosecutions of the press
rendered letters in the Junius vein no longer admissible, and
threw him back on the lighter resources of his pen. In Shoreditch,
as in his lodging at the Bristol attorney's, he had only shared a
room; but now, for the first time, he enjoyed uninterrupted
solitude. His bed-fellow at Mr Walmsley's, Shoreditch, noted
that much of the night was spent by him in writing; and now
he could write all night. The romance of his earlier years
revived, and he transcribed from an imaginary parchment of
the old priest Rowley his " Excelente Balade of Charitie." This
fine poem, perversely disguised in archaic language, he sent to
the editor of the Town and County Magazine, and had it rejected.

The high hopes of the sanguine boy had begun to fade. He
had not yet completed his second month in London, and already
failure and starvation stared him in the face. Mr Cross, a neigh-
bouring apothecary, repeatedly invited him to join him at dinner
or supper; but he refused. His landlady also, suspecting his
necessity, pressed him to share her dinner, but in vain. " She
knew," as she afterwards said, " that he had not eaten anything
for two or three days." But he was offended at her urgency,
and assured her that he was not hungry. The note of his actual

receipts, found in his pocket-book after his death, shows that
Hamilton, Fell and other editors who had been so liberal in
flattery, had paid him at the rate of a shilling for an article, and
somewhat less than eightpence each for his songs; while much
which had been accepted was held in reserve, and still unpaid
for. The beginning of a new month revealed to him the indefinite
postponement of the publication and payment of his work. He
had wished, according to his foster-mother, to study medicine
with Barrett; in his desperation he now reverted to this, and
wrote to Barrett for a letter to help him to an opening as a
surgeon's assistant on board an African trader. He appealed
also to Mr Catcott to forward his plan, but in vain. On the
24th of August 1770, he retired for the last time to his attic in
Brook Street, carrying with him the arsenic which he there
drank, after tearing into fragments whatever literary remains
were at hand.

He was only seventeen years and nine months old; but the
best of his numerous productions, both in prose and verse,
require no allowance to be made for the immature years of their
author, when comparing him with the ablest of his contem-
poraries. He pictures Lydgate, the monk of Bury St Edmunds,
challenging Rowley to a trial at versemaking, and under cover
of this fiction, produces his " Songe of ^Ella," a piece of rare
lyrical beauty, worthy of comparison with any antique or modern
production of its class. Again, in his " Tragedy of Goddwyn,"
of which only a fragment has been preserved, the " Ode to
Liberty," with which it abruptly closes, may claim a place among
the finest martial lyrics in the language. The collection of poems
in which such specimens occur furnishes by far the most remark-
able example of intellectual precocity in the whole history of
letters. Collins, Burns, Keats, Shelley and Byron all awaken
sorrow over the premature arrestment of their genius; but the
youngest of them survived to his twenty-fifth year, while
Chatterton was not eighteen when he perished in his miserable
garret. The death of Chatterton attracted little notice at the
time; for the few who then entertained any appreciative
estimate of the Rowley poems regarded him as their mere
transcriber. He was interred in a burying-ground attached to
Shoe Lane Workhouse, in the parish of St Andrew's, Holborn,
which has since been converted into a site for Farringdon Market.
There is a discredited story that the body of the poet was re-
covered, and secretly buried by his uncle, Richard Phillips, in
Redcliffe Churchyard. There a monument has since been erected
to his memory, with the appropriate inscription, borrowed
from his " Will," and so supplied by the poet's own pen " To
the memory of Thomas Chatterton. Reader! judge not. If
thou art a Christian, believe that he shall be judged by a Superior
Power. To that Power only is he now answerable."

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Poems supposed to have been written at Bristol
by Thomas Rowley and others, in the Fifteenth Century (1777) was edited
by Thomas Tyrwhitt; Thomas Warton, in his History of English
Poetry (1778), vol. ii. section viii., gives Rowley a place among the
1 5th century poets; but neither of these critics believed in the
antiquity of the poems. In 1782 a new edition of Rowley's poems
appeared, with a " Commentary, in which the antiquity of them is
considered and defended," by Jeremiah Milles, dean of Exeter.
The controversy which raged round the Rowley poems is discussed
in A. Kippis, Biographia Britannica (vol. iv., 1789), where there is a
detailed account by G. Gregory of Chatterton's life (pp. 573-619).
This was reprinted in the edition (1803) of Chatterton s Works by
R. Southey and J. Cottle, published for the benefit of the poet s
sister. The neglected condition of the study of earlier English in
the 1 8th century alone accounts for the temporary success of
Chatterton's mystification. It has long been agreed that Chatterton
was solely responsible for the Rowley -Poems, but the language and
style are analysed in confirmation of this view by Prof. W. W.
Skeat in an introductory essay prefaced to vol. ii. of The Poetical
Works of Thomas Chatterton (1871) in the " Aldine Edition of the
British Poets." This, which is the most convenient edition, also
contains a memoir of the poet by Edward Bell. The spelling of the
Rowley poems is there modernized, and many of the archaic words
are replaced by modern equivalents provided in many cases from
Chatterton's own notes, the theory being that Chatterton usually
composed in modern English, and inserted his peculiar words and
his complicated orthography afterwards. For some criticism of
Prof. Skeat's success in the very difficult task of reconstituting the
text, see H. B. Forman, Thomas Chatterton and his latest Editor (1874).

CHATTI CHAUCER

The Chatterton MSS., originally in the possession of William Barrett
of Bristol, were left by his heir to the British Museum in 1800.
Others are preserved in the Bristol library.

Chatterton's genius and his tragic death arc commemorated by
Shelley in Adonais, by Wordsworth in " Resolution and Independ-
ence," by Coleridge in " A Monody on the Death of Chattertpn,"
by D. G. Rossetti in " Five English Poets," and John Keats inscribed
Endymion " to the memory of Thomas Chattertpn." Alfred de
Vigny's drama of Chatterton gives an altogether fictitious account of
the poet. Herbert Croft (q.v.), in his Love and Madness, interpolated
a long and valuable account of Chatterton, giving many of the
poet's letters, and much information obtained from his family and
friends (pp. 125-244, letter li.). There is a valuable collection of
" Chattertoniana " in the British Museum, consisting of separate
works by Chatterton, newspaper cuttings, articles, dealing with the
Rowley controversy and other subjects, with MS. notes by Joseph
Haslewood, and several autograph letters.

Among biographies of Chatterton may be mentioned Chatterton:
A Biographical Study (1869), by Daniel Wilson; Chatterton: A
Biography (1899; first printed 1856 in a volume of essays), by
D. Masson; "Thomas Chatterton " (1900), by Helene Richter, in
Wiener Beitrdge zur engl. Philologie; Chatterton, by C. E. Russell
(1909).

CHATTI, an ancient German tribe inhabiting the upper
reaches of the rivers Weser, Eder, Fulda and Werra, a district
approximately corresponding to Hesse-Cassel, though probably
somewhat more extensive. They frequently came into conflict
with the Romans during the early years of the ist century.
Eventually they formed a portion of the Franks and were
incorporated in the kingdom of Clovis probably with the Ripuarii,
at the beginning of the 6th century. ; ; ;

Tacitus, Annals, i. 2, n, 12, 13; Germania, 30-31; Strabo p.
291 f.

CHAUCER, GEOFFREY (? 1340-1400), English poet. The
name Chaucer, a French form of the Latin cakearius, a shoe-
maker, is found in London and the eastern counties as early as
the second half of the I3th century. Some of the London
Chaucers lived in Cordwainer Street, in the shoemakers' quarter;
several of them, however, were vintners, and among others the
poet's father John, and probably also his grandfather Robert.
Legal pleadings inform us that in December 1324 John Chaucer
was not much over twelve years old, and that he was still un-
married in 1328, the year which used to be considered
that of Geoffrey's birth. The poet was probably born
from eight to twelve years later, since in 1386, when giving
evidence in Sir Richard le Scrope's suit against Sir Robert
Grosvenor as to the right to bear certain arms, he was set down
as " del age de xl ans et plus, armeez par xxvij ans." At a later
date, and probably at the time of the poet's birth, his father
lived in Thames Street, and had to wife a certain Agnes, niece
of Hamo de Compton, whom we may regard as Geoffrey Chaucer's
mother. In 1357 Geoffrey is found, apparently as a lad, in the
service of Elizabeth, countess of Ulster, wife of Lionel, duke of
Clarence, entries in two leaves of her household accounts,
accidentally preserved, showing that she paid in April, May and
December various small sums for his clothing and expenses.
In 1359, as we learn from his deposition in the Scrope suit, Chaucer
went to the war in France. At some period of the campaign he
was at " Retters," i.e. Rethel, near Reims, and subsequently
had the ill luck to be taken prisoner. On the ist of March 1360
the king contributed 16 to his ransom, and by a year or two
later Chaucer must have entered the royal service, since on the
2oth of June 1367 Edward granted him a pension of twenty
marks for his past and future services. A pension of ten marks
had been granted by the king the previous September to a
Philippa Chaucer for services to .the queen as one of her " domi-
cellae " or " damoiselles," and it seems probable that at this date
Chaucer was already married and this Philippa his wife, a con-
clusion which used to be resisted on the ground of allusions in
his early poems to a hopeless love-affair, now reckoned part of
his poetical outfit. Philippa is usually said to have been one of
two daughters of a Sir Payne Roet, the other being Katherine,
who after the death of her first husband, Sir Hugh de Swynford,
in 1372, became governess to John of Gaunt's children, and
subsequently his mistress and (in 1396) his wife. It is possible
that Philippa was sister to Sir Hugh and sister-in-law to

Katherine. In either case the marriage helps to account
for the favour subsequently shown to Chaucer by John of
Gaunt.

In the grant of his pension Chaucer is called " dilectus vallectus
noster," our beloved yeoman; before the end of 1368 he had
risen to be one of the king's esquires. In September of the
following year John of Gaunt's wife, the duchess Blanche, died at
the age of twenty-nine, and Chaucer wrote in her honour The
Book of the Duchesse, a poem of 1334 lines in octosyllabic couplets,
the first of his undoubtedly genuine works which can be connected
with a definite date. In June 1370 he went abroad on the king's
service, though on what errand, or whither it took him, is not
known. He was back probably some time before Michaelmas,
and seems to have remained in England till the ist of December
1372, when he started, with an advance of 100 marks in his
pocket, for Italy, as one of the three commissioners to treat with
the Genoese as to an English port where they might have special
facilities for trade. The accounts which he delivered on his
return on the 23rd of May 1373 show that he had also visited
Florence on the king's business, and he probably went also to
Padua and there made the acquaintance of Petrarch.

In the second quarter of 1374 Chaucer lived in a whirl of
prosperity. On the 23rd of April the king granted him a pitcher
of wine daily, subsequently commuted for an annuity of 20
marks. From John of Gaunt, who in August 1372 had granted
Philippa Chaucer 10 a year, he himself now received (June 13)
a like annuity in reward for his own and his wife's services.
On the 8th of June he was appointed Comptroller of the Custom
and Subsidy of Wools, Hides and Woodfells and also of the
Petty Customs of Wine in the Port of London. A month before
this appointment, and probably in anticipation of it, he took
(May 10, 1374) a lease for life from the city of London of the
dwelling-house above the gate of Aldgate, and here he lived for
the next twelve years. His own and his wife's income now
amounted to over 60, the equivalent of upwards of 1000 in
modern money. In the next two years large windfalls came to
him in the form of two wardships of Kentish heirs, one of whom
paid him 104, and a grant of 71: 4: 6; the value of some
confiscated wool. In December 1376 he was sent abroad on the
king's service in the retinue of Sir John Burley; in February
1377 he was sent to Paris and Montreuil in connexion probably
with the peace negotiations between England and France, and
at the end of April (after a reward of 20 for his good services)
he was again despatched to France.

On the accession of Richard II. Chaucer was confirmed in his
offices and pensions. In January 1378 he seems to have been
in France in connexion with a proposed marriage between
Richard and the daughter of the French king; and on the 28th
of May of the same year he was sent with Sir Edward de Berkeley
to the lord of Milan and Sir John Hawkwood to treat for help in
the king's wars, returning on the igth of September. This was
his last diplomatic journey, and the close of a period of his life
generally considered to have been so unprolific of poetry that
little beyond the Clerk's " Tale of Grisilde," one or two other of
the stories afterwards included in the Canterbury Tales, and a
few short poems, are attributed to it, though the poet's actual
absences from England during the eight years amount to little
more than eighteen months. During the next twelve or fifteen
years there is no question that Chaucer was constantly engaged
in literary work, though for the first half of them he had no lack
of official employment. Abundant favour was shown him by the
new king. He was paid 22 as a reward for his later missions in
Edward III.'s reign, and was allowed an annual gratuity of 10
marks in addition to his pay of 10 as comptroller of the customs
of wool. In April 1382 a new comptrollership, that of the petty
customs in the Port of London, was given him, and shortly after
he was allowed to exercise it by deputy, a similar licence being
given him in February 13^5, at the instance of the earl of Oxford,
as regards the comptrollership of wool. In October 1385 Chaucer
was made a justice of the peace for Kent. In February 1386 we
catch a glimpse of his wife Philippa being admitted to the
fraternity of Lincoln cathedral in the company of Henry, earl of

CHAUCER

Derby (afterwards Henry IV.), Sir Thomas de Swynford and
other distinguished persons. In August 1386 he was elected one
of the two knights of the shire for Kent, and with this dignity,
though it was one not much appreciated in those days, his good
fortune reached its climax. In December of the same year he
was superseded in both his comptrollerships, almost certainly
as a result of the absence of his patron, John of Gaunt, 'in Spain,
and the supremacy of the duke of Gloucester. In the following
year the cessation of Philippa's pension suggests that she died
between Midsummer and Michaelmas. In May 1388 Chaucer
surrendered to the king his two pensions of 20 marks each, and
they were re-granted at his request to one John Scalby. The
transaction was unusual and probably points to a pressing need
for ready money, nor for the next fourteen months do we know
of any source of income possessed by Chaucer beyond his annuity
of 10 from John of Gaunt.

In July 1389, after John of Gaunt had returned to England,
and the king had taken the government into his own hands,
(jjhaucer was appointed clerk of the works at various royal
palaces at a salary of two shillings a day, or over 31 a year,
worth upwards of 500 present value. To this post was sub-
sequently added the charge of some repairs at St George's Chapel,
Windsor. He was also made a commissioner to maintain the
banks of the Thames between Woolwich and Greenwich, afid was
given by the earl of March (grandson of Lionel, duke of Clarence,
his old patron) a sub-forestership at North Petherton, Devon,
obviously a sinecure. While on the king's business, in September
1390, Chaucer was twice robbed by highwaymen, losing 20 of
the king's money. In June 1391 he was superseded in his office
of clerk of the works, and seems to have suffered another spell of
misfortune, of which the first alleviation came in January 1393
when the king made him a present of 10. In February 1394
he was granted a new pension of 20. It is possible, also, that
about this time, or a little later, he was in the service of the earl
of Derby. In 1397 he received from King Richard a grant of a
butt of wine yearly. For this he appears to have asked in terms
that suggest poverty, and in May 1398 he obtained letters of pro-
tection against his creditors, a step perhaps rendered necessary
by an action for debt taken against him earlier in the year.
On the accession of Henry IV. a new pension of 40 marks was
conferred on Chaucer (i3th of October 1399) and Richard II. 's
grants were formally confirmed. Henry himself, however, was
probably straitened for ready money, and no instalment of the
new pension was paid during the few months of his reign that the
poet lived. Nevertheless, on the strength of his expectations,
on the 24th of December 1399 he leased a tenement in the garden
of St Mary's Chapel, Westminster, and it was probably here that
he died, on the 2$th of the following October. He was buried in
Westminster Abbey, and his tomb became the nucleus of what
is now known as Poets' Corner.

The portrait of Chaucer, which the affection of his disciple,
Thomas Hoccleve, caused to be painted in a copy of the latter's
Regement of Princes (now Harleian MS. 4866 in the British
Museum), shows him an old man with white hair; he has a
fresh complexion, grey eyes, a straight nose, a grey moustache
and a small double-pointed beard. His dress and hood are black,
and he carries in his hands a string of beads. We may imagine
that it was thus that during the last months of his life he used
to walk about the precincts of the Abbey.

Henry IV.'s promise of an additional pension was doubtless
elicited by the Compleynt to his Purs, in the envoy to which
Worts Chaucer addresses him as the " conquerour of Brutes
Albioun." Thus within the last year of his life the
poet was still writing. Nevertheless, as early as 1393-1394, in
lines to his friend Scogan, he had written as if his day for poetry
were past, and it seems probable that his longer poems were
all composed before this date. In the preceding fifteen or, if
another view be taken, twenty years, his literary activity was
very great, and with the aid of the lists of his works which he gives
in the Legende of Good Women (Iines4i4-43i),and the talk on the
road which precedes the " Man of Law's Tale " (Canterbury
Tales, B. 46-76), the order in which his main works were written

can be traced with approximate certainty, 1 while a few both of
these and of the minor poems can be connected with definite
dates.

The development of his genius has been attractively summed
up as comprised in three stages, French, Italian and English,
and there is a rough approximation to the truth in this formula,
since his earliest poems are translated from the French or based
on French models, and the two great works of his middle period
are borrowed from the Italian, while his latest stories have no
such obvious and direct originals and in their humour and free-
dom anticipate the typically English temper of Henry Fielding.
But Chaucer's indebtedness to French poetry was no passing
phase. For various reasons a not very remote French origin
of his own family may be one of them he was in no way inter-
ested in older English literature or in the work of his English
contemporaries, save possibly that of " the moral Gower." On
the other hand he knew the Roman de la rose as modern English
poets know Shakespeare, and the full extent of his debt to his
French contemporaries, not merely in 1369, but in 1385 and in
1393 (the dates are approximate), is only gradually being dis-
covered. To be in touch throughout his life with the best French
poets of the day was much for Chaucer. Even with their stimulus
alone he might have developed no small part of his genius. But
it was his great good fortune to add to this continuing French
influence, lessons in plot and construction derived from Boc-
caccio's Filostrato and Teseide, as well as some glimpses of the
higher art of the Divina Commedia. He shows acquaintance also
with one of Petrarch's sonnets, and though, when all is said, the
Italian books with which he can be proved to have been intimate
are but few, they sufficed. His study of them was but an
episode in his literary life, but it was an episode of unique im-
portance. Before it began he had already been making his own
artistic experiments, and it is noteworthy that while he learnt
so much from Boccaccio he improved on his originals as he
translated them. Doubtless his busy life in the service of the
crown had taught him self-confidence, and he uses his Italian
models in his own way and with the most triumphant and assured
success. When he had no more Italian poems to adapt he had
learnt his lesson. The art of weaving a plot out of his own
imagination was never his, but he could take what might be little
more than an anecdote and lend it body and life and colour with
a skill which has never been surpassed.

The most direct example of Chaucer's French studies is his
translation of Lc Roman de la rose, a poem written in some
4000 lines by Guillaume Lorris about 1237 and extended to over
22,000 by Jean Clopinel, better known as Jean de Meun, forty
years later. We know from Chaucer himself that he translated
this poem, and the extant English fragment of 7698 lines was
generally assigned to him from 1532, when it was first printed,
till its authorship was challenged in the early years of the Chaucer
Society. The ground of this challenge was its wide divergence
from Chaucer's practice in his undoubtedly genuine works as to
certain niceties of rhyme, notable as to not rhyming words ending
in -y with others ending -ye. It was subsequently discovered,
however, that the whole fragment was divisible linguistically
into three portions, of which the first and second end respectively
at lines 1705 and 5810, and that in the first of these three sections
the variations from Chaucer's accepted practice are insignificant.
Lines 1-1705 have therefore been provisionally accepted as
Chaucer's, and the other two fragments as the work of unknown
translators (James I. of Scotland has been suggested as one of
them), which somehow came to be pieced together. If, however,
the difficulties in the way of this theory are less than those which
confront any other, they are still considerable, and the question
can hardly be treated as closed.

While our knowledge of Chaucer's Romaunt of the Rose is
in this unsatisfactory state, another translation of his from
the French, the Book of the Lyon (alluded to in the " Retrac-
tion " found, in some manuscripts, at the end of the Canterbury
Tales), which must certainly have been taken from Guillaume

1 The positions of the House of Fame and Palamon and Arcyte are
still matters of controversy.

CHAUCER

Machault's Le Dit du lion, has perished altogether. The strength
of French influence on Chaucer's early work may, however, be
amply illustrated from the first of his poems with which we are
on sure ground, the Book of the Duchesse, or, as it is alternatively
called, the Deth of Blaunche. Here not only are individual
passages closely imitated from Machault and Froissart, but the
dream, the May morning, and the whole machinery of the poem
are taken over from contemporary French conventions. But
even at this stage Chaucer could prove his right to borrow by
the skill with which he makes his materials serve his own purpose,
and some of the lines in the Deth of Blaunche are among the most
tender and charming he ever wrote.

Chaucer's A. B.C., a poem in honour of the Blessed Virgin, of
which the stanzas begin with the successive letters of the alpha-
bet, is another early example of French influence. It is taken
from the Pelerinage de la vie humaine, written by Guillaume de
Deguilleville about 1330. The occurrence of some magnificent
lines in Chaucer's version, combined with evidence that he did
not yet possess the skill to translate at all literally as soon as
rhymes had to be considered, accounts for this poem having been
dated sometimes earlier than the Book of the Duchesse, and
sometimes several years later. With it is usually moved up and
down, though it should surely be placed in the 'seventies, the
Compleynt to Pity, a fine poem which yet, from its slight obscurity
and absence of Chaucer's usual ease, may very well some day
prove to be a translation from the French.

While Chaucer thus sought to reproduce both the matter
and the style of French poetry in England, he found other
materials in popular Latin books. Among his lost works are
renderings of " Origenes upon the Maudeleyne," and of Pope
Innocent III. on " The Wreced Engendring of Mankinde "
(De miser ia conditionis humanae). He must have begun his
attempts at straightforward narrative with the Lyf of Seynt
Cecyle (the weakest of all his works, the second Nun's Tale in
the Canterbury series) from the Legenda Aurea of Jacobus de
Voragine, and the story of the patience of Grisilde, taken from
Petrarch's Latin version of a tale by Boccaccio. In both of these
he condenses a little, but ventures on very few changes, though
he lets his readers see his impatience with his originals. In his
story of Constance (afterwards ascribed to the Man of Law),
taken from the Anglo-Norman chronicle of Nicholas Trivet,
written about 1334, we find him struggling to put some substance
into another weak tale, but still without the courage to remedy
its radical faults, though here, as with Grisilde, he does as much
for his heroine as the conventional exaltation of one virtue at
a time permitted. It is possible that other tales which now stand
in the Canterbury series were written originally at this period.
What is certain is that at some time in the 'seventies three or four
Italian poems passed into Chaucer's possession, and that he set
to work busily to make use of them. One of the most interesting
of the poems reclaimed for him by Professor Skeat is a fragment-
ary " Compleynt," part of which is written in terza rima. While
he thus experimented with the metre of the Divina Corn-media,
he made his first attempt to use the material provided by
Boccaccio's Teseide in another fragment of great interest, that of
Quene Anelida and Pals Arcyte. More than a third of this is
taken up with another, and quite successful, metrical experiment
in Anelida's " compleynt," but in the introduction of Anelida
herself Chaucer made the first of his three unsuccessful efforts
to construct a plot for an important poem out of his own head,
and the fragment which begins so well breaks off abruptly at
line 357.

For a time the Teseide seems to have been laid aside, and it
was perhaps at this moment, in despondency at his failure, that
Chaucer wrote his most important prose work, the translation of
the De Consolatione Philosophiae of Boethius. Reminiscences
of this helped to enrich many of his subsequent poems, and
inspired five of his shorter pieces (The Former Age, Fortune,
Truth, Gentilesse and Lak of Stedfaslnesse) , but the translation
itself was only a partial success. To borrow his own phrase, his
" Englysh was insufficient " to reproduce such difficult Latin.
The translation is often barely intelligible without the original,

and it is only here and there that it flows with any ease or
rhythm.

If Chaucer felt this himself he must have been speedily con-
sold by achieving in Troilus and Criseyde his greatest artistic
triumph. Warned by his failure in Anelida and Arcyte, he was
content this time to take his plot unaltered from the FUostrato,
and to follow Boccaccio step by step through the poem. But
he did not follow him as a mere translator. He had done his
duty manfully for the saints " of other holinesse " in Cecyle,
Grisilde and Constance, whom he was forbidden by the rules of
the game to clothe with complete flesh and blood. In this great
love-story there were no such restrictions, and the characters
which Boccaccio's treatment left thin and conventional became
in Chaucer's hands convincingly human. No other English poem
is so instinct with the glory and tragedy of youth, and in the
details of the story Chaucer's gifts of vivid colouring, of humour
and pity, are all at their highest.

An unfortunate theory that the reference in the Legende of
Good Women to " al the love of Palamon and Arcyte " is to a
hypothetical poem in seven-line stanzas en this theme, which
Chaucer is imagined, when he came to plan the Canterbury Tales,
to have suppressed in favour of a new version in heroic couplets,
has obscured the close connexion in temper and power between
whaf>we know as the " Knight's Tale " and the Troilus. The
poem may have been more or less extensively revised before, with
admirable fitness, it was assigned to the Knight, but that its
main composition can be separated by several years from that of
Troilus is aesthetically incredible. Chaucer's art here again is at
its highest. He takes the plot of Boccaccio's Teseide, but only
as much of it as he wants, and what he takes he heightens and
humanizes with the same skill which he had shown in trans-
forming the FUostrato. Of the individual characters Theseus
himself, the arbiter of the plot, is most notably developed;
Emilie and her two lovers receive just as much individuality as
they will bear without disturbing the atmosphere of romance.
The whole story is pulled together and made more rapid and
effective. A comparison of almost any scene as told by the two
poets suffices to show Chaucer's immense superiority. At some
subsequent period the " Squire's Tale " of Cambuscan, the fair
Canacee and the Horse of Brass, was gallantly begun in some-
thing of the same key, but Chaucer took for it more materials
than he could use, and for lack of the help of a leader like Boc-
caccio he was obliged to leave the story, in Milton's phrase,
" half-told," though the fragment written certainly takes us
very much less than half-way.

Meanwhile, in connexion (as is reasonably believed) with the
betrothal or marriage of Anne of Bohemia to Richard II. (i.e.
about 1381-1382), Chaucer had brought to a successful com-
pletion the Parlement of Foules, a charming sketch of 699 lines,
in which the other birds, on Saint Valentine's day, counsel the
" Formel Egle " on her choice of a mate. His success here, as in
the case of the Deth of Blaunche the Duchesse, was due to the
absence of any need for a climax; and though the materials
which he borrowed were mainly Latin (with some help from
passages of the Teseide not fully needed for Palamon and Arcyte)
his method of handling them would have been quite approved
by his friends among the French poets. A more ambitious
venture, the Hous of Fame, in which Chaucer imagines himself
borne aloft by an eagle to Fame's temple, describes what he
sees and hears there, and then breaks off in apparent inability
to get home, shows a curious mixture of the poetic ideals of the
Roman de la rose and reminiscences of the Divina Commedia.

As the Hous of Fame is most often remembered and quoted
for the personal touches and humour of Chaucer's conversation
with the eagle, so the most-quoted passages in the Prologue to
the Legende of Good Women are those in which Chaucer professes
his affection for the daisy, and the attack on his loyalty by
Cupid and its defence by Alceste. Recent discoveries have
shown, however, that (besides obligations to Machault) some of
the touches about the daisy and the controversy between the
partisans of the Flower and of the Leaf are snatches from poems
by his friends Froissart and Deschamps, which Chaucer takes up

CHAUCER

and returns to them with pretty compliments, and that he was
indebted to Froissart for some of the framework of his poem. 1
Both of the two versions of the Prologue to the Legende are
charming, and some of the tales, notably that of Cleopatra,
rank with Chaucer's best work. When, however, he had written
eight and part of the ninth he tired of his scheme, which was
planned to celebrate nineteen of Cupid s faithful " saints," with
Alcestis as their queen. With his usual hopefulness he had
overlooked the risk of monotony, which obviously weighed
heavily on him ere he broke off, and the loss of the other ten
stories is less to be regretted than that of the celebration of
Alceste, and a possible epilogue which might have exceeded in
charm the Prologue itself.

Chaucer's failure to complete the scheme of the Legende of
Good Women may have been partly due to the attractions of the
Canterbury Tales, which were probably taken up in
Canter- immediate succession to it. His guardianship of two
Tales. Kentish wards, his justiceship of the peace, his repre-
senting the county in the parliament of 1386, his
commissionership of the river-bank between Greenwich and
Woolwich, all make it easy to understand his dramatic use of the
merry crowds he saw on the Canterbury road, without supposing
him to have had recourse to Boccaccio's Decamerone, a book
which there is no proof of his having seen. The pilgrims whom
he imagines to have assembled at the Tabard Inn in Southwark,
where Harry Bailey was host, are said to have numbered " wel
nyne and twenty in a company," and the Prologue gives full-
length sketches of a Knight, a Squire (his son), and their
Yeoman; of a Prioress, Monk, Friar, Oxford Clerk, and Parson,
with two disreputable hangers-on of the church, a Summoner
and Pardoner; of a Serjeant-at-Law and a Doctor of Physic,
and of a Franklin, or country gentleman, Merchant, Shipman,
Miller, Cook, Manciple, Reeve, Ploughman (the Parson's brother)
and the ever-famous Wife of Bath. Five London burgesses are
described in a group, and a Nun and Priest 2 are mentioned as
in attendance on the Prioress. Each of these, with Chaucer
himself making the twenty-ninth, was pledged to tell two tales,
but including one second attempt and a tale told by the Yeoman
of a Canon, who overtakes the pilgrims on the road, we have
only twenty finished stories, two unfinished and two interrupted
ones. As in the case of the Legende of Good Women, our loss is
not so much that of the additional stories as of the completed
framework. The wonderful character sketches of the Prologue
are carried yet farther by the Talks on the Road which link the
different tales, and two of these Talks, in which the Wife of
Bath and the Pardoner respectively edify the company, have the
importance of separate Tales, but between the Tales that have
come down to us there are seven links missing, 3 and it was left
to a later and weaker hand to narrate, in the " Tale of Beryn,"
the adventures of the pilgrims at Canterbury.

The reference to the Lyf of Seynt Cecyle in the Prologue to
the Legende of Good Women gives external proof that Chaucer
included earlier work in the scheme of the Canterbury Tales,
and mention has been made of other stories which are indisput-
ably early. In the absence of any such metrical tests as have

1 The French influences on this Prologue, its connexion with the
Flower and the Leaf controversy, and the priority of what had pre-
viously been reckoned as the second or " B " form of the Prologue
over the " A," were demonstrated in papers by Prof. Kittredge on
" Chaucer and some of his Friends " in Modern Philology, vol. i.
(Chicago, 1903), and by Mr J. L. Lowes on " The Prologue to the
Legend of Good Women " in Publications of the Modern Language
Association of America, vol. xix., December 1904.

2 The Talks on the Road show clearly that only one Priest in
attendance on the Prioress, and two tales to each narrator, were
originally contemplated, but the " Prestes thre " in line 164 of the
Prologue, and the bald couplet (line 793 sq.) explaining that each
pilgrim was to tell two tales each way, were probably both alterations
made by Chaucer in moments of amazing hopefulness. The journey
was reckoned a 3} davs' ride, and eight or nine tales a day would
surely have been a sufficient allowance.

* The absence of these links necessitates the division cf the
Canterbury Tales into nine groups, to which, for purposes of quota-
tipn, the letters A to I have been assigned, the line numeration o f the
Tales in each group being continuous.

proved useful in the case of Shakespeare, the dates at which
several of the Tales were composed remain doubtful, while in
the case of at least two, the Clerk's tale of Grisilde and the
Monk's tragedies, there is evidence of early work being revised
and supplemented. It is fortunately impossible to separate the
prologue to the charmingly told story of " yonge Hugh of
Lincoln " from the tale itself, and with the " quod sche " in the
second line as proof that Chaucer was here writing specially for
his Prioress we are forbidden to limit the new stories to any one
metre or tone. There can be no doubt, however, that what may
be called the Tales of the Churls (Miller, Reeve, Summoner,
Friar, &c.), and the conversational outpourings of the Pardoner
and Wife of Bath, form, with the immortal Prologue, the most
important and distinctive additions to the older work. In these,
and in the Pardoner's story of Death and the Three Revellers,
and the Nun's Priest's masterly handling of the fable of the
Cock and Fox, both of them free from the grossness which marks
the others, Chaucer takes stories which could have been told
in a short page of prose and elaborates them with all the skill
in narration which he had sedulously cultivated. The conjugal
reminiscences of the Wife of Bath and the Reeve's Tale with its
abominable climax (lightened a little by Aleyn's farewell, lines
316-319) are among the great things in Chaucer, as surely as
Troilus, and Palamon and Arcyte and the Prologue. They help
notably to give him the width of range which may certainly be
claimed for him.

In or soon after 1391 Chaucer wrote in prose for an eleven-
year-old reader, whom he addresses as " Litel Lowis my son,"
a treatise on the use of the Astrolabe, its short prologue being
the prettiest specimen of his prose. The wearisome tale of
" Melibee and his wyf Prudence," which was perhaps as much
admired in English as it had been in Latin and French, may have
been translated at any time. The sermon on Penitence, used as
the Parson's Tale, was probably the work of his old age. " En-
voys " to his friends Scogan and Bukton, a translation of some
balades by Sir Otes de Granson, and the Compleynt to his Purs
complete the record of his minor poetry. We have his own
statement that in his youth he had written many Balades,
Roundels and Virelayes in honour of Love, and the two songs
embedded respectively in the Parlement of Foules and the Pro-
logue to the Legende of Good Women are charming and musical.
His extant shorter poems, however, whether early or late,
offer no excuse for claiming high rank for him as a lyrist. He
had very little sheer singing power, and though there are fine
lines in his short poems, witness the famous " Flee fro the prees
and dwell with soothfastnesse," they lack the sustained concen-
tration of great work. From the drama, again, Chaucer was cut
off, and it is idle to argue from the innumerable dramatic touches
in his poems and his gift of characterization as to what he
might have done had he lived two centuries later. His own age
delighted in stories, and he gave it the stories it demanded
invested with a humanity, a grace and strength which place him
among the world's greatest narrative poets, and which bring the
England of his own day, with all the colour and warmth of life,
wonderfully near to all his readers.

The part played by Chaucer in the development of the English
language has often been overrated. He neither corrupted it, as
used to be said, by introducing French words which
it would otherwise have avoided, nor bore any such lan " ence -
part in fixing it as was afterwards played by the translators
of the Bible. When he was growing up educated society
in England was still bilingual, and the changes in vocabulary
and pronunciation which took place during his life were the
natural results of a society, which had been bilingual with a
bias towards French, giving an exclusive preference to English.
The practical identity of Chaucer's language with that of Gower
shows that both merely used the best English of their day with
the care and slightly conservative tendency which befitted poets.
Chaucer's service to the English language lies in his decisive
success having made it impossible for any later English poet to
attain fame, as Gower had done, by writing alternatively in
Latin and French. The claim which should be made for him is

CHAUDESAIGUES CHAUMETTE

that, at least as regards poetry, he proved that English was
" sufficient."

Chaucer borrowed both his stanza forms and his " deca-
syllabic " couplets (mostly with an extra syllable at the end
of the line) from Guillaume Machault, and his music, like that
of his French master and his successors, depends very largely
on assigning to every syllable its full value, and more especially
on the due pronunciation of the final -e. The slower movement
of change in Scotland allowed time for Chaucer to exercise a
potent influence on Scottish poetry, but in England this final
-e, to which most of the earlier grammatical forms by Chaucer's
time had been reduced, itself fell rapidly into disuse during the
1 5th century, and a serious barrier was thus raised to the apprecia-
tion of the artistic value of his verse. His disciples, Hoccleve
and Lydgate, who at first had caught some echoes of his rhythms,
gradually yielded to the change in pronunciation, so that there
was no living tradition to hand down his secret, while successive
copyists reduced his text to a state in which it was only by
accident that lines could be scanned correctly. For fully three
centuries his reputation was sustained solely by his narrative
power, his warmest panegyrists betraying no consciousness
that they were praising one of the greatest technical masters
of poetry. Even when thus maimed, however, his works found
readers and lovers in every generation, and every improvement
in his text has set his fame on a surer basis.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The Canterbury Tales have always beenChaucer's
most popular work, and, including fragments, upwards of sixty
15th-century manuscripts of it still survive. Two thin volumes of
his minor poems were among the little quartos which Caxton printed
by way of advertisement immediately on his return to England;
the Canterbury Tales and Boethius followed in 1478, Troilus and a
second edition of the Tales in 1483, the Hous of Fame in 1484. The
Canterbury Tales were subsequently printed in 1492 (Pynson), 1498
(de Worde) and 1526 (Pynson); Troilus in 1517 (de Worde) and
1526 (Pynson); the Hous of Fame in 1526 (Pynson); the Parlement
of Faults in 1526 (Pynson) and 1530 (de Worde). and the Mars,

Venus " and Envoy to Bukton by Julyan Notary about 1500.
Pynson's three issues in 1526 almost amounted to a collected edition,
but the first to which the title The Workes of Geffray Chaucer was
given was that edited by William Thynne in 1532 for Thomas
Godfray. Of this there was a new edition in 1542 for John Reynes
and William Bonham, and an undated reprint a few years later for
Bonham, Kele, Petit and Toye, each of whom put his name on part
of the edition. In 1561 a reprint, with numerous additions, edited
by John Stowe, was printed by J. Kyngston for J. Wight, and this
was re-edited, with fresh additions by Thomas Speght, in 1598 for
G. Bishop and again in 1602 for Adam Islip. In 1687 there was an
anonymous reprint, and in 1721 John Urry produced the last and
worst of the folios. By this time the paraphrasers were already at
work, Dryden rewriting the tales of the Knight, the Nun's Priest
and the VVife of Bath, and Pope the Merchant's. In 1737 (reprinted
in 1740) the Prologue and Knight's Tale were edited (anonymously)
by Thomas MoreTl " from the most authentic manuscripts," and
here, though by dint of much violence and with many mistakes,
Chaucer's lines were for the first rime in print given in a form in
which they could be scanned. This promise of better things (Morell
still thought it necessary to accompany his text with the paraphrases
by Betterton and Dryden) was fulfilled by a fine edition of the
Canterbury Tales (1775-1778), in which Thomas Tyrwhitt's scholarly
instincts produced a comparatively good text from second-rate
manuscripts and accompanied it with valuable illustrative notes.
The next edition of any importance was that edited by Thomas
Wright for the Percy Society in 1848-1851, based on the erratic
but valuable British Museum manuscript Harley 7334, containing
readings which must be either Chaucer's second thoughts or the
emendations of a brilliantly clever scribe. In 1866 Richard Morris
re-edited this text in a more scholarly manner for the Aldine edition
of the British Poets, and in the following year produced for the
Clarendon Press Series a school edition of the Prologue and Tales
of the Knight and Nun's Priest, edited with the fulness and care
previously bestowed only on Greek and Latin classics.

In 1868 the foundation of the Chaucer Society, with Dr Furnivall
as its director and chief worker, and Henry Bradshaw as a leading
spirit, led to the publication of a six-text edition of the Canterbury
Tales, and the consequent discovery that a manuscript belonging
to the Earl of Ellesmere, though undoubtedly " edited," contained
the best available text. The Chaucer Society also printed the best
manuscripts of Troilus and Criseyde and of all the minor poems,
and thus cleared the way for the " Oxford " Chaucer, edited by
Professor Skeat, with a wealth of annotation, for the Clarendon Press
in 1894, the text of which was used for the splendid folio printed
two years later by William Morris at the Kelmscott Press, with
illustrations by Sir Edward Burne-Jones. A supplementary volume

of the Oxford edition, entitled Chaucerian and other Pieces, issued
by Professor Skeat in 1897, contains the prose and verse which his
early publishers and editors, from Pynson and Thynne onwards,
included among his Works by way of illustration, but which had
gradually come to be regarded as forming part of his text. The
reasons for their rejection are fully stated by Professor Skeat in the
work named and also in The Chaucer Canon (1900). Many of these
pieces have now been traced to other authors, and their exclusion
lias helped to clear not only Chaucer's text but also his biography,
which used (as in the " Life " published by William Godwin in two
quarto volumes in 1803) to be encumbered with inferences from
works now known not to be Chaucer's, notably the Testament of
Love written by Thomas Usk. All information about Chaucer's
life available in 1900 will be found summarized by Mr R. E. G.
Kirk in Life-Records of Chaucer, part iv., published by the Chaucer
Society in that year. See also Chaucer; a Bibliographical Manual,
by Eleanor P. Hammond (1909). (A. W. Po.)

CHAUDESAIGUES, a village of central France, in the depart-
ment of Cantal, at the foot of the mountains of Aubrac, 19 m.
S.S.W. of St Flour by road. Pop. (1906) town, 937; commune,
1558. It is celebrated for its hot mineral springs, which vary
in temperature from 135 to 177 Fahr., and at their maximum
rank as the hottest in France. The water, which contains
bicarbonate of soda, is employed not only medicinally (for
rheumatism, &c.), but also for the washing of fleeces, the incuba-
tion of eggs, and various other economic purposes; and it
furnishes a ready means of heating the houses of the town during
winter. In the immediate neighbourhood is the cold chalybeate
spring of Condamine. The warm springs were known to the
Romans, and are mentioned by Sidonius Apollinaris.

CHAUFFEUR (from Fr. chau/er, to heat, a term primarily
used in French of a man in charge of a forge OF furnace, and so
of a stoker on a locomotive or in a steamship, but in its anglicized
sense more particularly confined to a professional driver of a
motor vehicle. (See also BRIGANDAGE.)

CHAULIEU, GUILLAUME AMFRYE DE (1630-1720), French
poet and wit, jvas born at Fontenay, Normandy, in 1639. His
father, maltre des comptts of Rouen, sent him to study at the
College de Navarre. Guillaume early showed the wit that was
to distinguish him, and gained the favour of the duke of Vend6me,
who procured for him the abbey of Aumale and other benefices.
Louis Joseph, duke of Vendome, and his brother Philippe, grand
prior of the Knights of Malta in France, at that time had a joint
establishment at the Temple, where they gathered round them
a very gay and reckless circle. Chaulieu became the constant
companion and adviser of the two princes. He made an expedi-
tion to Poland in the suite of the marquis de Bethune, hoping to
make a career for himself in the court of John Sobieski; he saw
one of the Polish king's campaigns in Ukraine, but returned to
Paris without securing any advancement. Saint-Simon says that
the abbe helped his patron the grand prior to rob the duke of
Vendome, and that the king sent orders that the princes should
take the management of their affairs from him. This account
has been questioned by Sainte-Beuve, who regards Saint-Simon
as a prejudiced witness. In his later years Chaulieu spent much
time at the little court of the duchesse du Maine at Sceaux.
There he became the trusted and devoted friend of Mdlle
Delaunay, with whom he carried on an interesting correspond-
ence. Among his poems the best known are " Fontenay " and
" La Retraite." Chaulieu died on the 27th of June 1720.

His works were edited with those of his friend the marquis de la
Fare in 1714, 1750 and 1774. See also C. A. Sainte-Beuve, Causeries
du lundi, vol. i. ; and Lettres inedites (1850), with a notice by
Raymond, marquis de Berenger.

CHAUMETTE, PIERRE GASPARD (1763-1794), French
revolutionist, was born at Nevers. Until the Revolution he
lived a somewhat wandering life, interesting himself particularly
in botany. He was a student of medicine at Paris in 1790,
became one of the orators of the club of the Cordeliers, and
contributed anonymously to the Revolutions de Paris. As
member of the insurrectionary Commune of the loth of August
1792, he was delegated to visit the prisons, with full power to
arrest suspects. He was accused later of having taken part in
the massacres of September, but was able to prove that at that
time he had been sent by the provisional executive council to
Normandy to oversee a requisition of 60,000 men. Returning

CHAUMONT-EN-BASSIGNY CHAUNCY

from this mission, he pronounced an eloquent discourse in favour
of the republic. His simple manners, easy speech, ardent
temperament and irreproachable private life gave him great
influence in Paris, and he was elected president of the Commune,
defending the municipality in that capacity at the bar of the
Convention on the 3ist of October 1792. Re-elected in the
municipal elections of the 2nd of December 1792, he was soon
charged with the functions of procurator of the Commune, and
contributed with success to the enrolments of volunteers by his
appeals to the populace. Chaumette was one of the ringleaders
in the attacks of the 3ist of May and of the 2nd of June 1793
on the Girondists, toward whom he showed himself relentless.
He demanded the formation of a revolutionary army, and
preached the extermination of all traitors. He was one of the
promoters of the worship of Reason, and on the loth of November
1793 he presented the goddess to the Convention in the guise of
an actress. On the 23rd of the same month he obtained a decree
closing all the churches of Paris, and placing the priests under
strict surveillance; but on the 2Sth he retraced his steps and
obtained from the Commune the free exercise of worship. He
wished to save the Hfibertists by a new insurrection and struggled
against Robespierre; but a revolutionary decree promulgated
by the Commune on his demand was overthrown by the Con-
vention. Robespierre had him accused with the Hebertists; he
was arrested, imprisoned in the Luxembourg, condemned by the
Revolutionary tribunal and executed on the I3th of April 1794.
Chaumette's career had its brighter side. He was an ardent
social reformer; he secured the abolition of corporal punishment
in the schools, the suppression of lotteries, of houses of ill-fame
and of obscene literature; he instituted reforms in the hospitals,
and insisted on the honours of public burial for the poor.

Chaumette left some printed speeches and fragments, and memoirs
published in the Amateur d'autographes. His memoirs on the loth
of August were published by F. A. Aulard, preceded by a biographical
study.

CHAUMONT-EN-BASSIGNY, a town of eastern France,
capital of the department of Haute-Marne, a railway junction
163 m. E.S.E. of Paris on the main line of the Eastern railway
to Belfort. Pop. (1906) 12,089. Chaumont is picturesquely
situated on an eminence between the rivers Marne and Suize
in the angle formed by their confluence. To the west a lofty
viaduct over the Suize carries the railway. The church of
St-Jean-Baptiste dates from the I3th century, the choir and
lateral chapels belonging to the isth and i6th. In the interior
the sculptured triforium (isth century), the spiral staircase in
the transept and a Holy Sepulchre are of interest. The lycee
and the hospital have chapels of the I7th and i6th centuries
respectively. The Tour Hautef euille (a keep of the 1 1 th century)
is the principal relic of a chateau of the counts of Champagne;
the rest of the site is occupied by the law courts. In the Place
de 1'Escargot stands a statue of the chemist Philippe Lebon
(1767-1804), born in Haute-Marne. Chaumont is the seat of
a prefect and of a court of assizes, and has tribunals of first
instance and of commerce, a Iyc6e, training colleges, and a
branch of the Bank of France. The main industries are glove-
making and leather-dressing. The town has trade in grain, iron,
mined in the vicinity, and leather. In 1 190 it received a charter
from the counts of Champagne. It was here that in 1814 Great
Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia concluded the treaty (dated
March i, signed March 9) by which they severally bound them-
selves not to conclude a separate peace with Napoleon, and to
continue the war until France should have been reduced within
the boundaries of 1792.

CHAUNCEY, ISAAC (1772-1840), American naval com-
mander, was born at Black Rock, Connecticut, on the 2oth of
Februaryi772. He was brought up in the merchant service,and
entered the United States navy as a lieutenant in 1 798. His first
services were rendered against the Barbary pirates. During these
operations, more especially at Tripoli, he greatly distinguished
himself, and was voted by Congress a sword of honour, which,
however, does not appear to have been given him. The most
active period of his life is that of his command on the Lakes during

the War of 1812. He took the command at Sackett's Harbor on
Lake Ontario in October 1812. There was at that time only one
American vessel, the brig " Oneida " (16), and one armed prize,
a schooner, on the lake. But Commodore Chauncey brought
from 400 to 500 officers and men with him, and local resources
for building being abundant, he had by November formed a
squadron of ten vessels, with which he attacked the Canadian
port, York, taking it in April 1813, capturing one vessel and
causing the destruction of another then building. He returned
to Sackett's Harbor. In May Sir James Lucas Yeo (1732-1818)
came out from England with some 500 officers and men, to
organize a squadron for service on the Lakes. By the end of
the month he was ready for service with a squadron of eight
ships and brigs, and some small craft. The governor, Sir G.
Prevost, gave him no serious support. On the 29th of May, dur-
ing Chauncey 's absence at Niagara, the Americans were attacked
at Sackett's Harbor and would have been defeated if Prevost had
not insisted on a retreat at the very moment when the American
shipbuilding yard was in danger of being burnt, with a ship of more
than eight hundred tons on the stocks. The retreat of the British
force gave Chauncey time to complete this vessel, the " General
Pike," which was so far superior to anything under Yeo's com-
mand that she was said to be equal in effective strength to
the whole of the British flotilla. The American commodore was
considered by many of his subordinates to have displayed
excessive caution. In August he skirmished with Sir James Yeo's
small squadron of six vessels, but made little effective use of
his own fourteen. Two of his schooners were upset in a squall,
with the loss of all hands, and he allowed two to be cut off by
Yeo. Commodore Chauncey showed a preference for relying on
his long guns, and a disinclination to come to close quarters.
He was described as chasing the British squadron all round the
lake, but his encounters did not go beyond artillery duels at
long range, and he allowed his enemy to continue in existence
long after he might have been destroyed. The winter suspended
operations, and both sides made exertions to increase their forces.
The Americans had the advantage of commanding greater
resources for shipbuilding. Sir James Yeo began by blockading
Sackett's Harborin the early part of 1814, but when the American
squadron was ready he was compelled to retire by the disparity
of the forces. The American commodore was now able to
blockade the British flotilla at Kingston. When the cruising
season of the lake was nearly over he in his turn retired to
Sackett's Harbor, and did not leave it for the rest of the war.
During his later years he served as commissioner of the navy,
and was president of the board of naval commissioners from
1833 till his death at Washington on the 27th of February 1840.
See Roosevelt's War of 1812 (1882) ; and A. T. Mahan, Sea-Power
in its Relations to the War of 1812 (1905).

CHAUNCY, CHARLES (1592-1672), president of Harvard
College, was born at Yardley-Bury, Hertfordshire, England, in
November 1592, and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge,
of which he became a fellow. He was in turn vicar at Ware,
Hertfordshire (1627-1633), and at Marston St Lawrence, North-
amptonshire (1633-1637). Refusing to observe the ecclesiastical
regulations of Archbishop Laud, he was brought before the court
of high commission in 1629, and again in 1634, when, for opposing
the placing of a rail around the communion table, he was sus-
pended and imprisoned. His formal recantation in February
1637 caused him lasting self-reproach and humiliation. In 1637
he emigrated to America, and from 1638 until 1641 was an
associate pastor at Plymouth, where, however, his advocacy of
the baptism of infants by immersion caused dissatisfaction.
He was the pastor at Scituate, Massachusetts, from 1641 until
r6s4, and from 1654 until his death was president of Harvard
College, as the successor of the first president Henry Dunster
(c. 1612-1659). He died on the I9th of February 1672. By
his sermons and his writings he exerted a great influence in
colonial Massachusetts, and according to Mather was " a most
incomparable scholar." His writings include: The Plain
Doctrine of the Justification of a Sinner in the Sight of God (1659)
and Antisynodalia Scripts. Americana (1662). His son, Isaac

CHAUNY CHAUVIN

Chauncy (1632-1712), who removed to England, was a volu-
minous writer on theological subjects.

There are biographical sketches of President Chauncy in Cotton
Mather's Magnolia Christi Americana (London, 1702), and in W. C.
Fowler's Memorials of the Chauncys, including President Chauncy
(Boston, 1858).

President Chauncy's great-grandson, CHARLES CHAUNCY
(1705-1787), a prominent American theologian, was born in
Boston, Massachusetts, on the ist of January 1705, and gradu-
ated at Harva rd in 1721. Ini727hewas chosen as the colleague
of Thomas Foxcroft (1697-1769) in the pastorate of the First
Church of Boston, continuing as pastor of this church until his
death. At the time of the " Great Awakening " of 1 740-1 743 and
afterwards, Chauncy was the leader of the so-called " Old Light "
party in New England, which strongly condemned the White-
fieldian revival as an outbreak of emotional extravagance. His
views were ably presented in his sermon Enthusiasm and in his
Seasonable Thoughts on the State of Religion in New England
(1743), written in answer to Jonathan Edwards's Some Thoughts
Concerning the Present Revival of Religion in New England (1742).
He also took a leading part in opposition to the projected estab-
lishment of an Anglican Episcopate in America, and before and
during the American War of Independence he ardently sup-
ported the whig or patriot party. Theologically he has been
classed as a precursor of the New England Unitarians. He died
in Boston on the loth of February 1787. His publications in-
clude : Compleat View of Episcopacy, as Exhibited in the Fathers
of the Christian Church, until the close of the Second Century (1771);
Salvation of All Men, Illustrated and Vindicated as a Scripture
Doctrine (1782); The Mystery Hid from Ages and Generations
made manifest by the Gospel- Revelation (1783); and Five Dis-
sertations on the Fall and its Consequences (1785).

See P. L. Ford's privately printed Bibliotheca Chaunciana (Brook-
lyn, N. Y., 1884) ; and Williston Walker's Ten New England Leaders
(New York, 1901).

CHAUNY, a town of northern France in the department of
Aisne, 19 m. S. by W. of St Quentin by rail. Pop. (1906)
10,127. The town is situated on the Oise (which here becomes
navigable) and at the junction of the canal of St Quentin with the
lateral canal of the Oise, and carries on an active trade. It
contains mirror-polishing works, subsidiary to the mirror-works
of St Gobain, chemical works, sugar manufactories, metal
foundries and breweries. Chauny was the scene of much fighting
in the Hundred Years' War.

CHAUTAUQUA, a village on the west shore of Chautauqua
Lake in the town of Chautauqua, Chautauqua county, New York,
U.S.A. Pop. of the town (1900), 359; (1905) 3505; (1910)
351 5; of the village (1908) about 750. The lake is a beautiful
body of water over 1300 ft. above sea-level, 20 m. long, and
from a few hundred yards to 3 m. in width. The town of Chau-
tauqua is situated near the north end and is within easy reach
by steamboat and electric car connexions with the main railways
between the east and the west. The town is known almost solely
as being the permanent home of the Chautauqua Institution, a
system of popular education founded in 1874 by Lewis Mijler
(1820-1899) of Akron, Ohio, and Bishop John H. Vincent
(b. 1832). The village, covering about three hundred acres of
land, is carefully laid out to provide for the work of the
Institution.

The Chautauqua Institution began as a Sunday-School
Normal Institute, and for nearly a quarter of a century the
administration was in the hands of Mr Miller, who was responsible
for the business management, and Bishop Vincent, who was
head of the instruction department. Though founded by
Methodists, in its earliest years it became non-sectarian and has
furnished a meeting-ground for members of all sects and de-
nominations. At the very outset the activities of the assembly
were twofold: (i) the conducting of a summer school for
Sunday-school teachers, and (2) the presentation of a series of
correlated lectures and entertainments. Although the move-
ment was and still is primarily religious, it has always been
assumed that the best religious education must necessarily take

advantage of the best that the educational world can afford in
the literatures, arts and sciences. The scope of the plan rapidly
broadened, and in 1879 a regular group of schools with graded
courses of study was established. At about the same time, also,
the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle, providing a
continuous home-reading system, was founded. The season
lasts during June, July and August. In 1907 some 325 lectures,
concerts, readings and entertainments were presented by a
group of over 190 lecturers, readers and musicians, while at the
same time 200 courses in the summer schools were offered by a
faculty of instructors drawn from the leading colleges and
normal schools of the country.

The Chautauqua movement has had an immense influence on
education in the United States, an influence which is especially
marked in three directions: (i) in the establishment of about
300 local assemblies or " Chautauquas " in the United States
patterned after the mother Chautauqua; (2) in the promotion
of the idea of summer education, which has been followed by
the founding of summer schools or sessions at a large number
of American universities, and of various special summer schools,
such as the Catholic Summer School of America, with head-
quarters at Cliff Haven, Clinton county, New York, and the
Jewish Chautauqua Society, with headquarters at Buffalo, N. Y. ;
and (3) in the establishment of numerous correspondence schools
patterned in a general way after the system provided by the
Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle.

See John Heyl Vincent, The Chautauqua Movement (Boston, 1886),
and Frank C. Bray, A Reading Journey through Chautauqua (Chicago,
1905)-

CHAUVELIN, BERNARD FRANCOIS, MARQUIS DE (1766-
183 2) , French diplomatist and administrator. Though master of
the king's wardrobe in 1789, he joined in the Revolution. He
served in the army of Flanders, and then was sent to London
in February 1792, to induce England to remain neutral in the
war which was about to break out between France and "the
king of Bohemia and Hungary." He was well received at first,
but after the loth of August 1792 he was no longer officially
recognized at court, and on the execution of Louis XVI. (2istof
January 1793) he was given eight days to leave England. After
an unsuccessful embassy in Tuscany, he was imprisoned as a
suspect during the Terror, but freed after the 9th Thermidor.
Under Napoleon he became a member of the council of state, and
from 1812 to 1814 he governed Catalonia under the title of
intendant-general, being charged to win over the Catalonians
to King Joseph Bonaparte. He remained in private life during
the Restoration and the Hundred Days. In 1816 he was elected
deputy, and spoke in favour of liberty of the press and extension
of the franchise. Though he was again deputy in 1827 he played
no part in public affairs, and resigned in 1829.

See G. Pallain, La Mission de Talleyrand a Londres en 1792
(Paris, 1889).

CHAUVIGNY, a town of western France, in the department
of Vienne, 20 m. E. of Poitiers by rail. Pop. (1906) 2326. The
town is finely situated overlooking the Vienne and a small
torrent, and has two interesting Romanesque churches, both
restored in modern times. There are also ruins of a chateau of
the bishops of Poitiers, and of other strongholds. Near Chau-
vigny is the curious bone-cavern of Jioux, the entrance to which
is fortified by large blocks of stone. The town carries on lime-
burning and plaster-manufacture, and there are stone quarries
in the vicinity. Trade is in wool and feathers.

CHAUVIN, ETIENNE (1640-1725), French Protestant divine,
was born at Nimes on the i8th of April 1640. At the revocation
of the Edict of Nantes he retired to Rotterdam, where he was for
some years preacher at the Walloon church; in 1695 the elector
of Brandenburg appointed him pastor and professor of philo-
sophy, and later inspector of the French college at Berlin, where
he enjoyed considerable reputation as a representative of
Cartesianism and as a student of physics. His principal work
is a laborious Lexicon Rationale, sive Thesaurus Philosophicus
(Rotterdam, 1692; new and enlarged edition, Leuwarden, 1713).

CHAUVINISM CHEBOYGAN

He also wrote Theses de Cognitione Dei (1662), and started the
Nouveau Journal des Savans (1694-1698).

See E. and E. Haag, La France Protestante, vol. iv. (1884).

CHAUVINISM, a term for unreasonable and exaggerated
patriotism, the French equivalent of " Jingoism." The word
originally signified idolatry of Napoleon, being taken from a
much-wounded veteran, Nicholas Chauvin, who, by his adoration
of the emperor, became the type of blind enthusiasm for national
military glory.

CHAUX DE FONDS, LA, a large industrial town in the Swiss
canton of Neuchatel. It is about 19 m. by rail N. W. of Neuchatel,
and stands at a height of about 3255 ft. in a valley (5 m. long)
of the same name in the Jura. Pop. (1900) 35,968 (only 13,659
in 1850); (1905) 38,700, mainly French-speaking and Pro-
testants; of the 6114 "Catholics" the majority are "Old
Catholics." It is a centre of the watch-making industry, especi-
ally of gold watch cases; about 70% of those manufactured
in Switzerland are turned out here. In 1900 it exported watches
to the value of nearly 3,000,000 sterling. There is a school of
industrial art (engraving and enamelling watch cases) and a
school of watch-making (including instruction in the manufacture
of chronometers and other scientific instruments of precision).
It boasts of being le plus gros milage de I' Europe, and certainly
has preserved some of the features of a big village. Leopold
Robert (1794-1835), the painter, was born here. (W. A. B. C.).

CHAVES, a town of northern Portugal, in the district of Villa
Real, formerly included in the province of Traz os Monies;
8 m. S. of the Spanish frontier, on the right bank of the river
Tamega. Pop. (1900) 6388. Chaves is the ancient Aquae
Flaviae, famous for its hot saline springs, which are still in use.
A fine Roman bridge of 18 arches spans the Tamega. In the i6th
century Chaves contained 20,000 inhabitants; it was long one of
the principal frontier fortresses, and in fact derives its present
name from the position which makes it the " keys," or chaves, of
the north. One of its churches contains the tomb of Alphonso I.
of Portugal (1139-1185). In 1830 the town gave the title of
marquess to Pinto da Fonseca, a leader of the Miguelite party.

CHAZELLES, JEAN MATHIEU DE (1657-1710), French
hydrographer, was born at Lyons on the 24th of July 1657.
He was nominated professor of hydrography at Marseilles in
1685, and in that capacity carried out various coast surveys. In
1693 he was engaged to publish a second volume of the Neptune
fran^ais, which was to include the hydrography of the Mediter-
ranean. For this purpose he visited the Levant and Egypt.
When in Egypt he measured the pyramids, and, finding that
the angles formed by the sides of the largest were in the direction
' of the four cardinal points, he concluded that this position must
have been intended, and also that the poles of the earth and
meridians had not deviated since the erection of those structures.
He was made a member of the Academy in 1695, and died in
Paris on the i6th of January 1710.

CHEADLE, a town in the Altrincham parliamentary division
of Cheshire, England, 6 m. S. of Manchester, included in the
urban district of Cheadle and Gatley. Pop. (1901) 7916. This
is one of the numerous townships of modern growth which fringe
the southern boundaries of Manchester, and practically form
suburbs of that city. Stockport lies immediately to the east.
The name occurs in the formerly separate villages of Cheadle
Hulme, Cheadle Bulkeley and Cheadle Moseley. There are
cotton printing and bleaching works in the locality. The parish
church of St Giles, Cheadle, is Perpendicular, containing an altar-
tomb of the 1 5th century for two knights.

CHEADLE, a market town in the Leek parliamentary divi-
sion of Staffordshire, England, 13 m. N.E. of Stafford, and
the terminus of a branch line from Cresswell on the North
Staffordshire railway. Pop. (1901) 5186. The Roman Catholic
church of St Giles, with a lofty spire, was designed by Pugin
and erected in 1846. The interior is lavishly decorated. There
are considerable collieries in the neighbourhood, and silk and
tape works in the town. In the neighbouring Froghall district
limestone is quarried, and there are manufactures of copper.
In Cheadle two fairs of ancient origin are held annually.

CHEATING, " the fraudulently obtaining the property of
another by any deceitful practice not amounting to felony, which
practice is of such a nature that it directly affects, or may
directly affect, the public at large" (Stephen, Digest of Criminal
Law, chap. xl. 367). Cheating is either a common law or
statutory offence, and is punishable as a misdemeanour. An
indictment for cheating at common law is of comparatively rare
occurrence, and the statutory crime usually presents itself in the
form of obtaining money by false pretences (q.v.). The word
" cheat " is a variant of " escheat," i.e. the reversion of land to
a lord of the fee through the failure of blood of the tenant.
The shortened form " cheater " for " escheator " is found early
in the legal sense, and chetynge appears in the Promptorium
Parvulorum, c. 1440, as the equivalent of confiscalio. In the
i6th century " cheat " occurs in vocabularies of thieves and other
slang, and in such works as the Use of Dice-Play (1532). It is
frequent in Thomas Herman's Caveat or Warening for. . . Vaga-
bones (1567), in the sense of " thing," with a descriptive word
attached, e.g. smeling chete = nose. In the tract M ihil Mumchance,
his Discoverie of the Art of Cheating, doubtfully attributed to
Robert Greene (1560-1592), we find that gamesters call them-
selves cheaters, " borrowing the term from the lawyers." The
sense development is obscure, but it would seem to be due to the
extortionate or fraudulent demands made by legal " escheators."

CHEBICHEV, PAFNUTIY LVOVICH (1821-1894), Russian
mathematician, was born at Borovsk on the 26th of May 1821.
He was educated at the university of Moscow, and in 1859
became professor of mathematics in the university of St Peters-
burg, a position from which he retired in 1880. He was chosen
a correspondent of the Institute of France in 1860, and succeeded
to the high honour of associe elranger in 1874. He was also a
foreign member of the Royal Society of London. After N. I.
Lobachevskiy he probably ranks as the most distinguished
mathematician Russia has produced. In 1841 he published a
valuable paper, " Sur la convergence de la serie de Taylor," in
Crelle's Journal. His best-known papers, however, deal with
prime numbers; in one of these ("Sur les nombres premiers,"
1850) he established the existence of limits within which must
be comprised the sum of the logarithms of the primes inferior
to a given number. Another question to which he devoted much
.attention was that of obtaining rectilinear motion by linkage.
The parallel motion known by his name is a three-bar linkage,
which gives a very close approximation to exact rectilinear
motion, but in spite of all his efforts he failed to devise one that
produced absolutely true rectilinear motion. At last, indeed, he
came to the conclusion that to do so was impossible, and in that
conviction set to work to find a rigorous proof of the impossibility.
While he was engaged on this task the desired linkage, which
moved the highest admiration of J. J. Sylvester, was discovered
and exhibited to him by one of his pupils, named Lipkin, who,
however, it was afterwards found, had been anticipated by
A. PeauceUier. Chebichev further constructed an instrument
for drawing large circles, and an arithmetical machine with
continuous motion. His mathematical writings, which account
for some forty entries in the Royal Society's catalogue of scien-
tific papers, cover a wide range of subjects, such as the theory of
probabilities, quadratic forms, theory of integrals, gearings, the
construction of geographical maps, &c. He also published a
Traite de la theorie des nombres. He died at St Petersburg on
the 8th of December 1894.

CHEBOYGAN, a city and the county-seat of Cheboygan
county, Michigan, U.S.A., on South Channel (between Lakes
Michigan and Huron), at the mouth of Cheboygan river, in the
N. part of the lower peninsula. Pop. (1890) 6235; (1900)
6489, of whom 2101 were foreign-born; (1904) 6730; (1910)
6859. It is served by the Michigan Central and the Detroit &
Mackinac railways, and by steamboat lines to Chicago, Mil-
waukee, Detroit, Sault Ste Marie, Green Bay and other lake
ports; and is connected by ferry with Mackinac and Pointe aux
Pins. During a great part of the year small boats ply between
Cheboygan and the head of Crooked Lake, over the " Inland
Route." Cheboygan is situated in a fertile farming region, for

CHECHENZES CHEERING

which it is a trade centre, and it has lumber mills, tanneries,
paper mills, boiler works, and other manufacturing establish-
ments. The water-works are owned and operated by the munici-
pality. The city, at first called Duncan, then Inverness, and
finally Cheboygan, was settled in 1846, incorporated as a village
in 1871, reincorporated in 1877, and chartered as a city in
1889.

CHECHENZES, TCHETCHEN, or KHISTS (Kisii), the last being
the name by which they are known to the Georgians, a people
of the eastern Caucasus occupying the whole of west Daghestan.
They call themselves Nakhtche, " people." A wild, fierce people,
they fought desperately against Russian aggression in the i8th
century under Daud Beg and Oman Khan and Shamyl, and in
the 1 9th under Khazi-Mollah, and even now some are inde-
pendent in the mountain districts. On the surrender of the
chieftain Shamyl to Russia in 1859 numbers of them migrated
into Armenia. In physique the Chechenzes resemble the Cir-
cassians, and have the same haughtiness of carriage. They are
of a generous temperament, very hospitable, but quick to re-
venge. They are fond of fine clothes, the women wearing rich
robes with wide, pink silk trousers, silver bracelets and yellow
sandals. Their houses, however, are mere hovels, some dug
out of the ground, others formed of boughs and stones. Before
their subjection to Russia they were remarkable for their inde-
pendence of spirit and love of freedom. Everybody was equal,
and they had no slaves except prisoners of war. Government
in each commune was by popular assembly, and the adminis-
tration of justice was in the hands of the wronged. Murder and
robbery with violence could be expiated only by death, unless
the criminal allowed his hair to grow and the injured man
consented to shave it himself and take an oath of brotherhood
on the Koran. Otherwise the law of vendetta was fully carried
out with curious details. The wronged man, wrapped in a white
woollen shroud, and carrying a coin to serve as payment to a
priest for saying the prayers for the dead, started out in search
of his enemy. When the offender was found he must fight to a
finish. A remarkable custom among one tribe is that if a
betrothed man or woman dies on the eve of her wedding, the
marriage ceremony is still performed, the dead being formally
united to the living before witnesses, the father, in case it is the
girl who dies, never failing to pay her dowry. The religion of
the Chechenzes is Mahommedanism, mixed, however, with
Christian doctrines and observances. Three churches near Kistin
in honour of St George and the Virgin are visited as places of
pilgrimage, and rams are there offered as sacrifices. The
Chechenzes number upwards of 200,000. They speak a distinct
language, of which there are said to be twenty separate dialects.

See Ernest Chanter, Recherches anthropologiques dans le Caucase
(Lypn, 1885-1887) ; D. G. Brinton, Races of Man (1890) ; Hutchinson,
Living Races of Mankind (London, 1901).

CHECKERS, the name by which the game of draughts (q.v.)
is known in America. The origin of the name is the same as that
of " chess " (q.v.).

CHEDDAR, a small town in the Wells parliamentary division
of Somersetshire, England, 22 m. S.W. of Bristol by a branch
of the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1975. The town,
with its Perpendicular church and its picturesque market-cross,
lies below the south-western face of the Mendip Hills, which rise
sharply from 600 to 800 ft. To the west stretches the valley of
the river Axe, broad, low and flat. A fine gorge opening from
the hills immediately upon the site of the town is known as
Cheddar cliffs from the sheer walls which flank it; the contrast
of its rocks and rich vegetation, and the falls of a small stream
traversing it, make up a beautiful scene admired by many
visitors. Several stalactitical caverns are also seen, and pre-
historic British and Roman relics discovered in and near them
are preserved in a small museum. The two caverns most fre-
quently visited are called respectively Cox's and Cough's; in
each, but especially in the first, there is a remarkable collection
of fantastic and beautiful stalactitical forms. There are other
caverns of greater extent but less beauty, but their extent is not
completely explored. The remains discovered in the caves give

evidence of British and Roman settlements at Cheddar (Cedre,
Chedare), which was a convenient trade centre. The manor of
Cheddar was a royal demesne in Saxon times, and the witenage-
mot was held there in 966 and 968. It was granted by John in
1204 to Hugh, archdeacon of Wells, who sold it to the bishop of
Bath and Wells in 1229, whose successors were overlords until
1553, when the bishop granted it to the king. It is now owned
by the marquis of Bath. By a charter of 1 23 1 extensive liberties
in the manor of Cheddar were granted to Bishop Joceline, who
by a charter of 1235 obtained the right to hold a weekly market
and fair. By a charter of Edward III. (1337) Cheddar was
removed from the king's forest of Mendip. The market was
discontinued about 1690. Fairs are now held on the 4th of May
and the 2gth of October under the original grants. The name
of Cheddar is given to a well-known species of cheese (see DAIRY) ,
the manufacture of which began in the I7th century in the
town and neighbourhood.

CHEDUBA, or MAN-AUNG, an island in the Bay of Bengal,
situated 10 m. from the coast of Arakan, between 18 40' and
18 56' N. lat., and between 93 31' and 93 50' E. long. It
forms part of the Kyaukpyu district of Arakan. It extends
about 20 m. in length from N. to S., and 17 m. from E. to W.,
and its area of 220 sq. m. supports a population of 26,899 (in
1901). The channel between the island and the mainland is
navigable for boats, but not for large vessels. The surface of the
interior is richly diversified by hill and dale, and in the southern
portion some of the heights exceed a thousand feet in elevation.
There are various indications of former volcanic activity, and
along the coast are earthy cones covered with green-sward, from
which issue springs of muddy water emitting bubbles of gas.
Copper, iron and silver ore have been discovered; but the
island is chiefly noted for its petroleum wells, the oil derived
from which is of excellent quality, and is extensively used in the
composition of paint, as it preserves wood from the ravages of
insects. Timber is not abundant, but the gamboge tree and
the wood-oil tree are found of a good size. Tobacco, cotton,
sugar-cane, hemp and mdigo are grown, and the staple article
is rice, which is of superior quality, and the chief article of export.
The inhabitants of the island are mainly Maghs. Cheduba fell
to the Burmese in the latter part of the i8th century. From
them it was captured in 1824 by the British, whose possession
of it was confirmed in 1826 by the treaty concluded with the
Burmese at Yandaboo.

CHEERING, the uttering or making of sounds encouraging,
stimulating or exciting to action, indicating approval or acclaim-
ing or welcoming persons, announcements of events and the
like. The word " cheer " meant originally face, countenance,
expression, and came through the O. Fr. into Mid. Eng. in the
1 3th century from the Low Lat. cara, head; this is generally
referred to the Gr. Kapa. Cara is used by the 6th-century poet
Flavius Cresconius Corippus, " Postquam venere verendam
Caesaris ante caram " (In Laudem Justini Minoris). " Cheer "
was at first qualified with epithets, both of joy and gladness and
of sorrow; compare " She thanked Dyomede for alle ... his
gode chere " (Chaucer, Troylus) with " If they sing . . . 'tis
with so dull a cheere " (Shakespeare, Sonnets, xcvii.). An early
transference in meaning was to hospitality or entertainment,
and hence to food and drink, " good cheer." The sense of a
shout of encouragement or applause is a late use. Defoe (Captain
Singleton) speaks of it as a sailor's word, and the meaning does
not appear in Johnson. Of the different words or rather sounds
that are used in cheering, " hurrah," though now generally
looked on as the typical British form of cheer, is found in various
forms in German, Scandinavian, Russian (urd), French (houra).
It is probably onomatopoeic in origin; some connect it with
such words as " hurry," " whirl "; the meaning would then be
" haste," to encourage speed or onset in battle. The English
" hurrah " was preceded by " huzza," stated to be a sailor's
word, and generally connected with " heeze," to hoist, probably
being one of the cries that sailors use when hauling or hoisting.
The German hoch, seen in full in hoch lebe der Kaiser, &c., the
French vine, Italian and Spanish viva, ewiva, are cries rather

CHEESE CHEFFONIER

of acclamation than encouragement. The Japanese shout
banzai became familiar during the Russo-Japanese War. In
reports of parliamentary and other debates the insertion of
" cheers " at any point in a speech indicates that approval was
shown by members of the House by emphatic utterances of
" hear hear." Cheering may be tumultuous, or it may be
conducted rhythmically by prearrangement, as in the case of
the " Hip-hip-hip " by way of introduction to a simultaneous
" hurrah."

Rhythmical cheering has been developed to its greatest
extent in America in the college yells, which may be regarded as
a development of the primitive war-cry; this custom has no
real analogue at English schools and universities, but the New
Zealand football team in 1907 familiarized English crowds at
their matches with a similar sort of war-cry adopted from the
Maoris. In American schools and colleges there is usually one
cheer for the institution as a whole and others for the different
classes. The oldest and simplest are those of the New England
colleges. The original yells of Harvard and Yale are identical
in form, being composed of rah (abbreviation of hurrah) nine
times repeated, shouted in unison with the name of the university
at the end. The Yale cheer is given faster than that of Harvard.
Many institutions have several different yells, a favourite
variation being the name of the college shouted nine times in a
slow and prolonged manner. The best known of these variants
is the Yale cheer, partly taken from the Frogs of Aristophanes,
which runs thus:

" Brekekekex, ko-ax, ko-ax,
Brekekekex, ko-ax, ko-ax,
O-6p, O-6p, parabalou,
Yale, Yale, Yale,

Rah, rah, rah, rah, rah, rah, rah, rah, rah,
Yale! Yale! Yale!"

The regular cheer of Princeton is:

" H'ray, h'ray, h'ray, tiger,
Siss, boom, ah; Princeton!"

This is expanded into the " triple cheer ":
" H'ray, h'ray, h'ray,
Tiger, tiger, tiger,
Siss, siss, siss,
Boom, boom, boom,
Ah, ah, ah,
Princet6n, Princeton, Princeton!"

The " railroad cheer " is like the foregoing, but begun very
slowly and broadly, and gradually accelerated to the end, which
is enunciated as fast as possible. Many cheers are formed
like that of Toronto University:

" Varsity, varsity,
V-a-r-s-i-t-y (spelled)
VARSIT-Y (spelled staccato)
Var-si-ty,
Rah, rah, rah ! "

Another variety of yell is illustrated by that of the School
of Practical Science of Toronto University:

"Who are we? Can't you guess?
We are from the S.P.S. ! "

The cheer of the United States Naval Academy is an imita-
tion of a nautical syren. The Amherst cheer is:

" Amherst ! Amherst ! Amherst ! Rah ! Rah !
Amherst ! Rah ! Rah !
Rah ! Rah ! Rah ! Rah ! Rah ! Rah ! Amherst !"

Besides the cheers of individual institutions there are some
common to all, generally used to compliment some successful
athlete or popular professor. One of the oldest examples of
these personal cheers is:

" Who was George Washington ?
First in war,
First in peace,
Ffrst in the hearts of his countryman,"

followed by a stamping on the floor in the same rhythm.

College yells are used particularly at athletic contests. In
any large college there are several leaders, chosen by the students,
who stand in front and call for the different songs and cheers,

directing with their arms in the fashion of an orchestral con-
ductor. This cheering and singing form one of the distinctive
features of inter-collegiate and scholastic athletic contests in
America.

CHEESE (Lat. caseus), a solidified preparation from milk, the
essential constituent of which is the proteinous or nitrogenous
substance casein. All cheese contains in addition some proportion
of fatty matter or butter, and in the more valuable varieties the
butter present is often greater in amount than the casein. Cheese
being thus a compound substance of no definite composition is
found in commerce of many different varieties and qualities;
and such qualities are generally recognized by the names of the
localities in which they are manufactured. The principal dis-
tinctions arise from differences in the composition and condition
of the milk operated upon, from variations in the method of
preparation and curing, and from the use of the milk of other
animals besides the cow, as, for example, the goat and the ewe,
from the milk of both of which cheese is manufactured on a
commercial scale. For details about different cheeses and cheese-
making, see DAIRY. From the Urdu chiz (" thing ") comes the
slang expression " the cheese," meaning " the perfect thing,"
apparently from Anglo-Indian usage.

A useful summary of the history and manufacture of all sorts of
cheeses, under their different names, is given in Bulletin 105 of the
Bureau of Animal Industry (United States Dep. of Agriculture),
Varieties of Cheese, by C. F. Doane and H. W. Lawson (Washington,
1908).

CHEESE CLOTH, the name given to cloth, usually made from
flax or tow yarns, of an open character, resembling a fine riddle
or sieve, used for wrapping cheese. A finer quality and texture
is made for women's gowns. A similar cloth is used for inside
linings in the upholstery trade, and for the ground of embroidery.

CHEETA (CHITA), or HUNTING-LEOPARD (Cynaelurus jubalus,
formerly known as Gueparda jubala), a member of the family
Felidae, distinguished by its claws being only partially retractile
(see CARNIVORA). The cheeta attains a length of 3 to 4 ft.;
it is of a pale fulvous colour, marked with numerous spots of
black on the upper surface and sides, and is nearly white beneath.
The fur is somewhat crisp, altogether lacking the sleekness which
characterizes the fur of the typical cats, and the tail is long and
somewhat bushy at the extremity. In confinement the cheeta
soon becomes fond of those who are kind to it, and gives evidence
of its attachment in an open, dog-like manner. The cheeta is
found throughout Africa and southern Asia, and has been em-
ployed- for centuries in India and Persia in hunting antelopes
and other game. According to Sir W. Jones, this mode of
hunting originated with Hushing, king of Persia, 865 B.C., and
afterwards became so popular that certain of the Mongol
emperors were in the habit of being accompanied in their sport-
ing expeditions by a thousand hunting leopards. In prosecuting
this sport at the present day the cheeta is conveyed to the field
in a low car without sides, hooded and chained like hunting-
birds in Europe in the days of falconry. When a herd of deer
or antelopes is seen, the car, which bears a close resemblance to
the ordinary vehicles used by the peasants, is usually brought
within 200 yds. of the game before the latter takes alarm; the
cheeta is then let loose and the hood removed from its eyes. No
sooner does it see the herd, than dropping from the car on the side
remote from it sprey, it approaches stealthily, making use of
whatever means of concealment the nature of the ground permits,
until observed, when making a few gigantic bounds, it generally
arrives in the midst .of the herd and brings down its victim with
a stroke of its paw. The sportsman then approaches, draws off
a bowl of the victim's blood, and puts it before the cheeta, which
is again hooded and led back to the car. Should it not succeed
in reaching the herd in the first few bounds, it makes no further
effort to pursue, but retires seemingly dispirited to the car. In
Africa the cheeta is only valued for its skin, which is worn by
chiefs and other people of rank. It should be added that in
India the name cheeta (chita) is applied also to the leopard.

CHEFFONIER, properly CHIFFONIER, a piece of furniture
differentiated from the sideboard by its smaller size and by the

CHEH-KIANG CHELMSFORD, LORD

enclosure of the whole of the front by doors. Its name (which
comes from the French for a rag-gatherer) suggests that it was
originally intended as a receptacle for odds and ends which had
no place elsewhere, but it now usually serves the purpose of a
sideboard. It is a remote and illegitimate descendant of the
cabinet; it has rarely been elegant and never beautiful. It was
"one of the many curious developments of the mixed taste, at
once cumbrous and bizarre, which prevailed in furniture during
the Empire period in England. The earliest cheffoniers date
from that time; they are usually of rosewood the favourite
timber of that moment; their " furniture " (the technical name
for knobs, handles and escutcheons) was most commonly of
brass, and there was very often a raised shelf with a pierced brass
gallery at the back. The doors were well panelled and often
edged with brass-beading, while the feet were pads or claws, or,
in the choicer examples, sphinxes in gilded bronze. Cheffoniers
are-still made in England in cheap forms and in great number.

CHEH-KIANG, an eastern province of China, bounded N. by
the province of Kiang-su, E. by the sea, S. by the province of
Fu-kien, and W. by the provinces of Kiang-si and Ngan-hui.
It occupies an area of about 36,000 sq. m., and contains a popu-
lation of 11,800,000. With the exception of a small portion of
the great delta plain, which extends across the frontier from the
province of Kiang-su, and in which are situated the famous
cities of Hu Chow, Ka-hing, Hang-chow, Shao-Sing and Ning-po,
the province forms a portion of the Nan-shan of south-eastern
China, and is hilly throughout. The Nan-shan ranges run
through the centre of the province from south-west to north-
east, and divide 'it into a northern portion, the greater part of
which is drained by the Tsien-t'ang-kiang, and a southern
portion which is chiefly occupied by the Ta-chi basin. The
valleys enclosed between the mountain ranges are numerous,
fertile, and for the most part of exquisite beauty. The hilly
portion of the province furnishes large supplies of tea, and in the
plain which extends along the coast, north of Ning-po, a great
quantity of silk is produced. In minerals the province is poor.
Coal and iron are occasionally met with, and traces of copper
ore are to be found in places, but none of these minerals exists
in sufficiently Jarge deposits to make mining remunerative. The
province, however, produces cotton, rice, ground-nuts, wheat,
indigo, tallow and beans in abundance. The principal cities
are Hang-chow, which is famed for the beauty of its surroundings,
Ning-po, which has been frequented by foreign ships ever since
the Portuguese visited it in the i6th century, and Wnchow.
Opposite Ning-po, at a distance of about 50 m., lies the island of
Chusan, the largest of a group bearing that general name. This
island is 21 m. long, and about 50 m. in circumference. It is
very mountainous, and is surrounded by numerous islands and
islets. On its south side stands the walled town of Ting-hai,
in front of which is the principal harbour. The population is
returned as 50,000.

CHEKE, SIR JOHN (1514-1557), English classical scholar,
was the son of Peter Cheke, esquire-bedell of Cambridge Univer-
sity. He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, where
he became a fellow in 1529. While there he adopted the prin-
ciples of the Reformation. His learning gained him an exhibition
from the king, and in 1540, on Henry VIII. 's foundation of the
regius professorships, he was elected to the chair of Greek.
Amongst his pupils at St John's were Lord Burghley, who married
Cheke's sister Mary, and Roger Ascham, who in The School-
master gives Cheke the highest praise for scholarship and
character. Together with Sir Thomas Smith, he introduced
a new method of Greek pronunciation very similar to that com-
monly used in England in the igth century. It was strenuously
opposed in the University, where the continental method
prevailed, and Bishop Gardiner, as chancellor, issued a decree
against it (June 1542); but Cheke ultimately triumphed. On
the loth of July 1554, he was chosen as tutor to Prince Edward,
and after his pupil's accession to the throne he continued his in-
structions. Cheke took a fairly active share in public life; he
aat, as member for Bletchingley, for the parliaments of 1 547 and
; he was made provost of King's College, Cambridge

(April i, 1548), was one of the commissioners for visiting that
university as well as Oxford and Eton, and was appointed with
seven divines to draw up a body of laws for the governance
of the church. On the nth of October 1551 he was knighted;
in 1553 he was made one of the secretaries of state, and sworn
of the privy council. His zeal for Protestantism induced him
to follow the duke of Northumberland, and he filled the office
of secretary of state for Lady Jane Grey during her nine days'
reign. In consequence Mary threw him into the Tower (July 27,
i553)> and confiscated his wealth. He was, however, released
on the I3th of September 1554, and granted permission to travel
abroad. He went first to Basel, then visited Italy, giving
lectures in Greek at Padua, and finally settled at Strassburg,
teaching Greek for his living. In the spring of 1556 he visited
Brussels to see his wife; on his way back, between Brussels and
Antwerp, he and Sir Peter Carew were treacherously seized
(May 1 5) by order of Philip of Spain, hurried over to England,
and imprisoned in the Tower. Cheke was visited by two priests
and by Dr John Feckenham, dean of St Paul's, whom he had
formerly tried to convert to Protestantism, and, terrified by a
threat of the stake, he gave way and was received into the Church
of Rome by Cardinal Pole, being cruelly forced to make two
public recantations. Overcome with shame, he did not long sur-
vive, but died in London on the i3th of September 1557, carry-
ing, as T. Fuller says {Church History), " God's pardon and all
good men's pity along with him." About 1547 Cheke married
Mary, daughter of Richard Hill, sergeant of the wine-cellar to
Henry VIII., and by her he had three sons. The descendants
of one of these, Henry, known only for his translation of an
Italian morality play Freewyl (Tragedio del Libero Arbilrio) by
Nigri de Bassano, settled at Pyrgo in Essex.

Thomas Wilson, in the epistle prefixed to his translation of the
Olynthiacs of Demosthenes (1570), has a long and most interesting
eulogy of Cheke; and Thomas Nash, in To the Gentlemen Students,
prefixed to Robert Greene's Menaphon (1589), calls him " the
Exchequer of eloquence, Sir Ihon Cheke, a man of men, super-
naturally traded in all tongues." Many of Cheke's works are still
in MS., some have been altogether lost. One of the most interesting
from a historical point of view is the Hurt of Sedition how greueous
it is to a Communewelth (1549), written on the occasion of Ket's
rebellion, republished in 1569, 1576 and 1641, on the last occasion
with a life of the author by Gerard Langbaine. Others are D.
Joannis Chrysostomi homiliae duae (1543), D. Joannis Chrysostomi de
providentia Dei (1545), The Gospel according to St Matthew . . .
translated
Buceri
dedicated

in Antonium Deneium (1551!, De pronuntiatione Graecae . '. . linguae
(Basel, 1555). He also translated several Greek works, and lectured
admirably upon Demosthenes.

His Lrfe was written by John Strype (1821); additions by J.
Gough Nichols in Archaeologia (1860), xxxviii. 98, 127.

CHELLIAN, the name given by the French anthropologist
G. de Mortillet to the first epoch of the Quaternary period when
the earliest human remains are discoverable. The word is
derived from the French town Chelles in the department of
Seine-et-Marne. The climate of the Chellian epoch was warm
and humid as evidenced by the wild growth of fig-trees and
laurels. The animals characteristic of the epoch are the Elephas
antiquus, the rhinoceros, the cave-bear, the hippopotamus and
the striped hyaena. Man existed and belonged to the Neander-
thal type. The implements characteristic of the period are flints
chipped into leaf-shaped forms and held in the hand when used.
The drift-beds of St Acheul (Amiens) , of Menchecourt (Abbeville) ,
of Hoxne (Suffolk), and the detrital laterite of Madras are con-
sidered by de Mortillet to be synchronous with the Chellian beds.

See Gabriel de Mortillet, Le Prfhistorique (1900) ; Lord Avebury,
Prehistoric Times (1900).

CHELHSFORD, FREDERIC THESIGER, IST BARON (1794-
1878), lord chancellor of England, was the third son of Charles
Thesiger, and was born in London on the isth of April 1794.
His father, collector of customs at St Vincent's, was the son of
a Saxon gentleman who had migrated to England and become
secretary to Lord Rockingham, and was the brother of Sir
Frederic Thesiger, naval A.D.C. to Nelson at Copenhagen.
Young Frederic Thesiger was originally destined for a naval

CHELMSFORD CHELSEA

career, and he served as a midshipman on board the " Cambrian "
frigate in 1807 at the second bombardment of Copenhagen. His
only surviving brother, however, died about this time, and he
became entitled to succeed to a valuable estate in the West
Indies, so it was decided that he should leave the navy and
study law, with a view to practising in the West Indies and
eventually managing his property in person. Another change
of fortune, however, awaited him, for a volcano destroyed the
family estate, and he was thrown back upon his prospect of a
legal practice in the West Indies. He proceeded to enter at
Gray's Inn in 1813, and was called on the i8th of November
1818, another change in his prospects being brought about by
the strong advice of Godfrey Sykes, a special pleader in whose
chambers he had been a pupil, that he should remain to try his
fortune in England. He accordingly joined the home circuit,
and soon got into good practice at the Surrey sessions, while he
also made a fortunate purchase in buying the right to appear
in the old palace court (see LORD STEWARD). In 1824 he dis-
tinguished himself by his defence of Joseph Hunt when on his
trial at Hertford with John Thurtell for the murder of Wm.
Weare; and eight years later at Chelmsford assizes he won a
hard-fought action in an ejectment case after three trials, to
which he attributed so much of his subsequent success that when
he was raised to the peerage he assumed the title Lord Chelms-
ford. In 1834 he was made king's counsel, and in 1833 was
briefed in the Dublin election inquiry which unseated Daniel
O'Connell. In 1840 he was elected M.P. for Woodstock. In
1844 he became solicitor-general, but having ceased to enjoy
the favour of the duke of Marlborough, lost his seat for Wood-
stock and had to find another at Abingdon. In 1845 he became
attorney-general, holding the post until the fall of the Peel
administration on the 3rd of July 1846. Thus by three days
Thesiger missed being chief justice of the common pleas, for on
the 6th of July Sir Nicholas Tindal died, and the seat on the
bench, which would have been Thesiger's as of right, fell to
the Liberal attorney-general, Sir Thomas Wilde. Sir Frederic
Thesiger remained in parliament, changing his seat, however,
again in 1852, and becoming member for Stamford. During
this period he enjoyed a very large practice at the bar, being
employed in many causes celsbres. On Lord Derby coming into
office for the second time in 1858, Sir Frederic Thesiger was
raised straight from the bar to the lord chancellorship (as were
Lord Brougham, Lord Selborne and Lord Halsbury). In the
following year Lord Derby resigned and his cabinet was broken
up. Again in 1866, on Lord Derby coming into office for the third
time, Lord Chelmsford became lord chancellor for a short period.
In 1868 Lord Derby retired, and Disraeli, who took his place as
prime minister, wished for Lord Cairns as lord chancellor. Lord
Chelmsford was very sore at his supersession and the manner
of it, but, according to Lord Malmesbury he retired under a
compact made before he took office. Ten years later Lord
Chelmsford died in London on the 5th of October 1878. Lord
Chelmsford had married in 1822 Anna Maria Tinling. He left
four sons and three daughters, of whom the eldest, Frederick
Augustus, 2nd Baron Chelmsford (1827-1905), earned distinction
as a soldier, while the third, Alfred Henry Thesiger (1838-1880)
was made a lord justice of appeal and a privy councillor in 1877,
at the early age of thirty-nine, but died only three years later.

See Lives of the Chancellors (1908), by J. B. Atlay, who has had the
advantage of access to an unpublished autobiography of Lord
Chelmsford's.

CHELMSFORD, a market town and municipal borough, and
the county town of Essex, England, in the Chelmsford parlia-
mentary division, 30 m. E.N.E. from London by the Great
Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 12,580. It is situated in the
valley of the Chelmer, at the confluence of the Cann, and has
communication by the river with Maldon and the Blackwater
estuary n m. east. Besides the parish church of St Mary, a
graceful Perpendicular edifice, largely rebuilt, the town has
a grammar school founded by Edward VI., an endowed charity
school and a museum. It is the seat of the county assizes and
quarter sessions, and has a handsome shire hall ; the county gaol

is near the town. Its corn and cattle markets are among the
largest in the county; for the first a fine exchange is provided.
In the centre of the square in which the corn exchange is situated
stands a bronze statue of Lord Chief-Justice Tindal (1776-1846),
a native of the parish. There are agricultural implement and
iron foundries, large electric light and engineering works,
breweries, tanneries, mailings and extensive corn mills. There '
is a race-course 2 m. south of the town. The borough is under
a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area 2308 acres.

A place of settlement since Palaeolithic times, Chelmsford
(Chilmersford, Chelmeresford, Chelmesford) owed its importance
to its position on the road from London to Colchester. It con-
sisted of two manors: that of Moulsham, which remained in the
possession of Westminster Abbey from Saxon times till the reign
of Henry VIII., when it was granted to Thomas Mildmay; and
that of Bishop's Hall, which was held by the bishops of London
from the reign of Edward the Confessor to 1545, when it passed
to the crown and was granted to Thomas Mildmay in 1563. The
medieval history of Chelmsford centred round the manor of
Bishop's Hall. Early in the I2th century Bishop Maurice built
the bridge over the Chelmer which brought the road from London
directly through the town, thus making it an important stopping-
place. The town was not incorporated until 1888. In 1225
Chelmsford was made the centre for the collection of fifteenths
from the county of Essex, and in 1227 it became the regular seat
of assizes and quarter-sessions. Edward I. confirmed Bishop
Richard de Gravesend in his rights of frank pledge in Chelmsford
in 1290, and in 1395 Richard II. granted the return of writs to
Bishop Robert de Braybroke. In 1377 writs were issued for the
return of representatives from Chelmsford to parliament, but
no return of members has been found. In 1199 the bishop
obtained the grant of a weekly market at the yearly rent of one
palfrey, and in 1201 that of an annual fair, now discontinued,
for four days from the feast of St Philip and St James.

CHELSEA, a western metropolitan borough of London,
England, bounded E. by the city of Westminster, N.W. by
Kensington, S.W. by Fulham, and S. by the river Thames.
Pop. (1901) 73,842. Its chief thoroughfare is Sloane Street,
containing handsome houses and good shops, running south from
Knightsbridge to Sloane Square. Hence King's Road leads
west, a wholly commercial highway, named in honour of Charles
II., and recalling the king's private road from St James's Palace
to Fulham, which was maintained until the reign of George IV.
The main roads south communicate with the Victoria or Chelsea,
Albert and Battersea bridges over the Thames. The beautiful
Chelsea embankment, planted with trees and lined with fine
houses and, in part, with public gardens, stretches between
Victoria and Battersea bridges. The better residential portion
of Chelsea is the eastern, near Sloane Street and along the river;
the western, extending north to Fulham Road, is mainly a poor
quarter.

Chelsea, especially the riverside district, abounds in historical
associations. At Cealchythe a synod was held in 785. A
similar name occurs in a Saxon charter of the nth century and
in Domesday; in the i6th century it is Chelcith. The later
termination ey or ea was associated with the insular character of
the land, and the prefix with a gravel bank (ceosol; cf. Chesil
Bank, Dorsetshire) thrown up by the river; but the early
suffix hythe is common in the meaning of a haven. The manor
was originally in the possession of Westminster Abbey, but its
history is fragmentary until Tudor times. It then came into
the hands of Henry VIII., passed from him to his wife Catharine
Parr, and thereafter had a succession of owners, among whom
were the Howards, to whom it was granted by Queen Elizabeth,
and the Cheynes, from whom it was purchased in 1712 by Sir
Hans Sloane, after which it passed to the Cadogans. The
memorials which crowd the picturesque church and churchyard
of St Luke near the river, commonly known as the OJd Church,
to a great extent epitomize the history of Chelsea. Such are
those of Sir Thomas More (d. 1535); Lord. Bray, lord of the
manor (1539), his father and son; Lady Jane Guyldeford,
duchess of Northumberland, who died " at her maner of Chelse "

CHELSEA CHELTENHAM

in 1555; Lord and Lady Dacre (1594-1595); Sir John Lawrence
(1638); Lady Jane Cheyne (1698); Francis Thomas, "director
of the china porcelain manufactory, Lawrence Street, Chelsea "
(1770); Sir Hans Sloane (1753); Thomas Shad well, poet
laureate (1602); Woodfall the printer of Junius (1844), and
many others. More's tomb is dated 1 532, as he set it up himself,
though it is doubtful whether he lies beneath it. His house was
near the present Beaufort Street. In the i8th and igth centuries
Chelsea, especially the parts about the embankment and Cheyne
Walk, was the home of many eminent men, particularly of
writers and artists, with whom this pleasant quarter has long
been in favour. Thus in the earlier part of the period named,
Atterbury and Swift lived in Church Lane, Steele and Smollett
in Monmouth House. Later, the names of Turner, Rossetti,
Whistler, Leigh Hunt, Carlyle (whose house in Cheyne Row
is preserved as a public memorial), Count D'Orsay, and Isambard
Brunei, are intimately connected with Chelsea. At Lindsey
House Count Zinzendorf established a Moravian Society (c. 1 7 50) .
Sir Robert Walpole's residence was extant till 1810; and till 1824
the bishops of Winchester had a palace in Cheyne Walk. Queen's
House, the home of D. G. Rossetti (when it was called Tudor
House), is believed to take name from Catharine of Braganza.

Chelsea was noted at different periods for two famous places
of entertainment, Ranelagh (q.v.) in the second half of the i8th
century, and Cremorne Gardens (q.v.) in the middle of the igth.
Don Saltero's museum, which formed the attraction of a popular
coffee-house, was formed of curiosities from Sir Hans Sloane's
famous collections. It was Sloane who gave to the Apothecaries'
Company the ground which they had leased in 1673 for the
Physick Garden, which is still extant, but ceased in 1902 to be
maintained by the Company. At Chelsea Sir John Danvers
(d. 1655) introduced the Italian style of gardening which was
so greatly admired by Bacon and soon after became prevalent
in England. Chelsea was formerly famous for a manufacture
of buns; the original Chelsea bun-house, claiming royal patron-
age, stood until 1839, and one of its successors until 1888. The
porcelain works existed for some 25 years before 1769, when
they were sold and removed to Derby. Examples of the original
Chelsea ware (see CERAMICS) are of great value.

Of buildings and institutions the most notable is Chelsea
Royal Hospital for invalid soldiers, initiated by Charles II.
(according to tradition on the suggestion of Nell Gwynne), and
opened in 1694. The hospital itself accommodates upwards of
500 men, but a system of out-pensioning was found necessary
from the outset, and now relieves large numbers throughout
the empire. The picturesque building by Wren stands in exten-
sive grounds, which include the former Ranelagh Gardens. A
theological college (King James's) formerly occupied the site;
it was founded in 1610 and was intended to be of great size, but
the scheme was unsuccessful, and only a small part of the build-
ings was erected. In the vicinity are the Chelsea Barracks
(not actually in the borough). The Royal Military Asylum for
boys, commonly called the Duke of York's school, founded in
1801 by Frederick, duke of York, for the education of children
connected with the army, was removed in 1909 to new quarters
at Dover. Other institutions are the Whitelands training
college for school-mistresses, in which Ruskin took deep interest;
the St Mark's college for school-masters; the Victoria and the
Cheyne hospitals for children, a cancer hospital, the South-
western polytechnic, and a public library containing an excellent
collection relative to local history.

The parliamentary borough of Chelsea returns one member,
and includes, as a detached portion, Kensal Town, north of
Kensington. The borough council consists of a mayor, 6 alder-
men and 36 councillors. Area, 659-6 acres.

CHELSEA, a city of Suffolk county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
a suburb of Boston. Pop. (1890) 27,909; (1900) 34,072, of
whom 11,203 were foreign-born; (1910) 32,452. It is situ-
ated on a peninsula between the Mystic and' Chelsea rivers,
and Charlestown and East Boston, and is connected with
East Boston and Charlestown by bridges. It is served by the
Boston & Maine and (for freight) by the Boston & Albany

railways. The United States maintains here naval and marine
hospitals, and the state a soldiers' home. Chelsea's interests
are primarily industrial. The value of the city's factory products
in 1905 was $13,879,159, the principal items being rubber and
elastic goods ($3,635,211) and boots and shoes ($2,044,250.)
The manufacture of stoves, and of mucilage and paste are
important industries. Flexible tubing for electric wires (first
made at Chelsea 1889) and art tiles are important products.
The first settlement was established in 1624 by Samuel Maverick
(c. i6oz-c. 1670), the first settler (about 1629) of Noddle's
Island (or East Boston), and one of the first slave-holders in
Massachusetts; a loyalist and Churchman, in 1664 he was
appointed with three others by Charles II. on an important
commission sent to Massachusetts and the other New England
colonies (see NICOLLS, RICHARD), and spent the last years of
his life in New York. Until.i739, under the name of Winnisim-
met, Chelsea formed a part of Boston, but in that year it was
made a township; it became a city in 1857. In May 1775 a
British schooner in the Mystic defended by a force of marines
was taken by colonial militia under General John Stark and
Israel Putnam, one of the first conflicts of the War of Inde-
pendence. A terrible fire swept the central part of the city on
the 1 2th of April 1908.

See Mellen Chamberlain (and others), History of Chelsea(2 vols.,
Boston, 1908), published by the Massachusetts Historical Society.

CHELTENHAM, a municipal and parliamentary borough of
Gloucestershire, England, 109 m. W. by N. of London by the
Great Western railway; served also by the west and north
line of the Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 49,439. The town is
well situated in the valley of the Chelt, a small tributary of the
Severn, under the high line of the Cotteswold Hills to the east,
and is in high repute as a health resort. Mineral springs were
accidentally discovered in 1716. The Montpellier and Pittville
Springs supply handsome pump rooms standing in public
gardens, and are the property of the corporation. The Mont-
pellier waters are sulphated, and are valuable for their diuretic
effect, and as a stimulant to the liver and alimentary canal. The
alkaline-saline waters of Pittville are efficacious against diseases
resulting from excess of uric acid. The parish church of St Mary
dates from the i4th century, but is almost completely modern-
ized. The town, moreover, is wholly modern in appearance.
Assembly rooms opened in 1815 by the duke of Wellington were
removed in 1901. A new town hall, including a central spa and
assembly rooms, was opened in 1903. There are numerous other
handsome buildings, especially in High Street, and the Promen-
ade forms a beautiful broad thoroughfare, lined with trees.
The town is famous as an educational centre. Cheltenham
College (1842) provides education for boys in three departments,
classical, military and commercial; and includes a preparatory
school. The Ladies' College (1854), long conducted by Miss
Beale (?..), is one of the most successful in England. The
Normal Training College was founded in 1846 for the training
of teachers, male and female, in national and parochial schools.
A free grammar school was founded in 1568 by Richard Pate,
recorder of Gloucester. The art gallery and museum may be
mentioned also. The parliamentary borough returns one
member. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen
and 18 councillors. Area, 4726 acres. The urban district of
Charlton Kings (pop. 3806) forms a south-eastern suburb of
Cheltenham.

The site of a British village and burying-ground, Chelter ham
(Celtanhomme, Chiltham, Chelteham) was a village with a church
in 803. The manor belonged to the crown; it was granted to
Henry de Bohun, earl of Hereford, late in the i2th century, but
in 1199 was exchanged for other lands with the king. It was
granted to William de Longespee, earl of Salisbury, in 1219, but
resumed on his death and granted in dower to Eleanor of Pro-
vence in 1243. In 1252 the abbey of Fecamp purchased the
manor, and it afterwards belonged to the priory of Cormeille,
but was confiscated in 1415 as the possession of an alien priory,
and was granted in 1461 to the abbey of Lyon, by which it was
held until, once more returning to the crown at the Dissolution,

CHELYABINSK CHEMICAL ACTION

it was granted to the family of Button. The town is first men-
tioned in 1223, when William de Longespe'e leased the benefit
of the markets, fairs and hundred of Cheltenham to the men of
the town for three years; the lease was renewed by Henry III.
in 1226, and again in 1230 for ten years. A market town in the
time of Camden, it was governed by commissioners from the
i8th century in 1876, when it was incorporated; it became a
parliamentary borough in 1832. Henry III. in 1230 had granted
to the men of Cheltenham a market on each Thursday, and a fair
on the vigil, feast and morrow of St James. Although Camden
mentions a considerable trade in malt, the spinning of woollen
yarn was the only industry in 1779. After the discovery of
springs in 1 7 1 6, and the erection of a pump-room in 1 738, Chelten-
ham rapidly became fashionable, the visit of George III. and the
royal princesses in 1788 ensuring its popularity.

See S. Moreau, A Tow to Cheltenham Spa (Bath, 1738).

CHELYABINSK, a town of Russia, in the Orenburg govern-
ment, at the east foot of the Urals, is the head of the Siberian
railway, 624 m. by rail E.N.E. of Samara and 154 m. by rail
S.S.E. of Ekaterinburg. Pop. (1900) 25,505. It has tanneries
and distilleries, and is the centre of the trade in corn and pro-
duce of cattle for the Ural iron-works. The town was founded
in 1658.

CHELYS (Gr. \k\\K, tortoise; Lat. testudo), the common lyre
of the ancient Greeks, which had a convex back of tortoise-
shell or of wood shaped like the shell. The word chelys was used
in allusion to the oldest lyre of the Greeks which was said to
have been invented by Hermes. According to tradition he was
attracted by sounds of music while walking on the banks of the
Nile, and found they proceeded from the shell of a tortoise across
which were stretched tendons which the wind had set in vibration
(Homeric Hymn to Hermes, 47-51). The word has been applied
arbitrarily since classic times to various stringed instruments,
some bowed and some twanged, probably owing to the back
being much vaulted. Kircher (Musurgia, i. 486) applied the
name of chelys to a kind of viol with eight strings. Numerous
representations of the chelys lyre or testudo occur on the Greek
vases, in which the actual tortoiseshell is depicted; a good illus-
tration is given in Le AntichitA di Ercolano (vol. i. pi. 43). Pro-
pertius (iv. 6) calls the instrument the lyra testudinea. Scaliger
(on Manilius, Astronomicon, Proleg. 420) was probably the first
writer to draw attention to the difference between chelys and
cithara (q.v.). (K. S.)

CHEMICAL ACTION, the term given to any process in which
change in chemical composition occurs. Such processes may be
set up by the application of some form of energy (heat, light,
electricity, &c.) to a substance, or by the mixing of two or more
substances together. If two or more substances be mixed one of
three things may occur. First, the particles may be mechani-
cally intermingled, the degree of association being dependent
upon the fineness of the particles, &c. Secondly, the substances
may intermolecularly penetrate, as in the case of gas-mixtures
and solutions. Or thirdly they may react chemically. The
question whether, in any given case, we have to deal with a
physical mixture or a chemical compound is often decided by
the occurrence of very striking phenomena. To take a simple
example: oxygen and hydrogen are two gases which may be
mixed in all proportions at ordinary temperatures, and it is easy
to show that the properties of the products are simply those of
mixtures of the two free gases. If, however, an electric spark
be passed through the mixtures, powerful chemical union ensues,
with its concomitants, great evolution of heat and consequent
rise of temperature, and a compound, water, is formed which
presents physical and chemical properties entirely different from
those of its constituents.

In general, powerful chemical forces give rise to the evolution
of large quantities of heat, and the properties of the resulting sub-
stance differ vastly more from those of its components than is the
case with simple mixtures. This constitutes a valuable criterion
as to whether mere mixture is involved on the one hand, or strong
chemical union on the other. When, however, the chemical
forces are weak and the reaction, being incomplete, leads to a

state of chemical equilibrium, in which all the reacting substances
are present side by side, this criterion vanishes. For example, the
question whether a salt combines with water molecules when
dissolved in water cannot be said even yet to be fully settled,
and, although there can be no doubt that solution is, in many
cases, attended by chemical processes, still we possess as yet no
means of deciding, with certainty, how many molecules of
water have bound themselves to a single molecule of the dissolved
substance (solute) . On the other hand, we possess exact methods
of testing whether gases or solutes in dilute solution react one
with another and of determining the equilibrium state which is
attained. For if one solute react with another on adding the
latter to its solution, then corresponding to the decrease of its
concentration there must also be a decrease of vapour pressure,
and of solubility in other solvents; further, in the case of a
mixture of gases, the concentration of each single constituent
follows from its solubility in some suitable solvent. We thus
obtain the answer to the question: whether the concentration
of a certain constituent has decreased during mixing, i.e. whether
it has reacted chemically.

When a compound can be obtained in a pure state, analysis
affords us an important criterion of its chemical nature, for
unlike mixtures, the compositions of which are always variable
within wider or narrower limits, chemical compounds present
definite and characteristic mass-relations, which find full expres-
sion in the atomic theory propounded by Dal ton (see ATOM).
According to this theory a mixture is the result of the mutual
interpenetration of the molecules of substances, which remain
unchanged as such, whilst chemical union involves changes more
deeply seated, inasmuch as new molecular species appear.
These new substances, if well-defined chemical compounds, have
a perfectly definite composition and contain a definite, generally
small, number of elementary atoms, and therefore the law of
constant proportions follows at once, and the fact that only ah
integral number of atoms of any element may enter into the
composition of any molecule determines the law of multiple
proportions.

These considerations bring us face to face with the task of
more closely investigating the nature of chemical
forces, in other words, of answering the question: Nature of
what forces guide the atoms in the formation of a new c f g^^"'
molecular species? This problem is still far from
being completely answered, so that a few general remarks must
suffice here.

It is remarkable that among the most stable chemical com-
pounds, we find combinations of atoms of one and the same
element. Thus, the stability of the di-atomic molecule N 2 is
so great, that no trace of dissociation has yet been proved even
at the highest temperatures, and as the constituent atoms of the
molecule N 2 must be regarded as absolutely identical, it is clear
that " polar " forces cannot be the cause of all chemical action.
On the other hand, especially powerful affinities are also
at work when so-called electro-positive and electro-negative
elements react. The forces which here come into play appear to
be considerably greater than those just mentioned; for instance,
potassium fluoride is perhaps the most stable of all known
compounds.

It is also to be noticed that the combinations of the electro-
negative elements (metalloids) with one another exhibit a
metalloid character, and also we find, in the mutual combinations
of metals, all the characteristics of the metallic state; but in
the formation of a salt from a metal and a metalloid we have an
entirely new substance, quite different from its components;
and at the same time, the product is seen to be an electrolyte,
i.e. to have the power of splitting up into a positively and a
negatively charged constituent when dissolved hi some solvent.
These considerations lead to the conviction that forces of a
" polar " origin play an important part here, and indeed we may
make the general surmise that in the act of chemical combination
forces of both a non-polar and polar nature play a part, and that
the latter are in all probability identical with the electric forces.

It now remains to be asked what are the laws which govern

CHEMICAL ACTION

the action of these forces? This question is of fundamental
importance, since it leads directly to those laws which regulate
the chemical process. Besides the already mentioned funda-
mental law of chemical combination, that of constant and
multiple proportions, there is the law of chemical mass-action,
discovered by Guldberg and Waage in 1867, which we will now
develop from a kinetic standpoint.

Kinetic Basis of the Law of Chemical Mass-action. We will
assume that the molecular species AI, A 2 , . . . A'i, A' 2) . . .
are present in a homogeneous system, where they can react on
each other only according to the scheme

A,+A 2 + ...^A'.+A'z-r- ...;
this is a special case of the general equation

BiAj+njAj-r- . . . > n'iA'i+n',A' 2 + ....

in which only one molecule of each substance takes part in the
reaction. The reacting substances may be either gaseous or
form a liquid mixture, or be dissolved in some selected solvent;
but in each case we may state the following considerations
regarding the course of the reaction. For a transformation to
take place from left to right in the sense of the reaction equation,
all the molecules AI, A 2 , . . . must clearly collide at one point;
otherwise no reaction is possible, since we shall not consider
side-reactions. Such a collision need not of course bring about
that transposition of the atoms of the single molecules which
constitutes the above reaction. Much rather must it be of such
a kind as is favourable to that loosening of the bonds that bind
the atoms in the separate molecules, which must precede this
transposition. Of a large number of such collisions, therefore,
only a certain smaller number will involve a transposition from
left to right in the sense of the equation. But this number will
be the same under the same external conditions, and the greater
the more numerous the collisions; in fact a direct ratio must
exist between the two. Bearing in mind now, that the number
of collisions must be proportional to each of the concentrations
of the bodies AI, A 2 , . . ., and therefore, on the whole, to the
product of all these concentrations, we arrive at the conclusion
that the velocity of the transposition from left to right in the
sense of the reaction equation is v = kciCi . . ., in which Ci, c 2 ,
. . . represent the spatial concentrations, i.e. the number of
gram-molecules of the substances Aj, A 2 , . . . present in one
litre, and k is, at a given temperature, a constant which may be
called the velocity-coefficient.

Exactly the same consideration applies to the molecules
A'i, A' z . . . Here the velocity of the change from right to
left in the sense of the reaction-equation increases with the
number of collisions of all these molecules at one point, and this
is proportional to the product of all the concentrations. If
k' denotes the corresponding proportionality-factor, then the
velocity if of the change from right to left in the sense of the
reaction-equation is n' = 'cV 2 . . . These spatial concentra-
tions are often called the " active masses " of the reacting com-
ponents. Hence the reaction- velocity in the sense of the reaction-
equation from left to right, or the reverse, is proportional to the
product of the " active-masses " of the left-hand or right-hand
components respectively.

Neither v nor jf can be separately investigated, and the
measurements of the course of a reaction always furnish only
the difference of these two quantities. The reaction-
c"^nical velocity actually observed represents the difference
statics. of these two partial reaction-velocities, whilst the
amount of change observed during any period of time
is equal to the change in the one direction, minus the change in
the opposite direction. It must not be assumed, however, that
on the attainment of equilibrium all action has ceased, but
rather that the velocity of change in one direction has become
equal to that in the opposite direction, with the result that no
further total change can be observed, i.e. the system has reached
equilibrium, for which the relation ' = o must therefore hold,
or what is the same thing

kcid. . . = k'c\c'i. .. ;
this is the fundamental law of chemical statics.

The conception that the equilibrium is not to be attributed
to absolute indifference between the reacting bodies, but that
these continue to exert their mutual actions undiminished and
the opposing changes now balance, is of fundamental significance
in the interpretation of changes of matter in general. This is
generally expressed in the form: the equilibrium in this and
other analogous cases is not static but dynamic. This conception
was a direct result of the kinetic-molecular considerations, and
was applied with special success to the development of the kinetic
theory of gases. Thus with Clausius, we conceive the equilibrium
of water-vapour with water, not as if neither water vaporized
nor vapour condensed, but rather as though the two processes
went on unhindered in the equilibrium state, i.e. during contact
of saturated vapour with water, in a given time, as many water
molecules passed through the water surface in one direction as
in the opposite direction. This view, as applied to chemical
changes, was first advanced by A. W. Williamson (1851), and
further developed by C. M. Guldberg and P. Waage and
others.

From the previous considerations it follows that the reaction-
velocity at every moment, i.e. the velocity with
which the chemical process advances towards the
equilibrium state, is given by the equation kinetics.

V=v-v' = kc l c 2 ...-k'c',c' i ...;

this states the fundamental law of chemical kinetics.

The equilibrium equation is simply a special case of this more
general one, and results when the total velocity is written
zero, just as in analytical mechanics the equilibrium conditions
follow at once by specialization of the general equations of
motion.

. No difficulty presents itself in the generalization of the previous
equations for the reaction which proceeds after the scheme

njA,+jA,+ . . . =n'iA'i+n'sA',+ . . . ,

where MtjWz, . . .,'i, w' 2 , . . . denote the numbers of molecules
of the separate substances which take part in the reaction, and
are therefore whole, mostly small, numbers (generally one or
two, seldom three or more). Here as before, and if are to be
regarded as proportional to the number of collisions at one point
of all molecules necessary to the respective reaction, but now ni
molecules of AI, 2 molecules of A 2 , &c., must collide for the
reaction to advance from left to right in the sense of the equation ;
and similarly n\ molecules of A'i, ' 2 molecules of A' 2 , &c.,
must collide for the reaction to proceed in the opposite direction.
If we consider the path of a single, arbitrarily chosen molecule
over a certain time, then the number of its collisions with other
similar molecules will be proportional to the concentration C
of that kind of molecule to which it belongs. The number of
encounters between two molecules of the kind in question, during
the same time, will be in general C times as many, i.e. the number
of encounters of two of the same molecules is proportional to
the square of the concentration C; and generally, the number
of encounters of n molecules of one kind must be regarded as
proportional to the wth power of C, i.e. O.

The number of collisions of n\ molecules of AI, ni molecules
of A 2 . . . is accordingly proportional to Cr'CJ 2 . . . , and the
reaction-velocity corresponding to it is therefore

v = kC" l C^...,

and similarly the opposed reaction-velocity is
' = 'C;"'C; n ''...;

the resultant reaction-velocity, being the difference of these
two partial velocities, is therefore

V=v-v'=kC?C?. . . -k'C'^C'S' 1 . . .

This is the most general expression of the law of chemical mass-
action, for the case of homogeneous systems.

Equating V to zero, we obtain the equation for the equilibrium
state, viz.

K is called the " equilibrium-constant."

CHEMICAL ACTION

These formulae hold for gases and for dilute solutions, but
assume the system to be homogeneous, i.e. to be either a homo-
LimHa- geneous gas-mixture or a homogeneous dilute solution.
tions ana The case in which other states of matter share in the
applies- equilibrium permits of simple treatment when the
substances in question may be regarded as pure, and
consequently as possessing definite vapour-pressures
or solubilities at a given temperature. In this case the molecular
species in question, which is, at the same time, present in excess
and is hence usually, called a Bodenkorper, must possess a constant
concentration in the gas-space or solution. But since the left-
hand side of the last equation contains only variable quantities,
it is simplest and most convenient to absorb these constant
concentrations into the equilibrium-constant; whence we have
the rule: leave the molecular species present as Bodenkorper
out of account, when determining the concentration-product.
Guldberg and Waage expressed this in the form " the active
mass of a solid substance is constant." The same is true of
liquids when these participate in the pure state in the equilibrium,
and possess therefore a definite vapour-pressure or solubility.
When, finally, we are not dealing with a dilute solution but with
any kind of mixture whatever, it is simplest to apply the law
of mass-action to the gaseous mixture in equilibrium with this.
The composition of the liquid mixture is then determinable
when the vapour-pressures of the separate components are
known. This, however, is not often the case; but in principle
this consideration is important, since it involves the possibility
of extending the law of chemical mass-action from ideal gas-
mixtures and dilute solutions, for which it primarily holds, to
any other system whatever.

The more recent development of theoretical chemistry, as
well as the detailed study of many chemical processes which
have found technical application, leads more and more con-
vincingly to the recognition that in the law of chemical mass-
action we have a law of as fundamental significance as the law
of constant and multiple proportions. It is therefore not without
interest to briefly touch upon the development of the doctrine
of chemical affinity.

Historical Development of the Law of Mass-action. The theory
developed by Torbern Olof Bergman in 1775 must be regarded
as the first attempt of importance to account for the mode of
action of chemical forces. The essential principle of this may
be stated as follows: The magnitude of chemical affinity may
be expressed by a definite number; if the affinity of the sub-
stance A is greater for the substance B than for the substance
C, then the latter (C) will be completely expelled by B from its
compound with A, in the sense of the equation A- C+B = A-B-j- C.
This theory fails, however, to take account of the influence of
the relative masses of the reacting substances, and had to be
abandoned as soon as such an influence was noticed. An
attempt to consider this factor was made by Claude Louis
Berthollet (1801), who introduced the conception of chemical
equilibrium. The views of this French chemist may be summed
up in the following sentence: Different substances have differ-
ent affinities for each other, which only come into play on im-
mediate contact. The condition of equilibrium depends not only
upon the chemical affinity, but also essentially upon the relative
masses of the reacting substances.

Essentially, Berthollet's idea is to-day the guiding principle
of the doctrine of affinity. This is especially true of our con-
ceptions of many reactions which, in the sense of Bergman's idea,
proceed to completion, i.e. until the reacting substances are all
used up; but only for this reason, viz. that one or more of the
products of the reaction is removed from the reaction mixture
(either by crystallization, evaporation or some other process),
and hence the reverse reaction becomes impossible. Following
Berthollet's idea, two Norwegian investigators, C. M. Guldberg
and Peter Waage, succeeded in formulating the influence of the
reacting masses in a simple law the law of chemical mass-action
already defined. The results of their theoretical and experi-
mental studies were published at Christiania in 1867 (tudes sur
les affinitis chimiques); this work marks a new epoch in the

history of chemistry. Even before this, formulae to describe the
progress of certain chemical reactions, which must be regarded
as applications of the law of mass-action, had been put forward
by Ludwig Wilhelmy (1850), and by A. G. Vernon-Harcourt
and William Esson (1856), but the service of Guldberg and
Waage in having grasped the law in its full significance and
logically applied it in all directions, remains of course un-
diminished. Their treatise remained quite unknown; and so
it happened that John Hewitt Jellett (1873), J. H. van't Hoff
(1877), and others independently developed the same law.
The thermodynamic basis of the law of mass-action is primarily
due to Horstmann, J. Willard Gibbs and van't Hoff.

Applications. Let us consider, as an example of the appli-
cation of the law of mass-action, the case of the dissociation of
water-vapour, which takes place at high temperatures in the
sense of the equation 2H 2 O = 2H 2 -)-O2. Representing the con-
centrations of the corresponding molecular species by [Hj, &c.,
the expression [Hj 2 [Oj/tH^] 2 must be constant at any given
temperature. This shows that the dissociation is set back by
increasing the pressure; for if the concentrations of all three
kinds of molecules be increased by strong compression, say to
ten times the former amounts, then the numerator is increased
one thousand, the denominator only one hundred times. Hence
if the original equilibrium-constant is to hold, the dissociation
must go back, and, what is more, by an exactly determinable
amount. At 2000 C. water-vapour is only dissociated to the
extent of a few per cent; therefore, even when only a small
excess of oxygen or hydrogen be present, the numerator in the
foregoing expression is much increased, and it is obvious that in
order to restore the equilibrium state, the concentration of the
other component, hydrogen or oxygen as the case may be, must
diminish. In the case of slightly dissociated substances, there-
fore, even a relatively small excess of one component is sufficient
to set back the dissociation substantially.

Chemical Kinetics. It has been already mentioned that the
law of chemical mass-action not only defines the conditions for
chemical equilibrium, but contains at the same time the prin-
ciples of chemical kinetics. The previous considerations show
indeed that the actual progress of the reaction is determined by
the difference of the reaction-velocities in the one and the other
(opposed) direction, in the sense of the corresponding reaction -
equation. Since the reaction-velocity is given by the amount of
chemical change in a small interval of time, the law of chemical
mass-action supplies a differential equation, which, when in-
tegrated, provides formulae which, as numerous experiments
have shown, very happily summarize the course of the reaction.
For the simplest case, in which a single species of molecule under-
goes almost complete decomposition, so that the reaction-
velocity in the reverse direction may be neglected, we have the
simple equation

dxldt = k(a-x),

and if x = o when t = o we have by integration
k=l-nog{a/(a-x)}.

We will now apply these conclusions to the theory of the
ignition of an explosive gas-mixture, and in particular to the
combustion of " knallgas " (a mixture of hydrogen Theory of
and oxygen) to water-vapour. At ordinary tempera- expio-
tures knallgas undergoes practically no change, and slve f -
it might be supposed that the two gases, oxygen and
hydrogen, have no affinity for each other. This conclusion,
however, is shown to be incorrect by the observation that it is
only necessary to add some suitable catalyst such as platinum-
black in order to immediately start the reaction. We must
therefore conclude that even at ordinary temperatures strong
chemical affinity is exerted between oxygen and hydrogen, but
that at low temperatures this encounters great frictional resist-
ances, or in other words that the reaction-velocity is very small.
It is a matter of general experience that the resistances which
the chemical forces have to overcome diminish with rising
temperature, i.e. the reaction-velocity increases with temperature.
Therefore, when we warm the knallgas, the number of collisions
of oxygen and hydrogen molecules favourable to the formation

CHEMICAL ACTION

of water becomes greater and greater, until at about 500 the
gradual formation of water is observed, while at still higher
temperatures the reaction-velocity becomes enormous. We
are now in a position to understand what is the result of a strong
local heating of the knallgas, as, for example, by an electric spark.
The strongly heated parts of the knallgas combine to form
water-vapour with great velocity and the evolution of large
amounts of heat, whereby the adjacent parts are brought to a
high temperature and into a state of rapid reaction, i.e. we
observe an ignition of the whole mixture. If we suppose the
knallgas to be at a very high temperature, then its combustion
will be no longer complete owing to the dissociation of water-
vapour, whilst at extremely high temperatures it would practi-
cally disappear. Hence it is clear that knallgas appears to be
stable at low temperatures only because the reaction-velocity
is very small, but that at very high temperatures it is really
stable, since no chemical forces are then active, or, in other
words, the chemical affinity is very small.

The determination of the question whether the failure of
some reaction is due to an inappreciable reaction-velocity or to
absence of chemical affinity, is of fundamental importance, and
only in the first case can the reaction be hastened by catalysts.

Many chemical compounds behave like knallgas. Acetylene
is stable at ordinary temperatures, inasmuch as it only decom-
poses slowly; but at the same time it is explosive, for the
decomposition when once started is rapidly propagated, on
account of the heat evolved by the splitting up of the gas into
carbon and hydrogen. At very high temperatures, however,
acetylene acquires real stability, since carbon and hydrogen
then react to form acetylene.

Many researches have shown that the combustion of an
inflammable gas-mixture which is started at a point, e.g. by an
electric spark, may be propagated in two essentially
waves.""' different ways. The characteristic of the slower
combustion consists in this, viz. that the high tempera-
ture of the previously ignited layer spreads by conduction,
thereby bringing the adjacent layers to the ignition-temperature;
the velocity of the propagation is therefore conditioned in the
first place by the magnitude of the conductivity f<5r heat, and
more particularly, in the second place, by the velocity with
which a moderately heated layer begins to react chemically,
and so to rise gradually in temperature, i.e. essentially by the
change of reaction-velocity with temperature. A second
entirely independent mode of propagation of the combustion
lies at the basis of the phenomenon that an explosive gas-mixture
can be ignited by strong compression or more correctly by
the rise of temperature thereby produced. The increase of the
concentrations of the reacting substances consequent upon this
increase of pressure raises the reaction-velocity in accordance
with the law of chemical mass-action, and so enormously favours
the rapid evolution of the heat of combustion.

It is therefore clear that such a powerful compresskm-wave
can not only initiate the combustion, but also propagate it with
extremely high velocity. Indeed a compression-wave of this
kind passes through the gas-mixture, heated by the combustion
to a very high temperature. It must, however, be propagated
considerably faster than an ordinary compression-wave, for
the result of ignition in the compressed (still unburnt) layer is
the production of a very high pressure, which must in accordance
with the principles of wave-motion increase the velocity of
propagation. The absolute velocity of the explosion-wave
would seem, in the light of these considerations, to be susceptible
of accurate calculation. It is at least clear that it must be
considerably higher than the velocity of sound in the mass of
gas strongly heated by the explosion, and this is confirmed by
actual measurements (see below) which show that the velocity
of the explosion-wave is from one and a half times to double
that of sound-waves at the combustion temperature.

We are now in a position to form the following picture of the
processes which follow upon the ignition of a combustible gas-
mixture contained in a long tube. First we have the condition
of slow combustion; the heat is conveyed by conduction to the

Velocity of Wave in

Reacting Mixture

Metres per second.

Berthelot.

Dixon.

Hydrogen

and oxygen,

H 2 +0 . .

2810

2821

Hydrogen and nitrous oxide,
Methane and oxygen,

H 2 +N 2 .
CH4+4O .

2284 '
2287

2305
2322

Ethylene

M ,i

C 2 H 4 +6O.

22IO

2364

Acetylene

j, ii

C 2 H 2 +5O .

2482

2391

Cyanogen

M t

C 2 N 2 +4O .

2195

2321

Hydrogen

and chlorine,

H 2 +CI 2 .

1730

2H 2 +C1 2 .

1849

adjacent layers, and there follows a velocity of propagation of
a few metres per second. But since the combustion is accom-
panied by a high increase of pressure, the adjacent, still unburnt
layers are simultaneously compressed, whereby the reaction-
velocity increases, and the ignition proceeds faster. This
involves still greater compression of the next layers, and so if
the mixture be capable of sufficiently rapid combustion, the
velocity of propagation of the ignition must continually increase.
As soon as the compression in the still unburnt layers becomes
so great that spontaneous ignition results, the now much
more pronounced compression-waves excited with simultaneous
combustion must be propagated with very great velocity, i.e.
we have spontaneous development of an " explosion-wave."
M.P.E. Berthelot, who discovered the presence of such explosion-
waves, proved their velocity of propagation to be independent
of the pressure, the cross-section of the tubes in which the
explosive gas-mixture is contained, as well as of the material
of which these are made, and concluded that this velocity is a
constant, characteristic of the particular mixture. The deter-
mination of this velocity is naturally of the highest interest.

In the following table Berthelot's results are given along with
the later (1891) concordant ones of H. B. Dixon, the velocities
of propagation of explosions being given in metres per second.

The maximum pressure of the explosion-wave possesses very
high values; it appears that a compression of from i to 30-40
atmospheres is necessary to produce spontaneous ignition of
mixtures of oxygen and hydrogen. But since the heat evolved
in the path of the explosion causes a rise of temperature of
20oo-300o, i.e. a rise of absolute temperature about four
times that directly following upon the initial compression, we are
here concerned with pressures amounting to considerably more
than 100 atmospheres. Both the magnitude of this pressure
and the circumstance that it so suddenly arises are peculiar to
the very powerful forces which distinguish the explosion-wave
from the slow combustion-wave.

Nascent State. The great reactive power of freshly formed
or nascent substances (status nascens) may be very simply
referred to the principles of mass-action. As is well known,
this phenomenon is specially striking in the case of hydrogen,
which may therefore be taken as a typical example. The law
of mass-action affirms the action of a substance to be the greater
the higher its concentration, or, for a gas, the higher its partial-
pressure. Now experience teaches that those metals which
liberate hydrogen from acids are able to supply the latter under
extremely high pressure, and we may therefore assume that the
hydrogen which results, for example, from the action of zinc
upon sulphuric acid is initially under very high pressures which
are then afterwards relieved. Hence the hydrogen during
liberation exhibits much more active powers of reduction than
the ordinary gas.

A deeper insight into the relations prevailing here is offered
from the atomistic point of view. From this we are bound to
conclude that the hydrogen is in the first instance evolved in
the form of free atoms, and since the velocity of the reaction
H+H=H 2 at ordinary temperatures, though doubtless very
great, is not practically instantaneous, the freshly generated
hydrogen will contain a remnant of free atoms, which are able to
react both more actively and more rapidly. Similar considera-
tions are of course applicable to other cases.

Ion-reactions. The application of the law of chemical mass-

CHEMICAL ACTION

action is much simplified in the case in which the reaction-
velocity is enormously great, when practically an instantaneous
adjustment of the equilibrium results. Only in this case can the
state of the system, which pertains after mixing the different
components, be determined merely from knowledge of the
equilibrium-constant. This case is realized in the reactions
between gases at very high temperatures, which have, however,
been little investigated, and especially by the reactions between
electrolytes, the so-called ion-reactions. In this latter case,
which has been thoroughly studied on account of its fundamental
importance for inorganic qualitative and quantitative analysis,
the degrees of dissociation of the various electrolytes (acids,
bases and salts) are for the most part easily determined by the
aid of the freezing-point apparatus, or of measurements of the
electric conductivity; and from these data the equilibrium-
constant K may be calculated. Moreover, it can be shown
that the state of the system can be determined when the equi-
librium constants of all the electrolytes which are present in the
common solution are known. If this be coupled with the law
that the solubility of solid substances, as with vapour-pressures,
is independent of the presence of other electrolytes, it is sufficient
to know the solubilities of the electrolytes in question, in order
to be able to determine which substances must participate in the
equilibrium in the solid state, i.e. we arrive at the theory of the
formation and solution of precipitates.

As an illustration of the application of these principles, we
shall deal with a problem of the doctrine of affinity, namely,
that of the relative strengths of acids and bases. It
was 1 u ' te an ear ly an( i often repeated observation
and bases, that the various acids and bases take part with very
varying intensity or avidity in those reactions in
which their acid or basic nature comes into play. No success
attended the early attempts at giving numerical expression to
the strengths of acids and bases, i.e. of finding a numerical
coefficient for each acid and base, which should be the quantita-
tive expression of the degree of its participation in those specific
reactions characteristic of acids and bases respectively. Julius
Thomsen and W. Ostwald attacked the problem in a far-seeing
and comprehensive manner, and arrived at indisputable proof
that the property of acids and bases of exerting their effects
according to definite numerical coefficients finds expression not
only in salt-formation but also in a large number of other, and
indeed very miscellaneous, reactions.

When Ostwald compared the order of the strengths of acids
deduced from their competition for the same base, as determined
by Thomsen's thermo-chemical or his own volumetric method,
with that order in which the acids arrange themselves according
to their capacity to bring calcium oxalate into solution, or to
convert acetamide into ammonium acetate, or to split up
methyl acetate into methyl alcohol and acetic acid catalytically,
or to invert cane-sugar, or to accelerate the mutual action of
hydriodic on bromic acid, he found that in all these well-investi-
gated and very miscellaneous cases the same succession of acids
in the order of their strengths is obtained, whichever one of the
above chemical processes be chosen as measure of these strengths.
It is to be noticed that all these chemical changes cited took
place in dilute aqueous solution, consequently the above order
of acids refers only to the power to react under these circum-
stances. The order of acids proved to be fairly independent
of temperature. While therefore the above investigations
afforded a definite qualitative solution of the order of acids
according to strengths, the determination of the quantitative
relations offered great difficulties, and the numerical coefficients,
determined from the separate reactions, often displayed great
variations, though occasionally also surprising agreement.
Especially great were the variations of the coefficients with the
concentration, and in those cases in which the concentration
of the acid changed considerably during the reaction, the calcu-
lation was naturally quite uncertain. Similar relations were
found in the investigation of bases, the scope of which, however,
was much more limited.

These apparently rather complicated relations were now

cleared up at one stroke, by the application of the law of chemical
mass-action on the lines indicated by S. Arrhenius in 1887, when
he put forward the theory of electrolytic dissociation to explain
that peculiar behaviour of substances in aqueous solution first
recognized by van't Hoff in 1885. The formulae which must
be made use of here in the calculation of the equilibrium-relations
follow naturally by simple application of the law of mass-action
to the corresponding ion-concentrations.

The peculiarities which the behaviour of acids and bases
presents, and, according to the theory of Arrhenius, must
present peculiarities which found expression in the very early
distinction between neutral solutions on the one hand, and acid
or basic ones on the other, as well as in the belief in a polar
antithesis between the two last must now, in the light of the
theory of electrolytic dissociation, be conceived as follows:

The reactions characteristic of acids in aqueous solution,
which are common to and can only be brought about by acids,
find their explanation in the fact that this class of bodies gives
rise on dissociation to a common molecular species, namely, the

positively charged hydrogen-ion (jj). The specific chemical

actions peculiar to acids are therefore to be attributed to the
hydrogen-ion just as the actions common to all chlorides are to
be regarded as those of the free chlorine-ions. In like manner,
the reactions characteristic of bases in solution are to be attri-
buted to the negatively charged hydroxyl-ions (QH)> wrl ich
result from the dissociation of this class of bodies.

A solution has an acid reaction when it contains an excess of
hydrogen-ions, and a basic reaction when it contains an excess
of hydroxyl-ions. If an acid and an alkaline solution be brought
together mutual neutralization must result, since the positive
H-ions and the negative OH-ions cannot exist together in view
of the extremely weak conductivity of pure water and its conse-
quent slight electrolytic dissociation, and therefore they must at
once combine to form electrically neutral molecules, in the sense
of the equation + _

H+OH = H 2 O.

In this lies the simple explanation of the " polar " difference
between acid and basic solutions. This rests essentially upon the
fact that the ion peculiar to acids and the ion peculiar to bases
form the two constituents of water, i.e. of that solvent in which
we usually study the course of the reaction. The idea of the
" strength " of an acid or base at once arises. If we compare
equivalent solutions of various acids, the intensity of those
actions characteristic of them will be the greater the more free
hydrogen-ions they contain; this is an immediate consequence
of the law of chemical mass-action. The degree of electrolytic
dissociation determines, therefore, the strength of acids, and a
similar consideration leads to the same result for bases.

Now the degree of electrolytic dissociation changes with
concentration in a regular manner, which is given by the law of
mass-action. For if C denote the concentration of the electrolyte
and a its degree of dissociation, the above law states that

CV/C(i -a) =Ca 2 /(i -a) =K.

At very great dilutions the dissociation is complete, and equiva-
lent solutions of the most various acids then contain the same
number of hydrogen-ions, or, in other words, are equally strong;
and the same is true of the hydroxyl-ions of bases. The dis-
sociation also decreases with increasing concentration, but at
different rates for different substances, and the relative
" strengths " of acids and bases must hence change with concen-
tration, as was indeed found experimentally. The dissociation-
constant K is the measure of the variation of the degree of
dissociation with concentration, and must therefore be regarded
as the measure of the strengths of acids and bases. So that in
this special case we are again brought to the result which was
stated in general terms above, viz. that the dissociation-coefficient
forms the measure of the reactivity of a dissolved electrolyte.
Ostwald's series of acids, based upon the investigation of the
most various reactions, should therefore correspond with the
order of their dissociation-constants, and further with the

CHEMICAL ACTION

order of their freezing-point depressions in equivalent solutions,
since the depression of the freezing-point increases with the
degree of electrolytic dissociation. Experience confirms this
conclusion completely. The degree of dissociation of an acid,
at a given concentration, for which its molecular conductivity
is A, is shown by the theory of electrolytic dissociation to be
a=A/A.; A, the molecular conductivity at very great dilu-
tion in accordance with the law of Kohlrausch, is +, where
a and v are the ionic-mobilities (see CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC).
Since u, the ionic-mobility of the hydrogen ion, is generally
more than ten times as great as v, the ionic-mobility of the
negative acid-radical, A, has approximately the same value
(generally within less than 10%) for the different acids, and the
molecular-conductivity of the acids in equivalent concentration
is at least approximately porportional to the degree of electrolytic
dissociation, i.e. to the strength.

In general, therefore, the order of conductivities is identical
with that in which the acids exert their specific powers. This
remarkable parallelism, first perceived by Arrhenius and Ostwald
in 1885, was the happy development which led to the discovery
of electrolytic dissociation (see CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC; and
SOLUTION).

Catalysis. We have already mentioned the fact, early known
to chemists, that many reactions proceed with a marked increase
of velocity in presence of many foreign substances. With
Berzelius we call this phenomenon " catalysis," by which we
understand that general acceleration of reactions which also
progress when left to themselves, in the presence of certain
bodies which do not change in amount (or only slightly) during
the course of the reaction. Acids and bases appear to act
catalytically upon all reactions involving consumption or
liberation of water, and indeed that action is proportional to the
concentration of the hydrogen or hydroxyl-ions. Further, the
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is " catalysed " by iodine-
ions, the condensation of two molecules of benzaldehyde to
benzoin by cyanogen-ions. One of the earliest known and
technically most important instances of catalysis is that of the
oxidation of sulphur dioxide to sulphuric acid by oxygen in the
presence of oxides of nitrogen. Other well-known and remark-
able examples are the catalysis of the combustion of hydrogen
and of sulphur dioxide in oxygen by finely-divided platinum.
We may also mention the interesting work of Dixon and Baker,
which led to the discovery that a large number of gas-reactions,
e.g. the combustion of carbon monoxide, the dissociation of
sal-ammoniac vapour, and the action of sulphuretted hydrogen
upon the salts of heavy metals, cease when water-vapour is
absent, or at least proceed with greatly diminished velocity.

"Negative catalysis," i.e. the retardation of a reaction by
addition of some substance, which is occasionally observed,
appears to depend upon the destruction of a " positive catalyte "
by the body added.

A catalyte can have no influence, however, upon the affinity
of a process, since that would be contrary to the second law of
thermodynamics, according to which affinity of an isothermal
process, which is measured by the maximum work, only depends
upon the initial and final states. The effect of a catalyte is
therefore limited to the resistances opposing the progress of a
reaction, and does not influence its driving-force or affinity.
Since the catalyte takes no part in the reaction its presence has
no effect on the equilibrium-constant. This, in accordance
with the law of mass-action, is the ratio of the separate reaction-
velocities in the two contrary directions. A catalyte must
therefore always accelerate the reverse-reaction. If the velocity
of formation of a body be increased by addition of some substance
then its velocity of decomposition must likewise increase. We
have an example of this in the well-known fact that the formation,
and no less the saponification, of esters, proceeds with increased
velocity in the presence of acids, while the observation that in
absence of water-vapour neither gaseous ammonium chloride
dissociates nor dry ammonia combines with hydrogen chloride
becomes clear on the same grounds.

A general theory of catalytic phenomena does not at present

exist. The formation of intermediate products by the action
of the reacting substance upon the catalyte has often been
thought to be the cause of these. These intervening products,
whose existence in many cases has been proved, then split up
into the catalyte and the reaction-product. Thus chemists
have sought to ascribe the influence of oxides of nitrogen on the
formation of sulphuric acid to the initial formation of nitrosyl-
sulphuric acid, SO 2 (OH)(NO 2 ), from the mixture of sulphur
dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and air, which then reacted with water
to form sulphuric and nitrous acids. When the velocity of such
intermediate reactions is greater than that of the total change,
such an explanation may suffice, but a more certain proof of this
theory of catalysis has only been reached in a few cases, though
in many others it appears very plausible. Hence it is hardly
possible to interpret all catalytic processes on these lines.

In regard to catalysis in heterogeneous systems, especially
the hastening of gas-reactions by platinum, it is very probable
that it is closely connected with the solution or absorption of the
gases on the part of the metal. From the experiments of G.
Bredig it seems that colloidal solutions of a metal act like the
metal itself. The action of a colloidal-platinum solution on the
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is still sensible even at a
dilution of 1/70,000,000 grm.-mol. per litre; indeed the activity
of this colloidal-platinum solution calls to mind in many ways
that of organic ferments, hence Bredig has called it an " inorganic
ferment." This analogy is especially striking in the change of
their activity with time and temperature, and in the possibility,
by means of bodies like sulphuretted hydrogen, hydrocyanic
acid, &c., which act as strong poisons upon the latter, of "poison-
ing " the former also, i.e. of rendering it inactive. In the case
of the catalytic action of water-vapour upon many processes
of combustion already mentioned, a part of the effect is prob-
ably due to the circumstance, disclosed by numerous experi-
ments, that the union of hydrogen and oxygen proceeds,
between certain temperature limits at least, after the equation
H 2 + O 2 = H 2 O 2 , that is, with the preliminary formation of
hydrogen peroxide, which then breaks down into water and
oxygen, and further, above all, to the fact that this substance
results from oxygen and water at high temperatures with great
velocity, though indeed only in small quantities.

The view now suggests itself, that, for example, in the com-
bustion of carbon monoxide at moderately high temperatures,
the reaction

(I.) 2CO+0 2 =2C0 2

advances with imperceptible speed, but that on the contrary the
two stages

(II.) 2H 2 O+O*=2H 2 2 ,

(III.) 2CO+2H 2 2 =2CO 2 +2H 2 O,

which together result in (I.), proceed rapidly even at moderate
temperatures.

Temperature and Reaction-Velocity. There are few natural
constants which undergo so marked a change with temperature
as those of the velocities of chemical changes. As a rule a rise
of temperature of 10 causes a twofold or threefold rise of
reaction-velocity.

If the reaction-coefficient k, in the sense of the equation
derived above, viz. k = t~ l Idg \a/(a-x)\, be determined for the
inversion of cane-sugar by an acid of given co'ncentration, the
following values are obtained:

Temperature = 25 40 45 50 55
k =9.7 73 139 268 491;

here a rise of temperature of only 30 suffices to raise the speed of
inversion fifty times.

We possess no adequate explanation of this remarkable
temperature influence; but some account of it is given by the
molecular theory, according to which the energy of that motion
of substances in homogeneous gaseous or liquid systems which
constitutes heat increases with the temperature, and hence also
the frequency of collision of the reacting substances. When we
reflect that the velocity of motion of the molecules of gases, and
in all probability those of liquids also, are proportional to the
square root of the absolute temperature, and therefore rise by

CHEMICAL ACTION

only J% per degree at room-temperature, and that we must
assume the number of collisions proportional to the velocity of
the molecules, we cannot regard the actually observed increase
of reaction-velocity, which often amounts to 10 or 12 % per degree,
as exclusively due to the quickening of the molecular motion by
heat. It is more probable that the increase of the kinetic energy
of the atomic motions within the molecule itself is of significance
here, as the rise of the specific heat of gases with temperature
seems to show. The change of the reaction-coefficient k with
temperature may be represented by the empirical equation
log k= -AT" 1 + B + CT, where A, B, C are positive constants.
For low temperatures the influence of the last term is as a
rule negligible, whilst for high temperatures the first term on the
right side plays a vanishingly small part.

Definition of Chemical Affinity. We have still to discuss the
question of what is to be regarded as the measure of chemical
affinity. Since we are not in a position to measure directly the
intensity of chemical forces, the idea suggests itself to determine
the strength of chemical affinity from the amount of the work
which the corresponding reaction is able to do. To a certain
extent the evolution of heat accompanying the reaction is a
measure of this work, and attempts have been made to measure
chemical affinities thermo-chemically, though it may be easily
shown that this definition was not well chosen. For when, as is
clearly most convenient, affinity is so defined that it determines
under all circumstances the direction of chemical change, the
above definition fails in so far as chemical processes often take
place with absorption of heat, that is, contrary to affinities so
defined. But even in those cases in which the course of the
reaction at first proceeds in the sense of the evolution of heat,
it is often observed that the reaction advances not to com-
pletion but to a certain equilibrium, or, in other words, stops
before the evolution of heat is complete.

A definition free from this objection is supplied by the second
law of thermodynamics, in accordance with which all processes
must take place in so far as they are able to do external work.
When therefore we identify chemical affinity with the maximum
work which can be gained from the process in question, we reach
such a definition that the direction of the process is under all
conditions determined by the affinity. Further, this definition
has proved serviceable in so far as the maximum work in many
cases may be experimentally measured, and moreover it stands
in a simple relation to the equilibrium constant K. Thermo-
dynamics teaches that the maximum work A may be expressed
as A = RT log K, when R denotes the gas-constant, T the absolute
temperature. In this it is further assumed that both the mole-
cular species produced as well as those that disappear are present
in unit concentration. The simplest experimental method of
directly determining chemical affinity consists in the measure-
ment of electromotive force. The latter at once gives us the work
which can be gained when the corresponding galvanic element
supplies the electricity, and, since the chemical exchange of one
gram-equivalent from Faraday's law requires 96,540 coulombs,
we obtain from the product of this number and the electromotive
force the work per gram-equivalent in watt-seconds, and this
quantity when multiplied by 0-23872 is obtained in terms of the
usual unit, the gram-calorie. Experience teaches that, especially
when we have to deal with strong affinities, the affinity so deter-
mined is"_for the most part almost the same as the heat-evolution,
whilst in the case in which only solid or liquid substances in the
pure state take part in the reaction at low temperatures, heat-
evolution and affinity appear to possess a practically identical
value.

Hence it seems possible to calculate equilibria for low tem-
peratures from heats of reaction, by the aid of the two equations

A = Q, A = RTlogK;

and since the change of A with temperature, as required by the
principles of thermodynamics, follows from the specific heats of
the reacting substances, it seems further possible to calculate
chemical equilibria from heats of reaction and specific heats.
The circumstance that chemical affinity and heat-evolution
so nearly coincide at low temperatures may be derived from the

hypothesis that chemical processes are the result of forces of
attraction between the atoms of the different elements. If we
may disregard the kinetic energy of the atoms, and this is
legitimate for low temperatures, it follows that both heat-evolu-
tion and chemical affinity are merely equal to the decrease of the
potential energy of the above-mentioned forces, and it is at once
clear that the evolution of heat during a reaction between only
pure solid or pure liquid substances possesses special importance.

More complicated is the case in which gases or dissolved sub-
stances take part. This is simplified if we first consider the
mixing of two mutually chemically indifferent gases. Thermo-
dynamics teaches that external work may be gained by the mere
mixing of two such gases (see DIFFUSION), and these amounts of
work, which assume very considerable proportions at high
temperatures, naturally afreet the value of the maximum work
and so also of the affinity, in that they always come into play
when gases or solutions react. While therefore we regard as
chemical affinity in the strictest sense the decrease of potential
energy of the forces acting between the atoms, it is clear that the
quantities here involved exhibit the simplest relations under the
experimental conditions just given, for when only substances
in a pure state take part in a reaction, all mixing of different
kinds of molecules is excluded; moreover, the circumstance
that the respective substances are considered at very low tempera-
tures reduces the quantities of energy absorbed as kinetic
energy by their molecules to the smallest possible amount.

Chemical Resistance. When we know the chemical affinity of
a reaction, we are in a position to decide in which direction the
process must advance, but, unless we know the reaction- velocity
also, we can in many cases say nothing as to whether or not the
reaction in question will progress with a practically inappreciable
velocity so that apparent chemical indifference is the result.
This question may be stated in the light of the law of mass-
action briefly as follows: From a knowledge of the chemical
affinity we can calculate the equilibrium, i.e. the numerical
value of the constant K = k/k'; but to be completely informed
of the process we must know not only the ratio of the two
velocity-constants k and k', but also the separate absolute values
of the same.

In many respects the following view is more comprehensive,
though naturally in harmony with the one just expressed.
Since the chemical equilibrium is periodically attained, it follows
that, as in the case of the motion of a body or of the diffusion of
a dissolved substance, it must be opposed by very great friction.
In all these cases the velocity of the process at every instant is
directly proportional to the driving-force and inversely pro-
portional to the frictional resistance. We hence arrive at the
result that an equation of the form

reaction-velocity = chemical force/chemical resistance
must also hold for chemical change; here we have an analogy
with Ohm's law. The " chemical force " at every instant may
be calculated from the maximum work (affinity); as yet little
is known about " chemical resistance," but it is not improbable
that it may be directly measured or theoretically deduced.
The problem of the calculation of chemical reaction-velocity in
absolute measure would then be solved; so far we possess indeed
only a few general facts concerning the magnitude of chemical
resistance. It is immeasurably small at ordinary temperatures
for ion-reactions, and, on the other hand, fairly large for nearly all
reactions in which carbon-bonds must be loosened (so-called
" inertia of the carbon-bond ") and possesses very high values
for most gas-reactions also. With rising temperature it always
strongly diminishes; on the other hand, at very low tempera-
tures its values are always enormous, and at the absolute zero
of temperature may be infinitely great. Therefore at that
temperature all reactions cease, since the denominator in the
above expression assumes enormous values.

It is a very remarkable phenomenon that the chemical resist-
ance is often small in the case of precisely those reactions in
which the affinity is also small; to this circumstance is to be
traced the fact that in many chemical changes the most stable
condition is not at once reached, but is preceded by the formation

CHEMISTRY

of more or less unstable intermediate products. Thus the un-
stable ozone is very often first formed on the evolution of oxygen,
whilst in the reaction between oxygen and hydrogen water is
often not at once formed, but first the unstable hydrogen
peroxide as an intermediate product.

Let us now consider the chemical process in the light of the
equation

reaction-velocity = chemical force/ chemical resistance.

Thermodynamics shows that at very low temperatures, i.e.
in the immediate vicinity of the absolute zero, there is no
equilibrium, but every chemical process advances to completion
in the one or the other direction. The chemical forces therefore
act in the one direction towards complete consumption of the
reacting substance. But since the chemical resistance is now
immensely great, they can produce practically no appreciable
result.

At higher temperatures the reaction always proceeds, at least
in homogeneous systems, to a certain equilibrium, and as the
chemical resistance now has finite values this equilibrium will
always finally be reached after a longer or shorter time. Finally,
at very high temperatures the chemical resistance is in every case
very small, and the equilibrium is almost instantaneously
reached ; at the same time, the affinity of the reaction, as in the
case of the mutual affinity between oxygen and hydrogen, may
very strongly diminish, and we have then chemical indifference
again, not because, as at low temperatures, the denominator
of the previous expression becomes very great, but because the
numerator now assumes vanishingly small values. (W. N.)

CHEMISTRY (formerly " chymistry " ; Gr. \vntLa; for deri-
vation see ALCHEMY), the natural science which has for its pro-
vince the study of the composition of substances. In common
with physics it includes the determination of properties or
characters which serve to distinguish one substance from another,
but while the physicist is concerned with properties possessed by
all substances and with processes in which the molecules remain
intact, the chemist is restricted to those processes in which the
molecules undergo some change. For example, the physicist
determines the density, elasticity, hardness, electrical and
thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, &c.; the chemist,
on the other hand, investigates changes in composition, such as
may be effected by an electric current, by heat, or when two or
more substances are mixed. A further differentiation of the
provinces of chemistry and physics is shown by the classifications
of matter. To the physicist matter is presented in three leading
forms solids, liquids and gases; and although further sub-
divisions have been rendered necessary with the growth of
knowledge the same principle is retained, namely, a classification
based on properties having no relation to composition. The
fundamental chemical classification of matter, on the other
hand, recognizes two groups of substances, namely, elements,
which are substances not admitting of analysis into other
substances, and compounds, which do admit of analysis into
simpler substances and also of synthesis from simpler substances.
Chemistry and physics, however, meet on common ground in
a well-defined branch of science, named physical chemistry,
which is primarily concerned with the correlation of physical
properties and chemical composition, and, more generally,
with the elucidation of natural phenomena on the molecular
theory.

It may be convenient here to state how the whole subject of
chemistry is treated in this edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
The present article includes the following sections :

I. History. This section is confined to tracing the general trend
of the science from its infancy to the foundations of the modern
theory. The history of the alchemical period is treated in more
detail in the article ALCHEMY, and of the latrochemical in the article
MEDICINE. The evolution of the notion of elements is treated under
ELEMENT; the molecular hypothesis of matter under MOLECULE;
and the genesis of, and deductions from, the atomic theory of
Dalton receive detailed analysis in the article ATOM.

II. Principles. This section treats of such subjects as nomen-
clature, formulae, chemical equations, chemical change and similar
subjects. It is intended to provide an introduction, necessarily
brief, to the terminology and machinery of the chemist.

VI. 2

III. Inorganic Chemistry. Here is treated'the history of descrip-
tive inorganic chemistry; reference should be made to the articles
on the separate elements for an account of their preparation,
properties, &c.

IV. Organic Chemistry. This section includes a brief history of
the subject, and proceeds to treat of the principles underlying the
structure and interrelations of organic compounds.

V. Analytical Chemistry. This section treats of the qualitative
detection and separation of the metals, and the commoner methods
employed in quantitative analysis. The analysis of organic com-
pounds is also noticed.

VI. Physical Chemistry. This section is restricted to an account
of the relations existing between physical properties and chemical
composition. Other branches of this subject are treated in the
articles CHEMICAL ACTION; ENERGETICS; SOLUTION; ALLOYS;
THERMOCHEMISTRY.

I. HISTORY

Although chemical actions must have been observed by man
in the most remote times, and also utilized in such processes
as the extraction of metals from their ores and in the arts of
tanning and dyeing, there is no evidence to show that, beyond
an unordered accumulation of facts, the early developments of
these industries were attended by any real knowledge of the
nature of the processes involved. All observations were the
result of accident or chance, or possibly in some cases of experi-
mental trial, but there is no record of a theory or even a general
classification of the phenomena involved, although there is no
doubt that the ancients had a fair knowledge of the properties
and uses of the commoner substances. The origin of chemistry
is intimately bound up with the arts which we have, indicated;
in this respect it is essentially an experimental science. A
unifying principle of chemical and physical changes wa? provided
by metaphysical conceptions of the structure of matter. We
find the notion of " elements," or primary qualities, which
confer upon all species of matter their distinctive qualities by
appropriate combination, and also the doctrine that
matter is composed of minute discrete particles,
prevailing in the Greek schools. These " elements," sophy.
however, had not the significance of the elements of
to-day; the connoted physical appearances or qualities rather
than chemical relations; and the atomic theory of the ancients
is a speculation based upon metaphysical considerations, having,
in its origin, nothing in common with the modern molecular
theory, which was based upon experimentally observed properties
of gases (see ELEMENT; MOLECULE).

Although such hypotheses could contribute nothing directly
to the development of a science which laid especial claim to
experimental investigations, yet indirectly they stimulated
inquiry into the nature of the " essence " with which the four
elements " were associated. This quinta essenlia had been
speculated upon by the Greeks, some regarding it as immaterial
or aethereal, and others as material; and a school of philosophers
termed alchemists arose who attempted the isolation of this
essence. The existence of a fundamental principle, unalterable
and indestructible, prevailing alike through physical and chemical
changes, was generally accepted. Any change which a substance
may chance to undergo was simply due to the discarding or
taking up of some proportion of the primary " elements " or
qualities: of these coverings " water," " air," " earth " and
" fire " were regarded as clinging most tenaciously to the essence,
while " cold," " heat," " moistness " and " dryness " were
more easily cast aside or assumed. Several origins have been
suggested for the word alchemy, and there seems to Alchemy
have been some doubt as to the exact nature and
import of the alchemical doctrines. According to M. P. E.
Berthelot, " alchemy rested partly on the industrial processes
of the ancient Egyptians, partly on the speculative theories
of the Greek philosophers, and partly on the mystical reveries
of the Gnostics and Alexandrians." The search for this essence
subsequently resolved itself into the desire to effect the trans-
mutation of metals, more especially the base metals, into silver
and gold. It seems that this secondary principle became the
dominant idea in alchemy, and in this sense the word is used
in Byzantine literature of the 4th century; Suidas, writing in

CHEMISTRY

[HISTORY

the nth century, defines chemistry as the " preparation of
silver and gold " (see ALCHEMY).

From the Alexandrians the science passed to the Arabs,
who made discoveries and improved various methods of separat-
ing substances, and afterwards, from the nth century, became
seated in Europe, where the alchemical doctrines were assidu-
ously studied until the I5th and i6th centuries. It is readily
understood why men imbued with the authority of tradition
should prosecute the search for a substance which would
confer unlimited wealth upon the fortunate discoverer. Some
alchemists honestly laboured to effect the transmutation and to
discover the " philosopher's stone," and in many cases believed
that they had achieved success, if we may rely upon writings
assigned to them. The period, however, is one of literary
forgeries; most of the MSS. are of uncertain date and authorship,
and moreover are often so vague and mystical that they are of
doubtful scientific value, beyond reflecting the tendencies of
the age. The retaining of alchemists at various courts shows
the high opinion which the doctrines had gained. It is really
not extraordinary that Isaac Hollandus was able to indicate
the method of the preparation of the " philosopher's stone "
from " adamic " or " virgin " earth, and its action when medicin-
ally employed; that in the writings assigned to Roger Bacon,
Raimon Lull, Basil Valentine and others are to be found the
exact quantities of it to be used in transmutation; and that
George Ripley, in the isth century, had grounds for regarding
its action as similar to that of a ferment.

In the view of some alchemists, the ultimate principles of
matter were Aristotle's four elements; the proximate constituents
were a " sulphur " and a " mercury," the father and mother
of the metals; gold was supposed to have attained to the
perfection of its nature by passing in succession through the
forms of lead, brass and silver; gold and silver were held to
contain very pure red sulphur and white quicksilver, whereas
in the other metals these materials were coarser and of a different
colour. From an analogy instituted between the healthy human
being and gold, the most perfect of the metals, silver, mercury,
copper, iron, lead and tin, were regarded in the light of lepers
that required to be healed.

Notwithstanding the false idea which prompted the researches
of the alchemists, many advances were made in descriptive
latro- chemistry, the metals and their salts receiving much
chemistry, attention, and several of our important acids being
discovered. Towards the i6th century the failure
of the alchemists to achieve their cherished purpose, and the
general increase of medical knowledge, caused attention to be
given to the utilization of chemical preparations as medicines.
As early as the isth century the alchemist Basil Valentine had
suggested this application, but the great exponent of this
doctrine was Paracelsus, who set up a new definition: "The
true use of chemistry is not to make gold but to prepare medi-
cines." This relation of chemistry to medicine prevailed until
the 1 7th century, and what in the history of chemistry is termed
the iatrochemical period (see MEDICINE) was mainly fruitful
in increasing the knowledge of compounds; the contributions
to chemical theory are of little value, the most important con-
troversies ranging over the nature of the " elements," which were
generally akin to those of Aristotle, modified so as to be more
in accord with current observations. At the same time,
however, there were many who, opposed to the Paracelsian
definition of chemistry, still laboured at the problem of the
alchemists, while others gave much attention to the chemical
industries. Metallurgical operations, such as smelting, roasting
and refining, were scientifically investigated, and in some degree
explained, by Georg Agricola and Carlo Biringuiccio; ceramics
was studied by Bernard Palissy, who is also to be remembered as
an early worker in agricultural chemistry, having made experi-
ments on the effect of manures on soils and crops; while general
technical chemistry was enriched by Johann Rudolf Glauber. 1

1 The more notable chemists of this period were Turquet de
Mayerne(i573-i665), a physician of Paris.who rejected the Galenian
doctrines and accepted the exaggerations of Paracelsus ; Andreas

The second half of the I7th century witnessed remarkable
transitions and developments in all branches of natural science,
and the facts accumulated by preceding generations
during their generally unordered researches were re-
placed by a co-ordination of- experiment and deduction. From
the mazy and incoherent alchemical and iatrochemical doctrines,
the former based on false conceptions of matter, the latter on
erroneous views of life processes and physiology, a new science
arose the study of the composition of substances. The formula-
tion of this definition of chemistry was due to Robert Boyle.
In his Sceptical Chemist (1662) he freely criticized the prevailing
scientific views and methods, with the object of showing that
true knowledge could only be gained by the logical application
of the principles of experiment and deduction. Boyle's masterly
exposition of this method is his most important contribution to
scientific progress. At the same time he clarified the conception
of elements and compounds, rejecting the older notions, the
four elements of the " vulgar Peripateticks " and the three
principles of the " vulgar Stagyrists," and defining an element
as a substance incapable of decomposition, and a compound
as composed of two or more elements. He explained chemical
combination on the hypotheses that matter consisted of minute
corpuscles, that by the coalescence of corpuscles of different sub-
stances distinctly new corpuscles of a compound were formed, and
that each corpuscle had a certain affinity for other corpuscles.

Although Boyle practised the methods which he expounded,
he was unable to gain general acceptance of his doctrine of
elements; and, strangely enough, the theory which
next dominated chemical thought was an alchemical
invention, and lacked the lucidity and perspicuity
of Boyle's views. This theory, named the phlogistic theory,
was primarily based upon certain experiments on combustion
and calcination, and in effect reduced the number of -the
alchemical principles, while setting up a new one, a principle
of combustibility, named phlogiston (from ^Xoyurros, burnt).
Much discussion had centred about fire or the "igneous principle."
On the one hand, it had been held that when a substance was
burned or calcined, it combined with an '.'air"; on the other
hand, the operation was supposed to be attended by the destruc-
tion or loss of the igneous principle. Georg Ernst Stahl, following
in some measure the views held by Johann Joachim Becher, as,
for instance, that all combustibles contain a " sulphur " (which
notion is itself of older date than Becher's terra pinguis), regarded
all substances as capable of resolution into two components,
the inflammable principle phlogiston, and another element
" water," " acid " or " earth." The violence or completeness
of combustion was proportional to the amount of phlogiston
present. Combustion meant the liberation of phlogiston.
Metals on calcination gave calces from which the metals could
be recovered by adding phlogiston, and experiment showed that
this could generally be effected by the action of coal or carbon,
which was therefore regarded as practically pure phlogiston;
the other constituent being regarded as an acid. At the hands
of Stahl and his school, the phlogistic theory, by exhibiting a
fundamental similarity between all processes of combustion
and by its remarkable flexibility, came to be a general theory
of chemical action. The objections of the antiphlogistonists,
such as the fact that calces weigh more than the original metals
instead of less as the theory suggests, were answered by postulat-
ing that phlogiston was a principle of levity, or even completely
ignored as an accident, the change of qualities being regarded
as the only matter of importance. It is remarkable that this
theory should have gained the esteem of the notable chemists
who flourished in the i8th century. Henry Cavendish, a care-
ful and accurate experimenter, was a phlogistonist, as were
J. Black, K. W. Scheele, A. S. Marggraf, J. Priestley and many
others who might be mentioned.

Libayius (d. 1616), chiefly famous for his Opera Omnia Medico-
chymica (1595) ; Jean Baptiste van Helmont (1577-1644), celebrated
for his researches on gases ; F. de la Boe Sylvius (1614-1672), who
regarded medicine as applied chemistry; and Otto Tachenius, who
elucidated the nature of salts.

HISTORY]

CHEMISTRY

Descriptive chemistry was now assuming considerable pro-
portions; the experimental inquiries suggested by Boyle were
being assiduously developed; and a wealth of observa-
tions was being accumulated, for the explanation of
which the resources of the dominant theory were sorely taxed.
To quote Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, "... chemists have
turned phlogiston into a vague principle, . . . which conse-
quently adapts itself to all the explanations for which it may be
required. Sometimes this principle has weight, and sometimes
it has not; sometimes it is free fire and sometimes it is fire
combined with the earthy element; sometimes it passes through
the pores of vessels, sometimes these are impervious to it; it
explains both causticity and non-causticity, transparency and
opacity, colours and their absence; it is a veritable Proteus
changing in form at each instant." Lavoisier may be justly
regarded as the founder of modern or quantitative chemistry.
First and foremost, he demanded that the balance must be used
in all investigations into chemical changes. He established as
fundamental that combustion and calcination were attended
by an increase of weight, and concluded, as did Jean Rey and
John Mayow in the lyth century, that the increase was due to
the combination of the metal with the air. The problem could
obviously be completely solved only when the composition of the
air, and the parts played by its components, had been determined.
At all times the air had received attention, especially since van
Helmont made his far-reaching investigations on gases. Mayow
had suggested the existence of two components, a spiritus nitro-
aerus which supported combustion, and a spirilus nitri acidi
which extinguished fire; J. Priestley and K. W. Scheele,
although they isolated oxygen, were fogged by the phlogistic
tenets; . and H. Cavendish, who had isolated the nitrogen
of the atmosphere, had failed to decide conclusively what
had really happened to the air which disappeared during
combustion.

Lavoisier adequately recognized and acknowledged how
much he owed to the researches of others; to himself is due
the co-ordination of these researches, and the welding of his
results into a doctrine to which the phlogistic theory ultimately
succumbed. He burned phosphorus in air standing over
mercury, and showed that (i) there was a limit to the amount
of phosphorus which could be burned in the confined air, (2)
that when no more phosphorus could be burned, one-fifth of the
air had disappeared, (3) that the weight of the air lost was nearly
equal to the difference in the weights of the white solid produced
and the phosphorus burned, (4) that the density of the residual
air was less than that of ordinary air. The same results were
obtained with lead and tin; and a more elaborate repetition
indubitably established their correctness. He also showed that
on heating mercury calx alone an " air " was liberated which
differed from other " airs," and was slightly heavier than ordinary
air; moreover, the weight of the " air " set free from a given
weight of the calx was equal to the weight taken up in forming
the calx from mercury, and if the calx be heated with charcoal,
the metal was recovered and a gas named " fixed air," the modern
carbon dioxide, was formed. The former experiment had been
performed by Scheele and Priestley, who had named the gas
" phlogisticated air "; Lavoisier subsequently named it oxygen,
regarding it as the " acid producer " (6{js, sour). The theory
advocated by Lavoisier came to displace the phlogistic concep-
tion; but at first its acceptance was slow. Chemical literature
was full of the phlogistic modes of expression oxygen was
" dephlogisticated air," nitrogen " phlogisticated air," &c.
and this tended to retard its promotion. Yet really the transition
from the one theory to the other was simple, it being only
necessary to change the " addition or loss of phlogiston " into
the " loss or addition of oxygen." By his insistence upon the
use of the balance as a quantitative check upon the masses
involved in all chemical reactions, Lavoisier was enabled to
establish by his own investigations and the results achieved
by others the principle now known as the " conservation of
mass." Matter can neither be created nor destroyed; however
a chemical system be changed, the weights before and after are

equal. 1 To him is also due a rigorous examination of the nature
of elements and compounds; he held the same views that were
laid down by Boyle, and with the same prophetic foresight
predicted that some of the elements which he himself accepted
might be eventually found to be compounds.

It is unnecessary in this place to recapitulate the many
results which had accumulated by the end of the i8th century,
or to discuss the labours and theories of individual workers
since these receive attention under biographical headings;
in this article only the salient features in the history of our
science can be treated. The beginning of the igth century
was attended by far-reaching discoveries in the nature of the
composition of compounds. Investigations proceeded in two
directions: (i) the nature of chemical affinity, (2) the laws
of chemical combination. The first question has not
yet been solved, although it has been speculated upon
from the earliest times. The alchemists explained
chemical action by means of such phrases as " like attracts
like," substances being said to combine when one " loved "
the other, and the reverse when it " hated " it. Boyle rejected
this terminology, which was only strictly applicable to intelligent
beings; and he used the word " affinity " as had been previously
done by Stahl and others. The modern sense of the word, viz.
the force which holds chemically dissimilar substances together
(and also similar substances as is seen in di-, tri-, and poly-atomic
molecules), was introduced by Hermann Boerhaave, and made
more precise by Sir Isaac Newton. The laws of chemical com-
bination were solved, in a measure, by John Dalton, and the
solution expressed as Dalton's " atomic theory." Lavoisier
appears to have assumed that the composition of every chemical
compound was constant, and the same opinion was the basis
of much experimental inquiry at the hands of Joseph Louis
Proust during 1801 to i8ot), who vigorously combated the
doctrine of Claude Louis Berthollet (Essai de statique chimique,
1803), viz. that fixed proportions of elements and compounds
combine only under exceptional conditions, the general rule
being that the composition of a compound may vary continuously
between certain limits. 2

This controversy was unfinished when Dalton published the
first part of his New System of Chemical Philosophy in 1808,
although the per saltum theory was the most popular. Dalton
Led thereto by speculations on gases, Dalton assumed
that matter was composed of atoms, that in the elements the
atoms were simple, and in compounds complex, being composed
of elementary atoms. Dalton furthermore perceived that the
same two elements or substances may combine in different
proportions, and showed that these proportions had always a
simple ratio to one another. This is the " law of multiple
proportions." He laid down the following arbitrary rules for
determining the number of atoms in a compound: if only one
compound of two elements exists, it is a binary compound and
its atom is composed of one atom of each element; if two
compounds exist one is binary (say A + B) and the other ternary
(say A + 2B) ; if three, then one is binary and the others may be
ternary (A + 2B,and2A + B),andsoon. More important is his
deduction of equivalent weights, i.e. the relative weights of
atoms. He took hydrogen, the lightest substance known, to
be the standard. From analyses of water, which he regarded'
as composed of one atom of hydrogen and one of oxygen, he

1 This dictum was questioned by the researches of H. Land oh ,
A. Heydweiller and others. In a series of 75 reactions it was found
that in 61 there was apparently a diminution in weight, but in 1908,
after a most careful repetition and making allowance for all experi-
mental errors, Landolt concluded that no change occurred (see
ELEMENT).

2 The theory of Berthollet was essentially mechanical, and he
attempted to prove that the course of a reaction depended not on
affinities alone but also on the masses of the reacting components.
In this respect his hypothesis has much in common with the " law
of mass-action " developed at a much later date by the Swedish
chemists Guldberg and Waage, and the American, Willard Gibbs
(see CHEMICAL ACTION). In his classical thesis Berthollet vigorously
attacked the results deduced by Bergman, who had followed in his
table of elective attractions the path traversed by Stahl and S. F.
Geoff roy.

CHEMISTRY

[HISTORY

deduced the relative weight of the oxygen atom to be 6-5;
from marsh gas and olefiant gas he deduced carbon = 5, there
being one atom of carbon and two of hydrogen in the former
and one atom of hydrogen to one of carbon in the latter;
nitrogen had an equivalent of 5, and so on. 1

The value of Dalton's generalizations can hardly be over-
estimated, notwithstanding the fact that in several cases they
needed correction. The first step in this direction was effected
by the co-ordination of Gay Lussac's observations on the
combining volumes of gases. He discovered that gases always
combined in volumes having simple ratios, and that the volume
of the product had a simple ratio to the volumes of the reacting
gases. For example, one volume of oxygen combined with two
of hydrogen to form two volumes of steam, three volumes of
hydrogen combined with one of nitrogen to give two volumes
of ammonia, one volume of hydrogen combined with one of
chlorine to give two volumes of hydrochloric acid. An immediate
inference was that the Daltonian " atom " must have parts
which enter into combination with parts of other atoms; in
other words, there must exist two orders of particles, viz. (i)
particles derived by limiting mechanical subdivision, the modern
molecule, and (2) particles derived from the first class by chemical
subdivision, i.e. particles which are incapable of existing alone,
but may exist in combination. Additional evidence as to the
structure of the molecule was discussed by Avogadro in 1811,
and by Ampere in 1814. From the gas-laws of Boyle and J. A. C.
Charles viz. equal changes in temperature and pressure
occasion equal changes in equal volumes of all gases and vapours
Avogadro deduced the law: Under the same conditions
of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gases contain
equal numbers of molecules; and he showed that the relative
weights of the molecules are determined as the ratios of the
weights of equal volumes, or densities. He established the
existence of molecules and atoms as we have defined above,
and stated that the number of atoms in the molecule is generally
2, but may be 4, 8, &c. We cannot tell whether his choice of the
powers of 2 is accident or design.

Notwithstanding Avogadro's perspicuous investigation, and
a similar exposition of the atom and molecule by A. M. Ampere,
Beneiius. tne y i ews therein expressed were ignored both by
their own and the succeeding generation. In place
of the relative molecular weights, attention was concentrated
on relative atomic or equivalent weights. This may be due
in some measure to the small number of gaseous and easily
volatile substances then known, to the attention which the
study of the organic compounds received, and especially to the
energetic investigations of J. J. Berzelius, who, fired with
enthusiasm by the original theory of Dalton and the law of
multiple proportions, determined the equivalents of combining
ratios of many elements in an enormous number of compounds. 2
He prosecuted his labours in this field for thirty years; as
proof of his industry it may be mentioned that as early as 1818
he had determined the combining ratios of about two thousand
simple and compound substances.

We may here notice the important chemical symbolism or notation
introduced by Berzelius, which greatly contributed to the definite
and convenient representation of chemical composition
Chemtcai an( j ^ e tracing of chemical reactions. The denotation of
elements by symbols had been practised by the alchemists,
and it is interesting to note that the symbols allotted to the well-known
elements are identical with the astrological symbols of the sun and
the other members of the solar system. Gold, the most perfect metal,
had the symbol of the Sun, O ; silver, the semiperfect metal, had
the symbol of the Moon, 5>; copper, iron and antimony, the
imperfect metals of the gold class, had the symbols of Venus 9,
Mars rj 1 , and the Earth ; tin and lead, the imperfect metals of
the silver class, had the symbols of Jupiter Q(., and Saturn T? ;
while mercury, the imperfect metal of both the gold and silver
class, had the symbol of the planet, . Torbern Olof Bergman used
an elaborate system in his Opuscula physica et chemica (1783); the

1 Dalton'satomic theory is treated in more detail in the article ATOM.

1 Berzelius, however, appreciated the necessity of differentiating
the atom and the molecule, and even urged Dalton to amend his
doctrine, but without success.

elements received symbols composed of circles, arcs of circles, and
lines, while certain class symbols, such as ^^7 for metals, -j-foracids,
@ for alkalies, Q forsalts, 1 ^ for calces, &c., were used. Compounds
were represented by copulating simpler symbols, e.g. mercury calx
was ^f Cp * Bergman's symbolism was obviously cumbrous, and
the system used in 1782 by Lavoisier was equally abstruse, since the
forms gave no clue as to composition ; for instance water, oxygen,
and nitric acid were\/ i^ t , and

A partial clarification was suggested in 1787 by J. H. Hassenfratz
and Adet, who assigned to each element a symbol, and to each com-
pound a sign which should record the elements present and their
relative quantities. Straight lines and semicircles were utilized for
the non-metallic elements, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur
(the " simple acidifiable bases " of Lavoisier), and circles enclosing
the initial letter^ of their names for the metals. The " compound
acidifiable bases," i.e. the hypothetical radicals of acids, were denoted
by squares enclosing the initial letter of the base; an alkali was
denoted by a triangle, and the particular alkali by inserting the
initial letter. Compounds were denoted by joining the symbols of
the components, and by varying the manner of joining compounds
of the same elements were distinguished. The symbol V was used
to denote a liquid, and a vertical line to denote a gas. As an
example of the complexity of this system we may note the five
oxides of nitrogen, which were symbolized as

T r, f. V and VI,

the first three representing the gaseous oxides, and the last two the
liquid oxides.

A great advance was made by Dalton, who, besides introducing
simpler symbols, regarded the symbol as representing not only the
element or compound but also one atom of that element or com-
pound; in other words, his symbol denoted equivalent weights. 4
This system, which permitted the correct representation of molecular
composition, was adopted by Berzelius in 1814, who, having replaced
the geometric signs of Dalton by the initial letter (or letters) of the
Latin names of the elements, represented a compound by placing a
plus sign between the symbols of its components, and the number of
atoms of each component (except in the case of only one atom) by
placing Arabic numerals before the symbols; for example, copper
oxide was Cu+O, sulphur trioxide S-|-3O. If two compounds com-
bined, the + signs of the free compounds were discarded, and the
number of atoms denoted by an Arabic index placed after the
elements, and from these modified symbols the symbol of the new
compound was derived in the same manner as simple compounds
were built up from their elements. Thus copper sulphate was
CuO+SO 3 , potassium sulphate 2SO 3 + PoO 2 (the symbol Po for
potassium was subsequently discarded in favour of K from kalium).
At a later date Berzelius denoted an oxide by dots, equal in number to
the number of oxygen atoms present, placed over the element ; this
notation survived longest in mineralogy. He also introduced barred
symbols, i.e. letters traversed by a horizontal bar, todenote the double
atom (or molecule). Although the system of Berzelius has been
modified and extended, its principles survive in the modern notation.

In the development of the atomic theory and the deduction
of the atomic weights of elements and the formulae of compounds,
Dalton's arbitrary rules failed to find complete accept- Extension
ance. Berzelius objected to the hypothesis that if of the
two elements form only one compound, then the * tomtc
atoms combine one and one; and although he agreed
with the adoption of simple rules as a first attempt at representing
a compound, he availed himself of other data in order to gain
further information as to the structure of compounds. For
example, at first he represented ferrous and ferric oxides by the
formulae FeOz, FeOs, and by the analogy of zinc and other
basic oxides he regarded these substances as constituted similarly
to Fe02, and the acidic oxides alumina and chromium oxide as
similar to FeOv He found, however, that chromic acid, which
he had represented as CrO 6 , neutralized a base containing \ the

3 The following symbols were also used by Bergman :

0. (D. Q, 0, I, ~ 30 V V, cA>.

which represented zinc, manganese, cobalt, bismuth, nickel, arsenic,
platinum, water, alcohol, phlogiston.

4 The following are the symbols employed by Dalton :

0. 0.. O, 1 ,,,, 0, <D, O, O, .

which represent in order, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, oxygen,
phosphorus, sulphur, magnesia, lime, soda, potash, strontia, baryta,
mercury; iron, zinc, copper, lead, silver, platinum, and gold were
represented by circles enclosing the initial letter of the element.

HISTORY]

CHEMISTRY

quantity of oxygen. He inferred that chromic acid must
contain only three atoms of oxygen, as did sulphuric acid SO 3 ;
consequently chromic oxide, which contains half the amount
of oxygen, must be Cr 2 O3, and hence ferric oxide must be Fe 2 O3.
The basic oxides must have the general formula MO. To these
results he was aided by the law of isomorphism formulated by
E. Mitscherlich in 1820; and he confirmed his conclusions by
showing the agreement with the law of atomic heat formulated
by Dulong and Petit in 1819.

While successfully investigating the solid elements and their
compounds gravimetrically, Berzelius was guilty of several
inconsistencies in his views on gases. He denied that gaseous
atoms could havfi parts, although compound gases could. This
attitude was due to his adherence to the " dualistic theory "
of the structure of substances, which he deduced from electro-
chemical researches. From the behaviour of substances on
electrolysis (q.v.) he assumed that all substances had two com-
ponents, one bearing a negative charge, the other a positive
charge. Combination was associated with the coalescence of
these charges, and the nature of the resulting compound showed
the nature of the residual electricity. For example, positive
iron combined with negative oxygen to form positive ferrous
oxide; positive sulphur combined with negative oxygen to
form negative sulphuric acid; positive ferrous oxide combined
with negative sulphuric acid to form neutral ferrous sulphate.
Berzelius elevated this theory to an important position in the
history of our science. He recognized that if an elementary
atom had parts, his theory demanded that these parts should
carry different electric charges when they entered into reaction,
and the products of the reaction should vary according as a
positive or negative atom entered into combination. For
instance if the reaction 2H 2 -|-O 2 =H 2 O-|-H 2 O be true, the
molecules of water should be different, for a negative oxygen
atom would combine in one case, and a positive oxygen atom
in the other. Hence the gaseous atoms of hydrogen and oxygen
could not have parts. A second inconsistency was presented
when he was compelled by the researches of Dumas to admit
Avogadro's hypothesis; but here he would only accept it for
the elementary gases, and denied it for other substances. It is
to be noticed that J. B. Dumas did not adopt the best methods
for emphasizing his discoveries. His terminology was vague
and provoked caustic criticism from Berzelius; he assumed
that all molecules contained two atoms, and consequently the
atomic weights deduced from vapour density determinations of
sulphur, mercury, arsenic, and phosphorus were quite different
from those established by gravimetric and other methods.

Chemists gradually tired of the notion of atomic weights on
account of the uncertainty which surrounded them; and the
suggestion made by W. H. Wollaston as early as 1814 to deal
only with " equivalents," i.e. the amount of an element which
can combine with or replace unit weight of hydrogen, came
into favour, being adopted by L. Gmelin in his famous text-book.

Simultaneously with this discussion of the atom and molecule,
great controversy was ranging over the constitution of com-
Atomic pounds, more particularly over the carbon or organic
and mole- compounds. This subject is discussed in section IV.,
cuiar Organic Chemistry. The gradual accumulation of data

x *' referring to organic compounds brought in its train a
revival of the discussion of atoms and molecules. A. Laurent
and C. F. Gerhardt attempted a solution by investigating chemical
reactions. They assumed the atom to be the smallest part of
matter which can exist in combination, and the molecule to be
the smallest part which can enter into a chemical reaction.
Gerhardt found that reactions could be best followed if one
assumed the molecular weight of an element or compound to be
that weight which occupied the same volume as two unit weights
of hydrogen, and this assumption led him to double the equiva-
lents accepted by Gmelin, making H=l, O=16, and C=12,
thereby agreeing with Berzelius, and also to halve the values
given by Berzelius to many metals. Laurent generally agreed,
except when the theory compelled the adoption of formulae
containing fractions of atoms; in such cases he regarded the

molecular weight as the weight occupying a volume equal to
four unit weights of hydrogen. The bases upon which Gerhardt
and Laurent founded their views were not sufficiently well
grounded to lead to the acceptance of their results; Gerhardt
himself returned to Gmelin's equivalents in his Lehrbuch der
Chemie (1853) as they were in such general use.

In 1860 there prevailed such a confusion of hypotheses as to
the atom and molecule that a conference was held at Karlsruhe
to discuss the situation. At the conclusion of the sitting,
Lothar Meyer obtained a paper written by Stanislas Cannizzaro
in 1858 wherein was found the final link required for the deter-
mination of atomic weights. This link was the full extension
of Avogadro's theory to all substances, Cannizzaro showing that
chemical reactions in themselves would not suffice. He chose
as his unit of reference the weight of an atom of hydrogen, i.e.
the weight contained in a molecule of hydrochloric acid, thus
differing from Avogadro who chose the weight of a hydrogen
molecule. From a study of the free elements Cannizzaro showed
that an element may have more than one molecular weight; for
example, the molecular weight of sulphur varied with the tem-
perature. And from the study of compounds he showed that
each element occurred in a definite weight or in some multiple
of this weight. He called this proportion the " atom," since
it invariably enters compounds without division, and the weight
of this atom is the atomic weight. This generalization was of
great value inasmuch as it permitted the deduction of the
atomic weight of a non-gasifiable element from a study of the
densities of its gasifiable compounds.

From the results 'obtained by Laurent and Gerhardt and their
predecessors it immediately followed that, while an element could
have but one atomic weight, it could have several equivalent
weights. From a detailed study of organic compounds Ger-
hardt had promulgated a " theory of types " which represented
a fusion of the older radical and type theories. This theory
brought together, as it were, the most varied compounds, and
stimulated inquiry into many fields. According to this theory,
an element in a compound had a definite saturation capacity,
an idea very old in itself, being framed in the law of multiple
proportions. These saturation capacities were assidu- Vaiea
ously studied by Sir Edward Frankland, who from
the investigation, not of simple inorganic compounds, but of the
organo-metallic derivatives, determined the kernel of the theory
of valency. Frankland showed that any particular element
preferentially combined with a definite number (which might
vary between certain limits) of other atoms; for example, some
atoms always combined with one atom of oxygen, some with two,
while with others two atoms entered into combination with one
of oxygen. If an element or radical combined with one atom
of hydrogen, it was termed monovalent; if with two (or with
one atom of oxygen, which is equivalent to two atoms of hydrogen)
it was divalent, and so on. The same views were expressed by
Cannizzaro, and also by A. W. von Hofmann, who materially
helped the acceptance of the doctrine by the lucid exposition in
his Introduction to Modern Cliemislry, 1865.

The recognition of the quadrivalency of carbon by A. Kekule
was the forerunner of his celebrated benzene theory in particular,
and of the universal application of structural formulae to the
representation of the most complex organic compounds equally
lucidly as the representation of the simplest salts. Alexander
Butlerow named the " structure theory," and contributed much
to the development of the subject. He defined structure " as the
manner of the mutual linking of the atoms in the molecule,"
but denied that any such structure could give information as to
the orientation of the atoms in space. He regarded the chemical
properties of a substance as due to (i) the chemical atoms
composing it, and (2) the structure, and he asserted that while
different compounds might have the same components (isomer-
ism),yet only one compound could have a particular structure.
Identity in properties necessitated identity in structure.

While the principle of varying valency laid down by Frankland
is still retained, Butlerow's view that structure had no spatial
significance has been modified. The researches of L. Pasteur,

CHEMISTRY

[HISTORY

Periodic
law.

J. A. Le Bel, J. Wislicenus, van't Hoff and others showed thajt
substances having the same graphic formulae vary in properties
and reactions, and consequently the formulae need modification in
order to exhibit these differences. Such isomerism, named stereo-
isomerism(?..),hasbeenassiduouslydeveloped during recentyears;
it prevails among many different classes of organic compounds
and many examples have been found in inorganic chemistry.

The theory of valency as a means of showing similarity of
properties and relative composition became a dominant feature
of chemical theory, the older hypotheses of types, radicals, &c.
being more or less discarded. We have seen how its
utilization in the " structure theory "permitted great
clarification, and attempts were not wanting for the
deduction of analogies or a periodicity between elements. Frank-
land had recognized the analogies existing between the chemical
properties of nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic and antimony,
noting that they act as tri- or penta-valent. Carbon was joined
with silicon, zirconium and titanium, while boron, being tri-
valent, was relegated to another group. A general classification
of elements, however, was not realized by Frankland, nor even by
Odling, who had also investigated the question from the valency
standpoint. The solution came abo'ut by arranging the elements
in the order of their atomic weights, tempering the arrangement
with the results deduced from the theory of valencies and
experimental observations. Many chemists contributed to the
establishment of such a periodicity, the greatest advances being
made by John Newlands in England, Lothar Meyer in Germany,
and D. J. Mendeleeff in St Petersburg. For the development of
this classification see ELEMENT.

In the above sketch we have briefly treated the history of the
main tendencies of our science from the earliest times to the
Summary, establishment of the modern laws and principles. We
have seen that the science took its origin in the arts
practised by the Egyptians, and, having come under the influence
of philosophers, it chose for its purpose the isolation of the
quinta essentia, and subsequently the " art of making gold and
silver." This spirit gave way to the physicians, who regarded
" chemistry as the art of preparing medicines," a denotation
which in turn succumbed to the arguments of Boyle, who regarded
it as the " science of the composition of substances," a definition
which adequately fits the science to-day. We have seen how
his classification of substances into elements and compounds,
and the definitions which he assigned to these species, have
similarly been retained; and how Lavoisier established the law
of the " conservation of mass," overthrew the prevailing phlogistic
theory, and became the founder of modern chemistry by the
overwhelming importance which he gave to the use of the balance.
The development of the atomic theory and its concomitants
the laws of chemical combination and the notion of atoms and
equivalents at the hands of Dalton and Berzelius, the extension
to the modern theory of the atom and molecule, and to atomic
and molecular weights by Avogadro, Ampere, Dumas, Laurent,
Gerhardt, Cannizzaro and others, have been noted. The
structure of the molecule, which mainly followed investigations
in organic compounds, Frankland's conception of valency, and
finally the periodic law, have also been shown in their chrono-
logical order. The principles outlined above constitute the
foundations of our science; and although it may happen that
experiments may be made with which they appear to be not in
complete agreement, yet in general they constitute a body of
working hypotheses of inestimable value.

Chemical Education. It is remarkable that systematic in-
struction in the theory and practice of chemistry only received
earnest attention in our academic institutions during the opening
decades of the ipth century. Although for a long time lecturers
and professors had been attached to universities, generally their
duties had also included the study of physics, mineralogy and
other subjects, with the result that chemistry received scanty
encouragement. Of practical instruction there was none other
than that to be gained in a few private laboratories and in the
shops of apothecaries. The necessity for experimental demon-
stration and practical instruction, in addition to academic

lectures, appears to have been urged by the French chemists
L. N. Vauquelin, Gay Lussac, Thenard, and more especially by
A. F. Fourcroy and G. F. Rouelle, while in England Humphry
Davy expounded the same idea in the experimental demonstra-
tions which gave bis lectures their brilliant charm. But the real
founder of systematic instruction in our science was Justus von
Liebig, who, having accepted the professorship at Giessen in
1824, made his chemical laboratory and course of instruction
the model of all others. He emphasized that the practical
training should include (i) the qualitative and quantitative
analysis of mixtures, (2) the preparation of substances according
to established methods, (3) original research a course which has
been generally adopted. The pattern set by Liebig at Giessen
was adopted by F. Wohler at Gottingen in 1836, by R. W.
Bunsen at Marburg in 1840, and by O. L. Erdmann at Leipzig
in 1843; and during the 'fifties and 'sixties many other labora-
tories were founded. A new era followed the erection of the
laboratories at Bonn and Berlin according to the plans of A. W.
von Hofmann in 1867, and of that at Leipzig, designed by Kolbe
in 1868. We may also mention the famous laboratory at Munich
designed by A. von Baeyer in 1875.

In Great Britain the first public laboratory appears to have
been opened in 1817 by Thomas Thomson at Glasgow. But the
first important step in providing means whereby students could
systematically study chemistry was the foundation of the College
of Chemistry in 1845. This institution was taken over by the
Government in 1853, becoming the Royal College of Chemistry,
and incorporated with the Royal School of Mines; in 1881 the
names were changed to the Normal School of Science and Royal
School of Mines, and again in 1890 to the Royal College of
Science. In 1907 it was incorporated in the Imperial College of
Science and Technology. Under A. W. von Hofmann, who
designed the laboratories and accepted the professorship in 1845
at the instigation of Prince Albert, and under his successor (in
1864) Sir Edward Frankland, this institution became one of
the most important centres of chemical instruction. Oxford
and Cambridge sadly neglected the erection of convenient
laboratories for many years, and consequently we find technical
schools and other universities having a far better equipment and
offering greater facilities. In the provinces Victoria University
at Manchester exercised the greater impetus, numbering among
its professors Sir W. H. Perkin and Sir Henry Roscoe.

In America public laboratory instruction was first instituted at
Yale College during the professorship of Benjamin Silliman. To
the great progress made in recent years F. W. Clarke, W. Gibbs,
E. W. Morley, Ira Remsen, and T. W. Richards have especially
contributed.

In France the subject was almost entirely neglected until
late in the igth century. The few laboratories existing in the
opening decades were ill-fitted, and the exorbitant fees con-
stituted a serious bar to general instruction, for these institutions
received little government support. In 1869 A. Wurtz reported
the existence of only one efficient laboratory in France, namely
the Ecole Normale Sup6rieure, under the direction of H. Sainte
Claire Deville. During recent years chemistry has become
one of the most important subjects in the curriculum of technical
schools and universities, and at the present time no general
educational institution is complete until it has its full equip-
ment of laboratories and lecture theatres.

Chemical Literature. The growth of chemical literature since the
publication of Lavoisier's famous Traite de chimie in 1789, and of
Berzelius 1 Lehrbuch der Chemie in 1808-1818, has been enormous.
These two works, and especially the latter, were the models followed
by Thenard, Liebig, Strecker, Wohler and many others, including
Thomas Graham, upon whose Elements of Chemistry was founded
Otto's famous Lehrbuch der Chemie, to which H. Kopp contributed
the general theoretical part, Kolbe the organic, and Buff and
Zamminer the physico-chemical. Organic chemistry was especially
developed by the publication of Gerhardt's Traitf de chimie organique
in 1853-1856, and of Kekule's Lehrbuch der organischen Chemie in
1861-1882. General theoretical and physical chemistry was treated
with conspicuous acumen by Lothar Meyer in his Moderne Theorien,
by W. Ostwald in his Lehrbuch der allgem. Chemie (1884-1887), and
by Nernst in his Theoretische Chemie. In English, Roscoe and
Schorlemmer's Treatise on Chemistry is a standard work ; it records

PRINCIPLES]

CHEMISTRY

a successful attempt to state the theories and facts of chemistry,

The elements are usually divided into two classes, the metallic

not in condensed epitomes, but in an easily read form. The Traite
de chimie minerals, edited by H. Moissan, and the Handbuch der
anorganischen Chemie, edited by Abegg, are of the same type.

and the non-metallic slements; the following are classed as
non-metals, and the remainder as metals:

O. Dammer's Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie and F. Beilstein's

Hydrogen Oxygen Boron Neon

Handbuch der organischen Chemie are invaluable works of reference.

Chlorine Sufpnur Carbon Krypton

Of the earlier encyclopaedias we may notice the famous Hand-

Bromine Selenium Silicon Xenon

worterbuch der reinen ttnd angcwandten Chemie, edited by Liebig;

Iodine Tellurium Phosphorus Helium

Fremy's Encyclopedic de chimie, Wurtz's Dictionnaire de chimie

Fluorine Nitrogen Argon

pure et appliquee, Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry, and Ladenburg's
Handworterbuch der Chemie.

Of these hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine, oxygen, nitrogen, argon,

The number of periodicals devoted to chemistry has steadily

neon, krypton, -xenon and helium are gases, bromine is a liquid,

increased since the early part of the igth century. In England the

and the remainder are solids. All the metals are solids at ordinary

most important is the Journal of the Chemical Society of London,
first published in 1848. Since 1871 abstracts of papers appearing
in the other journals have been printed. In 1904 a new departure
was made in issuing Annual Reports, containing resumes of the most

temperatures with the exception of mercury, which is liquid.
The metals are mostly bodies of high specific gravity; they
exhibit, when polished, a peculiar brilliancy or metallic lustre,

important researches of the year. The Chemical News, founded by

and they are good conductors of heat and electricity; the non-

Sir W. Crookes in 1860, may also be noted. In America the chief
periodical is the American Chemical Journal, founded in 1879.
Germany is provided with a great number of magazines. The
Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft, published by the

metals, on the other hand, are mostly bodies of low specific
gravity, and bad conductors of heat and electricity, and do not
exhibit metallic lustre. The non-metallic elements are also

Berlin Chemical Society, the Chemisches Centralblatt, which is con-
fined to abstracts of papers appearing in other journals, the Zeitschrift
fur Chemie, and Liebig s Annalen der Chemie are the most important
of the general magazines. Others devoted to special phases are the
Journal filr praktische Chemie, founded by Erdmann in 1834, the

sometimes termed metalloids, but this appellation, which signifies
metal-like substances (Gr. e?5os, like), strictly belongs to certain
elements which do not possess the properties of the true metals,
although they more closely resemble them than the non-metals

Zeitschrift fur anorganische Chemie and the Zeitschrift fur physi-

in many respects; thus, selenium and tellurium, which are

kalische Chemie. Mention may also be made of the invaluable
Jahresberichte and the Jahrbuch der Chemie. In France, the most
important journals are the Annales de chimie et de physique, founded
in 1789 with the title Annales de chimie, and the Comptes rendus,

closely allied to sulphur in their chemical properties, although
bad conductors of heat and electricity, exhibit metallic lustre
and have relatively high specific gravities. But when the

published weekly by the Academic francaise since 1835.

properties of the elements are carefully contrasted together it

II. GENERAL PRINCIPLES

is found that no strict line of demarcation can be drawn dividing

The substances with which the chemist has to deal admit of
classification into elements and compounds. Of the former
about eighty may be regarded as well characterized, although
many more have been described.
Elements. The following table gives the names, symbols
and atomic weights of the perfectly characterized elements:

them into two classes; and if they are arranged in a series,
those which are most closely allied in properties being placed
next to each other, it is observed that there is a more or less
regular alteration in properties from term to term in the series.
When binary compounds, or compounds of two elements, are
decomposed by an electric current, the two elements make their
appearance at opposite poles. TJjose elements which are dis-

International Atomic Weights, 1910.

engaged at the negative pole are termed electro-positive, or

Atomic
Name. Symbol. Weights.
0=16.

Atomic
Name. Symbol. Weights.
= 16.

positive, or basylous elements, whilst those disengaged at the
positive pole are termed electro-negative, or negative, or chlorous

Aluminium . . Al 27-1

Mercury . . . Hg 200-0

elements. But the difference between these two classes of

Antimony . . Sb 120-2

Molybdenum . Mo 96-0

elements is one of degree only, and they gradually merge into

Argon ... A 39-9

Neodymium . . Nd 144-3

each other; moreover the electric relations of elements are not

Arsenic ... As 74-96
Barium Ba I37'37

Neon . . . . Ne 20
Nickel . . . Ni 58-68

absolute, but vary according to the state of combination in

Beryllium or Be ) _ f

Nitrogen . . . N 14-01

which they exist, so that it is just as impossible to divide the

Glucinum Gl )

Osmium . . . Os 190-9

elements into two classes according to this property as it is to

Bismuth . Bi 208-0

Oxygen . . . O 16-00

separate them into two distinct classes of metals and non-metals.

Boron . . . B u-o
Bromine . . Br 79'92

Palladium . . Pd 106-7
Phosphorus . . P 31-0

The following, however, are negative towards the remaining

Cadmium . . Cd 112-40

Platinum . . Pt 195-0

elements which are more or less positive: Fluorine, chlorine,

Caesium . . . Cs 132-81

Potassium . . K 39-10

bromine, iodine, oxygen, sulphur, selenium, tellurium.

Calcium . . . Ca 40-09

Praseodymium . Pr 140-6

The metals may be arranged in a series according to their

Carbon . . . C 12-0
Cerium . . . Ce 140-25

Radium . . . Ra 226-4
Rhodium , . . Rh 102-9

power of displacing one another in salt solutions, thus Cs, Rb,

Chlorine . . . Cl 35-46

Rubidium . . Rb 85-45

K, Na, Mg, Al, Mn, Zn, Cd, Tl, Fe, Co, Ni, Sn, Pb, (H), Sb, Bi,

Chromium . . Cr 52-0

Ruthenium . . Ru 101-7

As, Cu, Hg, Ag, Pd, Pt, Au.

Cobalt ... Co 58-97

Samarium . . Sa 150-4

Elements which readily enter into reaction with each other,

Columbium . . Cb )
or Niobium . Nb \ 93 ' 5

Scandium . . Sc 44-1
Selenium . . . Se 79*2

and which develop a large amount of heat on combination, are

Copper . . . Cu 63-57

Silicon ... Si 28-3

said to have a powerful affinity for each other. The tendency

Dysprosium , . Dy 162-5

Silver . Ag 107-88

of positive elements to unite with positive elements, or of negative

Erbium . . . Er 167-4

Sodium . . . Na 23-0

elements to unite with negative elements, is much less than that

Europium . . Eu 152-0
Fluorine . . . F 10-0

Strontium . . Sr 87-62
Sulphur . . . S 32-07

of positive elements to unite with negative elements, and the

Gadolinium . . Gd 157-3

Tantalum . . Ta 181-0

greater the difference in properties between two elements the

Gallium . . . Ga 69-9

Tellurium . . Te 127-5

more powerful is their affinity for each other. Thus, the affinity

Germanium . . Ge 72-5

Terbium . . . Tb 159-2

of hydrogen and oxygen for each other is extremely powerful.

Gold .... Au 197-2
Helium . . . He 4-0

Thallium . . . T 204-0
Thorium . . . Th 232-42

much heat being developed by the combination of these two

Hydrogen . . H 1-008

Thulium . . . Tm 168-5

elements; when binary compounds of oxygen are decomposed

Indium ... In 114-8

Tin . . . . Sn 119-0

by the electric current, the oxygen invariably appears at the

Iodine ... I 126-92
Iridium . . . Ir 193-1
Iron Fe ^-8 5

Titanium. . . Ti 48-1
Tungsten. . . W 184-0
Uranium . . U 238-5

positive pole, being negative to all other elements, but the
hydrogen of hydrogen compounds is always disengaged at the

** - - * *- oo u v>
Krypton . . . Kr 83-0

Vanadium . .V 51-2

negative pole. Hydrogen and oxygen are, therefore, of very

Lanthanum . . La 139-0

Xenon . . . Xe 130-7

opposite natures, and this is well illustrated by the circumstance

Lead . . . . Pb 207-10
Lithium ... Li 7-00
Lutecium . . Lu 174

Ytterbium (Nco-
ytterbium) . Yb 172
Yttrium . . . Y 89-0

that oxygen combines, with very few exceptions, with all the
remaining elements, whilst compounds of only a limited number

Magnesium . . Mg 24-32

Zinc . . . . Zn 65-37

with hydrogen have been obtained.

Manganese . . Mn 54-93

Zirconium . . Zr 90-6

Compounds. A chemical compound contains two or more

CHEMISTRY

[PRINCIPLES

elements; consequently it should be possible to analyse it,
i.e. separate it into its components, or te synthesize it, i.e. build
it up from its components. In general, a compound has pro-
perties markedly different from those of the elements of which
it is composed.

Laws of Chemical Combination. A molecule may be defined
as the smallest part of a substance which can exist alone; an
atom as the smallest part of a substance which can exist in com-
bination. The molecule of every compound must obviously
contain at least two atoms, and generally the molecules of the
elements are also polyatomic, the elements with monatomic
molecules (at moderate temperatures) being mercury and the
gases of the argon group. The laws of chemical combination are
as follows:

1. Law of Definite Proportions. The same compound always
contains the same elements combined together in the same mass
proportion. Silver chloride, for example, in whatever manner
it may be prepared, invariably consists of chlorine and silver
in the proportions by weight of 35-45 parts of the former and
107-93 of the latter.

2. Law of Multiple Proportions. When the same two elements
combine together to form more than one compound, the different
masses of one of the elements which unite with a constant mass
of the other, bear a simple ratio to one another. Thus, i part
by weight of hydrogen unites with 8 parts by weight of oxygen,
forming water, and with 16 or 8 X 2 parts of oxygen, forming
hydrogen peroxide. Again, in nitrous oxide we have a compound
of 8 parts by weight of oxygen and 14 of nitrogen; in nitric oxide
a compound of 16 or 8 X 2 parts of oxygen and 14 of nitrogen;
in nitrous anhydride a compound of 24 or 8 X 3 parts of oxygen
and 14 of nitrogen; in nitric peroxide a compound of 32 or 8 X 4
parts of oxygen and 14 of nitrogen; and lastly, in nitric anhy-
dride a compound of 40 or 8X5 parts of oxygen and 14 of
nitrogen.

3. Law of Reciprocal Proportions. The masses of different
elements which combine separately with one and the same mass
of another element, are either the same as, or simple multiples
of, the masses of these different elements which combine with
each other. For instance, 35-45 parts of chlorine and 79-96
parts of bromine combine with 107-93 parts of silver; and when
chlorine and bromine unite it is in the proportion of 35-45 parts
of the former to 79-96 parts of the latter. Iodine unites with
silver in the proportion of 126-97 parts to 107-93 parts of the
latter, but it combines with chlorine in two proportions, viz. in
the proportion of 126-97 parts either to 35-45 or to three times
35-45 parts of chlorine.

There is a fourth law of chemical combination which only
applies to gases. This law states that: gases combine with one
another in simple proportions by volume, and the volume of the
product (if gaseous) has -a simple ratio to the volumes of the
original mixtures; in other words, the densities of gases are
simply related to their combining weights.

Nomenclature. If a compound contains two atoms it is
termed a binary compound, if three a ternary, if four a quaternary,
and so on. Its systematic name is formed by replacing the last
syllable of the electro-negative element by ide and prefixing
the name of the other element. For example, compounds of
oxygen are oxides, of chlorine, chlorides, and so on. If more than
one compound be formed from the same two elements, .the
difference is shown by prefixing such words as mono-, di-, tri-,
sesqui-, per-, sub-, &c., to the last part of the name, or the
suffixes -ous and -ic may be appended to the name of the first
element. For example take the oxides of nitrogen, N 2 O, NO,
N 2 O 3 , NO 2 , N 2 O 5 ; these are known respectively as nitrous oxide,
nitric oxide, nitrogen trioxide, nitrogen peroxide and nitrogen
pentoxide. The affixes -ous and sub- refer to the compounds
containing more of the positive element, -ic and per- to those
containing less.

An acid (q.v.) is a compound of hydrogen, which element can
be replaced by metals, the hydrogen being liberated, giving
substances named salts. An alkali or base is a substance which
neutralizes an acid with the production of salts but with no

evolution of hydrogen. A base may be regarded as water in
which part of the hydrogen is replaced by a metal, or by a
radical which behaves as a metal. (The term radical is given
to a group of atoms which persist in chemical changes, behaving
as if the group were an element; the commonest is the
ammonium group, NHi, which forms salts similar to the salts
of sodium and potassium.) If the acid contains no oxygen it is a
hydracid, and its systematic name is formed from the prefix
hydro- and the name of the other element or radical, the last
syllable of which has been replaced by the termination -ic. For
example, the acid formed by hydrogen and chlorine is termed
hydrochloric acid (and sometimes hydrogen chloride). If an
acid contains oxygen it is termed an oxyacid. The nomenclature
of acids follows the same general lines as that for binary com-
pounds. If one acid be known its name is formed by the ter-
mination -ic, e.g. carbonic acid; if two, the one containing the
less amount of oxygen takes the termination -ous and the other
the termination -ic, e.g. nitrous acid, HNO2, nitric acid, HNO 3 .
If more than two be known, the one inferior in oxygen content
has the prefix hypo- and the termination -ous, and the one
superior in oxygen content has the prefix per- and the termination
-ic. This is illustrated in the four oxyacids of chlorine, HC1O,
HC1O 2 , HClOa, HClOi, which have the names hypochlorous,
chlorous, chloric and perchloric acids. An acid is said to be
monobasic, dibasic, tribasic, &c., according to the number of
replaceable hydrogen atoms; thus HNOj is monobasic, sulphuric
acid H 2 SO4 dibasic, phosphoric acid H 3 PO4 tribasic.

An acid terminating in -ous forms a salt ending in -ite, and an
oxyacid ending in -ic forms a salt ending in -ate. Thus the
chlorine oxyacids enumerated above form salts named respec-
tively hypochlorites, chlorites, chlorates and perchlorates. Salts
formed from hydracids terminate in -ide, following the rule
for binary compounds. An acid salt is one in which the whole
amount of hydrogen has not been replaced by metal; a normal
salt is one in which all the hydrogen has been replaced; and a
basic salt is one in which part of the acid of the normal salt has
been replaced by oxygen.

^Chemical Formulae. Opposite the name of each element in
the second column of the above table, the symbol is given which
is always employed to represent it. This symbol, however, not
only represents the particular element, but a certain definite
quantity of it. Thus, the letter H always stands for i atom or
i part by weight of hydrogen, the letter N for i atom or 14 parts
of nitrogen, and the symbol Cl for i atom or 35-5 parts of chlor-
ine. 1 Compounds are in like manner represented by writing the
symbols of their constituent elements side by side, and if more
than one atom of each element be present, the number is indicated
by a numeral placed on the right of the symbol of the element
either below or above the line. Thus, hydrochloric acid is
represented by the formula HC1, that is to say, it is a compound
of an atom of hydrogen with an atom of chlorine, or of i part
by weight of hydrogen with 35-5 parts by weight of chlorine;
again, sulphuric acid is represented by the formula H 2 SO 4 , which
is a statement that it consists of 2 atoms of hydrogen, i of sulphur,
and 4 of oxygen, and consequently of certain relative weights of
these elements. A figure placed on the right of a symbol only
affects the symbol to which it is attached, but when figures are
placed in front of several symbols all are affected by it, thus
2H 2 SO4 means H 2 SO 4 taken twice.

The distribution of weight in chemical change is readily
expressed in the form of equations by the aid of these symbols;
the equation

2HCl+Zn = ZnCl 2 +H 2 ,

for example, is to be read as meaning that from 73 parts of
hydrochloric acid and 65 parts of zinc, 136 parts of zinc chloride
and 2 parts of hydrogen are produced. The + sign is invariably
employed in this way either to express combination or action
upon, the meaning usually attached to the use of the sign = being
that from such and such bodies such and such other bodies
are formed.

1 Approximate values of the atomic weights are employed here.

PRINCIPLES]

CHEMISTRY

Usually, when the symbols of the elements are written or
printed with a figure to the right, it is understood that this
indicates a molecule of the element, the symbol alone representing
an atom. Thus, the symbols H2 and P 4 indicate that the mole-
cules of hydrogen and phosphorus respectively contain 2 and 4
atoms. Since, according to the molecular theory, in all cases
of chemical change the action is between molecules, such symbols
as these ought always to be employed. Thus, the formation of
hydrochloric acid from hydrogen and chlorine is correctly
represented by the equation

H 2 +Clj=2HCl;

that is to say, a molecule of hydrogen and a molecule of chlorine
give rise to two molecules of hydrochloric acid; whilst the
following equation merely represents the relative weights of the
elements which enter into reaction, and is not a complete ex-
pression of what is supposed to take place:

H+C1 = HC1.

In all cases it is usual to represent substances by formulae
which to the best of our knowledge express their molecular
composition in the state of gas, and not merely the relative
number of atoms which they contain; thus, acetic acid consists
of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of one atom
of carbon, two of hydrogen, and one of oxygen, but its molecular
weight corresponds to the formula CzHjOj, which therefore is
always employed to represent acetic acid. When chemical
change is expressed with the aid of molecular formulae not
only is the distribution of weight represented, but by the mere
inspection of the symbols it is possible to deduce from the law
of gaseous combination mentioned above, the relative volumes
which the agents and resultants occupy in the state of gas -if
measured at the same temperature and under the same pressure.
Thus, the equation

2H,+Oj=2HjO

not only represents that certain definite weights of hydrogen
and oxygen furnish a certain definite weight of the compound
which we term water, but that if the water in the state of gas,
the hydrogen and the oxygen are all measured at the same
temperature and pressure, the volume occupied by the oxygen
is only half that occupied by the hydrogen, whilst the resulting
water-gas will only occupy the same volume as the hydrogen.
In other words, 2 volumes of oxygen and 4 volumes of hydrogen
furnish 4 volumes of water-gas. A simple equation like this,
therefore, when properly interpreted, affords a large amount of
information. One other instance may be given; the equation

represents the decomposition of ammonia gas into nitrogen and
hydrogen gases by the electric spark, and it not only conveys
the information that a certain relative weight of ammonia,
consisting of certain relative weights of hydrogen and nitrogen,
is broken up into certain relative weights of hydrogen and
nitrogen, but also that the nitrogen will be contained in half
the space which contained the ammonia, and that the volume
of the hydrogen will be one and a half times as great as that of
the original ammonia, so that in the decomposition of ammonia
the volume becomes doubled.

Formulae which merely express the relative number of atoms
of the different elements present in a compound are termed
empirical formulae, and the formulae of all compounds whose
molecular weights are undetermined are necessarily empirical.
The molecular formula of a compound, however, is always a
simple multiple of the empirical formula, if not identical with it;
thus, the empirical formula of acetic acid is CH 2 O, and its
molecular formula is C-fi&i, or twice'CH 2 O. In addition to
empirical and molecular formulae, chemists are in the habit of
employing various kinds of rational formulae, called structural,
constitutional or graphic formulae, &c., which not only express
the molecular composition of the compounds to which they
apply, but also embody certain assumptions as to the manner
in which the constituent atoms are arranged, and convey more
or less information with regard to the nature of the compound
itself, viz. the class to which it belongs, the manner in which

it is formed, and the behaviour it will exhibit under various
circumstances. Before explaining these formulae it will be
necessary, however, to consider the differences in combining
power exhibited by the various elements.

Valency. It is found that the number of atoms of a given
element, of chlorine, for example, which unite with an atom of
each of the other elements is very variable. Thus, hydrogen
unites with but a single atom of chlorine, zinc with two, boron
with three, silicon with four, phosphorus with five and tungsten
with six. Those elements which are equivalent in combining
or displacing power to a single atom of hydrogen are said to be
univalent or monad elements; whilst those which are equivalent
to two atoms of hydrogen are termed bivalent or dyad elements;
and those equivalent to three, four, five or six atoms of hydrogen
triad, tetrad, pentad or hexad elements. But not only is the
combining power orvalency (atomicity) of the elements different,
it is also observed that one element may combine with another
in several proportions, or that its valency may vary; for example,
phosphorus forms two chlorides represented by the formulae
PC1 3 and PCU, nitrogen the series of oxides represented by the
formulae N 2 O, NO, (N 2 O 3 ), N 2 O 4 , N 2 O 5 , molybdenum forms the
chlorides MoCl 2 , MoCl 3 , MoCl 4 , MoCU, MoCl 6 (?), and tungsten
the chlorides WC1 2 , WO,, WC1 S , WCU.

In explanation of these facts it is supposed that each element
has a certain number of " units of affinity," which may be
entirely, or only in part, engaged when it enters into combination
with other elements; and in those cases in which the entire
number of units of affinity are not engaged by other Clements,
it is supposed that those which are thus disengaged neutralize
each other, as it were. For example, in phosphorus penta-
chloride the five units of affinity possessed by the phosphorus
atom are satisfied by the five monad atoms of chlorine, but in
the trichloride two are disengaged, and, it may be supposed,
satisfy each other. Compounds in which all the units of affinity
of the contained elements are engaged are said to be saturated,
whilst those in which the affinities of the contained elements are
not all engaged by other elements are said to be unsaturaled.
According to this view, it is necessary to assume that, in all
unsaturated compounds, two, or some even number of affinities
are disengaged; and also that all elements which combine
with an even number of monad atoms cannot combine with an
odd number, and vice versa, in other words, that the number
of units of affinity active in the case of any given element must
be always either an even or an odd number, and that it cannot
be at one time an even and at another an odd number. There
are, however, a few remarkable exceptions to this " law."
Thus, it must be supposed that in nitric oxide, NO, an odd
number of affinities are disengaged, since a single atom of dyad
oxygen is united with a single atom of nitrogen, which in all its
compounds with other elements acts either as a triad or pentad.
When nitric peroxide, N 2 O4, is converted into gas, it decomposes,
and at about 180 C. its vapour entirely consists of molecules
of the composition NO2; while at temperatures between this
and o C. it consists of a mixture in different proportions of the
two kinds of molecules, N 2 O 4 and NO 2 . The oxide NOz must
be regarded as another instance of a compound in which an odd
number of affinities of one of the contained elements are dis-
engaged, since.it contains two atoms of dyad oxygen united with
a single atom of triad or pentad nitrogen. Again, when tungsten
hexachloride is converted into vapour it is decomposed into
chlorine and a pentachloride, having a normal vapour density,
but as in the majority of its compounds tungsten acts as a hexad,
we apparently must regard its pentachloride as a compound
in which an odd number of free affinities are' disengaged. Hither-
to no explanation has been given of these exceptions to what
appears to be a law of almost universal application, viz. that the
sum of the units of affinity of all the atoms in a compound is
an even number.

The number of units of affinity active in the case of any
particular element is largely dependent, however, upon the
nature of the element or elements with which it is associated.
Thus, an atom of iodine only combines with one of hydrogen,

CHEMISTRY

[PRINCIPLES

but may unite with three of chlorine, which never combines
with more than a single atom of hydrogen; an atom of phos-
phorus unites with only three atoms of hydrogen, but with five
of chlorine, or with four of hydrogen and one of iodine; and the
chlorides corresponding to the higher oxides of lead, nickel,
manganese and arsenic, PbO 2 , Ni 2 O 3 , MnO 2 and As 2 O 5 do not
exist as stable compounds, but the lower chlorides, PbCl 2 , NiCl 2 ,
MnCl 2 and AsCls, are very stable.

The valency of an element is usually expressed by dashes
or Roman numerals placed on the right of its symbol, thus:
H', O", B'", C IV , P v , Mo VI ; but in constructing graphic formulae
the symbols of the elements are written with as many lines
attached to each symbol as the element which it represents
has units of affinity.

The periodic law (see ELEMENT) permits a grouping of the
elements according to their valency as follows: Group O:
helium, neon, argon, krypton and xenon appear to be devoid of
valency. Group I.: the alkali metals Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, and
also Ag, monovalent; Cu, monovalent and divalent; Au,
monovalent and trivalent. Group II. : the alkaline earth metals
Ca, Sr, Ba, and also Be (Gl), Mg, Zn, Cd, divalent; Hg, monovalent
and divalent. Group III.: B, trivalent; Al, trivalent, but
possibly also tetra-or penta-valent; Ga, divalent and trivalent;
In, mono-, di- and tri-valent; Tl, monovalent and trivalent.
Group IV.: C, Si, Ge, Zr, Th, tetravalent; Ti, tetravalent and
hexavalent; Sn, Pb, divalent and tetravalent; Ce, trivalent
and tetravalent. Group V. : N, trivalent and pentavalent, but
divalent in nitric oxide; P, As, Sb, Bi, trivalent and pentavalent,
the last being possibly divalent in BiO and BiCl 2 . Group VI.:
O, usually divalent, but tetravalent and possibly hexavalent in
oxonium and other salts; S, Se, Te, di-, tetra- and hexa-valent;
Cr, di-, tri- and hexa-valent; Mo, W, di-, tri-, tetra-, penta- and
hexa-valent. Group VII.: H (?), monovalent; the halogens F,
Cl, Br, I, usually monovalent, but possibly also tri- and penta-
valent; Mn, divalent and trivalent, and possibly heptavalent
in permanganates. Group VIII. : Fe, Co, divalent and trivalent ;
Ni, divalent; Os, Ru, hexavalent and octavalent; Pd, Pt,
divalent and tetravalent; Ir, tri-, tetra- and hexa-valent.
(See also VALENCY.)

Constitutional Formulae. Graphic or constitutional formulae
are employed to express the manner in which the constituent
atoms of compounds are associated together; for example, the
trioxide of sulphur is usually regarded as a compound of an
atom of hexad sulphur with three atoms of dyad oxygen, and
this hypothesis is illustrated by the graphic formula

When this oxide is brought into contact with water it combines
with it forming sulphuric acid, H 2 SO 4 .

In this compound only" two of .the oxygen atoms are wholly
associated with the sulphur atom, each of the remaining oxygen
atoms being united by one of its affinities to the sulphur atoms,
and by the remaining affinity to an atom of hydrogen;
thus

H-O^c^O

H-0> S <0.

The graphic formula of a sulphate is readily deduced by re-
membering that the hydrogen atoms are partially or entirely
replaced. Thus acid sodium sulphate, normal sodium sulphate,
and zinc sulphate have the formulae

Again, the reactions of acetic acid, C 2 H 4 O 2 , show that the four
atoms of hydrogen which it contains have not all the same
function, and also that the two atoms of oxygen have different
functions; the graphic formula which we are led to assign to
acetic acid, viz.

serves in a measure to express this, three of the atoms of hydrogen
being represented as associated with one of the atoms of carbon,

whilst the fourth atom is associated with an atom of oxygen
which is united by a single affinity to the second atom of carbon
to which, however, the second atom of oxygen is united by both
of its affinities. It is not to be supposed that there are anj
actual bonds of union between the atoms; graphic formulae
such as these merely express the hypothesis that certain of the
atoms in a compound come directly within the sphere of attrac-
tion of certain other atoms, and only indirectly within the
sphere of attraction of others, an hypothesis to which chemists
are led by observing that it is often possible to separate a group
of elements from a compound, and to displace it by other elements
or groups of elements.

Rational formulae of a much simpler description than these
graphic formulae are generally employed. For instance, sulphuric
acid is usually represented by the formula SO 2 (OH) 2 , which
indicates that it may be regarded as a compound of the group
SO 2 with twice the group OH. Each of these OH groups is
equivalent in combining or displacing power to a monad element,
since it consists of an atom of dyad oxygen associated with a
single atom of monad hydrogen, so that in this case the SO 5
group is equivalent to an atom of a dyad element. This formula
for sulphuric acid, however, merely represents such facts as that
it is possible to displace an atom of hydrogen and an atom of
oxygen in sulphuric acid by a single atom of chlorine, thus
forming the compound SO 3 HC1; and that by the action of
water on the compound SO 2 C1 2 twice the group OH, or water
minus an atom of hydrogen, is introduced in place of the two
monad atoms of chlorine

SO 2 C1 2 +2HOH = SO 2 (OH) 2 +2HC1.
Water. Sulphuric acid.

Constitutional formulae like these, in fact, are nothing more
than symbolic expressions of the character of the compounds
which they represent, the arrangement of symbols in a certain
definite manner being understood to convey certain information
with regard to the compounds represented.

Groups of two or more atoms like SO 2 and OH, which are
capable of playing the part of elementary atoms (that is to say,
which can be transferred from compound to compound), are
termed compound radicals, the elementary atoms being simple
radicals. Thus, the atom of hydrogen is a monad simple radical,
the atom of oxygen a dyad simple radical, whilst the group OH
is a monad compound radical.

It is often convenient to regard compounds as formed upon
certain types; alcohol, for example, may be said to be a com-
pound formed upon the water type, that is to say, a compound
formed from water by displacing one of the atoms of hydrogen
by the group of elements C 2 H 5 , thus

(H Q JC 2 H S

('
Water

Alcohol.

Constitutional formulae become of preponderating importance
when we consider the more complicated inorganic and especially
organic compounds. Their full significance is treated in the
section of this article dealing with organic chemistry, and in the
articles ISOMERISM and STEREO-ISOMERISM.

Chemical Action. Chemical change or chemical action may
be said to take place whenever changes occur which involve an
alteration in the composition of molecules, and may be the
result of the action of agents such as heat, electricity or
light, or of two or more elements or compounds upon each
other.

Three kinds of changes are to be distinguished, viz. changes
which involve combination, changes which involve decomposi-
tion or separation, and changes which involve at the same time
both decomposition and combination. Changes of the first and
second kind, according to our views of the constitution of mole-
cules, are probably of very rare occurrence; in fact, chemical
action appears almost always to involve the occurrence of both
these kinds of change, for, as already pointed out, we must
assume that the molecules of hydrogen, oxygen and several
other elements are diatomic, or that they consist of two atoms.
Indeed, it appears probable that with few exceptions the elements

PRINCIPLES]

CHEMISTRY

are all compounds of similar atoms united together by one or
more units of affinity, according to their valencies. If this be
the case, however, it is evident that there is no real distinction
between the reactions which take place when two elements
combine together and when an element in a compound is dis-
placed by another.- The combination, as it is ordinarily termed,
of chlorine with hydrogen, and the displacement of iodine in
potassium iodide by the action of chlorine, may be cited as
examples; if these reactions are represented, as such reactions
very commonly are, by equations which merely express the
relative weights of the bodies which enter into reaction, and of
the products, thus

H + Cl HC1

Hydrogen. Chlorine. Hydrochloric acid.

KI + Cl KC1 + I

Potassium iodide. Chlorine. Potassium chloride. Iodine.

they appear to differ in character; but if they are correctly
represented by molecular equations, or equations which express
the relative number of molecules which enter into reaction and
which result from the reaction, it will be obvious that the
character of the reaction is substantially the same in both cases,
and that both are instances of the occurrence of what is ordinarily
termed double decomposition

H 2 + Cl ? = 2HC1
Hydrogen. Chlorine. Hydrochloric acid.
2KI + Cl ? = 2KC1 + I 2 .

Potassium iodide. Chlorine. Potassium chloride. Iodine.

In all cases of chemical change energy in the form of heat is
either developed or absorbed, and the amount of heat developed
or absorbed in a given reaction is as definite as are the weights
of the substance engaged in the reaction. Thus, in the production
of hydrochloric acid from hydrogen and chlorine 22,000 calories
are developed; in the production of hydrobromic acid from
hydrogen and bromine, however, only 844ocaloriesaredeveloped ;
and in the formation cf hydriodic acid from hydrogen and
iodine 6040 calories are absorbed.

This difference in behaviour of the three elements, chlorine,
bromine and iodine, which in many respects exhibit considerable
resemblance, may be explained in the following manner. We
may suppose that in the formation of gaseous hydrochloric acid
from gaseous chlorine and hydrogen, according to the equation

H 2 +C1 2 = HC1+HC1,

a certain amount of energy is expended in separating the atoms
of hydrogen in the hydrogen molecule, and the atoms of chlorine
in the chlorine molecule, from each other; but that heat is
developed by the combination of the hydrogen atoms with
the chlorine atoms, and that, as more energy is developed by the
union of the atoms of hydrogen and chlorine than is expended
in separating the hydrogen atoms from each other and the
chlorine atoms from one'another, the result of the action of the
two elements upon each other is the development of heat, the
amount finally developed in the reaction being the difference
between that absorbed in decomposing the elementary mole-
cules and that developed by the combination of the atoms of
chlorine and hydrogen. In the formation of gaseous hydrobromic
acid from liquid bromine and gaseous hydrogen

H,-r-Br 2 = HBr+HBr,

in addition to the energy expended in decomposing the hydrogen
and bromine molecules, energy is also expended in converting
the liquid bromine into the gaseous condition, and probably
less heat is developed by the combination of bromine and
hydrogen than by the combination of chlorine and hydrogen, so
that the amount of heat finally developed is much less than is
developed in the formation of hydrochloric acid. Lastly, in
the production of gaseous hydriodic acid from hydrogen and
solid iodine

so much energy is expended in the decomposition of the hydrogen
and iodine molecules and in the conversion of the iodine into the
gaseous condition, that the heat which it may be supposed is
developed by the combination of the hydrogen and iodine atoms
insufficient to balance the expenditure, and the final result is

therefore negative; hence it is necessary in forming hydriodic
acid from its elements to apply heat continuously.

These compounds also afford examples of the fact that,
generally speaking, those compounds are most readily formed,
and are most stable, in the formation of which the most heat is
developed. Thus, chlorine enters into reaction with hydrogen,
and removes hydrogen from hydrogenized bodies, far more
readily than bromine ; and hydrochloric acid is a far more
stable substance than hydrobromic acid, hydriodic acid being
greatly inferior even to hydrobromic acid in stability. Com-
pounds formed with the evolution of heat are termed exothermic,
while those formed with an absorption are termed endothermic.
Explosives are the commonest examples of endothermic com-
pounds.

When two substances which by their action upon each other
develop much heat enter into reaction, the reaction is usually
complete without the employment of an excess of either; for
example, when a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, in the pro-
portions to form water

2H,+O=20H,,

is exploded, it is entirely converted into water. This is also
the case if two substances are brought together in solution, by
the action of which upon each other a third body is formed
which is insoluble in the solvent employed, and which also does
not tend to react upon any of the substances present; for
instance, when a solution of a chloride is added to a solution of
a silver salt, insoluble silver chloride is precipitated, and almost
the whole of the silver is removed from solution, even if the
amount of the chloride employed be not in excess of that
theoretically reauired.

But if there De no tendency to form an insoluble compound,
or one which is not liable to react upon any of the other substances
present, this is no longer the case. For example, when a solution
of a ferric salt is added to a solution of potassium thiocyanate,
a deep red coloration is produced, owing to the formation of
ferric thiocyanate. Theoretically the reaction takes place in
the case of ferric nitrate in the manner represented by the
equation

Fe(NO 3 ) 3 + 3KCNS = Fe(CNS), + 3KNO,;

Ferric nitrate. Potassium thiocyanate. Ferric thiocyanate. Potassium nitrate.

but it is found that even when more than sixty times the amount
of potassium thiocyanate required by this equation is added,
a portion of the ferric nitrate still remains unconverted, doubtless
owing to the occurrence of the reverse change

Fe(CNS) 3 +3KNO 3 =Fe(NO 3 ) 3 +3KCNS.

In this, as in most other cases in which substances act upon one
another under such circumstances that the resulting compounds
are free to react, the extent to which the different kinds of action
which may occur take place is dependent upon the mass of the
substances present in the mixture. As another instance of this
kind, the decomposition of bismuth chloride by water may be
cited. If a very large quantity of water be added, the chloride
is entirely decomposed in the manner represented by the
equation

BiCl 3 + OH 2 = BiOCl + 2HCI,
Bismuth chloride. Bismuth oxychloride.

the oxychloride being precipitated; but if smaller quantities
of water be added the decomposition is incomplete, and it is
found that the extent to which decomposition takes place is
proportional to the quantity of water employed, the decom-
position being incomplete, except in presence of large quantities
of water, because of the occurrence of the reverse action
BiOCl +2HC1 = BiCl,+O 2 H.

Chemical change which merely involves simple decomposition
is thus seen to be influenced by the masses of the reacting sub-
stances and the presence of the products of decomposition; in
other words the system of reacting substances and resultants
form a mixture in which chemical action has apparently ceased,
or the system is in equilibrium. Such reactions are termed
reversible (see CHEMICAL ACTION).

CHEMISTRY

[INORGANIC

III. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Inorganic chemistry is concerned with the descriptive study
of the elements and their compounds, except those of carbon.
Reference should be made to the separate articles on the different
elements and the more important compounds for their prepara-
tion, properties and uses. In this article the development of
this branch of the science is treated historically.

The earliest discoveries in inorganic chemistry are to be found
in the metallurgy, medicine and chemical arts of the ancients.
The Egyptians obtained silver, iron, copper, lead, zinc and tin,
either pure or as alloys, by smelting the ores; mercury is men-
tioned by Theophrastus (c. 300 B.C.). The manufacture of glass,
also practised in Egypt, demanded a knowledge of sodium or
potassium carbonates; the former occurs as an efflorescence
on the shores of certain lakes; the latter was obtained from
wood ashes. Many substances were used as pigments: Pliny
records white lead, cinnabar, verdigris and red oxide of iron;
and the preparation of coloured glasses and enamels testifies to
the uses to which these and other substances were put. Salts of
ammonium were also known; while alum was used as a mordant
in dyeing. Many substances were employed in ancient medicine :
galena was the basis of a valuable Egyptian cosmetic and drug;
the arsenic sulphides, realgar and orpiment, litharge, alum,
saltpetre, iron rust were also used. Among the Arabian and
later alchemists we find attempts made to collate compounds by
specific properties, and it is to these writers that we are mainly
indebted for such terms as "alkali," "sal," &c. The mineral
acids, hydrochloric, nitric and sulphuric acids, and also aqua
regia (a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids) were discovered,
and the vitriols, alum, saltpetre, sal-ammonfeic, ammonium
carbonate, silver nitrate [(lunar caustic) became better known.
The compounds of mercury attracted considerable attention,
mainly on account of their medicinal properties; mercuric
oxide and corrosive sublimate were known to pseudo-Geber, and
the nitrate and basic sulphate to " Basil Valentine." Antimony
and its compounds formed the subject of an elaborate treatise
ascribed to this last writer, who also contributed to our knowledge
of the compounds of zinc, bismuth and arsenic. All the com-
monly occurring elements and compounds appear to have
received notice by the alchemists; but the writings assigned
to the alchemical period are generally so vague and indefinite
that it is difficult to determine the true value of the results
obtained.

In the succeeding iatrochemical period, the methods of the
alchemists were improved and new ones devised. Glauber
showed how to prepare hydrochloric acid, spiritus sails, by
heating rock-salt with sulphuric acid, the method in common
use to-day; and also nitric acid from saltpetre and arsenic
trioxide. Libavius obtained sulphuric acid from many sub-
stances, e.g. alum, vitriol, sulphur and nitric acid, by distillation.
The action of these acids on many metals was also studied;
Glauber obtained zinc, stannic, arsenious and cuprous chlorides
by dissolving the metals in hydrochloric acid, compounds
hitherto obtained by heating the metals with corrosive subh'mate,
and consequently supposed to contain mercury. The scientific
study of salts dates from this period, especial interest being
taken in those compounds which possessed a medicinal or
technical value. In particular, the salts of potassium, sodium
and ammonium were carefully investigated, but sodium and
potassium salts were rarely differentiated. 1 The metals of the
alkaline-earths were somewhat neglected; we find Georg
Agricola considering gypsum (calcium sulphate) as a compound
of lime, while calcium nitrate and chloride became known at
about the beginning of the I7th century. Antimonial, bismuth
and arsenical compounds were assiduously studied, a direct
consequence of their high medicinal importance; mercurial
and silver compounds were investigated for -the same reason.
The general tendency of this period appears to have taken the
form of improving and developing the methods of the alchemists;

1 The definite distinction' between potash and soda was first
established by Duhamel de Monceau (1700-1781).

few new fields were opened, and apart from a more complete
knowledge of the nature of salts, no valuable generalizations
were attained.

The discovery of phosphorus by Brand, a Hamburg alchemist,
in 1669 excited chemists to an unwonted degree; it was also
independently prepared by Robert Boyle and J. Kunckel,
Brand having kept his process secret. Towards the middle of
the 1 8th century two new elements were isolated: cobalt by
G. Brandt in 1742, and nickel by A. F. Cronstedt in 1750. These
discoveries were followed by Daniel Rutherford's isolation of
nitrogen in 1772, and by K. Scheele's isolation of chlorine and
oxygen in 1774 (J. Priestley discovered oxygen independently
at about the same time), and his investigation of molybdic and
tungstic acids in the following year; metallic molybdenum
was obtained by P. J. Hjelm in 1783, and tungsten by Don
Fausto d'Elhuyar; manganese was isolated by J. G. Gahn in
1 774. In 1 784 Henry Cavendish thoroughly examined hydrogen,
establishing its elementary nature; and he made the far-reaching
discovery that water was composed of two volumes of hydrogen
to one of oxygen.

The phlogistic theory, which pervaded the chemical doctrine
of this period, gave rise to continued study of the products of
calcination and combustion; it thus happened that the know-
ledge of oxides and oxidation products was considerably
developed. The synthesis of nitric acid by passing electric
sparks through moist air by Cavendish is a famous piece of
experimental work, for in the first place it determined the
composition of this important substance, and in the second
place the minute residue of air which would not combine, although
ignored for about a century, was subsequently examined by
Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay, who showed that it
consists of a mixture of elementary substances argon, krypton,
neon and xenon (see ARGON).

The 1 8th century witnessed striking developments in
pneumatic chemistry, or the chemistry of gases, which had
been begun by van Helmont, Mayow, Hales and Boyle. Gases
formerly considered to be identical came to be clearly distin-
guished, and many new ones were discovered. Atmospheric
air was carefully investigated by Cavendish, who showed that
it consisted of two elementary constituents: nitrogen, which
was isolated by Rutherford in 1772, and oxygen, isolated in
1774; and Black established the presence, in minute quantity,
of carbon dioxide (van Helmont's gas sylveslre). Of the many
workers in this field, Priestley occupies an important position.
A masterly device, initiated by him, was to collect gases over
mercury instead of water; this enabled him to obtain gases
previously only known in solution, such as ammonia, hydro-
chloric acid, silicon fluoride and sulphur dioxide. Sulphuretted
hydrogen and nitric oxide were discovered at about the
same time.

Returning to the history of the discovery of the elements and
their more important inorganic compounds, we come in 1789 to
M. H. Klaproth's detection of a previously unknown constituent
of the mineral pitchblende. He extracted a substance to which
he assigned the character of an element, naming it uranium
(from Oiiparos, heaven) ; but it was afterwards shown by E. M.
Peligot, who prepared the pure metal, that Klaproth's product
was really an oxide. This element was investigated at a later
date by Sir Henry Roscoe, and more thoroughly and successfully
by C. Zimmermann and Alibegoff. Pitchblende attained con-
siderable notoriety towards the end of the I9th century on
account of two important discoveries. The first, made by Sir
William Ramsay in 1896, was that the mineral evolved a peculiar
gas when treated with sulphuric acid; this gas, helium (q.v.),
proved to be identical with a constituent of the sun's atmosphere,
detected as early as 1868 by Sir Norman Lockyer during a
spectroscopic examination of the sun's chromosphere. The
second discovery, associated with the Curies, is that of the
peculiar properties exhibited by the impure substance, and due
to a constituent named radium. The investigation of this
substance and its properties (see RADIOACTIVITY) has proceeded
so far as to render it probable that the theory of the unalterability

INORGANIC]

CHEMISTRY

of elements, and also the hitherto accepted explanations of
various celestial phenomena the source of solar energy and
the appearances of the tails of comets may require recasting.

In the same year as Klaproth detected uranium, he also
isolated zirconia or zirconium oxide from the mineral variously
known as zircon, hyacinth, jacynth and jargoon ; but he failed
to obtain the metal, this being first accomplished some years
later by Berzelius, who decomposed the double potassium
zirconium fluoride with potassium. In the following year, 1795,
Klaproth announced the discovery of a third new element,
titanium; its isolation (in a very impure form), as in the case of
zirconium, was reserved for Berzelius.

Passing over the discovery of carbon disulphide by W. A.
Lampadius in 1796, of chromium by L. N. Vauquelin in 1797, and
Klaproth's investigation of tellurium in 1798, the next important
series of observations was concerned with platinum and the
allied metals. Platinum had been described by Antonio de Ulloa
in 1748, and subsequently discussed by H. T. Scheffer in 1752.
In 1803 W. H. Wollaston discovered palladium, especially
interesting for its striking property of absorbing (" occluding ")
as much as 376 volumes of hydrogen at ordinary temperatures,
and 643 volumes at 90. In the following year he discovered
rhodium; and at about the same time Smithson Tennant added
two more to the list iridium and osmium; the former was
so named from the changing tints of its oxides (Ipa, rainbow),
and the latter from the odour of its oxide (607x17, smell). The
most recently discovered " platinum metal," ruthenium,
was recognized by C. E. Claus in 1845. The great number
and striking character of the compounds of this group of
metals have formed the subject of many investigations, and
already there is a most voluminous literature. Berzelius was
an early worker in this field; he was succeeded by Bunsen,
and Deville and Debray, who worked out the separation of
rhodium; and at a later date by P. T. Cleve, the first to make
a really thorough study of these elements and their compounds.
Of especial note are the curious compounds formed by the union
of carbon monoxide with platinous chloride, discovered by Paul
Schtitzenberger and subsequently investigated by F. B. Mylius
and F. Foerster and by Pullinger; the phosphoplatinic com-
pounds formed primarily from platinum and phosphorus penta-
chloride; and also the '" ammino " compounds, formed by the
union of ammonia with the chloride, &c., of these metals, which
have been studied by many chemists, especially S. M. Jorgensen.
Considerable uncertainty existed as to the atomic weights of
these metals, the values obtained by Berzelius being doubtful.
K. F. O. Seubert redetermined this constant for platinum,
osmium and iridium; E. H. Reiser for palladium, and A. A.
Joly for ruthenium.

The beginning of the igth century witnessed the discovery
of certain powerful methods for the analysis of compounds and
the isolation of elements. Berzelius's investigation of the
action of the electric current on salts clearly demonstrated
the invaluable assistance that electrolysis could render to the
isolator of elements; and the adoption of this method by Sir
Humphry Davy for the analysis of the hydrates of the metals of
the alkalis and alkaline earths, and the results which he thus
achieved, established its potency. In 1808 Davy isolated
sodium and potassium; he then turned his attention to the
preparation of metallic calcium, barium, strontium and mag-
nesium. Here he met with greater difficulty, and it is to be
questioned whether he obtained any of these metals even in an
approximately pure form (see ELECTROMETALLURGY). The
discovery of boron by Gay Lussac and Davy in 1809 led
Berzelius to investigate silica (silex). In the following year he
announced that silica was the oxide of a hitherto unrecognized
element, which he named silicium, considering it to be a metal.
This has proved to be erroneous; it is non-metallic in character,
and its name was altered to silicon, from analogy with carbon
and boron. At the same time Berzelius obtained the element,
in an impure condition, by fusing silica with charcoal and iron
in a blast furnace; its preparation in a pure condition he first
accomplished in 1823, when he invented the method of heating

double potassium fluorides with metallic potassium. The
success which attended his experiments in the case of silicon led
him to apply it to the isolation of other elements. In 1824 he
obtained zirconium from potassium zirconium fluoride; the
preparation of (impure) titanium quickly followed, and in 1828
he obtained thorium. A similar process, and equally efficacious,
was introduced by F. Wohler in 1827. It consisted in heating
metallic chlorides with potassium, and was first applied to
aluminium, which was isolated in 1827; in the following year,
beryllium chloride was analysed by the same method, beryllium
oxide (berylla or glucina) having been known since 1798, when
it was detected by L. N. Vauquelin in the gem-stone beryl.

In 1812 B. Courtois isolated the element iodine from " kelp,"
the burnt ashes of marine plants. The chemical analogy of this
substance to chlorine was quickly perceived, especially after
its investigation by Davy and Gay Lussac. Cyanogen, a
compound which in combination behaved very similarly to
chlorine and iodine, was isolated in 1815 by Gay Lussac. This
discovery of the first of the then-styled " compound radicals "
exerted great influence on the prevailing views of chemical
composition. Hydrochloric acid was carefully investigated
at about this time by Davy, Faraday and Gay Lussac, its
composition and the elementary nature of chlorine being thereby
established.

In 1817 F. Stromeyer detected a new metallic element, cad-
mium, in certain zinc ores; it was rediscovered at subsequent
dates by other observers and its chemical resemblance to zinc
noticed. In the same year Berzelius discovered selenium in a
deposit from sulphuric acid chambers, his masterly investigation
including a study of the hydride, oxides and other compounds.
Selenic acid was discovered by E. Mitscherlich, who also observed
the similarity of the crystallographic characters of selenates
and sulphates, which afforded valuable corroboration of his doc-
trine of isomorphism. More recent and elaborate investigations
in this direction by A. E. H. Tutton have confirmed this view.

In 1818 L. J. Thenard discovered hydrogen dioxide, one of
the most interesting inorganic compounds known, which has
since been carefully investigated by H. E. Schone, M. Traube,
Wolfenstein and others. About the same time, J. A. Arfvedson,
a pupil of Berzelius, detected a new element, which he named
lithium, in various minerals notably petalite. Although
unable to isolate the metal, he recognized its analogy to sodium
and potassium; this was confirmed by R. Bunsen and A.
Matthiessen in 1855, who obtained the metal by electrolysis
and thoroughly examined it and its compounds. Its crimson
flame-coloration was observed by C. G. Gmelin in 1818.

The discovery of bromine in 1826 by A. J. Balard completed
for many years Berzelius's group of " halogen " elements; the
remaining member, fluorine, notwithstanding many attempts,
remained unisolated until 1886, when Henri Moissan obtained
it by the electrolysis of potassium fluoride dissolved in hydro-
fluoric acid. Hydrobromic and hydriodic acids were investigated
by Gay Lussac and Balard, while hydrofluoric acid received
considerable attention at the hands of Gay Lussac, Thenard
and Berzelius. We may, in fact, consider that the descriptive
study of the various halogen compounds dates from about this
time. Balard discovered chlorine monoxide in 1834, investigat-
ing its properties and reactions; and his observations on hypo-
chlorous acid and hypochlorites led him to conclude that " bleach-
ing-powder " or " chloride of lime " was a compound or mixture
in equimolecular proportions of calcium chloride and hypo-
chlorite, with a little calcium hydrate. Gay Lussac investigated
chloric acid; Stadion discovered perchloric acid, since more
fully studied by G. S. Serullas and Roscoe; Davy and Stadion
investigated chlorine peroxide, formed by treating potassium
chlorate with sulphuric acid. Davy also described and partially
investigated the gas, named by him " euchlorine," obtained
by heating potassium chlorate with hydrochloric acid; this
gas has been more recently examined by Pebal. The oxy-acids
of iodine were investigated by Davy and H. G. Magnus; periodic
acid, discovered by the latter, is characterized by the striking
complexity of its salts as pointed out by Kimmins.

CHEMISTRY

[INORGANIC

In 1830 N. G. Sefstrom definitely proved the existence of a
metallic element vanadium, which had been previously detected
(in 1801) in certain lead ores by A. M. del Rio; subsequent
elaborate researches by Sir Henry Roscoe showed many in-
accuracies in the conclusions of earlier workers (for instance, the
substance considered to be the pure element was in reality an
oxide) and provided science with an admirable account of this
element and its compounds. B. W. Gerland contributed to our
knowledge of vanadyl salts and the vanadic acids. Chemically
related to vanadium are the two elements tantalum and colum-
bium or niobium. These elements occur in the minerals colum-
bite and tantalite, and their compounds became known in the
early part of the ipth century by the labours of C. Hatchett,
A. G. Ekeberg, W. H. Wollaston and Berzelius. But the
knowledge was very imperfect; neither was it much clarified
by H. Rose, who regarded niobium oxide as the element. The
subject was revived in 1866 by C. W. Blomstrand and J. C.
Marignac, to whom is due the credit of first showing the true
chemical relations of these elements. Subsequent researches by
Sainte Claire Deville and L. J. Troost, and by A. G. Kriiss and
L. E. Nilson, and subsequently (1904) by Hall, rendered notable
additions to our knowledge of these elements and their compounds.
Tantalum has in recent years been turned to economic service,
being employed, in the same manner as tungsten, for the pro-
duction of the filaments employed in incandescent electric
lighting.

In 1833 Thomas Graham, following the paths already traced
out by E. D. Clarke, Gay Lussac and Stromeyer, published his
masterly investigation of the various phosphoric acids and
their salts, obtaining results subsequently employed by J. von
Liebig in establishing the doctrine of the characterization and
basicity of acids. Both phosphoric and phosphorous acids
became known, although imperfectly, towards the end of the
i8th century; phosphorous acid was first obtained pure by
Davy in 1812, while pure phosphorous oxide, the anhydride
of phosphorous acid, remained unknown until T. E. Thorpe's
investigation of the products of the slow combustion of phos-
phorus. Of other phosphorus compounds we may here notice
Gengembre's discovery of phosphuretted hydrogen (phosphine)
in 1783, the analogy of which to ammonia was first pointed out
by Davy and supported at a later date by H. Rose; liquid
phosphuretted hydrogen was first obtained by Thenard in
1838; and hypophosphorous acid was discovered by Dulong
in 1816. Of the halogen compounds of phosphorus, the tri-
chloride was discovered by Gay Lussac and Thenard, while the
pentachloride was obtained by Davy. The oxychloride, bro-
mides, and other compounds were subsequently discovered;
here we need only notice Moissan's preparation of the trifluoride
and Thorpe's discovery of the pentafluoride, a compound of
especial note, for it volatilizes unchanged, giving a vapour of
normal density and so demonstrating the stability of a pentava-
lent phosphorus compound (the pentachloride and pentabromide
dissociate into a molecule of the halogen element and phosphorus
trichloride).

In 1840 C. F. Schonbein investigated ozone, a gas of peculiar
odour (named from the Gr. ouv, to smell) observed in 1785 by
Martin van Marum to be formed by the action of a silent electric
discharge on the oxygen of the air; he showed it to be an
allotropic modification of oxygen, a view subsequently confirmed
by Marignac, Andrews and Soret. In 1 845 a further contribution
to the study of allotropy was made by Anton Schrotter, who
investigated the transformations of yellow and red phosphorus,
phenomena previously noticed by Berzelius, the inventor of the
term " allotropy." The preparation of crystalline boron in 1856
by Wohler and Sainte Claire Deville showed that this element
also existed in allotropic forms, amorphous boron having been
obtained simultaneously and independently in 1809 by Gay
Lussac and Davy. Before leaving this phase of inorganic
chemistry, we may mention other historical examples of allo-
tropy. Of great importance is the chemical identity of the
diamond, graphite and charcoal, a fact demonstrated in part by
Lavoisier in 1773, Smithson Tennant in 1796, and by Sir George

Steuart-Mackenzie (1780-1848), who showed that equal weights
of these three substances yielded the same weight of carbon
dioxide on combustion. The allotropy of selenium was first
investigated by Berzelius; and more fully in 1851 by J. W.
Hittorf, who carefully investigated the effects produced by heat;
crystalline selenium possesses a very striking property, viz.
when exposed to the action of light its electric conductivity
increases. Another element occurring in allotropic forms is
sulphur, of which many forms have been described. E. Mit-
scherlich was an early worker in this field. A modification
known as " black sulphur," soluble in water, was announced
by F. L. Knapp in 1848, and a colloidal modification was
described by H. Debus. The dynamical equilibrium between
rhombic, liquid and monosymmetric sulphur has been worked
out by H. W. Bakhuis Roozeboom. The phenomenon of allo-
tropy is not confined to the non-metals, for evidence has been
advanced to show that allotropy is far commoner than hitherto
supposed. Thus the researches of Carey Lea, E. A. Schneider
and others, have proved the existence of " colloidal silver ";
similar forms of the metals gold, copper, and of the platinum
metals have been described. The allotropy of arsenic and
antimony is also worthy of notice, but in the case of the first
element the variation is essentially non-metallic, closely resemb-
ling that of phosphorus. The term allotropy has also been
applied to inorganic compounds, identical in composition, but
assuming different crystallographic forms. Mercuric oxide,
sulphide and iodide; arsenic trioxide; titanium dioxide and
silicon dioxide may be cited as examples.

The joint discovery in 1859 of the powerful method of spectrum
analysis (see SPECTROSCOPY) by G. R. Kirchhoff and R. W.
Bunsen, and its application to the detection and the characteriza-
tion of elements when in a state of incandescence, rapidly led
to the discovery of many hitherto unknown elements. Within
two years of the invention the authors announced the discovery
of two metals, rubidium and caesium, closely allied to sodium,
potassium and lithium in properties, in the mineral lepidolite
and in the Diirkheim mineral water. In 1861 Sir William Crookes
detected thallium (named from the Gr. ftiXXos, a green bud, on
account of a brilliant green line in its spectrum) in the selenious
mud of the sulphuric acid manufacture; the chemical affinities
of this element, on the one hand approximating to the metals
of the alkalis, and on the other hand to lead, were mainly
established by C. A. Lamy. Of other metals first detected by
the spectroscope mention is to be made of indium, determined
by F. Reich and H. T. Richter in 1863, and of gallium, detected
in certain zinc blendes by Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1875. The
spectroscope has played an all-important part in the character-
ization of the elements, which, in combination with oxygen,
constitute the group of substances collectively named the " rare
earths." The substances occur, in very minute quantity, in a
large number of sparingly-distributed and comparatively rare
minerals euxenite, samarksite, cerite, yttrotantalite, &c.
Scandinavian specimens of these minerals were examined by
J. Gadolin, M. H. Klaproth, and especially by Berzelius; these
chemists are to be regarded as the pioneers in this branch of
descriptive chemistry. Since their day many chemists have
entered the lists, new and powerful methods of research have
been devised, and several new elements definitely characterized.
Our knowledge on many points, however, is very chaotic; great
uncertainty and conflict of evidence circulate around many of
the " new elements " which have been announced, so much so
that P. T. Cleve proposed to divide the " rare earth " metals into
two groups, (i) " perfectly characterized "; (2) " not yet
thoroughly characterized." The literature of this subject is
very large. The memorial address on J. C. G. de Marignac, a
noted worker in this field, delivered by Cleve, a high authority
on this subject, before the London Chemical Society (/. C. S.
Trans., 1895, p. 468), and various papers in the same journal
by Sir William Crookes, Bohuslav Brauner and others should
be consulted for details.

In the separation of the constituents of the complex mixture
of oxides obtained from the " rare earth " minerals, the methods

INORGANIC]

CHEMISTRY

generally forced upon chemists are those of fractional precipita-
tion or crystallization; the striking resemblances of the com-
pounds of these elements rarely admitting of a complete separa-
tion by simple precipitation and filtration. The extraordinary
patience requisite to a successful termination of such an analysis
can only be adequately realized by actual research; an idea
may be obtained from Crookes's Select Methods in Analysis.
Of recent years the introduction of various organic compounds as
precipitants or reagents has reduced the labour of 'the process;
and advantage has also been taken of the fairly complex double
salts which these metals form with compounds. The purity of
the compounds thus obtained is checked by spectroscopic
observations. Formerly the spark- and absorption-spectra
were the sole methods available; a third method was introduced
by Crookes, who submitted the oxides, or preferably the basic
sulphates, to the action of a negative electric discharge in- vacua,
and investigated the phosphorescence induced spectroscopically.
By such a study in the ultra-violet region of a fraction prepared
from crude yttria he detected a new element victorium, and
subsequently by elaborate fractionation obtained the element
itself.

The first earth of this group to be isolated (although in an
impure form) was yttria, obtained by Gadolin in 1794 from the
mineral gadolinite, which was named after its discoverer and
investigator. Klaproth and Vauquelin also investigated this
earth, but without detecting that it was a complex mixture
a discovery reserved for C. G. Mosander. The next discovery,
made independently and simultaneously in 1803 by Klaproth and
by W. Hisinger and Berzelius, was of ceria, the oxide of cerium,
in the mineral cerite found at Ridderhytta, Westmannland,
Sweden. These crude earths, yttria and ceria, have supplied
most if not all of the " rare earth " metals. In 1841 Mosander,
having in 1839 discovered a new element lanthanum in the
mineral cerite, isolated this element and also a hitherto un-
recognized substance, didymia, from crude yttria, and two years
later he announced the determination of two fresh constituents
of the same earth, naming them erbia and terbia. Lanthanum
has retained its elementary character, but recent attempts at
separating it from didymia have led to the view that didymium
is a mixture of two elements, praseodymium and neodymium
(see DIDYMIUM). Mosander's erbia has been shown to contain
various other oxides thulia, holmia, &c. but this has not yet
been perfectly worked out. In 1878 Marignac, having subjected
Mosander's erbia, obtained from gadolinite, to a careful examina-
tion, announced the presence of a new element, ytterbium;
this discovery was confirmed by Nilson, who in the following year
discovered another element, scandium, in Marignac's ytterbia.
Scandium possesses great historical interest, for Cleve showed
that it was one of the elements predicted by Mendeleeff about ten
years previously from considerations based on his periodic
classification of the elements (see ELEMENT). Other elements
predicted and characterized by Mendeleeff which have been
since realized are gallium, discovered in 1875, and germanium,
discovered in 1885 by Clemens Winkler.

In 1880 Marignac examined certain earths obtained from the
mineral samarskite, which had already in 1878 received attention
from Delafontaine and later from Lecoq de Boisbaudran. He
established the existence of two new elements, samarium and
gadolinium, since investigated more especially by Cleve, to whom
most of our knowledge on this subject is due. In addition to
the rare elements mentioned above, there are a score or so more
whose existence is doubtful. Every year is attended by fresh
" discoveries " in this prolific source of ejementary substances,
but the paucity of materials and the predilections of the investi-
gators militate in some measure against a just valuation being
accorded to such researches. After having been somewhat
neglected for the greater attractions and wider field pre-
sented by organic chemistry, the study of the elements
and their inorganic compounds is now rapidly coming into
favour; new investigators are continually entering the lists;
the beaten paths are being retraversed and new ramifications
pursued.

IV. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

While inorganic chemistry was primarily developed through
the study of minerals a connexion still shown by the French
appellation chimie mintrale organic chemistry owes its origin
to the investigation of substances occurring in the vegetable
and animal organisms. The quest of the alchemists for the
philosopher's stone, and the almost general adherence of the
iatrochemists to the study of the medicinal characters and
preparation of metallic compounds, stultified in some measure
the investigation of vegetable and animal products. It is true
that by the distillation of many herbs, resins and similar sub-
stances, several organic compounds had been prepared, and in a
few cases employed as medicines; but the prevailing classifica-
tion of substances by physical and, superficial properties led to
the correlation of organic and inorganic compounds, without
any attention being paid to their chemical composition. The
clarification and spirit of research so clearly emphasized by
Robert Boyle in the middle of the I7th century is reflected in
the classification of substances expounded by Nicolas L6mery,
in 1675, i n his Cours de chymie. Taking as a basis the nature of
the source of compounds, he framed three classes: " mineral,"
comprising the metals, minerals, earths and stones; " vege-
table," comprising plants, resins, gums, juices, &c.; and
" animal," comprising animals, their different parts and excreta.
Notwithstanding the inconsistency of his allocation of substances
to the different groups (for instance, acetic acid was placed in
the vegetable class, while the acetates and the products of their
dry distillation, acetone, &c., were placed in the mineral class),
this classification came into favour. The phlogistonists en-
deavoured to introduce chemical notions to support it: Becher,
in his Physica subterranea (1669), stated that mineral, vegetable
and animal matter contained the same elements, but that more
simple combinations prevailed in the mineral kingdom; while
Stahl, in his Specimen Becherianum (1702), held the " earthy "
principle to predominate in the mineral class, and the " aqueous "
and " combustible " in the vegetable and animal classes. It
thus happened that in the earlier treatises on phlogistic chemistry
organic substances were grouped with all combustibles.

The development of organic chemistry from this time until
almost the end of the i8th century was almost entirely confined
to such compounds as had practical applications, especially in
pharmacy and dyeing. A new and energetic spirit was introduced
by Scheele; among other discoveries this gifted experimenter
isolated and characterized many organic acids, and proved the
general occurrence of glycerin (Olsuss) in all oils and fats.
Bergman worked in the same direction; while Rouelle was
attracted to the study of animal chemistry. Theoretical specula-
tions were revived by Lavoisier, who, having explained the nature
of combustion and determined methods for analysing com-
pounds, concluded that vegetable substances ordinarily contained
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, while animal substances generally
contained, in addition to these elements, nitrogen, and sometimes
phosphorus and sulphur. Lavoisier, to whom chemistry was
primarily the chemistry of oxygen compounds, having developed
the radical theory initiated by Guyton de Morveau, formulated
the hypothesis that vegetable and animal substances were oxides
of radicals composed of carbon and hydrogen; moreover, since
simple radicals (the elements) can form more than one oxide,
he attributed the same character to his hydrocarbon radicals:
he considered, for instance, sugar to be a neutral oxide and
oxalic acid a higher oxide of a certain radical, for, when oxidized
by nitric acid, sugar yields oxalic acid. At the same time, how-
ever, he adhered to the classification of Lemery; and it was
only when identical compounds were obtained from both vege-
table and animal sources that this subdivision was discarded, and
the classes were assimilated in the division organic chemistry.

At this time there existed a belief, held at a later date by
Berzelius, Gmelin and many others, that the formation of
organic compounds was conditioned by a so-called vital force;
and the difficulty of artificially realizing this action explained
the supposed impossibility of synthesizing organic compounds.

CHEMISTRY

[ORGANIC

This dogma was shaken by Wohler's synthesis of urea in
1828. But the belief died hard; the synthesis of urea remained
isolated for many years; and many explanations were attempted
by the vitalists (as, for instance, that urea was halfway between
the inorganic and organic kingdoms, or that the carbon, from
which it was obtained, retained the essentials of this hypothetical
vital force), but only to succumb at a later date to the indubitable
fact that the same laws of chemical combination prevail in both
the animate and inanimate kingdoms, and that the artificial
or laboratory synthesis of any substance, either inorganic or
organic, is but a question of time, once its constitution is
determined. 1

The exact delimitation of inorganic and organic chemistry
engrossed many minds for many years; and on this point there
existed considerable divergence of opinion for several decades.
In addition to the vitalistic doctrine of the origin of organic
compounds, views based on purely chemical considerations were
advanced. The atomic theory, and its correlatives the laws
of constant and multiple proportions had been shown to possess
absolute validity so far as well-characterized inorganic com-
pounds were concerned; but it was open to question whether
organic compounds obeyed the same laws. Berzelius, in 1813
and 1814, by improved methods of analysis, established that
the Daltonian laws of combination held in both the inorganic
and organic kingdoms; and he adopted the view of Lavoisier
that organic compounds were oxides of compound radicals, and
therefore necessarily contained at least three elements carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen. This view was accepted in 1817 by
Leopold Gmelin, who, in his Handbuch der Chemie, regarded
inorganic compounds as being of binary composition (the
simplest being oxides, both acid and basic, which by combination
form salts also of binary form), and organic compounds as
ternary, i.e. composed of three elements; furthermore, he
concluded that inorganic compounds could be synthesized,
whereas organic compounds could not. A consequence of this
empirical division was that marsh gas, ethylene and cyanogen
were regarded as inorganic, and at a later date many other
hydrocarbons of undoubtedly organic nature had to be included
in the same division.

The binary conception of compounds held by Berzelius received
apparent support from the observations of Gay Lussac, in 1815,
on the vapour densities of alcohol and ether, which pointed to
the conclusion that these substances consisted of one molecule
of water and one and two of ethylene respectively; and from
Pierre Jean Robiquet and Jean Jacques Colin, showing, in 1816,
that ethyl chloride (hydrochloric ether) could be regarded as
a compound of ethylene and hydrochloric acid. 2 Compound
radicals came to be regarded as the immediate constituents of
organic compounds; and, at first, a determination of their
empirical composition was supposed to be sufficient to char-
acterize them. To this problem there was added another in
about the third decade of the ipth century namely, to determine
the manner in which the atoms composing the radical were
combined; this supplementary requisite was due to the dis-
covery of the isomerism of silver fulminate and silver cyanate
by Justus von Liebig in 1823, and to M. Faraday's discovery of
butylene, isomeric with ethylene, in 1825.

The classical investigation of Liebig and Friedrich Wohler
on the radical of benzoic acid (" Uber das Radikal der Benzoe-
saure," Ann. Chem., 1832, 3, p. 249) is to be regarded as a most
important contribution to the radical theory, for it was shown
that a radical containing the elements carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen, which they named benzoyl (the termination yl coming
from the Gr. OXij, matter), formed the basis of benzaldehyde,
benzoic acid, benzoyl chloride, benzoyl bromide and benzoyl
sulphide, benzamide and benzoic ether. Berzelius immediately
appreciated the importance of this discovery, notwithstanding

1 The reader is specially referred to the articles ALIZA RIN ; INDIGO ;
PURIN and TERPENES for illustrations of the manner in which
chemists have artificially prepared important animal and vegetable
products.

1 These observations were generalized by J. B. Dumas and
Polydore Boullay (1806-1835) in their " etherin theory " (vide infra).

that he was compelled to reject the theory that oxygen could
not play any part in a compound radical a view which he
previously considered as axiomatic; and he suggested the
names " proin " or " orthrin " (from the Gr. irptai and 6p0pos,
at dawn). However, in 1833, Berzelius reverted to his earlier
opinion that oxygenated radicals were incompatible with his
electrochemical theory; he regarded benzoyl as an oxide of the
radical CnHio, which he named " picramyl " (from irucpfa,
bitter, and ayuirySaXij, almond), the peroxide being anhydrous
benzoic acid; and he dismissed the views of Gay Lussac and
Dumas that ethylene was the radical of ether, alcohol and ethyl
chloride, setting up in their place the idea that ether was a
suboxide of ethyl, (CzHj)^, which was analogous to KjO, while
alcohol was an oxide of a radical CjHe; thus annihilating any
relation between these two compounds. This view was modified
by Liebig, who regarded ether as ethyl oxide, and alcohol as the
hydrate. of ethyl oxide; here, however, he was in error, for he
attributed to alcohol a molecular weight double its true value.
Notwithstanding these errors, the value of the " ethvl theory "
was perceived; other radicals formyl, methyl, amyl, acetyl,
&c. were characterized; Dumas, in 1837, admitted the failure
of the etherin theory; and, in company with Liebig, he defined
organic chemistry as the "chemistry of compound radicals."
The knowledge of compound radicals received further increment
at the hands of Robert W. Bunsen, the discoverer of the cacodyl
compounds.

The radical theory, essentially dualistic in nature in view of
its similarity to the electrochemical theory of Berzelius, was
destined to succumb to a unitary theory. Instances had already
been recorded of cases where a halogen element replaced hydrogen
with the production of a closely allied substance: Gay Lussac
had prepared cyanogen chloride from hydrocyanic acid; Faraday,
hexachlorethane from ethylene dichloride, &c. Here the electro-
negative halogens exercised a function similar to electro-positive
hydrogen. Dumas gave especial attention to such substitutions,
named metakpsy GueraXr^is, exchange); and framed the
following empirical laws to explain the reactions: (i) a body
containing hydrogen when substituted by a halogen loses one
atom of hydrogen for every atom of halogen introduced; (2) the
same holds if oxygen be present, except that when the oxygen
is present as water the latter first loses its hydrogen without
replacement, and then substitution according to (i) ensues.
Dumas went no further that thus epitomizing his observations;
and the next development was made in 1836 by Auguste Laurent,
who, having amplified and discussed the applicability of Dumas'
views, promulgated his Nucleus Theory, which assumed the
existence of " original nuclei or radicals " (radicaux or noyaux
fondamentaux) composed of carbon and hydrogen, and " derived
nuclei " (radicaux or noyaux derives) formed from the original
nuclei by the substitution of hydrogen or the addition of other
elements, and having properties closely related to the primary
nuclei.

Vigorous opposition was made by Liebig and Berzelius, the
latter directing his attack against Dumas, whom he erroneously
believed to be the author of what was, in his opinion, a pernicious
theory. Dumas repudiated the accusation, affirming that he
held exactly contrary views to Laurent; but only to admit
their correctness in 1839, when, from his own researches and
those of Laurent, Malaguti and Regnault, he formulated his
type theory. According to this theory a " chemical type "
embraced compounds containing the same number of equivalents
combined in a like manner and exhibiting similar properties;
thus acetic and trichloracetic acids, aldehyde and chloral, marsh
gas and chloroform are pairs of compounds referable to the same
type. He also postulated, with Regnault, the existence of
" molecular or mechanical types " containing substances which,
although having the same number of equivalents, are essentially
different in characters. His unitary conceptions may be sum-
marized: every chemical compound forms a complete whole,
and cannot therefore consist of two parts; and its chemical
character depends primarily upon the arrangement and number
of the atoms, and, in a lesser degree, upon their chemical nature.

ORGANIC]

CHEMISTRY

More emphatic opposition to the dualistic theory of Berzelius
was hardly possible; this illustrious chemist perceived that the
validity of his electrochemical theory was called in question,
and therefore he waged vigorous war upon Dumas and his
followers. But he fought in a futile cause; to explain the facts
put forward by Dumas he had to invent intricate and involved
hypotheses, which, it must be said, did not meet with general
acceptance; Liebig seceded from him, and invited Wohler to
endeavour to correct him. Still, till the last Berzelius remained
faithful to his original theory; experiment, which he had hitherto
held to be the only sure method of research, he discarded, and
in its place he substituted pure speculation, which greatly injured
the radical theory. At the same time, however, the conception
of radicals could not be entirely displaced, for the researches of
Liebig and Wohler, and those made subsequently by Bunsen,
demonstrated beyond all doubt the advantages which would
accrue from theif correct recognition.

A step forward the fusion of Dumas' type theory and the
radical theory was made by Laurent and Charles Gerhardt.
As early as 1842, Gerhardt in his Prtcis de chimie organique
exhibited a marked leaning towards Dumas' theory, and it is
without doubt that both Dumas and Laurent exercised con-
siderable influence on his views. Unwilling to discard the strictly
unitary views of these chemists, or to adopt the copulae theory
of Berzelius, he revived the notion of radicals in a new form.
According to Gerhardt, the process of substitution consisted
of the union of two residues to form a unitary whole; these
residues, previously termed " compound radicals," are atomic
complexes which remain over from the interaction of two
compounds. Thus, he interpreted the interaction of benzene
and nitric acid as C,H 6 +HNO 3 = C 6 H 6 NO 2 +H 2 O, the "residues"
of benzene being CisH 5 and H, and of nitric acid HO and NOj.
Similarly he represented the reactions investigated by Liebig
and Wohler on benzoyl compounds as double decompositions.

This rejuvenation of the notion of radicals rapidly gained
favour; and the complete fusion of the radical theory with the
theory of types was not long delayed. In 1849 C. A. Wurtz
discovered the amines or substituted ammonias, previously
predicted by Liebig; A. W. von Hofmann continued the investi-
gation, and established their recognition as ammonia in which
one or more hydrogen atoms had been replaced by hydrocarbon
radicals, thus formulating the " ammonia type." In 1850
A. W. Williamson showed how alcohol and ether were to be
regarded as derived from water by substituting one or both
hydrogen atoms by the ethyl group; he derived acids and the
acid anhydrides from the same type; and from a comparison
of many inorganic and the simple organic compounds he con-
cluded that this notion of a " water-type " clarified, in no small
measure, the conception of the structure of compounds.

These conclusions were co-ordinated in Gerhardt's " new
theory of types." Taking as types hydrogen, hydrochloric acid,
water and ammonia, he postulated that all organic compounds
were referable to these four forms: the hydrogen type included
hydrocarbons, aldehydes and ke tones; the hydrochloric acid
type, the chlorides, bromides and iodides; the water type, the
alcohols, ethers, monobasic acids, acid anhydrides, and the
analogous sulphur compounds; and the ammonia type, the
amines, acid-amides, and the analogous phosphorus and arsenic
compounds. The recognition of the polybasicity of acids,
which followed from the researches of Thomas Graham and
Liebig, had caused Williamson to suggest that dibasic acids could
be referred to a double water type, the acid radical replacing an
atom of hydrogen in each water molecule; while his discovery
of tribasic formic ether, CH(OC 2 HJ 3 , in 1854 suggested a triple
water type. These views were extended by William Odling, and
adopted by Gerhardt, but with modifications of Williamson's
aspects. A further generalization was effected by August
Kekule, who rejected the hydrochloric acid type as unnecessary,
and introduced the methane type and condensed mixed types.
Pointing out that condensed types can only be fused with a
radical replacing more than one atom of hydrogen, he laid the
foundation of the doctrine of valency, a doctrine of incalcul-

able service to the knowledge of the structure of chemical
compounds.

At about the same time Hermann Kolbe attempted a re-
habilitation, with certain modifications, of the dualistic con-
ception of Berzelius. He rejected the Berzelian tenet as to the
unalterability of radicals, and admitted that they exercised a
considerable influence upon the compounds with which they were
copulated. By his own investigations and those of Sir Edward
Frankland it was proved that the radical methyl existed in
acetic acid; and by the electrolysis of sodium acetate, Kolbe
concluded that he had isolated this radical; in this, however,
he was wrong, for he really obtained ethane, CjHj, and not
methyl, CH 3 . From similar investigations of valerianic acid
he was led to conclude that fatty acids were oxygen compounds
of the radicals hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, &c., combined with the
double carbon equivalent Cj. Thus the radical of acetic acid,
acetyl, 1 was C 2 H 3 -C2. (It will be noticed that Kolbe used the
atomic weights H=i, C = 6, O = 8, S=i6, &c.; his formulae,
however, were molecular formulae, i.e. the molecular weights
were the same as in use to-day.) This connecting link, Cz, was
regarded as essential, while the methyl, ethyl, &c. was but a
sort of appendage; but Kolbe could not clearly conceive the
manner of copulation.

The brilliant researches of Frankland on the organo-metallic
compounds, and his consequent doctrine of saturation capacity
or valency of elements and radicals, relieved Kolbe's views of
all obscurity. The doctrine of copulae was discarded, and in
1859 emphasis was given to the view that all organic compounds
were derivatives of inorganic by simple substitution processes.
He was thus enabled to predict compounds then unknown,
e.g. the secondary and tertiary alcohols; and with inestimable
perspicacity he proved intimate relations between compounds
previously held to be quite distinct. Lactic acid and alanine
were shown to be oxy- and amino-propionic acids respectively;
glycollic acid and glycocoll, oxy- and amino-acetic acids; salicylic
and benzamic acids, oxy- and amino-benzoic acids.

Another consequence of the doctrine of valency was that it
permitted the graphic representation of the molecule. The
" structure theory " (or the mode of linking of the atoms) of
carbon compounds, founded by Butlerow, Kekule and Couper
and, at a later date, marvellously enhanced by the doctrine of
stereo-isomerjsm, due to J. H. van't Hoff and Le Bel, occupies
such a position in organic chemistry that its value can never
be transcended. By its aid the molecule is represented as a
collection of atoms connected together by valencies in such a
manner that the part played by each atom is represented;
isomerism, or the existence of two or more chemically different
substances having identical molecular weights, is adequately
shown; and, most important of all, once the structure is
determined, the synthesis of the -compound is but a matter of
time.

In this summary the leading factors which have contributed
to a correct appreciation of organic compounds have so far been
considered historically, but instead of continuing this method it
has been thought advisable to present an epitome of present-day
conclusions, not chronologically, but as exhibiting the principles
and subject-matter of our science.

Classification of Organic Compounds.

An apt definition of organic chemistry is that it is " the study
of the hydrocarbons and their derivatives." This description,
although not absolutely comprehensive, serves as a convenient
starting-point for a preliminary classification, since a great
number of substances, including the most important, are directly
referable to hydrocarbons, being formed by replacing one or
more hydrogen atoms by other atoms or groups. Two distinct
types of hydrocarbons exist: (i) those consisting of an open
chain of carbon atoms named the " aliphatic series " (&\(i<pap,
oil or fat), and (2) those consisting of a closed chain the
" carbocyclic series." The second series can be further divided

1 This must not be confused with the modern acetyl, CHj-CO,
which at that time was known as acetoxyl.

CHEMISTRY

[ORGANIC

into two groups: (i) those exhibiting properties closely analo-
gous to the aliphatic series the polymethylenes (q.v.), and (2)
a series exhibiting properties differing in many respects from the
aliphatic and polymethylene compounds, and characterized by
a peculiar stability which is to be associated with the disposi-
tion of certain carbon valencies not saturated by hydrogen
the " aromatic series." There also exists an extensive class of
compounds termed the " heterocyclic series " these compounds
are derived from ring systems containing atoms other than
carbon; this class is more generally allied to the aromatic
series than to the aliphatic.

We now proceed to discuss the types of aliphatic compounds;
then, the characteristic groupings having been established, an
epitome of their derivatives will be given. Carbocyclic rings
will next be treated, benzene and its allies in some detail; and
finally the heterocyclic nuclei.

Accepting the doctrine of the tetravalency 06 carbon (its
divalency in such compounds as carbon monoxide, various
isocyanides, fulminic acid, &c., and its possible trivalency in
M. Gomberg's triphenyl-methyl play no part in what follows),
it is readily seen that the simplest hydrocarbon has the formula
CH, named methane, in which the hydrogen atoms are of
equal value, and which may be pictured as placed at the vertices
of a tetrahedron, the carbon atom occupying the centre. This
tetrahedral configuration is based on the existence of only one
methylene dichloride, two being necessary if the carbon valencies
were directed from the centre of a plane square to its corners,
and on the existence of two optical isomers of the formula
C.A.B.D.E., C being a carbon atom and A.B.D.E. being different
monovalent atoms or radicals (see STEREO-!SOMERISM). The
equivalence of the four hydrogen atoms of methane rested on
indirect evidence, e.g. the existence of only one acetic acid,
methyl chloride, and other monosubstitution derivatives until
the experimental proof by L. Henry (Zeit. f. Phys. Chem., 1888,
2 . P- 553), who prepared the four nitromethanes, CH 3 N 2 O, each
atom in methane being successively replaced by the nitro-group.

Henry started with methyl iodide, the formula of which we write
in the form C\,Hi,li e Hd. This readily gave with silver nitrite a
nitromethane in which we may suppose the nitro-group to replace
the a hydrogen atom, i.e. C(NO2)<.Hi,H c H<f. The same methyl iodide
gave with potassium cyanide, acetonitril, which was hydrolysed to
acetic acid; this must be C(COOH}H ! ,H (; H<i. Chlorination of this
substance gave a monochloracetic acid ; we will assume the chlorine
atom to replace the b hydrogen atom. This acid with silver nitrite
gave nitroacetic acid, which readily gave the second nitromethane,
CHatNO^HcHd, identical with the first nitromethane. From the
nitroacetic acid obtained above, malonic acid was prepared, and
from this a monochlormalonic acid was obtained ; we assume the
chlorine atom to replace the c hydrogen atom. This acid gives with
silver nitrite the corresponding nitromalonic acid, which readily
yielded the third nitromethane, CH a H6(NO 2 ) c H<i, also identical with
the first. The fourth nitromethane was obtained from the nitro-
malonic acid previously mentioned by a repetition of the method
by which the third was prepared ; this was identical with the other
three.

Let us now consider hydrocarbons containing 2 atoms of
carbon. Three such compounds are possible according to the
number of valencies acting directly between the carbon atoms.
Thus, if they are connected by one valency, and the remaining
valencies saturated by hydrogen, we obtain the compound
H 3 C-CH 3 , ethane. This compound may be considered as
derived from methane, CH 4 , by replacing a hydrogen atom by
the monovalent group CHa, known as methyl; hence ethane
may be named " methylmethane." If the carbon atoms are
connected by two valencies, we obtain a compound H 2 C:CH 2 ,
ethylene; if by three valencies, HCiCH, acetylene. These last
two compounds are termed unsaturated, whereas ethane is
saturated. It is obvious that we have derived three combinations
of carbon with hydrogen, characterized by containing a single,
double, and triple linkage; and from each of these, by the
substitution of a methyl group for a hydrogen atom, compounds
of the same nature result. Thus ethane gives H 3 C-CH2-CH 3 ,
propane; ethylene gives H 2 C:CH-CH 3 , propylene; and acety-
lene gives HC C-CH 3 , allylene. By continuing the introduction
of methyl groups we obtain three series of homologous hydro-

carbons given by the general formulae C B H 2n + 2 , CnH*,, and
C n H 2n - 2 , each member differing from the preceding one of the
same series by CHj. It will be noticed that compounds contain-
ing two double linkages will have the same general formula as
the acetylene series; such compounds are known as the " diole-
fines." Hydrocarbons containing any number of double or
triple linkages, as well as both double and triple linkages, are
possible, and a considerable number of such compounds have
been prepared.

A more complete idea of the notion of a compound radical follows
from a consideration of the compound propane. We derived this
substance from ethane by introducing a methvl group; hence it
may be termed " methylethane." Equally well we may derive it
from methane by replacing a hydrogen atom by the monovalent
group CHj-CHs, named ethyl; hence propane may be considered
as " ethylmethane." Further, since methane may be regarded as
formed by the conjunction of a methyl group with a hydrogen atom,
it may be named "methyl hydride"; similarly ethane is "ethyl
hydride," propane, " propyl hydride," and so on. The importance
of such groups as methyl, ethyl, &c. in attempting a nomenclature
of organic compounds cannot be overestimated ; these compound
radicals, frequently termed alkyl radicals, serve a similar purpose to
the organic chemist as the elements to the inorganic chemist.

In methane and ethane the hydrogen atoms are of equal value,
and no matter which one may be substituted by another element
or group the same compound will result. In propane, on the
other hand, the hydrogen atoms attached to the terminal
carbon atoms differ from those joined to the medial atom; we
may therefore expect to obtain different compounds according
to the position of the hydrogen atom substituted. By intro-
ducing a methyl group we may obtain CH 3 - CH 2 - CH 2 - CH,
known as " normal " or n-butane, substitution occurring at a
terminal atom, or CH 3 -CH(CH 3 )-CH 3 , isobutane, substitution
occurring at the medial atom. From n-butane we may derive,
by a similar substitution of methyl groups, the two hydrocarbons:

(1) CH 3 -CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 3 , and (2) CH 3 -CH(CH,)-CH 2 -CH 3 ;
from isobutane we may also derive two compounds, one identical
with (2), and a new one (3) CH 3 (CH 3 )C(CH 3 )CH 3 . These
three hydrocarbons are isomeric, i.e. they possess the same
formula, but differ in constitution. We notice that they may
be differentiated as follows: (i) is built up solely of methyl and
CH 2 - (methylene) groups and the molecule consists of a single
chain; such hydrocarbons are referred to as being normal;

(2) has a branch and contains the group- CH (methine) in which
the free valencies are attached to carbon atoms; such hydro-
carbons are termed secondary or iso-; (3) is characterized by a
carbon atom linked directly to four other carbon atoms; such
hydrocarbons are known as tertiary.

Deferring the detailed discussion of cyclic or ringed hydro-
carbons, a correlation of the various types or classes of compounds
which may be derived from hydrocarbon nuclei will now be given.
It will be seen that each type depends upon a specific radical
or atom, and the copulation of this character with any hydro-
carbon radical (open or cyclic) gives origin to a compound of
the same class.

It is convenient first to consider the effect of introducing one,
two, or three hydroxyl (OH) groups into the -CH 3 , > CH 2 , and
>-CH groups, which we have seen to characterize the different
types of hydrocarbons. It may be noticed here that cyclic
nuclei can only contain the groups > CH 2 . and > CH, the first
characterizing the polymethylene and reduced heterocyclic
compounds, the second true aromatic compounds.

Substituting one hydroxyl group into each of these residues, we
obtain radicals of the type-CH 2 -OH, >CH-OH, and >C-OH;
these compounds are known as alcohols (q.v.), and are termed primary,
secondary, and tertiary respectively. Polymethylenes can give only
secondary and tertiary alcohols, benzene only tertiary ; these latter
compounds are known as phenols. A second hydroxyl group may be
introduced into the residues -CH 2 -OH and >CH-OH, with the
production of radicals of the form -CH(OH) 2 and >C(OH) 2 .
Compounds containing these groupings are, however, rarely observed
(see CHLORAL), and it is generally found that when compounds of
these types are expected, the elements of water are split off, and the
typical groupings are reduced to CH : O and > C : O. Compounds
containing the group CH:O are known as aldehydes (q.v.), while
the group >C:O (sometimes termed the carbonyl or keto group)
characterizes the ketones (q.v.). A third hydroxyl group may be

ORGANIC]

CHEMISTRY

introduced into the CH : O residue with the formation of the radical
C(OH):O; this is known as the carboxyl group, and characterizes
the organic acids.

Sulphur analogues of these oxygen compounds are known. Thus
the thio-alcohols or mercaptans (q.v.) contain the group CHj-SH;
and the elimination of the elements of sulphuretted hydrogen
between two molecules of a thio-alcohol results in the formation of a
thio-ether or sulphide, RzS. Oxidation of thio-etbers results in the
formation of sulphoxides, R 2 :S:O, and sulphones, R 2 :SO 2 ;
oxidation of mercaptans yields sulphonic acids, R-SOsH, and of
sodium mercaptides sulphinic acids, R-Sp(OH). We may also
notice that thio-ethers combine with alkyl iodides to form sulphine
or sulphonium compounds, Ra SI. Thio-aldehydes, thio-ketones
and thio-acids also exist.

We proceed to consider various simple derivatives of the
alcohols, which we may here regard as hydroxy hydrocarbons,
R-OH, where R is an alkyl radical, either aliphatic or cyclic in
nature.

Of these, undoubtedly the simplest are the ethers (q.v.), formed by
the elimination of the elements of water between two molecules of
the same alcohol, " simple ethers," or of different alcohols, " mixed
ethers." These compounds may be regarded as oxides in just the
same way as the alcohols are regarded as hydroxides. In fact, the
analogy between the alkyl groups and metallic elements forms a
convenient basis from which to consider many derivatives. Thus
from ethyl alcohol there can be prepared compounds, termed esters
(q.v.), or ethereal salts, exactly comparable in structure with corres-
ponding salts of, say, potassium; by the action of the phosphorus
haloids, the hydroxyl group is replaced by a halogen atom with the
formation of derivatives of the type R-Cl(Br,I); nitric acid forms
nitrates, R-O-NO 2 ; nitrous acid, nitrites, R-O-NO; sulphuric acid
gives normal sulphates R 2 SO4, or acid sulphates, R-SO4H. Organic
acids also condense with alcohols to form similar compounds: the
fats, waxes, and essential oils are naturally occurring substances of
this class.

An important class of compounds, termed amines (q.v.), results
from the condensation of alcohols with ammonia, water being
eliminated between the alcoholic hydroxyl group and a hydrogen
atom of the ammonia. Three types of amines are possible and have
been prepared: primary, R-NH 2 ; secondary, R 2 : NH; and tertiary,
R 3 :N;the examines, R 3 N:O, are closely related to the tertiary
ammonias, which also unite with a molecule of alkyl iodide to form
salts of quaternary ammonium bases, e.g. RN-I. It is worthy of
note that phosphorus and arsenic bases analogous to the amines
are known (see PHOSPHORUS and ARSENIC). From the primary
amines are derived the diazo compounds (q.v.) and azo compounds
(q.v.); closely related are the hydrazines (q.v.). Secondary amines
yield nitrosamines, R 2 N-NO, with nitrous acid. By the action of
hydroxylamine or phenylhydrazine on aldehydes or ketones, con-
densation occurs between the carbonyl oxygen of the aldehyde or
ketone and the amino group of the hydroxylamine or hydrazine.
Thus with hydroxylamine aldehydes yield aldoximes, R-CH : N-OH,
and ketones, ketoximes, R 2 C:N-OH (see OXIMES), while phenyl
hydrazine gives phenylhydrazones, R 2 C:N-NH-CeH5 (see HYDRA-
ZONES). _ Oxyaldehydes and oxyketones (viz. compounds containing
an oxy in addition to an aldehydic or ketonic group) undergo
both condensation and oxidation when treated with phenylhydrazine,
forming compounds known as osozones; these are of great import-
ance in characterizing the sugars (q.v.).

The carboxyl group constitutes another convenient starting-
point for the orientation of many types of organic compounds.
This group may be considered as resulting from the fusion of a
carbonyl (:CO) and a hydroxyl (HO-) group; and we may
expect to meet with compounds bearing structural resemblances
to the derivatives of alcohols and aldehydes (or ketones).

Considering derivatives primarily concerned with transformations
of the hydroxyl group, we may regard our typical acid as a fusion
of a radical R-CO (named acetyl, propionyl, butyl, &c., generally
according to the name of the hydrocarbon containing the same
number of carbon atoms) and a hydroxyl group. By replacing the
hydroxyl group by a halogen, acid-haloids result ; by the elimination
of the elements of water between two molecules, acid-anhydrides,
which may be oxidized to acid-peroxides; by replacing the hydroxyl
group by the group -SH, thio-acids; by replacing it by the amino
group, acid-amides (q.v.); by replacing it by the group NH-NHj,
acid-hydra zides. The structural relations of these compounds are
here shown :

R-CO-OH; R-CO-C1; (R-CO) 2 O; R-CO-SH;

acid; acid-chloride; acid-anhydride; thio-acid;

R-CO-NH,; R-CO-NH-NH 2 .

acid-amide ; acid-hydrazide.

It is necessary clearly to distinguish such compounds as the
amino- (or amido-) acids and acid -amides; in the first case the
amino group is substituted in the hydrocarbon residue, in the second
it is substituted in the carboxyl group.

By transformations of the carbonyl group, and at the same time
of the hydroxyl group, many interesting types of nitrogen com-
pounds may be correlated.

Thus from the acid-amides, which we have seen to be closely related
to the acids themselves, we obtain, by replacing the carbonyl oxygen
by chlorine, the acidamido-chlorides, R-CClj-NHj, from which are
derived the imido-chlorides, R-CC1:NH, by loss of one molecule of
hydrochloric acid. By replacing the chlorine in the imido-chloride
by an oxyalkyl group we obtain the imido-ethers, R-C(OR'):NH;
and by an amino group, the amidines, R-C(NH):NH. The
carbonyl oxygen may also be replaced by the oxime group, : N-OH ;
thus the acids yield the hydroxamic acids, R-C(OH) : NOH, and the
acid-amides the amidoximes, R-C(NH 2 ) : NOH. Closely related to
the amidoximes are the nitrolic acids, R-C(NO 2 ):NOH.

Cyclic Hydrocarbons and Nuclei.

Having passed in rapid review the various types of compounds
derived by substituting for hydrogen various atoms or groups of
atoms in hydrocarbons (the separate articles on specific com-
pounds should be consulted for more detailed accounts), we now
proceed to consider the closed chain compounds. Here we meet
with a great diversity of types: oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and
other elements may, in addition to carbon, combine together in a
great number of arrangements to form cyclic nuclei, which
exhibit characters Closely resembling open-chain compounds in
so far as they yield substitution derivatives, and behave as
compound radicals. In classifying closed chain compounds, the
first step consists in dividing them into: (i) carbocyclic, in which
the ring is composed solely of carbon atoms these are also
known as homocyclic or isocyclic on account of the identity of the
members of the ring and (2) heterocyclic, in which different
elements go to make up the ring. Two primary divisions of
carbocyclic compounds may be conveniently made: (i) those
in which the carbon atoms are completely saturated these are
known by the generic term polymethylenes, their general formula
being (CH 2 ) n : it will be noticed that they are isomeric with
ethylene and its homologues; they differ, however, from this
series in not containing a double linkage, but have a ringed
structure; and (2) those containing fewer hydrogen atoms than
suffice to saturate the carbon valencies these are known as the
aromatic compounds proper, or as benzene compounds, from the
predominant part which benzene plays in their constitution.

It was long supposed that the simplest ring obtainable con-
tained six atoms of carbon, and the discovery of trimethylene
in 1 88 2 by August Freund by the action of sodium on trimethylene
bromide, Br(CH 2 ) 3 Br, came somewhat as a surprise, especially
in view of its behaviour with bromine and hydrogen bromide.
In comparison with the isomeric propylene, CH 3 -HC:CH 2 , it is
remarkably inert, being only very slowly attacked by bromine,
which readily combines with propylene. But on the other hand,
it is readily converted by hydrobromic acid into normal propyl
bromide, CH 3 -CH 2 -CH 2 Br. The separation of carbon atoms
united by single affinities in this manner at the time the observa-
tion was made was altogether without precedent. A similar
behaviour has since been noticed in other trimethylene deri-
vatives, but the fact that bromine, which usually acts so much
more readily than hydrobromic acid on unsaturated compounds,
should be so inert when hydrobromic acid acts readily is one still
needing a satisfactory explanation. A great impetus was given to
the study of polymethylene derivatives by the important and
unexpected observation made by W. H. Perkin, junr., in 1883,
that ethylene and trimethylene bromides are capable of acting
in such a way on sodium acetoacetic ester as to form tri- and tetra
methylene rings. Perkin has himself contributed largely to our
knowledge of such compounds; penta- and hexa-methylene
derivatives have also received considerable attention (see
POLYMETHYLENES) .

A. von Baeyer has sought to explain the variations in stability
manifest in the various polymethylene rings by a purely
mechanical hypothesis, the " strain " or Spannungs theory
(Ber., 1885, p. 2277). Assuming the four valencies of the
carbon atom to be directed from the centre of a regular tetra-
hedron towards its four corners, the angle at which they meet
is 109 28'. Baeyer supposes that in the formation of carbon

CHEMISTRY

[ORGANIC

" rings " the valencies become deflected from their positions, and
that the tension thus introduced may be deduced from a com-
parison of this angle with the angles at which the strained
valencies would meet. He regards the amount of deflection as
a measure of the stability of the " ring." The readiness with
which ethylene is acted on in comparison with other types of
hydrocarbon, for example, is in harmony, he considers, with
the circumstance that the greatest distortion must be involved
in its formation, as if deflected into parallelism each valency will
be drawn out of its position through ^.109 28'. The values in
other cases are calculable from the formula $(109 28' a), where
a is the internal angle of the regular polygon contained by sides
equal in number to the number of the carbon atoms composing
the ring. These values are:

Trimethylene. Tetramethylene.

i(i0928'-6o)=24 44'. $(109 28' -90*) =9 44'.

Pentamethylene. Hexamethylene.

|(I09 28'-io8)=o 44'. i(i09 28' -120) = -5 16'.

The general behaviour of the several types of hydrocarbons is
certainly in accordance with this conception, and it is a remark-
able fact that when benzene is reduced with hydriodic acid, it is
converted into a mixture of hexamethylene and methylpenta-
methylene (cf. W. Markownikov, Ann., 1898, 302, p. i); and
many other cases of the conversion of six-carbon rings into five-
carbon rings have been recorded (see below, Decompositions of
the Benzene Ring). Similar considerations will apply to rings
containing other elements besides carbon. As an illustration it
may be pointed out that in the case of the two known types of
lactones the 7-lactones, which contain four carbon atoms and
one oxygen atom in the ring, are more readily formed and more
stable (less readily hydrolysed) than the 5-lactones, which
contain one oxygen and five carbon atoms in the ring. That the
number of atoms which can be associated in a ring by single
affinities is limited there can be no doubt, but there is not yet
sufficient evidence to show where the limit must be placed. Baeyer
has suggested that his hypothesis may also be applied to explain
the instability of acetylene and its derivatives, and the still
greater instability of the polyacetylene compounds.

Benzene.

The ringed structure of benzene, C 6 H 6 , was first suggested in
1865 by August Kekule, who represented the molecule by six
CH groups placed at the six angles of a regular hexagon, the sides
of which denoted the valencies saturated by adjacent carbon
atoms, the fourth valencies of each carbon atom being represented
as saturated along alternate sides. This formula, notwithstand-
ing many attempts at both disproving and modifying it, has well
stood the test of time; the subject has been the basis of constant
discussion, many variations have been proposed, but the original
conception of Kekule remains quite as convenient as any of the
newer forms, especially when considering the syntheses and
decompositions of the benzene complex. It will be seen, however,
that the absolute disposition of the fourth valency may be
ignored in a great many cases, and consequently the complex may
be adequately represented as a hexagon. This symbol is in
general use; it is assumed that at each corner there is a CH
group which, however, is not always written in; if a hydrogen
atom be substituted by another group, then this group is
attached to the corner previously occupied by the displaced
hydrogen. The following diagrams illustrate these statements :

CH C-OH OH

HC Pr n Hc fr n

HCI^CH L^ HCH^CH (^1

CH CH

Benzene, Ac*rvuted.Oxytcnne. Abbreviated.

From the benzene nucleus we can derive other aromatic nuclei,
graphically represented by fusing two or more hexagons along
common sides. By fusing two nuclei we obtain the formula of
naphthalene, CioH 8 ; by fusing three, the hydrocarbons anthracene
and phenanthrene, Ci4Hio; by fusing four, chrysene, CisHij, and
possibly pyrene, CiHw; by fusing five, picene, CHu. But it
must be here understood that each member of these condensed nuclei
need not necessarily be identical in structure; thus the central
nuclei in anthracene and phenanthrene differ very considerably
from the terminal nuclei (see below, Condensed Nuclei). Other

com-
pound*.

hydrocarbon nuclei generally classed as aromatic in character result
from the union of two or more benzene nuclei joined by one or two
valencies with polymethylene or oxidized polymethylene rings;
instances of such nuclei are indene, hydrindene, nuorene, and fluor-
anthene. From these nuclei an immense number of derivatives may
be obtained, for the hydrogen atoms may be substituted by any
of the radicals discussed in the preceding section on the classification
of organic compounds.

We now proceed to consider the properties, syntheses, decom-
positions and constitution of the benzene complex. It has
already been stated that benzene derivatives may be Distlat-
regarded as formed by the replacement of hydrogen tioas
atoms by other elements or radicals in exactly the Jjf/^'fc
same manner as in the aliphatic series. Important aa j
differences, however, are immediately met with aromatic
when we consider the methods by which derivatives
are obtained. For example: nitric acid and sulphuric
acid readily react with benzene and its homologues with the
production of nitro derivatives and sulphonic acids, while in the
aliphatic series these acids exert no substituting action (in the
case of the olefines, the latter acid forms an addition product) ;
another distinction is that the benzene complex is more stable
towards oxidizing agents. This and other facts connected with
the stability of benzenoid compounds are clearly shown when
we consider mixed aliphatic-aromatic hydrocarbons, i.e. com-
pounds derived by substituting aliphatic radicals in the benzene
nucleus; such a compound is methylbenzene or toluene,
This compound is readily oxidized to benzoic acid,
the aromatic residue being unattacked; nitric
and sulphuric acids produce nitro-toluenes, CsHrCHj-NOz,
and toluene sulphonic acids, CeHcCHs-SOaH; chlorination
may result in the formation of derivatives substituted either
in the aromatic nucleus or in the side chain; the former substitu-
tion occurs most readily, chlor-toluenes, C 6 H 4 -CH 3 -C1, being
formed, while the latter, which needs an elevation in temperature
or other auxiliary, yields benzyl chloride, CeHs-CHjCl, and
benzal chloride, C 6 H 6 -CHC1 2 . In general, the aliphatic residues
in such mixed compounds retain the characters of their class,
while the aromatic residues retain the properties of benzene.

Further differences become apparent when various typical
compounds are compared. The introduction of hydroxyl
groups into the benzene nucleus gives rise to compounds generic-
ally named phenols, which, although resembling the aliphatic
alcohols in their origin, differ from these substances in their
increased chemical activity and acid nature. The phenols
more closely resemble the tertiary alcohols, since the hydroxyl
group is linked to a carbon atom which is united to other carbon
atoms by its remaining three valencies; hence on oxidation they
cannot yield the corresponding aldehydes, ketones or acids
(see below, Decompositions of the Benzene Ring). The amines
also exhibit striking differences: in the aliphatic series these
compounds may be directly formed from the alkyl haloids and
ammonia, but in the benzene series this reaction is quite im-
possible unless the haloid atom be weakened by the presence of
other substituents, e.g. nitro groups. Moreover, while methyl-
amine, dimethylamine, and trimethylamine increase in basicity
corresponding to the introduction of successive methyl groups,
phenylamine or aniline, diphenylamine, and triphenylamine
are in decreasing order of basicity, the salts of diphenylamine
being decomposed by water. Mixed aromatic-aliphatic amines,
both secondary and tertiary, are also more strongly basic than
the pure aromatic amines, and less basic than the true aliphatic
compounds; e.g. aniline, CeHeNHj, monomethyl aniline,
C 6 H 5 -NH-CH 3 , and dimethyl aniline, C 6 H 6 -N(CH 3 ) 2 , are in
increasing order of basicity. These observations may be sum-
marized by saying that the benzene nucleus is more negative
in character than the aliphatic residues.

Isomerism- of Benzene Derivatives. Although Kekule founded
his famous benzene formula in 1865 on the assumptions that
the six hydrogen atoms in benzene are equivalent and that the
molecule is symmetrical, i.e. that two pairs of hydrogen atoms
are symmetrically situated with reference to any specified
hydrogen atom, the absolute demonstration of the validity of

ORGANIC]

CHEMISTRY

these assumptions was first given by A. Ladenburg in 1874
(see Ber., 1874, 7, p. 1684; 1875, 8, p. 1666; Theorie der
aromatischen V erbindungen, 1876). These results may be
graphically represented as follows: numbering the hydrogen
atoms in cyclical order from i to 6, then the first thesis demands
that whichever atom is substituted the same compound results,
while the second thesis points out that the pairs 2 and 6, and 3
and 5 are symmetrical with respect to i, or in other words, the
di-substitution derivatives 1.2 and 1.6, and also 1.3 and 1.5 are
identical. Therefore three di-derivatives are possible, viz.
1.2 or 1.6, named art ho- (o), 1.3 or 1.5, named meta- (m), and
1.4, named para- compounds (/>). In the same way it may be
shown that three tri-substitution, three tetra-substitution, one
penta-substitution, and one hexa-substitution derivative are
possible. Of the tri-substitution derivatives, i.2.3.-compounds
are known as " adjacent " or " vicinal " (?), the 1.2.4 as " asym-
metrical " (as), the 1.3.5 as " symmetrical " (s); of the tetra-
substitution derivatives, i.2.3.4-compounds are known as
" adjacent," 1.2.3.5 as " asymmetrical," and 1.2.4.5 as " sym-
metrical."

Dtslerivatlves

Tri- derivatives

Tetra- derivatives

X XXX

o m p v as f v as s

Here we have assumed the substituent groups to be alike;
when they are unlike, a greater number of isomers is possible.
Thus in the tri-substitution derivatives six isomers, and no
more, are possible when two of the substituents are alike; for
instance, six diaminobenzoic acids, CaHsCNHz^COOH, are
known; when all are unlike ten isomers are possible; thus,
ten oxytoluic acids, C 6 H 3 -CH 3 -OH-COOH, are known. In the
case of tetra-substituted compounds, thirty isomers are possible
when all the groups are different.

The preceding considerations render it comparatively easy to
follow the reasoning on which the experimental verification of the

above statements is based. The proof is divided into two

ya '. parts: (i) that four hydrogen atoms are equal, and (2)

enceo that two pairs of hydrogen atoms are symmetrical with

~* reference toa specified hydrogen atom. In the first thesis,

phenol or oxybenzene,CHs-OH, in which we will assumethe
hydroxyl group to occupy position i, is converted into brombenzene,
which is then converted into benzoic acid, C 6 Hi-COOH. From this
substance, an oxybenzoic acid (meta-), CsHi-OH-COOH, may be
prepared; and the two other known oxybenzoic acids (ortho- and
para-) may be converted into benzoic acid. These three acids yield
on heating phenol, identical with the substance started with, and
since in the three oxybenzoic acids the hydroxyl groups must occupy
positions other than i, it follows that four hydrogen atoms are equal
in value.

R. Httbner and A. Petermann (Ann., 1869, 149, p. 129) provided

the proof of the equivalence of the atoms 2 and 6 with respect

_ to i. From meta-brombenzoicacid two nitrpbrombenzoic

f"aln ot ac 'ds are obtained on direct nitration ; elimination of the

"hydrogen Drom ' ne atom and the reduction of the nitro to an amino

group in these two acids resultsin the formation of the same

ortho-aminobenzoicacid. Hence the positionsoccupied by
the nitro groups in the two different nitrobrombenzoic acids must be
symmetrical with respect to the carboxyl group. In 1879, Hubner
(Ann., 195, p. 4) proved the equivalence of the second pair, viz.
3 and 5> by starting out with ortho-aminobenzoic acid, previously
obtained by two different methods. This substance readily yields
ortho-pxybenzoic acid or salicylic acid, which on nitration yields two
mononitro-pxybenzoic acids. By eliminating the hydroxy groups
in these acids the same nitrobenzoic acid is obtained, which yields
on reduction an aminobenzoic acid different from the starting-out
acid. Therefore there must be another pair of hydrogen atoms,
other than 2 and 6, which are symmetrical with respect to i. The
symmetry of the second pair was also established in 1878 by E.
Wroblewsky (Ann., 192, p. 196).

Orientation of Substituent Groups. The determination of the
relative positions of the substituents in a benzene derivative
constitutes an important factor in the general investigation
of such compounds. Confining OUT attention, for the present, to
di-substitution products we see that there are three distinct
series of compounds to be considered. Generally if any group
be replaced by another group, then the second group enters the
nucleus in the position occupied by the displaced group; this

means that if we can definitely orientate three di-derivatives
of benzene, then any other compound, which can be obtained
from or converted into one of our typical derivatives, may be
definitely orientated. Intermolecular transformations migra-
tions of substituent groups from one carbon atom to another
are of fairly common occurrence among oxy compounds at
elevated temperatures. Thus potassium ortho-oxybenzoate is
converted into the salt of para-oxybenzoic acid at 220; the
three bromphenols, and also the brombenzenesulphonic acids,
yield m-dioxybenzene or resorcin when fused with potash. It is
necessary, therefore, to avoid reactions involving such inter-
molecular migrations when determining the orientation of
aromatic compounds.

Such a series of typical compounds are the benzene dicarboxylic
acids (phthalic acids), CH 4 (COOH),. C. Graebe (Ann., 1869, 149,
p. 22) orientated the ortho-compound or phthalic acid from its
formation from naphthalene on oxidation; the meta-compound or
isophthalic acid is orientated by its production from mesitylene,
shown by A. Ladenburg (Ann., 1875, 179, p. 163) to be symmetrical
trimethyl benzene; terephthalic acid, the remaining isomer, must
therefore be the para-compound.

P. Griess (Ber., 1872, 5, p. 192; 1874, 7, p. 1223) orientated the
three diaminobenzenes or phenylene diamines by considering their
preparation by the elimination of the carboxyl group in the six
diaminobenzoic acids. The diaminobenzene resulting from two of
these acids is the ortho-compound; from three, the meta-; and
from one the para- ; this is explained by the following scheme :

NH 3

NH,

NH S

Nil,

NHi

CT-

W. Korner (Gazz. Chem. Ital., 4, p. 305) in 1874 orientated the
three dibrpmbenzenes in a somewhat similar manner. Starting with
the three isomeric compounds, he found that one gave two tribrom-
benzenes, another gave three, while the third gave only one. A
scheme such as the preceding one shows that the first dibrombenzene
must be the ortho-compound, the second the meta-, and the third
the para-derivative. Further research in this direction was made by
D. E. Noetling (Ber., 1885, 18, p. 2657), who investigated the nitro-,
amino-, and oxy-xylenes in their relations to the three xylenes or
dimethyl benzenes.

The orientation of higher substitution derivatives is determined
by considering the di- and tri-substitution compounds into which
they can be transformed.

Substitution of the Benzene Ring. As a general rule, homologues
and mono-derivatives of benzene react more readily with sub-
stituting agents than the parent hydrocarbon; for example,
phenol is converted into tribromphenol by the action of bromine
water, and into the nitrophenols by dilute nitric acid; similar
activity characterizes aniline. Not only does the substituent
group modify the readiness with which the derivative is attacked,
but also the nature of the product. Starting with a mono-
derivative, we have seen that a substituent group may enter
in either of three positions to form an ortho-, meta-, or para-
compound. Experience has shown that such mono-derivatives
as nitro compounds, sulphonic acids, carboxylic acids, aldehydes,
and ketones yield as a general rule chiefly the meta-compounds,
and this is independent of the nature of the second group in-
troduced; on the other hand, benzene haloids, amino-,
homologous-, and hydroxy-benzenes yield principally a mixture
of the ortho- and para-compounds. These facts are embodied
in the " Rule of Crum Brown and J. Gibson " (Jour. Chem. Soc.
61, p. 367): If the hydrogen compound of the substituent
already in the benzene nucleus can be directly oxidized to the
corresponding hydroxyl compound, then meta-derivatives
predominate on further substitution, if not, then ortho- and para-
derivatives. By further substitution of ortho- and para-di-
derivatives, in general the same tri-derivative [1.2.4] is formed
(Ann., 1878, 192, p. 219); meta-compounds yield [1.3.4] and
[1.2.3] tri-derivatives, except in such cases as when both sub-
stituent groups are strongly acid, e.g. m-dinitrobenzene, then
[i-3-Sl-derivatives are obtained.

Syntheses of the Benzene Ring.^- The characteristic distinctions

CHEMISTRY

[ORGANIC

which exist between aliphatic and benzenoid compounds make
the transformations of one class into the other especially
interesting.

In the first place we may notice a tendency of several aliphatic
compounds, e.g. methane, tetrachlormethane, &c., to yield aromatic
compounds when subjected to a high temperature, tha so-called
pyrogenetic reactions (from Greek tnp, fire, and ytvviua, I produce) ;
the predominance of benzenoid, and related compounds naphtha-
lene, anthracene, phenanthrene, &c. in coal-tar is probably to be
associated with similar pyrocondensations. Long-continued treat-
ment with halogens may, in some cases, result in the formation of
aromatic compounds; thus perchlorbenzene, CC1 6 , frequently
appears as a product of exhaustive chlorination, while hexyl iodide,
CeHiiI, yields perchlor- and perbrom-benzene quite readily.

The trimolecular polymerization of numerous acetylene com-
pounds substances containing two trebly linked carbon atoms,
C:C , to form derivatives of benzene is of considerable interest.
M. P. E. Berthelot first accomplished the synthesis of benzene in
1870 by leading acetylene, HC CH, through tubes heated to dull
redness; at higher temperatures the action becomes reversible,
the benzene yielding diphenyl, diphenylbenzene, and acetylene.
The condensation of acetylene to benzene is also possible at ordinary
temperatures by leading the gas over pyrophoric iron, nickel,
cobalt, or spongy platinum (P. Sabatier and J. B. Senderens).
The homologues of acetylene condense more readily ; thus allylene,
CH ; C-CH 3 , and crotonylene, CH,-C : C-CH 3 , yield trimethyl- and
hexamethyl-benzene under the influence of sulphuric acid. Toluene
or mono-methylbenzene results from the pyrocondensation of a
mixture of acetylene and allylene. Substituted acetylenes also
exhibit this form of condensation; for instance, bromacetylene,
BrC : CH, is readily converted into tribrombenzene, while propiolic
acid, HC : C-COOH, under the influence of sunlight, gives benzene
tricarboxylic acid.

A larger and more important series of condensations may be
grouped together as resulting from the elimination of the elements
of water between carbonyl (CO) and methylene (CH 2 ) groups.
A historic example is that of the condensation of three molecules of
acetone, CHj-CO-CHs, in the presence of sulphuric acid, to s-tri-
methylbenzene or mesitylene, C 6 H3(CH 3 ) 3 , first observed in 1837 by
R. Kane; methylethyl ketone and methyl-n-propyl ketone suffer
similar condensations to j-triethylbenzene and i-tn-n-propylbenzene
respectively. Somewhat similar condensations are : of geranial or
citral. (CH 3 ) 2 CH-CH 2 -CH:CH-C(CH 3 ):CH-CHO, to -isopropyl-
methylbenzene or cymene; of the condensation product of methyl-
ethylacrolein and acetone, CH 3 -CH 2 -CH:C(CH 3 )-CH:CH-CO-CH 3 ,
to [I. 3. 4]-trimethylbenzene or pseudocumene; and of the con-
densation product of two molecules of isovaleryl aldehyde with one
of acetone, C 3 H 7 -CH 2 -CH:C(C 3 H 7 )-CH:CH-CO-CH 3> to (i)-methyl-
2-4-di-isopropyl benzene. An analogous synthesis is that of di-
hydro-m-xylenefrommethylheptenone,(CH3)2C:CH-(CH2)2-CO-CH 8 .
Certain o-diketones condense to form benzenoid quinones, two
molecules of the diketone taking part in the reaction; thus diacetyl,
CHs-CO-CO-CHj, yields />-xyloquinone, C 6 H 2 (CH 3 ) 2 O2 (Ber., 1888,

21, p. 1411), and acetylpropionyl, CHs-CO-CO-CzHs, yields duro-
quinone, or tetramethylquinone, C 6 (CH 3 ) 4 O2, Oxymethylene com-
pounds, characterized by the grouping >C:CH(OH), also give
benzene derivatives by hydrolytic condensation between three
molecules; thus oxy methylene acetone, or formyl acetone,
CHs-CO-CH :CH (OH) , formed by acting on formic ester with acetone
in the presence of sodium ethylate, readily yields [i.3.5]-triacetyl-
benzene, CH 3 (CO-CH 3 ) 3 ; oxymethylene acetic ester or formyl
acetic ester or 0-oxyacrylic ester, (HO)CH:CH-CO 2 C ? H 6 , formed by
condensing acetic ester with formic ester, and also its dimolecular
condensation product, coumalic acid, readily yields esters of [1.3.5]-
benzene tricarboxylic acid or trimesic acid (see Ber., 1887, 20,
p. 2930).

In 1890, 0. Doebner (Ber. 23, p. 2377) investigated the condensation
of pyroracemic acid, CH 3 'CO-COOH, with various aliphatic alde-
hydes, and obtained from two molecules of the acid and one of the
aldehyde in the presence of baryta water alkylic isophthalic acids :
with acetaldehyde [i.3.5]-methylisophthalic acid or uvitic acid,
CdH 3 -CH8-(COOH) 2 , was obtained, with propionic aldehyde [1.3.5]-
ethylispphthalic acid, and with butyric aldehyde the corresponding
propylisophthalic acid. We may here mention the synthesis of
oxyuvitic ester (5-methyl-4-oxy-i-3-benzene dicarboxylic ester) by
the condensation of two molecules of sodium acetoacetic ester
with one of chloroform (Ann., 1883, 222, p. 249). Of other
syntheses of true benzene derivatives, mention may be made of
the formation of orcinol or [3'5]-dioxytoluene from dehydracetic
acid; and the formation of esters of oxytoluic acid (5-methyl-
3-oxy-benzoic acid), CH 3 -CH 3 -OH-COOH,when acetoneoxalic ester,
CHs-CO-CHj-CO-CO-COijCjHj, is boiled with baryta (Ber., 1889,

22, p. 3271). Of interest also are H. B. Hill and J. Torray's observa-
tions on nitromalonic aldehyde, NO 2 -CH(CHO) 2 ,formed by acting on
mucobromic acid, probably CHO-CBr:CBr:COOH, with alkaline
nitrites; this substance condenses with acetone to give ^-nitrophenol,
and forms [i.3.s]-trinitrobenzene when its sodium salt is decomposed
with an acid.

By passing carbon monoxide over heated potassium J. von Liebig

discovered, in 1834, an interesting aromatic compound, potassium
carbon monoxide or potassium hexaoxybenzene, the nature of
which was satisfactorily cleared up by R. Nietzki and T. Benckiser
(Ber. 1 8, p. 499) in 1885, who showed that it yielded hexaoxy-
benzene, C(pH), when acted upon with dilute hydrochloric acid;
further investigation of this compound brought to light a consider-
able number of highly interesting derivatives (see QUINONES).
Another hexa-substituted benzene compound capable of direct
synthesis is mellitic acid or benzene carboxylic acid, Ce(COOH) 6 .
This substance, first obtained from the mineral honeystone, alu-
minium mellitate, by M. H. Klaproth in 1799, is obtained when pure
carbon (graphite or charcoal) is oxidized by alkaline permanganate,
or when carbon forms the positive pole in an electrolytic cell (Ber.,
1883, 16, p. 1209). The composition of this substance was deter-
mined by A. von Baeyer in 1870, who obtained benzene on distilling
the calcium salt with lime.

Hitherto we have generally restricted ourselves to syntheses
which result in the production of a true benzene ring; but there
are many reactions by which reduced benzene rings are synthesized,
and from the compounds so obtained true benzenoid compounds
may be prepared. Of such syntheses we may notice: the con-
densation of sodium malonic ester to phloroglucin tricarboxyKc
ester, a substance which gives phloroglucin or trioxybenzene when
fused with alkalis, and behaves both as a triketohexamethylene
tricarboxylic ester and as a trioxybenzene tricarboxylic ester; the
condensation of succinic ester, (CH 2 -CO*C 2 Hj) 2 , under the influence
of sodium to succinosuccinic ester, a diketohexamethylene di-
carboxylic ester, which readily yields dioxyterephthalic acid and
hydroquinone (F. Herrmann, Ann., 1882, 211, p. 306; also see below,
Configuration of the Benzene Complex) ; the condensation of acetone
dicarboxylic ester with malonic ester to form triketohexamethylene
dicarboxylic ester (E. Rimini, Gazz. Chem., 1896, 26, (2), p. 374);
the condensation of acetone-di-propionic acid under the influence
of boiling water to a diketohexamethylene propionic acid (von
Pechmann and Sidgwick, Ber., 1904, 37, p. 3816). Many diketo
compounds suffer condensation between two molecules to form
hydrobenzene derivatives; thus a,-y-di-acetoglutaric ester,
C2H 6 O2C(CH,-CO)CH-CH 2 -CH(CO-CH 3 )CO2C 2 H 6 , yields a methyl-
ketohexamethylene,while7-acetobutyricester,CHsCO(CH 2 )2CO2C 2 Hj,
is converted into dihydroresorcinol or w-diketohexamethylene by
sodium ethylate; this last reaction is reversed by baryta (see De-
compositions of Benzene Ring). For other syntheses of hexamethylene
derivatives, see POLYMETHYLENES.

Decompositions of the Benzene Ring. We have previously
alluded to the relative stability of the benzene complex; con-
sequently reactions which lead to its disruption are all the more
interesting, and have engaged the attention of many chemists.
If we accept Kekule's formula for the benzene nucleus, then we
may expect the double linkages to be opened up partially, either
by oxidation or reduction, with the formation of di-, tetra-, or
hexa-hydro derivatives, or entirely, with the production of open
chain compounds. Generally rupture occurs at more than one
point; and rarely are the six carbon 'atoms of the complex
regained as an open chain. Certain compounds withstand ring
decomposition much more strongly than others; for instance,
benzene and its homologues, carboxylic acids, and nitro com-
pounds are much more stable towards oxidizing agents than
amino- and oxy-benzenes, aminophenols, quinones, and oxy-
carboxylic acids.

Strong oxidation breaks the benzene complex into stfch compounds
as carbon dioxide, oxalic acid, formic acid, &c. ; such decompositions
are of little interest. More important are Kekule's S i mp i e
observations that nitrous acid oxidizes pyrocatechol or ox ia a tloa.
[i.2]-dioxybenzene, and protocatechuic acid or [3.4]-
dioxybenzoic acid to dioxytartaric acid, (C(OH) 2 -COOH) 2 (Ann.,
1883, 221, p. 230); and O. Doebner's preparation of mesotartaric
acid, the internally compensated tartaric acid, (CH(OH)-COOH)i,
by oxidizing phenol with dilute potassium permanganate (Ber., 1891,

24, p. 1753)-

For many years it had been known that a mixture of potassium
chlorate and hydrochloric or sulphuric acids possessed strong
oxidizing powers. L. Carius showed that potassium _ . .
chlorate and sulphuric acid oxidized benzene to trichlor- Jj"
phenomalic acid, a substance afterwards investigated by .-<;
Kekule and O. Strecker (Ann., 1884, 223, p. 170), and
shown to be 0-trichloracetoacrylic acid, CCl.-CO-CH :CH-COOH.
which with baryta gave chloroform and maleic acid. Potassium
chlorate and hydrochloric acid oxidize phenol, salicylic acid (o-oxy-
benzoic acid), and gallic acid ([2.3.4] trioxybenzoic acid) to tri-
chlorpyroracemic acid (isotrichlorglyceric acid), CC1 3 -C(OH) 2 -CO 2 H,
a substance also obtained from trichloracetonitrile, CCls-CO-CN, by
hydrolysis. We may also notice the conversion of picric acid.
[2.4.6]-trinitrophenol) into chloropicrin, CChNOj, by bleaching lime
(calcium hypochlorite), and into bromopicrin, CBr 3 NO2, by bromine
water.

ORGANIC]

CHEMISTRY

The action of chlorine upon di- and tri-pxybenzenes has been
carefully investigated by Th. Zincke; and his researches have led
to the discovery of many chlorinated oxidation products which admit
of decomposition into cyclic compounds containing fewer carbon
atoms than characterize the benzene ring, and in turn yielding open-
chain or aliphatic compounds. In general, the rupture occurs
between a keto group (CO) and a keto-chloride group (CC1 2 ), into
which two adjacent carbon atoms of the ring are converted by the
oxidizing and substituting action of chlorine. Decompositions of
this nature were first discovered in the naphthalene series, where it
was found that derivatives of indene (and of hydrindene and indone)
and also of benzene resulted; Zincke then extended his methods to
the disintegration of the oxybenzenes and obtained analogous
results, R-pentene and aliphatic derivatives being formed (R-
symbolizing a ringed nucleus).

When treated with chlorine, pyrocatechol (1.2 or ortho-dioxy-
benzene) (l) yields a tetrachlpr ortho-quinone, which suffers further
chlorination to hexachlor-o-diketo-R-hexene (2). This substance is
transformed into hexachlor-R-pentene oxycarboxylic acid (3) when
digested with water; and chromic acid oxidizes this substance to
hexachlor-R-pentene (4). The ring of this compound is ruptured by
caustic soda with the formation of perchlprvinyl acrylic acid (5),
which gives on reduction ethidine propionic acid (6), a compound
containing five of the carbon atoms originally in the benzene ring
(see Zincke, Ber., 1894, 27, p. 3364) (the carbon atoms are omitted in
some of the formulae).

OOH __
OH.

OH. C,o
CI-

CI,

CCI
C COH

jH CH COjH
~

"cci.

CH 3

(')

(3) (4) <S> ()

Resorcin (1.3 or meta dioxybenzene) (i) is decomposed in a
somewhat similar manner. Chlorination in glacial acetic acid
solution yields pentachlor-m-diketo-R-hexene (2) and, at a later
stage, heptachlor-m-diketo-R-hexene (3). These compounds are
both decomposed by water, the former giving dichloraceto-trichlor-
crotonic acid (4), which on boiling with water gives dichlormethyl-
vinyl-a-diketone (5). The heptacnlor compound when treated with
chlorine water gives trichloraceto-pentachlorbutyric acid (6), which
is hydrolysed by alkalis to chloroform and pentachlorglutaric acid
(7^, and is converted by boiling water into tetrachlor-diketo-R-
pentene (8). This latter compound may be chlorinated to
perchloracetoacrylic chloride (9), from which the corresponding acid
(10) is obtained by treatment with water; alkalis hydrolyse the acid
to chloroform and dichlormaleic acid (n).

0--

^ C1 3,

(3)

r HO,C.CCI-CHCI-CCI,-CO-CCI,

HO 2 OCCl:CH-CCl 2 -CO-CHCIj . * (6) I

I (4)

CO 2 +C1HC:CH-CO-CO-CHCI 2
(5)

HOjC-CClj-CHCl-CCl^COjH+CHCI.,
(7)

CO-CC1..

C1OC-CC1: CCI-CO-CCU I ^CO (8)

. (9) CC1-CCK

HO 2 C-CCI:CC1-CO-CCI 3 - HO 2 C-CCI:CCI-CO 2 H+CHCl3
do) (n)

Hydroquinone (1.4 or para-dioxybenzene) (i) gives with chlorine,
first, a tetrachlorquinone (2), and then hexachlor-p-diketo-R-hexene
(3), which alcoholic potash converts into perchloracroylacrylic acid
(4). This substance, and also the preceding compound, is converted
by aqueous caustic soda into dichlormaleic acid, trichlorethylene,
and hydrochloric acid (5) (Th. Zincke and O. Fuchs, Ann., 1892,
267, p. i).

-^ C '||1 CI C '|T| Cl2

at/ci ciLJa,

COOH

cic.

CO.,H

CHCI

() <) (3) (4) (5)

Phlproglucin (i.3.5-trioxybenzene) (i) behaves similarly to
resorcin, hexachlor [1.3.5] triketo-R-hexylene (2) being first formed.
This compound is converted by chlorine water into octachloracetyl-
acetone (3) ; by methyl alcohol into the ester of dichlormalonic acid
and tetrachloracetone (4) ; whilst ammonia gives dichloracetamide
(5) (Th. Zincke and O. Kegel, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 1706).

- c 'f>v:

ok^o
ci,

(4) Cl 3 HC-CO-CHCI,,+CH.i0 2 C-CCl !i C0. 1 -CH. I
C1 2 HC-CONH,

When phenol is oxidized in acid solution by chlorine, tetrachlor-
quinone is obtained, a compound also obtainable from hydroquinone.
By conducting the chlorination in alkaline solution, n dlJcWo
A. Hantzsch (Ber., 1889, 22, p. 1238) succeeded in ob- t i kallnt
taining derivatives of o-diketo-R-hexene, which yield TO / U< / 01| ;
R-pentene and aliphatic compounds on decomposition.
When thus chlorinated phenol (i) yields trichlor-o-diketo-R-hexene
(2), which may be hydrolysed to an acid (3), which, in turn,
suffers rearrangement to trichlor-R-pentene-oxycarboxylic acid (4).
Bromine water oxidizes this substance to oxalic acid and tetrabrom-
dichloracetone (5).

OH o HOOC _. _ lC - OH

Ocij^No HCI 2 Ci NCO 'pCOOH Cl a BrC-CO-CBr 3 t

H^Hr Hcl^JcH,"* " C Vf CHj " HO a C-CO,H

CI
()

CCI
(3)

(i) () (3) (4) (S)

The reduction of o-pxybenzoic acids by sodium in amyl alcohol
solution has been studied by A. Einhorn and J. S. Lumsden (Ann.,
1895, 286, p. 257). It is probable that tetrahydro acids are first
formed, which suffer rearrangement to orthoketpne carboxylic acids.
These substances absorb water and become pimelic acids. Thus
salicylic acid yields n-pimelic acid, HOOC-(CH,)-COOH, while o-,
m-, and p-cresotinic acids, CeHj(CH 8 )(OH)(COOH), yield isomeric
methylpimelic acids.

Resorcin on reduction gives dihydroresorcin, which G. Merling
(Ann., 1894, 278, p. 20) showed to be converted into n-glutaric acid,
HOOC'(CH2)3-COOH, when oxidized with potassium permanganate;
according to D. Vorlander (Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2348) it is converted
into -x-acetobutyric acid, CHjCO-(CH2) 3 -COOH, when heated with
baryta to 150-160.

Configuration of the Benzene Complex. The development of
the " structure theory " in about 1860 brought in its train an
appreciation of the chemical structure of the derivatives of
benzene. The pioneer in this field was August Kekule, who,
in 1865 (Ann., 137, p. 129; see also his Lehrbuch der organischen
Chemie), submitted his well-known formula for benzene, so
founding the " benzene theory " and opening up a problem
which, notwithstanding the immense amount of labour since
bestowed upon it, still remains imperfectly solved. Arguing
from the existence of only one mono-substitution derivative,
and of three di-derivatives (statements of which the rigorous
proof was then wanting), he was led to arrange the six carbon
atoms in a ring, attaching a hydrogen atom to each carbon
atom; being left with the fourth carbon valencies, he mutually
saturated these in pairs, thus obtaining the symbol I (see below).
The value of this ringed structure was readily perceived, but
objections were raised with respect to Kekule's disposal of the
fourth valencies. In 1866 Sir James Dewar proposed an un-
symmetrical form (II); while in 1867, A. Claus (Theorelische
Betrachtungen und deren A nwendung zur Systematik der organischen
Chemie) proposed his diagonal formula (III), and two years
later, A. Ladenburg (Ber., 2, p. 140) devised his prism formula
(IV), the six carbon atoms being placed at the six corners of a
right equilateral triangular prism, with its plane projections
(V, VI).

CH CH

t HCfTlCH

I KekuU

Ladenburg

One of the earliest and strongest objections urged against Kekuld's
formula was that it demanded two isomeric prtho-di-substitution
derivatives; for if we number the carbon atoms in cyclical
order from I to 6, then the derivatives 1 .2 and 1 .6 should Objection*
be different. 1 Ladenburg submitted that if the 1-2 and toKetult's
i .6 compounds were identical, then we should expect the formula.
two well-known crotonic acids, CHj-CH : CH-COOH and
CH 2 : CH-CH 2 -COOH, to be identical. This view was opposed by
Victor Meyer and Kekule 1 . The former pointed out that the supposed
isomerism was not due to an arrangement of atoms, but to the dis-
position of a valency, and therefore it was doubtful whether such a
subtle condition could exert any influence on the properties of the
substance. Kekuld answered Ladenburg by formulating a dynamic
interpretation of valency. He assumed that if we have one atom

1 It is now established that ortho compounds do exist in isomeric
forms, instances being provided by chlor-, brom-, and amino-toluene,
chlorphenol, and chloraniline; but arguments, e.g. E. Knoevenagel's
theory of " motoisomerism," have been brought forward to cause
these facts to support Kekule.

CHEMISTRY

[ORGANIC

connected by single bonds to (say) four other atoms, then in a certain
unit of time it will collide with each of these atoms in turn. Now
suppose two of the attached atoms are replaced by one atom, then
this atom must have two valencies directed to the central atom;
and consequently, in the same unit of time, the central atom will
collide once with each of the two monovalent atoms and twice with
the divalent. Applying this notion to benzene, let us consider the
impacts made by the carbon atom (i) which we will assume to be
doubly linked to the carbon atom (2) and singly linked to (6), h
standing for the hydrogen atom. In the first unit of time, the
impacts are 2, 6, h, 2 ; and in the second 6, 2, h, 6. If we represent
graphically the impacts in the second unit of time, we perceive that
they point to a configuration in which the double linkage is between
the carbon atoms I and 6, and the single linkage between I and 2.
Therefore, according to KekuI6, the double linkages are in a state of
continual oscillation, and if his dynamical notion of valency, or a
similar hypothesis, be correct, then the difference between the 1.2
and 1.6 di-derivatives rests on the insufficiency of his formula,
which represents the configuration during one set of oscillations only.
The difference is only apparent, not real. An analogous oscillation
prevails in the pyrazol nucleus, for L. Knorr (Ann., 1894, 279, p. 188)
has shown that 3- and 5-methylpyrazols are identical.

The explanation thus attempted by Kekul6 was adversely criti-
cized, more especially by A. Ladenburg, who devoted much attention
to the study of the substitution products of benzene, and

Laden- tQ t ^ e su pp Ort o f h; s own formula. His views are presented
I in his pamphlet : Theorie der aromatischen Verbindungen,

burg's

1876. The prism formula also received support from the
following data : protocatechuic acid when oxidized by nitrous acid
gives carboxytartronic acid, which, on account of its ready de-
composition into carbon dioxide and tartronic acid, was considered
to be HO-C(COOH) 3 . This implied that in the benzene complex
there was at least one carbon atom linked to three others, thus
rendering Kekul6's formula impossible and Ladenburg's and Claus'
possible. Kekule 1 (Ann., 1883, 221, p. 230), however, reinvestigated
this acid; he showed that it was dibasic and not tribasic; that it
gave tartaric acid on reduction; and, finally, that it was dioxy-
tartaric acid, HOOC-C(OH) 2 -C(OH) 2 -COOH. The formation of
this substance readily follows from Kekul6's formula, while con-
siderable difficulties are met with when one attempts an explanation
based on Ladenburg's representation. Kekute also urged that the
formation of trichlorphenomalic acid, shown by him and O. Strecker
to be trichloracetoacrylic acid, was more favourably explained by
his formula than by Ladenburg's.

Other objections to Ladenburg's formula resulted from A. von
Baeyer's researches (commenced in 1886) on the reduced phthalic
acids. Baeyer pointed out that although benzene deri-
Baeyer's va tives were obtainable from hexamethylene compounds,
researches. yet j t ^y no means follows that only hexamethylene
compounds need result when benzene compounds are reduced. He
admitted the possibility of the formulae of Kekule', Claus, Dewar
and Ladenburg, although as to the last di-trimethylene derivatives
should be possible reduction products, being formed by severing
two of the prism edges ; and he attempted to solve the problem by a
systematic investigation of the reduced phthalic acids.

Ladenburg's prism admits of one mono-substitution derivative
and three di-derivatives. Furthermore, it is in accordance with
certain simple syntheses of benzene derivatives (e.g. from acetylene
and acetone); but according to Baeyer (Ber., 1886, 19, p. 1797)
it fails to explain the formation of dioxyterephthalic ester from
succinosuccinic ester, unless we make the assumption that the
transformation of these substances is attended by a migration of the
substituent groups. For succinosuccinic ester, formed by the action
of sodium on two molecules of succinic ester, haseitherof theformulae
(I) or (II) ; oxidation of the free acid gives dioxyterephthalic acid in
which the para-positions must remain substituted as in (I) and (II).
By projecting Ladenburg's prism on a plane and numbering the
atoms so as to correspond with Kekule' 's form, viz. that 1.2 and 1.6
should be ortho-positions, 1.3 and 1.5 meta-, and 1.4 para-, and
following out the transformation on the Ladenburg formula, then
an ortho-dioxyterephthalic acid (IV) should result, a fact denied
by experience, and inexplicable unless we assume a wandering of
atoms. Kekute's formula (III), on the other hand, is in full agree-
ment (Baeyer). This explanation has been challenged by Ladenburg

C-OH

HcX\CH-CO,Et

C-OH

Et HcXNc-COjEt
~KtO,C-cLJcH

(i)OH

C-OH

(4)H

(Ber., 1886, 19, p. 971 ; Ber., 1887, 20, p. 62) and by A. K. Miller
(J.C.S. Trans., 1887, p. 208). The transformation is not one of the
oxidation of a hexamethylene compound to a benzenoid compound,
for only two hydrogen atoms are removed. Succinosuccinic ester
behaves both as a ketone and as a phenol, thereby exhibiting
desmotropy; assuming the ketone formula as indicating the con-
stitution, then in Baeyer's equation we have a migration of a
hydrogen atom, whereas to bring Ladenburg's formula into line,
an oxygen atom must migrate.

The relative merits of the formulae of Kekuld, Claus and Dewar
were next investigated by means of the reduction products of benzene,
it being Baeyer's intention to detect whether double linkages were
or were not present in the benzene complex.

To follow Baeyer's results we must explain his nomenclature of
the reduced benzene derivatives. We numbers the carbon atoms
placed at the corners of a hexagon from I to 6, and each side in the
same order, so that the carbon atoms I and 2 are connected by the
side i, atoms 2 and 3 by the side 2, and so on. A doubly linked pair
of atoms is denoted by the sign A with the index corresponding to
the side; if there are two pairs of double links, then indices corre-
sponding to both sides are employed. Thus A* denotes a tetrahydro
derivative in which the double link occupies the side I ; A 1 - 3 , a
dihydro derivative, the double links being along the sides i and 3.
Another form of isomerism is occasioned by spatial arrangements,
many of the reduced terephthalic acids existing in two stereo-isomeric
forms. Baeyer explains this by analogy with fumaric and maleic
acids: he assumes the reduced benzene ring to lie in a, plane; when
both carboxyl groups are on the same side of this plane, the acids,
in general, resemble maleic acids, these forms he denotes by Tcis-cis,
or shortly cis-; when the carboxyl groups are on opposite sides,
the acids correspond to fumaric acid, these forms are denoted by
Tcis-trans, or shortly trans-.

By reducing terephthalic acid with sodium amalgam, care being
taken to neutralize the caustic soda simultaneously formed by
passing in carbon dioxide, A 2 - 6 dihydroterephthalic acid is obtained ;
this results from the splitting of a para-linkage. By boiling with
water the A 2 5 acid is converted into the A 1 -' dihydroterephthalic
acid. This acid is converted into the A 1 - 4 acid by soda, and into the
A 2 tetrahydro acid by reduction. From this acid the A 1 -' dihydro
and the A 1 tetrahydro acids may be obtained, from both of which
the hexahydro acid may be prepared. From these results Baeyer
concluded that Claus' formula with three para-linkings cannot
possibly be correct, for the A 2 - 6 dihydroterephthalic acid undoubtedly
has two ethylene linkages, since it readily takes up two or four
atoms of bromine, and is oxidized in warm aqueous solution by
alkaline potassium permanganate. But the formation of the A 2 -*
acid as the first reduction product is not fully consistent with
Kekul6's symbol, for we should then expect the A 1 - 3 or the A 1 - 6 acid
to be first formed (see also POLYMETHYLENES).

The stronger argument against the ethylenoid linkages
demanded by Kekule's formula is provided by the remark-
able stability towards oxidizing and reducing agents which
characterizes all benzenoid compounds. From the fact that
reduction products containing either one or two double linkages
behave exactly as unsaturated aliphatic compounds, being
readily reduced or oxidized, and combining with the halogen
elements and haloid acids, it seems probable that in benzenoid
compounds the fourth vilencies are symmetrically distributed
in such a manner as to induce a peculiar stability in the molecule.
Such a configuration was proposed in 1887 by H. E. Armstrong
(J.C.S. Trans., 1887, p. 258), and shortly afterwards by Baeyer
(Ann., 1888, 245, p. 103). In this formula, the so-called "_ centric
formula," the assumption made is that the fourth valencies are
simply directed towards the centre of the ring; nothing further
is said about the fourth valencies except that they exert a
pressure towards the centre. Claus maintained that Baeyer's
view was identical with his own, for as in Baeyer's formula, the
fourth valencies have a different function from the peripheral
valencies, being united at the centre in a form of potential
union.

It is difficult to determine which configuration most accurately
explains the observed facts; Kekule's formula undoubtedly
explains the synthetical production of benzenoid compounds
most satisfactorily, and W. Marckwald (Ann., 1893, 274, p. 331;
1894, 279, p. 14) has supported this formula from considerations
based on the syntheses of the quinoline ring. Further researches
by Baeyer, and upon various nitrogenous ring systems by E.
Bamberger (a strong supporter of the centric formula), have
shown that the nature of the substituent groups influences the
distribution of the fourth valencies; therefore it may be con-
cluded that in compounds the benzene nucleus appears to be
capable of existence in two tautomeric forms, in the sense that
each particular derivative possesses a definite constitution.
The benzene nucleus presents a remarkable case, which must be
considered in the formulation of any complete theory of valency.
From a study of the reduction of compounds containing two
ethylenic bonds united by a single bond, termed a " conjugated
system," E. Thick suggested a doctrine of " partial valencies,"

ORGANIC]

CHEMISTRY

which assumes that in addition to the ordinary valencies, each
doubly linked atom has a partial valency, by which the atom first
interacts. When applied to benzene, a twofold conjugated
system is suggested in which the partial valencies of adjacent
atoms neutralize, with the formation of a potential double link.
The stability of benzene is ascribed to this conjugation. 1

Physico-chemical properties have also been drawn upon to
decide whether double unions are present in the benzene com-
plex; but here the predilections of the observers
d?emtai/ apparently influence the nature of the conclusions to
'methods, be drawn from such data. It is well known that
singly, doubly and trebly linked carbon atoms affect
the physical properties of substances, such as the refractive
index, specific volume, and the heat of combustion; and by
determining these constants for many substances, fairly definite
values can be assigned to these groupings. The general question
of the relation of the refractive index to constitution has been
especially studied by J. W. Briihl, who concluded that benzene
contained 3 double linkages; whereas, in 1901, Pellini (Gazetta,
31, i. p. i) calculated that 9 single linkages were present. A
similar contradiction apparently exists with regard to the
specific volume, for while benzene has a specific volume corre-
spinding to Glaus' formula, toluene, or methylbenzene, rather
points to Kekule's. The heat of combustion, as first determined
by Julius Thomsen, agreed rather better with the presence of
nine single unions. His work was repeated on a finer scale by
M. P. E. Berthelot of Paris, and F. C. A. Stohmann of Leipzig;
and the new data and the conclusions to be drawn from them
formed the subject of much discussion, Briihl endeavouring
to show how they supported Kekule's formula, while Thomsen
maintained that they demanded the benzene union to have a
different heat of combustion from the acetylene union. Thomsen
then investigated heats of combustion of various benzenoid
hydrocarbons benzene, naphthalene, anthracene, phenanthrene,
&c. in the crystallized state. It was found that the results
were capable of expression by the empirical relation C<,H 2 =
I04-3&+49-09W+I05-47W, where C a H 2 denotes the formula
of the hydrocarbon, m the number of single carbon linkings and
n the number of double linkings, m and n being calculated on
the Kekule formulae. But, at the same time, the constants in
the above relation are not identical with those in the corre-
sponding relation empirically deduced from observations on fatty
hydrocarbons; and we are therefore led to conclude that a
benzene union is considerably more stable than an ethylene
union.

Mention may be made of the absorption spectrum of benzene.
According to W. N. Hartley (J.C.S., 1905, 87, p. 1822), there
are six bands in the ultra-violet, while E. C. C. Baly and J. N.
Collie (J.C.S., 1905, 87, p. 1332; 1906, 89, p. 524) record seven.
These bands are due to molecular oscillations; Hartley suggests
the carbon atoms to be rotating and forming alternately single
and double linkages, the formation of three double links giving
three bands, and of three single links another three; Baly and
Collie, on the other hand, suggest the making and breaking of
links between adjacent atoms, pointing out that there are seven
combinations of one, two and three pairs of carbon atoms in the
benzene molecule.

Stereo-chemical Configurations. Simultaneously with the dis-
cussions of Kekule, Ladenburg, Claus, Baeyer and others as to the
merits of various plane formulae of the benzene complex, there
were published many suggestions with regard to the arrange-
ment of the atoms in space, all of which attempted to explain
the number of isomers and the equivalence of the hydrogen
atoms. The development of stereo-isomerism at the hands of

1 Victor Meyer and G. Heyl (Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2776) attempted a
solution from the following data. It is well known that di-ortho-
substituted benzoic acids are esterified with difficulty. Two acids
corresponding to the formula of Kekul<5 and Claus are triphenyl
acrylic acid, (C,H 5 ) 2 C: C(COOH)-C 6 H 6 , and triphenyl acetic acid,
(C,Hj)C-COOH. Experiments showed that the second acid was
much more difficult to esterify than the first, pointing to the con-
clusion that Claus' formula for benzene was more probable than
Kekul6's.

J. Wislicenus, Le Bel and van 't Hoff has resulted in the intro-
duction of another condition which formulae for the benzene
complex must satisfy, viz. that the hydrogen atoms must all
lie in one plane. The proof of this statement rests on the fact
that if the hydrogen atoms were not co-planar, then substitution
derivatives (the substituting groups not containing asymmetric
carbon atoms) should exist in enantiomorphic forms, differing in
crystal form and in their action on polarized light; such optical
antipodes have, however, not yet been separated. Ladenburg's
prism formula would give two enantiomorphic ortho-di-substi-
tution derivatives; while forms in which the hydrogen atoms
are placed at the corners of a regular octahedron would yield
enantiomorphic tri-substitution derivatives.

The octahedral formula discussed by Julius Thomsen (Ber., 1886,
19, p. 2944) consists of the six carbon atoms placed at the corners
of a regular octahedron, and connected together by the full lines as
shown in (I) ;_ a plane projection gives a hexagon with diagonals
(II). Reduction to hexamethylene compounds necessitates the
disruption of three of the edges of the octahedron, the diagonal
linkings remaining intact, or, in the plane projection, three peripheral
linkages, the hexamethylene ring assuming the form (III):

III

In 1888 J. E. Marsh published a paper (Phil. Mag. [V.], 26, p. 426)
in which he discussed various stereo-chemical representations of
the benzene nucleus. (The stereo-chemistry of carbon compounds
has led to the spatial representation of a carbon atom as being
situated at the centre of a tetrahedron, the four valencies being
directed towards the apices; see above, and ISOMERISM.) A form
based on Kekul6's formula consists in taking three pairs of tetra-
hedra, each pair having a side in common, and joining them up
along the sides of a regular hexagon by means of their apices. This
form, afterwards supported by Carl Graebe (Ber., 1902, 35, p. 526; see
also Marsh's reply, Journ. Chem. Soc. Trans., 1902, p. 961) shows
the proximity of the ortho-positions, but fails to explain the identity
of 1.2 and 1.6 compounds. Arrangements connected with _Claus'
formula are obtained by placing six tetrahedra on the six triangles
formed by the diagonals of a plane hexagon. The form in which the
tetrahedra are all on one side, afterwards discussed by J. Loschmidt
(Monats., 1890, n, p. 28), would not give stereo-isomers; and the
arrangement of placing the tetrahedra on alternate sides, a form
afterwards developed by W. Vaubel (Journ. Pr. Chem., 1894 [2],
49, p. 308), has the advantage of bringing the meta-positions on one
side, and the ortho- and para- on opposite sides, thus exhibiting
the similarity actually observed between these series of compounds.
Marsh also devised a form closely resembling that of Thomsen,
inasmuch as the carbon atoms occupied the angles of a regular
octahedron, and the diagonal linkages differed in nature from
the peripheral, but different from Thomson's since rupture of the
diagonal and not peripheral bonds accompanied the reduction to
hexamethylene.

We may also notice the model devised by H. Sachse (Ber., 1888,
21, 2530; Zeit. fur phys. Chem., II, p. 214; 23, p. 2062). Two
parallel triangular faces are removed from a cardboard model of a
regular octahedron, and on the remaining six faces tetrahedra are
then placed; the hydrogen atoms are at the free angles. This
configuration is, according to Sachse, more stable than any other
form; no oscillation is possible, the molecule being only able to
move as a whole. In 1897, J. N. Collie (Journ. Chem. Soc. Trans.,
p. 1013) considered in detail an octahedral form, and showed how by
means of certain simple rotations of his system the formulae
of Kekule' and Claus could be obtained as projections. An entirely
new device, suggested by B. Konig (Chem. Zeit., 1905, 29, p. 30),
assumed the six carbon atoms to occupy six of the corners of a cube,
each carbon atom being linked to a hydrogen atom and by single
bonds to two neighbouring carbon atoms, the remaining valencies
being directed to the unoccupied corners of the cube, three to each,
where they are supposed to satisfy each other.

Condensed Nuclei.

Restricting ourselves to compounds resulting from the fusion
of benzene rings, we have first to consider naphthalene, CioH 8 ,
which consists of two benzene rings having a pair of carbon atoms
in common. The next members are the isomers anthracene and
phenanthrene, C^Hio, formed from three benzene nuclei. Here
we shall only discuss the structure of these compounds in the
light of the modern benzene theories; reference should be made

CHEMISTRY

[ORGANIC

to the articles NAPHTHALENE, ANTHRACENE and PHENAN-
THRENE for syntheses, decompositions, &c.

Naphthalene. Of the earlier suggestions for the constitution
of naphthalene we notice the formulae of Wreden (i) and (2),
Berthelot and Balls (3), R. A. C. E. Erlenmeyer (4) and Adolf
Claus ( S ).

(3)

(4)

The first suggestion is quite out of the question. C. Graebe in
1866 (Ann. 149, p. 20) established the symmetry of the naph-
thalene nucleus, and snowed that whichever half of the molecule
be oxidized the same phthalic acid results. Therefore formula ( 2 ) ,
being unsymmetrical, is impossible. The third formula is based
on Dewar's benzene formula, which we have seen to be incorrect.
Formula (4) is symmetrical and based on Kekule's formula: it
is in full accord with the syntheses and decompositions of the
naphthalene nucleus and the number of isomers found. In
1882 Claus suggested a combination of his own and Dewar's
benzene formulae. This is obviously unsymmetrical, consisting
of an aliphatic and an aromatic nucleus; Claus explained the
formation of the same phthalic acid from the oxidation of either
nucleus by supposing that if the aromatic group be oxidized, the
aliphatic residue assumes the character of a benzene nucleus.
Bamberger opposed Claus' formula on the following grounds:
The molecule of naphthalene is symmetrical, since 2.7 dioxy-
naphthalene is readily esterified by methyl iodide and sulphuric
acid to a dimethyl ether; and no more than two mono-substi-
tution derivatives are known. The molecule is aromatic but not
benzenoid; however, by the reduction of one half of the mole-
cule, the other assumes a benzenoid character.

If j8-naphthylamine and /3-naphthol be reduced, tetrahydro
products are obtained in which the amino- or oxy-bearing half of
the molecule becomes aliphatic in character. The compounds so
obtained, alicyclic-/3-tetrahydronaphthylamine and alicyclic-/3-
tetrahydronaphthol, closely resemble /3-aminodiethylbenzene,
C 6 H4(C 2 H 6 )-C 2 H4NH 2 ,and,S-ox y diethylbenzene,C6H < (C 2 H5)-C 2 H4C)H.
If a-naphthylamine and a-naphthol be reduced, the hydrogen atoms
attach themselves to the non-substituted half of the molecule,
and the compounds so obtained resemble aminodiethylbenzene,
C 6 H 3 -NH 2 (C 2 H6) 2 , and oxydiethylbenzene, C,H3-OH(C 2 H 6 ) 2 . Bam-
berger's observations on reduced quinoline derivatives point to the
same conclusion, that condensed nuclei are not benzenoid, but
possess an individual character, which breaks down, however, when
the molecule is reduced.

It remains, therefore, to consider Erlenmeyer's formula and
those derived from the centric hypothesis. The former, based
on Kekule's symbol for benzene, explains the decompositions
and syntheses of the ring, but the character of naphthalene
is not in keeping with the presence of five double linkages,
although it is more readily acted upon than benzene is. On the
centric hypothesis two formulae are possible: (i) due to H.E.
Armstrong, and (2) due to E. Bamberger.

In the first symbol it is assumed that one of the affinities of each
of the two central carbon atoms common to the two rings acts
into both rings, an assumption involving a somewhat wide
departure from all ordinary views as to the manner in which
affinity acts. This symbol harmonizes with the fact that the two
rings are in complete sympathy, the one responding to every
change made in the other. Then, on account of the relatively
slight because divided influence which would be exercised
upon the two rings by the two affinities common to both, the
remaining four centric affinities of each ring would presumably
be less attracted into the ring than in the case of benzene;
consequently they would be more active outwards, and com-
bination would set in more readily. When, as in the formation
of naphthalene tetrachloride, for example, the one ring becomes
saturated, the other might be expected to assume the normal

centric form and become relatively inactive. This is absolutely
the case. On the other hand, if substitution be effected in the
one ring, and the affinities in that ring become attracted inwards,
as apparently happens in the case of benzene, the adjoining ring
should become relatively more active because the common
affinities would act less into it. Hence, unless the radical
introduced be one which exercises a special attractive influence,
substitution should take place in preference in the previously
unsubstituted ring. In practice this usually occurs; for example,
on further bromination, a-bromonaphthalene yields a mixture
of the (1.4) and (1.5) dibromonaphthalenes; and when nitro-
naphthalene is either brominated, or nitrated or sulphonated,
the action is practically confined to the second ring. .The
centric formula proposed by Bamberger represents naphthalene as
formed by the fusion of two benzene rings, this indicates that it
is a monocyclic composed of ten atoms of carbon. The formula
has the advantage that it may be constructed from tetrahedral
models of the carbon atom; but it involves the assumption that
the molecule has within it a mechanism, equivalent in a measure
to a system of railway points, which can readily close up and
pass into that characteristic of benzene.

Anthracene and Phenanthrene. These isomeric hydrocarbons,
of the formula Ci 4 H 10 , are to be regarded as forme^ by the
fusion of three benzenoid rings as represented by the symbols:

ODD

Anthracene

Phenanthrene

In both cases the medial ring is most readily attacked; and
various formulae have been devised which are claimed by their
authors to represent this and other facts. According to Arm-
strong, anthracene behaves unsymmetrically towards sub-
stituents, and hence one lateral ring differs from the other; he
represents the molecule as consisting of one centric ring, the
remaining medial and lateral ring being ethenoid. Bamberger,
on the other hand, extends his views on benzene and naphthalene
and assumes the molecule to be (i). For general purposes,
however, the symbol (2), in which the lateral rings are benzenoid
and the medial ring fatty, represents quite adequately the
syntheses, decompositions, and behaviour of anthracene.

(0 (')

Phenanthrene is regarded by Armstrong as represented by (3),
the lateral rings being benzenoid, and the medial ring fatty;
Bamberger, however, regards it as (4), the molecule being

(3)

(4)

entirely aromatic. An interesting observation by Baeyer, viz.
that stilbene, C 6 H 5 'CH:CH-C6H 5 , is very readily oxidized,
while phenanthrene is not, supports, in some measure, the views
of Bamberger.

Heterocyclic Compounds.

During recent years an immense number of ringed or cyclic
compounds have been discovered, which exhibit individual
characters more closely resembling benzene, naphthalene, &c.
than purely aliphatic substances, inasmuch as in general they
contain double linkages, yet withstand oxidation, and behave as
nuclei, forming derivatives in much the same way as benzene.
By reduction, the double linkages become saturated, and
compounds result which stand in much about the same relation
to the original nucleus as hexamethylene does to benzene. In
general, therefore, it may be considered that the double linkages
are not of exactly the same nature as the double linkage present
in ethylene and ethylenoid compounds, but that they are
analogous to the potential valencies of benzene. The centric
hypothesis has been applied to these rings by Bamberger and
others; but as in the previous rings considered, the ordinary

ORGANIC]

CHEMISTRY

representation with double and single linkages generally repre-
sents the syntheses, decompositions, &c.; exceptions, however,
are known where it is necessary to assume an oscillation of the
double linkage. Five- and six-membered rings are the most
stable and important, the last-named group resulting from the
polymerization of many substances; three- and four-membered
rings are formed with difficulty, and are easily ruptured; rings
containing seven or more members are generally unstable, and
are relatively little known. The elements which go to form
heterocyclic rings, in addition to carbon, are oxygen, sulphur,
selenium and nitrogen. It is remarkable that sulphur can
replace two methine or CH groups with the production of com-
pounds greatly resembling the original one. Thus benzene,
(CH) 6 , gives thiophene, (CH) 4 S, from which it is difficultly dis-
tinguished; pyridine, (CH) 6 N, gives thiazole, (CH) 3 -N-S, which
is a very similar substance; naphthalene gives thionaphthen,
CsH 6 S, with which it shows great analogies, especially in the
derivatives. Similarly a CH group may be replaced by a nitrogen
atom with the production of compounds of similar stability;
thus benzene gives pyridine, naphthalene gives quinoline and
isoquinoline; anthracene gives acridine and a and /3 anthra-
pyridines. Similarly, two or more methine groups may be
replaced by the same number of nitrogen atoms with the forma-
tion of rings of considerable stability.

Most of the simple ring systems which contain two adjacent
carbon atoms may suffer fusion with any other ring (also containing
two adjacent carbon atoms) with the production of nuclei of greater
complexity. Such condensed nuclei are, in many cases, more readily
obtained than the parent nucleus. The more important types are
derived from aromatic nuclei, benzene, naphthalene, &c. ; the
ortho-di-derivatives of the first named, lending themselves particu-
larly to the formation of condensed nuclei. Thus ortho-phenylene
diamine yields the following products :

Aiimidobcnzenc Btntpiirthiolc

Benrimidazolone

Quinoxilifit

In some cases oxidation of condensed benzenoid-heterocyclic nuclei
results in the rupture of the heterocyclic ring with the formation of
a benzene dicarboxylic acid ; but if the aromatic nucleus be weakened
by the introduction of an amino group, then it is the benzenoid
nucleus which is destroyed and a dicarboxylic acid of the heterocyclic
ring system obtained.

Heterocyclic rings may be systematically surveyed from two
aspects: (i) by arranging the rings with similar hetero-atoms
according to the increasing number of carbon atoms, the so-called
" homologous series "; or (2) by first dividing the ring systems
according to the number of members constituting the ring, and
then classifying these groups according to the nature of the
hetero-atoms, the so-called " isologous series." The second
method possesses greater- advantages, for rings of approximate
stability come in one group, and, consequently, their derivatives
may be expected to exhibit considerable analogies.

As a useful preliminary it is convenient to divide heterocyclic
ring systems into two leading groups: (i) systems resulting
from simple internal dehydration (or similar condensations) of
saturated aliphatic compounds -such compounds are: the
internal anhydrides or cyclic ethers of the glycols and thioglycols
(ethylene oxide, &c.) ; the cyclic alkyleneimides resulting from
the splitting off of ammonia between the amino groups of diamino-
paraffins (pyrrolidine, piperazine, &c.); the cyclic esters of
oxycarboxylic acids (lactones, lactides) ; the internal anhydrides
of aminocarboxylic acids (lactams, betaines); cyclic derivatives
of dicarboxylic acids (anhydrides, imides, alkylen-esters, alkylen-
amides, &c.). These compounds retain their aliphatic nature,
and are best classified with open-chain compounds, into which,
in general, they are readily converted. (2) Systems which
are generally unsaturated compounds, often of considerable
stability, and behave as nuclei; these compounds constitute a
well-individualized class exhibiting closer affinities to benzenoid
substances than to the open-chain series.

The transition between the two classes as differentiated above
may be illustrated by the following cyclic compounds, each of which

contains a ring composed of four carbon atoms and one oxygen
atom:

.^(_ ..

Tetramethylene Butyrolactone.
oxide.

Fujfurane.

Succinic M?leic

anhydride. anhydride.

The first four substances are readily formed from, and converted
into, the corresponding dihydroxy open-chain compound; these
substances are truly aliphatic in character. The fifth compound,
on the other hand, does not behave as an unsaturated aliphatic
compound, but its deportment is that of a nucleus, many substitution
derivatives being capable of synthesis. Reduction, however, con-
verts it into an aliphatic compound. This is comparable with the
reduction of the benzene nucleus into hexamethylene, a substance of
an aliphatic character.

True ring systems, which possess the characters of organic
nuclei, do not come into existence in three- and four-membered
rings, their first appearance being in penta-atomic rings. The
three primary members are furfurane, thiophene and pyrrol,
each of which contains four methine or CH groups, and an
oxygen, sulphur and imido (NH) member respectively; a
series of compounds containing selenium is also known. The
formulae of these substances are:

= CH

CH = CH.

| >S

CH=CH CH=CH X CH = CH / C

Furfurane. Thiophene. Selenophene. Pyrrol.

|
H=CH

>NH
'

By substituting one or more CH groups in these compounds
by nitrogen atoms, ring-systems, collectively known as azoles,
result. Obviously, isomeric ring-systems are possible, since the
carbon atoms in the original rings are not all of equal value.
Thus furfurane yields the following rings by the introduction
of one and two nitrogen atoms :

CH = N , N = CH v N = N

I >0 I

CH=CH/
Oxazole.

CH=CH'

Isoxazole.

>
CH=CH /

Diazo-oxides.

H i N >o *[ HN >O V '">o

HC = N X CH = N/ N = CH' /

Furazane.

Azoximes.

Oxybiazole.

Thiophene yields a similar series: isothiazole (only known as
the condensed ring, isobenzothiazole), thiazole, diazosulphides,
piazthioles, azosulphimes and thiobiazole (the formulae are
easily derived from the preceding series by replacing oxygen by
sulphur). Thiophene also gives rise to triazsulphole, three
nitrogen atoms being introduced. Selenophene gives the series:
selenazole, diazoselenide and piaselenole, corresponding to
oxazole, diazo-oxides and furazane. Pyrrol yields an analogous
series: pyrazole, imidazole or glyoxaline, azimide or osotriazole,
triazole and tetrazole:

CH = N x

I >NH

CH=CH /
Pyrazole.

N=CH

N = CH
I

^NH
CH/

Imidazole.

N = N

:H i

N = N

^CH/

Azimide.

Triazole.

Tetrazole.

Six-membered ring systems can be referred back, in a manner
similar to the above, to pyrone, penthiophene and pyridine, the
substances containing a ring of five carbon atoms, and an
oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen atom respectively. As before,
only true ring nuclei, and not internal anhydrides of aliphatic
compounds, will be mentioned. From the pyrone ring the
following series of compounds are derived (for brevity, the
hydrogen atoms are not printed) :

Cf^N

Mcu-oxiilAe
r Pentoiucoltne

PtraxAlttH

Penthiophene gives, by a similar introduction of nitrogen atoms,
penthiazoline, corresponding to meta-oxazine, and para-thiazine,

CHEMISTRY

[ANALYTICAL

corresponding to paroxazine (para-oxazine). Pyridine gives
origin to: pyridazine or ortho-diazine, pyrimidine or meta-
diazine, pyrazine or para-diazine, osotriazine, unsymmetrical
triazine, symmetrical triazine, osotetrazone and tetrazine. The
skeletons of these types are (the carbon atoms are omitted for
brevity) :

o o. 0- j

ulirM Fyr.di/m* pynmidiix fynnne

r a x a

We have previously referred to the condensation of hetero-
cyclic ring systems containing two vicinal carbon atoms with
benzene, naphthalene and other nuclei. The more important
nuclei of this type have received special and non-systematic
names; when this is not the case, such terms as phen-, benzo-,
naphtho- are prefixed to the name of the heterocyclic ring. One
or two benzene nuclei may suffer condensation with the furfurane,
thiophene and pyrrol rings, the common carbon atoms being
vicinal to the hetero-atom. The mono-benzo-derivatives are
coumarone, benzothiophene and indole; the dibenzo-derivatives
are diphenylene oxide, dibenzothiophene or diphenylene sulphide,
and carbazole. Typical formulae are (R denoting 0, S or NH) :

Cu.CcQ

Isomers are possible, for the condensation may be effected on
the two carbon atoms symmetrically placed to the hetero-atom;
these isomers, however, are more of the nature of internal
anhydrides. Benz-oxazoles and -thiazoles have been prepared,
benz-isoxazoles are known as indoxazenes; benzo-pyrazoles
occur in two structural forms, named indazoles and isindazoles.
Derivatives of osotriazol also exist in two forms azimides and
pseudo-azimides.

Proceeding to the six-membered hetero-atomic rings, the
benzo-, dibenzo- and naphtho-derivatives are frequently of
great commercial and scientific importance, a-pyrone condenses
with the benzene ring to form coumarin and isocoumarin;
benzo-7-pyrone constitutes the nucleus of several vegetable
colouring matters (chrysin, fisetin, quercetin, &c., which are
derivatives of flavone or phenyl benzo-7-pyrone); dibenzo-7-
pyrone is known as xanthone; related to this substance are
fluorane (and fluorescein), fluorone, fluorime, pyronine, &c.
The pyridine ring condenses with the benzene ring to form
quinoline and isoquinoline; acridine and phenanthridine are
dibenzo-pyri dines; naphthalene gives rise to o-and /3-naphtho-
quinolines and the anthrapyridines; anthracene gives anthra-
quinoline; while two pyridine nuclei connected by an inter-
mediate benzene nucleus give the phenanthrolines. Naph-
thyridines and naphthinolines result from the condensation of
two pryridine and two quinoline nuclei respectively; and
quino-quinolines are unsymmetrical naphthyridine nuclei
condensed with a benzene nucleus. Benzo-orthoxazines,
-metoxazines and -paroxazines are known: dibenzoparoxazine
or phenoxazine is the parent of a valuable series of dyestuffs;
dibenzoparathiazine or thiodiphenylamine is important from
the same aspect. Benzo-ortho-diazines exist in two structural
forms, cinnolin and phthalazine; benzo-meta-diazines are
known as quinazolines; benzo-para-diazines are termed quinoxa-
lines; the dibenzo-compounds are named phenazines, this last
group including many valuable dyestuffs indulines, safranines,
&c. In addition to the types of compounds enumerated above
we may also notice purin, tropine and the terpenes.

V. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

This branch of chemistry has for its province the determination
of the constituents of a chemical compound or of a mixture of
compounds. Such a determination is qualitative, the constituent
being only detected or proved to be present, or quantitative, in
which the amount present is ascertained. The methods of
chemical analysis may be classified according to the type of

reaction: (i) dry or blowpipe analysis, which consists in an
examination of the substance in the dry condition; this includes
such tests as ignition in a tube, ignition on charcoal in the
blowpipe flame, fusion with borax, microcosmic salt or fluxes,
and flame colorations (in quantitative work the dry methods are
sometimes termed " dry assaying "); (2) wet analysis, in which
a solution of the substance is treated with reagents which
produce specific reactions when certain elements or groups of
elements are present. In quantitative analysis the methods
can be subdivided into: (a) gravimetric, in which the constituent
is precipitated either as a definite insoluble compound by the
addition of certain reagents, or electrolytically, by the passage
of an electric current; (b) volumetric, in which the volume of a
reagent of a known strength which produces a certain definite
reaction is measured; (c) colorimetric, in which the solution has
a particular tint, which can be compared with solutions of
known strengths.

Historical. The germs of analytical chemistry are to be
found in the writings of the pharmacists and chemists of the
iatrochemical period. The importance of ascertaining the
proximate composition of bodies was clearly realized by Otto
Tachenius; but the first systematic investigator was Robert
Boyle, to whom we owe the introduction of the term analysis.
Boyle recognized many reagents which gave precipitates with
certain solutions: he detected sulphuric and hydrochloric
acids by the white precipitates formed with calcium chloride
and silver nitrate respectively; ammonia by the white cloud
formed with the vapours of nitric or hydrochloric acids; and
copper by the deep blue solution formed by a solution of ammonia.
Of great importance is his introduction of vegetable juices (the
so-called indicators, q.v.) to detect acids and bases. During the
phlogistic period, the detection of the constituents of compounds
was considerably developed. Of the principal workers in this
field we may notice Friedrich Hoffmann, Andreas Sigismund
Marggraf (who detected iron by its reaction with potassium
ferrocyanide, and potassium and sodium by their flame colora-
tions), and especially Carl Scheele and Torberu Olof Bergman.
Scheele enriched the knowledge of chemistry by an immense
number of facts, but he did not possess the spirit of working
systematically as Bergman did. Bergman laid the foundations
of systematic qualitative analysis, and devised methods by which
the metals may be separated into groups according to their
behaviour with certain reagents. This subdivision, which is of
paramount importance in the analysis of minerals, was subse-
quently developed by Wilhelm August Lampadius in his Hand-
buck zur chemischen Analyse der Miner alien (1801) and by John
Friedrich A. Gottling in his Praktische Anleitung zur prufenden
und zurlegenden Chemie (1802).

The introduction of the blowpipe into dry qualitative analysis
by Axel Fredrik Cronstedt marks an important innovation.
The rapidity of the method, and the accurate results which it
gave in the hands of a practised experimenter, led to its system-
atization by Jons Jakob Berzelius and Johann Friedrich Ludwig
Hausmann, and in more recent times by K. F. Plattner, whose
treatise Die Probirkunst mil dem Lolhrohr is a standard work on
the subject. Another type of dry reaction, namely, the flame
coloration, had been the subject of isolated notices, as, for example,
the violet flame of potassium and the orange flame of sodium
observed by Marggraf and Scheele, but a systematic account was
wanting until Cartmell took the subject up. His results (Phil.
Mag. 16, p. 382) were afterwards perfected by Robert Wilhelm
Bunsen and Gustav Merz. Closely related to the flame-colora-
tions, we have to notice the great services rendered by the
spectroscope to the detection of elements. Rubidium, caesium,
thallium, indium and gallium were first discovered by means of
this instrument; the studyfof the rare earths is greatly facilitated,
and the composition of the heavenly bodies alone determinable
by it.

Quantitative chemistry had been all but neglected before
the time of Lavoisier, for although a few chemists such as
Tachenius, Bergman and others had realized the advantages
which would accrue from a knowledge of the composition of

ANALYTICAL]

CHEMISTRY

bodies by weight, and had laid down the lines upon which such
determinations should proceed, the experimental difficulties in
making accurate observations were enormous, and little progress
could be made until the procedure was more accurately
determined. Martin Heinrich Klaproth showed the necessity for
igniting precipitates before weighing them, if they were not
decomposed by this process; and he worked largely with Louis
Nicolas Vauquelin in perfecting the analysis of minerals. K. F.
Wenzel and J. B. Rkhter contributed to the knowledge of the
quantitative composition of salts. Anton Laurent Lavoisier,
however, must be considered as the first great exponent of this
branch of chemistry. He realized that the composition by
weight of chemical compounds was of the greatest moment if
chemistry were to advance. His fame rests upon his exposition
of the principles necessary to chemistry as a secience, but of his
contributions to analytical inorganic chemistry little can be said.
He applied himself more particularly to the oxygen compounds,
and determined with a fair degree of accuracy the ratio of carbon
to oxygen in carbon dioxide,but his values for the ratio of hydrogen
to oxygen in water, and of phosphorus to oxygen in phosphoric
acid, are only approximate; he introduced no new methods
either for the estimation or separation of the metals. The next
advance was made by Joseph Louis Proust, whose investigations
led to a clear grasp of the law of constant proportions. The
formulation of the atomic theory by John Dalton gave a fresh
impetus to the development of quantitative analysis; and the
determination of combining or equivalent weights by Berzelius
led to the perfecting of the methods of gravimetric analysis.
Experimental conditions were thoroughly worked out; the
necessity of working with hot or cold solutions was clearly
emphasized; and the employment of small quantities of
substances instead of the large amounts recommended by
Klaproth was shown by him to give more consistent results.

Since the time of Berzelius many experimenters have entered
the lists, and introduced developments which we have not space
to mention. We may, however, notice Heinrich Rose 1 and
Friedrich Wohler, 2 who, having worked up the results of their
teacher Berzelius, and combined them with their own valuable
observations, exerted great influence on the progress of analytical
chemistry by publishing works which contained admirable
accounts of the then known methods of analysis. To K. R.
Fresenius, the founder of the Zeitschrift fiir anaiylische Chemie
(1862), we are particularly indebted for perfecting and systematiz-
ing the various methods of analytical chemistry. By strengthen-
ing the older methods, and devising new ones, he exerted an
influence which can never be overestimated. His text-books on
the subject, of which the Qualitative appeared in 1841, and the
Quantitative in 1846, have a world- wide reputation, and have
passed through several editions.

The quantitative precipitation of metals by the electric current,
although known to Michael Faraday, was not applied to analytical
chemistry until O. Wolcott Gibbs worked out the electrolytic
separation of copper in 1865. Since then the subject has been
extensively studied, more particularly by Alexander Classen, who
has summarized the methods and results in his Quantitative
Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis (1903). The ever-increasing
importance of the electric current in metallurgy and chemical
manufactures is making this method of great importance, and in
some cases it has partially, if not wholly, superseded the older
methods.

Volumetric analysis, possessing as it does many advantages
over the gravimetric methods, has of late years been extensively
developed. Gay Lussac may be regarded as the founder of the
method, although rough applications had been previously made
by F. A. H. Descroizilles and L. N. Vauquelin. Chlorimetry
(1824), alkalimetry (1828), and the volumetric determination of
silver and chlorine (1832) were worked out by Gay Lussac; but
although the advantages of the method were patent, it received
recognition very slowly. The application of potassium per-
manganate to the estimation of iron by E. Margueritte in 1846,

1 H. Rose, Ausfiihrliches Handbuch der analytischen Chemie (1851).
' F. Wohler, Die Mineralanalyse in Beispielen (1861).

and of iodine and sulphurous acid to the estimation of copper and
many other substances by Robert Wilhelm Bunsen, marks an
epoch in the early history of volumetric analysis. Since then it
has been rapidly developed, particularly by Karl Friedrich Mohr
and J. Volhard, and these methods rank side by side in value
with the older and more tedious gravimetric methods.

The detection of carbon and hydrogen in organic compounds
by the formation of carbon dioxide and water when they are
burned was first correctly understood by Lavoisier, and as he
had determined the carbon and hydrogen content of these two
substances he was able to devise methods by which carbon and
hydrogen in organic compounds could be estimated. In his
earlier experiments he burned the substance in a known volume
of oxygen, and by measuring the residual gas determined the
carbon and hydrogen. For substances of a difficultly combustible
nature he adopted the method in common Use to-day, viz. to mix
the substance with an oxidizing agent mercuric oxide, lead
dioxide, and afterwards copper oxide and absorb the carbon
dioxide in potash solution. This method has been improved,
especially by Justus v. Liebig; and certain others based on a
different procedure have been suggested. The estimation of
nitrogen was first worked out in 1830 by Jean Baptiste Dumas,
and different processes have been proposed by Will and F.
Varrentrapp, J. Kjeldahl and others. Methods for lie estimation
of. the halogens and sulphur were worked out by L. Carius (see
below, Organic Analysis).

Only a reference can be made in this summary to the many
fields in which analytical chemistry has been developed. Pro-
gress in forensic chemistry was only possible after' the reactions
of poisons had been systematized; a subject which has been
worked out by many investigators, of whom we notice K. R.
Fresenius, J. and R. Otto, and J. S. Stas. Industrial chemistry
makes many claims upon the chemist, for it is necessary to deter-
mine the purity of a product before it can be valued. This has
led to the estimation of sugar by means of the polarimeter, and
of the calorific power of fuels, and the valuation of ores and
metals, of coal-tar dyes, and almost all trade products.

The passing of the Food and Drug Acts (1875-1899) in England,
and the existence of similar adulteration acts in other countries,
have occasioned great progress in the analysis of foods, drugs, &c.
For further information on this branch of analytical chemistry,
see ADULTERATION.

There exists no branch of technical chemistry, hygiene or
pharmacy from which the analytical chemist can be spared,
since it is only by a continual development of his art that we can
hope to be certain of the purity of any preparation. In England
this branch of chemistry is especially cared for by the Institute
of Chemistry, which, since its foundation in 1877, has done much
for the training of analytical chemists.

In the preceding sketch we have given a necessarily brief
account of the historical development of analytical chemistry in
its main branches. We shall now treat the different methods in
more detail. It must be mentioned here that the reactions of
any particular substance are given under its own heading, and in
this article we shall only collate the various operations and outline
the general procedure. The limits of space prevent any sys-
tematic account of the separation of the rare metals, the alkaloids,
and other classes of organic compounds, but sources where these
matters may be found are given in the list of references.

Qualitative Inorganic Analysis.

The dry examination of a substance comprises several opera-
tions, which may yield definite results if no disturbing
element is present; but it is imperative that any in-
ference should be confirmed by other methods.

i. Heat the substance in a hard glass tube. Note whether
any moisture condenses on the cooler parts of the tube, a gas is
evolved, a sublimate formed, or the substance changes colour.

Moisture is evolved from substances containing water of crystal-
lization or decomposed hydrates. If it possesses an alkaline or
acid reaction, it must be tested in the first case for ammonia, and
in the second case for a volatile acid, such as sulphuric, nitric,
hydrochloric, &c.

CHEMISTRY

[ANALYTICAL

Any evolved gas must be examined. Oxygen, recognized by its
power of igniting a glowing splinter, results from the decomposition
of oxides of the noble metals, peroxides, chlorates, nitrates and other
highly oxygenized salts. Sulphur dioxide, recognized by its smell
and acid reaction, results from the ignition of certain sulphites,
sulphates, or a mixture of a sulphate with a sulphide. Nitrogen
oxides, recognized by their odour and brown-red colour, result from
the decomposition of nitrates. Carbon dioxide, recognized by
turning lime-water milky, indicates decomposable carbonates or
oxalates. Chlorine, bromine, and iodine, each recognizable by its
colour and odour, result from decomposable haloids; iodine forms
also a black sublimate. Cyanogen and hydrocyanic acid, recogniz-
able by their odour, indicate decomposable cyanides. Sulphuretted
hydrogen, recognized by its odour, results from sulphides containing
water, and hydrosulphides. Ammonia, recognizable by its odour
and alkaline reaction, indicates ammoniacal salts or cyanides
containing water.

A sublimate may be formed of: sulphur reddish-brown drops,
cooling to a yellow to brown solid, from sulphides or mixtures;
iodine violet vapour, black sublimate, from iodides, iodic acid, or
mixtures; mercury and its compounds metallic mercury forms
minute globules, mercuric sulphide is black and becomes red on
rubbing, mercuric chloride fuses before subliming, mercurous
chloride does not fuse, mercuric iodide gives a yellow sublimate;
arsenic and its compounds metallic arsenic gives a grey mirror,
arsenious oxide forms white shining crystals, arsenic sulphides give
reddish-yellow sublimates which turn yellow on cooling; antimony
oxide fuses and gives a yellow acicular sublimate; lead chloride
forms a white sublimate after long and intense heating.

If the substance does not melt but changes colour, we may have
present: zinc oxide from white to yellow, becoming white on
cooling; stannic oxide white to yellowish brown, dirty white on
cooling; lead oxide from white or yellowish-red to brownish-red,
yellow on cooling; bismuth oxide from white or pale yellow to
orange-yellow or reddish-brown, pale yellow on cooling; manganese
oxide from white or yellowish white to dark brown, remaining
dark brown on cooling (if it changes on cooling to a bright reddish-
brown, it indicates cadmium oxide) ; copper oxide from bright
blue or green to black; ferrous oxide from greyish-white to black;
ferric oxide from brownish-red to black, brownish-red on cooling;
potassium chromate yellow to dark orange, fusing at a red heat.

2. Hejt the substance on a piece of charcoal in the reducing
flame of the blowpipe.

(a) The substance may fuse and be absorbed by the charcoal;
this indicates more particularly the alkaline metals.

(0) An infusible white residue may be obtained,which may denote
barium, strontium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium or zinc. The
first three give characteristic flame colorations (see below) ; the last
three, when moistened with cobalt nitrate and re-ignited, give
coloured masses; aluminium (or silica) gives a brilliant blue ; zinc
gives a green; whilst magnesium phosphates or arsenate (and to a
less degree the phosphates of the alkaline earths) give a violet mass.

A metallic globule with or without an incrustation may be obtained.
Gold and copper salts give a metallic bead without an incrustation.
If the incrustation be white and readily volatile, arsenic is present,
if more difficultly volatile and beads are present, antimony; zinc
gives an incrustation yellow whilst hot, white on cooling, and
volatilized with difficulty ; tin gives a pale yellow incrustation,
which becomes white on cooling, and does not volatilize in either the
reducing or oxidizing flames; lead gives a lemon-yellow incrustation
turning sulphur-yellow on cooling, together with metallic malleable
beads; bjsmuth gives metallic globules and a dark orange-yellow
incrustation, which becomes lemon-yellow on cooling; cadmium
gives a reddish-brown incrustation, which is removed without
leaving a gleam by heating in the reducing flame; silver gives white
metallic globules and a dark-red incrustation.

3. Heat the substance with a bead of microcosmic salt or
borax on a platinum wire in the oxidizing flame.

(a) The substance dissolves readily and in quantity, forming a
bead which is clear when hot. If the bead is coloured we may have
present : cobalt, blue to violet ; copper, green, blue on cooling ;
in the reducing flame, red when cold; chromium, green, unaltered
in the reducing flame; iron, brownish-red, light-yellow or colourless
on cooling; in the reducing flame, red while hot, yellow on cooling,
greenish when cold ; nickel, reddish to brownish-red, yellow to
reddish-yellow or colourless on cooling, unaltered in the reducing
flame; bismuth, yellowish-brown, light-yellow or colourless on
cooling; in the reducing flame, almost colourless, blackish-grey when
cold ; silver, light yellowish to opal, somewhat opaque when cold ;
whitish-grey in the reducing flame; manganese, amethyst red,
colourless in the reducing flame. If the hot bead is colourless and
remains clear on cooling, we may suspect the presence of antimony,
aluminium, zinc, cadmium, lead, calcium and magnesium. When
present in sufficient quantity the five last-named give enamel-white
beads; lead oxide in excess gives a yellowish bead. If the hot
colourless bead becomes enamel-white on cooling even when minute
quantities of the substances are employed, we may infer the presence
of barium or strontium.

(/3) The substance dissolves slowly and in small quantity, and forms
a colourless bead which remains so on cooling. Either silica or tin
may be present. If silica be present, it gives the iron bead when
heated with a little ferric oxide ; if tin is present there is no change.
Certain substances, such as the precious metals, are quite insoluble in
the bead, but float about in it.

4. Hold a small portion of the substance moistened with
hydrochloric acid on a clean platinum wire in the fusion zone
of the Bunsen burner, and note any colour imparted to the flame.

Potassium gives a blue-violet flame which may be masked by the
colorations due to sodium, calcium and other elements. By
viewing the flame through an indigo prism it appears sky-blue,
violet and ultimately crimson, as the thickness of the prism is
increased. Other elements do not interfere with this method.
Sodium gives an intense and persistent yellow flame; lithium gives
a carmine coloration, and may be identified in the presence of sodium
by viewing through a cobalt glass or indigo prism; from potassium
it may be distinguished by its redder colour ; barium gives a yellowish-
green flame, which appears bluish-green When viewed through green
glass ; strontium gives a crimson flame which appears purple or rose
when viewed through blue glass; calcium gives an orange-red
colour which appears finch-green through green glass; indium
gives a characteristic bluish-violet flame; copper gives an intense
emerald-green coloration.

5. Film Reactions. These reactions are practised in the
following manner: A thread of asbestos is moistened and then
dipped in the substance to be tested; it is then placed in the
luminous point of the Bunsen flame, and a small porcelain basin
containing cold water placed immediately over the asbestos.
The formation of a film is noted. The operation is repeated with
the thread in the oxidizing flame.

Any film formed in the first case is metallic, in the second it is the
oxide. The metallic film is tested with 20% nitric acid and with
bleaching-powder solution. Arsenic is insoluble in the acid, but
immediately dissolves in the bleaching-powder. The black films of
antimony and bismuth and the grey mottled film of mercury are
slowly soluble in the acid, and untouched by bleaching-powder.
The black films of tin, lead and cadmium dissolve at once in the acid,
the lead film being also soluble in bleaching-powder. The oxide
films of antimony, arsenic, tin and bismuth are white, that of bismuth
slightly yellowish; lead yields a very pale yellow film, and cadmium
a brown one; mercury yields no oxide film. The oxide films (the
metallic one in the case of mercury) are tested with hydriodic acid,
and with ammonium sulphide, and from the changes produced the
film can be determined (see F. M. Perkin, Qualitative Chemical
Analysis, 1905).

Having completed the dry analysis we may now pass on to
the wet and more accurate investigation. It is first necessary
to get the substance into solution. Small portions
should be successively tested with water,' dilute hydro- m lthods.
chloric acid, dilute nitric acid, strong hydrochloric
acid, and a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids, first in the
cold and then with warming. Certain substances are insoluble
in all the.se reagents, and other methods, such as the fusion with
sodium carbonate and potassium nitrate, and subsequent treat-
ment with an acid, must be employed. Some of these insoluble
compounds can be detected by their colour and particular re-
actions. For further information on this subject, we refer the
readers to Fresenius's Qualitative Analysis.

The procedure for the detection of metals in solution consists of
first separating them into groups and then examining each group
separately. For this purpose the cold solution is treated with
hydrochloric acid, which precipitates lead, silver and mercurous '
salts as chlorides. The solution is filtered and treated with an excess
of sulphuretted hydrogen, either in solution or by passing in the gas;
this precipitates mercury (mercuric), any lead left over from the
first group, copper, bismuth, cadmium, arsenic, antimony and tin
as sulphides. The solution is filtered off, boiled till free of sulphur-
etted hydrogen, and ammonium chloride and ammonia added. If
phosphoric acid is absent, aluminium, chromium and ferric hydrates
are precipitated. If, however, phosphoric acid is present in the
original substance.we may here obtain a precipitate of the phosphates
of the remaining metals, together with aluminium, chromium and
ferric hydrates. In this case, the precipitate is dissolved in as little
as possible hydrochloric acid and boiled with ammonium acetate,
acetic acid and ferric chloride. The phosphates of aluminium,
chromium and iron are precipitated, and the solution contains the
same metals as if phosphoric acid had been absent. To the filtrate
from the aluminium, iron and chromium precipitate, ammonia and
ammonium sulphide are added; the precipitate may contain nickel,
cobalt, zinc and manganese sulphides. Ammonium carbonate is
added to the filtrate; this precipitates calcium, strontium and

ANALYTICAL]

CHEMISTRY

barium. The solution contains magnesium, sodium and potassium,
which are separately distinguished by the methods given under their
own headings.

We now proceed with the examination of the various group
precipitates. The white precipitate formed by cold hydrochloric
acid is boiled with water, and the solution filtered while hot. Any
lead chloride dissolves, and may be identified by the yellow precipitate
formed with potassium chromate. To the residue add ammonia,
shake, then filter. Silver chloride goes into solution, and may be
precipitated by dilute nitric acid. The residue, which is black in
colour, consists of mercuroso-ammonium chloride, in which mercury
can be confirmed by its ordinary tests.

The precipitate formed by sulphuretted hydrogen may contain
the black mercuric, lead, and copper sulphides, dark-brown bismuth
sulphide, yellow cadmium and arsenious sulphides, orange-red
antimony sulphide, brown stannous sulphide, dull-yellow stannic
sulphide, and whitish sulphur, the last resulting from the oxidation
of sulphuretted hydrogen by ferric salts, chromates, &c. Warming
with ammonium sulphide dissolves out the arsenic, antimony and
tin salts, which are reprecipitated by the addition of hydrochloric
acid to the ammonium sulphide solution. The precipitate is shaken
with ammonium carbonate, which dissolves the arsenic. Filter and
confirm arsenic in the solution by its particular tests. Dissolve the
residue in hydrochloric acid and test separately for antimony and
tin. The residue from the ammonium sulphide solution is warmed
with dilute nitric acid. Any residue consists of black mercuric
sulphide (and possibly white lead sulphate), in which mercury is
confirmed by its usual tests. The solution is evaporated with a
little sulphuric acid and well cooled. The white precipitate consists
of lead sulphate. To the filtrate add ammonia in excess: a white
precipitate indicates bismuth; if the solution be blue, copper is
present. Filter from the bismuth hydrate, and if copper is present,
add potassium cyanide till the colour is destroyed, then pass sulphur-
etted hydrogen, and cadmium is precipitated as the yellow sulphide.
If copper is absent, then sulphuretted hydrogen can be passed
directly into the solution.

The next group precipitate may contain the white gelatinous
aluminium hydroxide, the greenish chromium hydroxide, reddish
ferric hydroxide, and possibly zinc and manganese hydroxides.
Treatment with casutic soda dissolves out aluminium hydroxide,
which is reprecipitated by the addition of ammonium chloride.
The remaining metals are tested for separately.

The next group may contain black nickel and cobalt sulphides,
flesh-coloured manganese sulphide, and white zinc sulphide. The
last two are dissolved out by cold, very dilute hydrochloric acid,
and the residue is tested for nickel and cobalt. The solution is
boiled till free from sulphuretted hydrogen and treated with excess
of sodium hydrate. A white precipitate rapidly turning brown
indicates manganese. The solution with ammonium sulphide gives
a white precipitate of zinc sulphide.

The next group may contain the white calcium, barium and
strontium carbonates. The flame coloration (see above) may give
information as to which elements are present. The carbonates are
dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and calcium sulphate solution is
added to a portion of the solution. An immediate precipitate
indicates barium; a precipitate on standing indicates strontium.
If barium is present, the solution of the carbonates in hydrochloric
acid is evaporated and digested with strong alcohol for some time ;
barium chloride, which is nearly insoluble in alcohol.is thus separated,
the remainder being precipitated by a few drops of hydrofluosilicic
acid, and may be confirmed by the ordinary tests. The solution free
from barium is treated with ammonia and ammonium sulphate,
which precipitates strontium, and the calcium in the solution may be
identified by the white precipitate with ammonium oxalate.

Having determined the bases, it remains to determine the acid
radicals. There is no general procedure for these operations,
and it is customary to test for the acids separately by special
tests; these are given in the articles on the various acids. A
knowledge of the solubility of salts considerably reduces the
number of acids likely to be present, and affords evidence of great
value to the analyst (see A. M. Comey, Dictionary of Chemical
Solubilities). In the above account we have indicated the pro-
cedure adopted in the analysis of a complex mixture of salts.
It is unnecessary here to dwell on the precautions which can only
be conveniently acquired by experience; a sound appreciation
of analytical methods is only possible after the reactions and
characters of individual substances have been studied, and we
therefore refer the reader to the articles on the particular ele-
ments and compounds for more information on this subject.

Quantitative Inorganic Analysis.

Quantitative methods are divided into four groups, which we
now pass on to consider in the following sequence: (a) gravimetric,
(J3) volumetric, (7) electrolytic, (5) colorimetric.

(a) Gravimetric. This method is made up of four operations:
(i) a weighed quantity of the substance is dissolved in a suitable
solvent; (2) a particular reagent is added which precipitates
the substance it is desired to estimate; (3) the precipitate is
filtered, washed and dried; (4) the filter paper containing the
precipitate is weighed either as a tared filter, or incinerated and
ignited either in air or in any other gas, and then weighed.

(l) Accurate weighing is all-important; for details of the various
appliances and methods see WEIGHING MACHINES. (2) No general
directions can be given as to the method of precipitation. Sometimes
it is necessary to allow the solution to stand for a considerable time
either in the warm or cold or in the light or dark ; to work with cold
solutions and then boil ; or to use boiling solutions of both the
substance and reagent. Details will be found in the articles on
particular metals. (3) The operation of filtration and washing is
very important. If the substance to be weighed changes in com-
position on strong heating, it is necessary to employ a tared filter,
i.e. a filter paper which has been previously heated to the temperature
at which the substance is to be dried until its weight is constant.
If the precipitate settles readily, the supernatant liquor may be
decanted through the filter paper, more water added to the pre-
cipitate and again decanted. By this means most of the washing,
i.e. freeing from the other substances in the solution, can be accom-
plished in the precipitating vessel. If, however, the precipitate
refuses to settle, it is directly transferred to the filter paper, the last
traces being removed by washing and rubbing the sides of the vessel
with a piece of rubber, and the liquid is allowed to drain through.
It is washed by ejecting a jet of water, ammonia or other prescribed
liquid on to the side of the filter paper until the paper is nearly full.
It can be shown that a more efficient washing results from alternately
filling and emptying the funnel than by endeavouring to keep the
funnel full. The washing is continued until the filtrate is free from
salts or acids. (4) After washing, the funnel containing t,he filter paper
is transferred to a drying oven. In the case of a tared filter it is
weighed repeatedly until the weight suffers no change; then knowing
the weight of the filter paper, the weight of the precipitate is obtained
by subtraction. If the precipitate may be ignited, it is transferred
to a clean, weighed and recently ignited crucible, and the filter paper
is burned separately on the lid, the ash transferred to the crucible,
and the whole ignited. After ignition, it is allowed to cool in a
desiccator and then weighed. Knowing the weight of the crucible
and of the ash of the filter paper, the weight of the precipitate is
determined. The calculation of the percentage of the particular con-
stituent is simple. We know the amount present in the precipitate,
and since the same amount is present in the quantity of substance
experimented with, we have only to work out a sum in proportion.

(j3) Volumetric. This method is made up of three operations:
(i) preparation of a standard solution; (2) preparation of a
solution of the substance; (3) titration, or the determination of
what volume of the standard solution will occasion a known
and definite reaction with a known volume of the test solution.

(i) In general analytical work the standard solution contains the
equivalent weight of the substance in grammes dissolved in a litre
of water. Such a solution is known as normal. Thus a normal
solution of sodium carbonate contains 53 grammes per litre, of
sodium hydrate 40 grammes, of hydrochloric acid 36-5 grammes,
and so on. By taking j^th or Ttath of these quantities, decinormal
or centinormal solutions are obtained. We see therefore that i
cubic centimetre of a normal sodium carbonate solution will exactly
neutralize 0-049 gramme of sulphuric acid, 0-0365 gramme of
hydrochloric acid (i.e. the equivalent quantities), and similarly for
decinormal and centinormal solutions. Unfortunately, the term
normal is sometimes given to solutions which are strictly decinormal ;
for example, iodine, sodium thiosulphate, &c. In technical analysis,
where a solution is used for one process only, it may be prepared so
that i cc. is equal to -oi gramme of the substance to be estimated.
This saves a certain amount of arithmetic, but when the solution
is applied in another determination additional calculations are
necessary. Standard solutions are prepared by weighing out the
exact amount of the pure substance and dissolving it in water, or
by forming a solution of approximate normality, determining its
exact strength by gravimetric or other means, and then correcting
it for any divergence. This may be exemplified in the case of
alkalimetry. Pure sodium carbonate is prepared by igniting the
bicarbonate, and exactly 53 grammes are dissolved in water, forming
a strictly normal solution. An approximate normal sulphuric acid is
prepared from 30 ccs. of the pure acid (1-84 specific gravity) diluted
to i litre. The solutions are titrated (see below) and the acid solution
diluted until equal volumes are exactly equivalent. A standard
sodium hydrate solution can be prepared by dissolving 42 grammes
of sodium hydrate, making up to a litre, and diluting until one
cubic centimetre is exactly equivalent to one cubic centimetre of the
sulphuric acid. Similarly, normal solutions of hydrochloric and nitric
acids can be prepared. Where a solution is likely to change in
composition on keeping, such as potassium permanganate, iodine,

CHEMISTRY

[ANALYTICAL

sodium hydrate, &c., it is necessary to check or re-standardize it
periodically.

(2) The preparation of the solution of the substance consists in
dissolving an accurately determined weight, and making up the
volume in a graduated cylinder or flask to a known volume.

(3) The titration is conducted by running the standard solution
from a burette into a known volume of the test solution, which is
usually transferred from the stock-bottle to a beaker or basin by
means of a pipette. Various artifices are employed to denote the
end of the reaction. These may be divided into two groups: (i)
those in which a change in appearance of the reacting mixture occurs ;
(2) those in which it is necessary to use an indicator which, by its
change in appearance, shows that an excess of one reagent is present.
In the first group, we have to notice the titration of a cyanide with
silver nitrate, when a milkiness shows how far the reaction has gone ;
the titration of iron with permanganate, when the faint pink colour
shows that all the iron is oxidizea. In the second group, we may
notice the application of litmus, methyl orange or phenolphthalein
in alkalimetry, when the acid or alkaline character of the solution
commands the colour which it exhibits; starch paste, which forms
a bjue compound with free iodine in iodometry ; potassium chromate,
which forms red silver chromate after ail the hydrochloric acid is
precipitated in solutions of chlorides; and in die estimation of
ferric compounds by potassium bichromate, the indicator, potassium
ferricyanide, is placed in drops on a porcelain plate, and the end of
the reaction is shown by the absence of a blue coloration when
a drop of the test solution is brought into contact with it.

(y) Electrolytic. This method consists in decomposing a
solution of a salt of the metal by the electric current and weigh-
ing the metal deposited at the cathode.

It is only by paying great attention to the current density that
good results are obtained, since metals other than that sought for may
be deposited. In acid copper solutions, mercury is deposited before
the copper with which it subsequently amalgamates; silver is
thrown down simultaneously; bismuth appears towards the end;
and after all the copper has been precipitated, arsenic and antimony
may be deposited. Lead and manganese are partially separated
as peroxides, but the remaining metals are not deposited from acid
solutions. It is therefore necessary that the solution should be free
from metals which may vitiate the results, or special precautions
taken by which the impurities are rendered harmless. In such cases
the simplicity of manipulation and the high degree of accuracy of
the method have made it especially valuable. The electrolysis is
generally conducted with platinum electrodes, of which the cathode
takes the form of a piece of foil bent into a cylindrical form, the
necessary current being generated by one or more Daniell cells.

, (5) Colorimetric. This method is adopted when it is necessary
to determine minute traces (as in the liquid obtained in the
electrolytic separation of copper) of substances which afford
well-defined colour reactions.

The general procedure is to make a series of standard solutions
containing definite quantities of the substance which it is desired to
estimate; such a series will exhibit tints which deepen as the
quantity of the substance is increased. A known weight of the test
substance is dissolved and a portion of the solution is placed in a
tube similar to those containing the standard solutions. The colour-
producing reagent is added and the tints compared. In the case of
copper, the colour reactions with potassium ferrocyanide or ammonia
are usually employed; traces of ammonia are estimated with
Nessler's reagent; sulphur in iron and steel is determined by the
tint assumed by a silver-copper plate suspended in the gases liberated
when the metal is dissolved in sulphuric acid (Eggertz's test) (see
W. Crookes, Select Methods in Analytical Chemistry).

Organic Analysis.

The elements which play important parts in organic com-
pounds are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine, bromine, iodine,
sulphur, phosphorus and oxygen. We shall here consider the
qualitative and quantitative determination of these elements.

Qualitative. Carbon is detected by the formation of carbon
dioxide, which turns lime-water milky, and hydrogen by the forma-
tion of water, which condenses on the tube, when the substance is
heated with copper oxide. Nitrogen may be detected by the
evolution of ammonia when the substance is heated with soda-lime.
A more delicate method is that due to J. L. Lassaigne and improved
by O. Jacobsen arid C. Graebe. The substance is heated with
metallic sodium or potassium (in excess if sulphur be present) to
redness, the residue treated with water, filtered, and ferrous sulphate,
ferric chloride and hydrochloric acid added. A blue coloration
indicates nitrogen, and is due to the formation of potassium (or
sodium) cyanide during the fusion, and subsequent interaction
with the iron salts. The halogens may be sometimes detected by
fusing with lime, and testing the solution for a bromide, chloride
and iodide in the usual way. F. Beilstein determines then- presence
by heating the substance with pure copper oxide on a platinum
wire in the Bunsen flame; a green coloration is observed if halogens
be present. Sulphur is detected by heating the substance with

sodium, dissolving the product in water, and adding sodium nitro-
prusside; a bluish-violet coloration indicates sulphur (H. Vphl).
Or we may use J. Horbaczewski's method, which consists in boiling
the substance with strong potash, saturating the cold solution with
chlorine, adding hydrochloric acid, and boiling till no more chlorine is
liberated, and then testing for sulphuric acid with barium chloride.
Phosphorus is obtained as a soluble phosphate (which can be ex-
amined in the usual way) by lixiviating the product obtained when
the substance is ignited with potassium nitrate and carbonate.

Quantitative. Carbon and hydrogen are generally estimated by
the combustion process, which consists in oxidizing the substance
and absorbing^ the products of combustion in suitable carbon and
apparatus. The oxidizing agent in commonest use is hydrogen.
copper oxide, which must be freshly ignited before use on
account of its hygroscopic nature. Lead chromate is sometimes
used, and many other substances, such as platinum, manganese
dioxide, &c., have been suggested. The procedure for a combustion
is as follows :

FIG. i.

A hard glass tube slightly longer than the furnace and 12 to 15 mm.
in diameter is thoroughly cleansed and packed as shown in fig. i.
The space o must allow for the inclusion of a copper spiral if the
substance contains nitrogen, and a silver spiral if halogens be
present, for otherwise nitrogen oxides and the halogens may be
condensed in the absorption apparatus; b contains copper oxide;
c is a space for the insertion of a porcelain or platinum boat containing
a weighed quantity of the substance ; d is a copper spiral. The end
d is connected to an air or oxygen supply with an intermediate
drying apparatus. _The other endis connected with the absorption
vessels, which consist of a tube (e) containing calcium chloride, and
a set of bulbs (/) containing potash solution. Various forms of potash
bulbs _are employed; fie. 2 is Liebig's, fig. 3 Mohr's or Geissler's,
fig. 4 is a more recent form, of which special variations have been

FIG. 2. FIG. 3. FIG. 4-

made by Anderson, Gomberg, Delisle and others. After having
previously roasted the tube and copper oxide, and reduced the
copper spiral a, the weighed calcium chloride tube and potash bulbs
are put in position, the boat containing the substance is inserted
(in the case of a difficultly combustible substance it is desirable to
mix it with cupric oxide or lead chromate), the copper spiral (d)
replaced, and the air and oxygen supply connected up. The
apparatus is then tested for leaks. If all the connexions are sound,
the copper oxide is gradually heated from the end o, the gas-jets
under the spiral d are lighted, and a slow current of oxygen is passed
through the tube. The success of the operation depends upon the
slow burning of the substance. Towards the end the heat and the
oxygen supply are increased. When there is no more absorption
in the potash bulbs, the oxygen supply is cut off and air passed
through. Having replaced the oxygen in the absorption vessels by
air, they are disconnected and weighed, after having cooled down
to the temperature of the room. The increase in weight of the calcium
chloride tube gives the weight of water formed, and of the potash
bulbs the carbon dioxide.

Liquids are amenable to the same treatment, but especial care
must be taken so that they volatilize slowly. Difficultly volatile
liquids may be weighed directly into the boat ; volatile liquids are
weighed in thin hermetically sealed bulbs, the necks of which are
broken just before they are placed in the combustion tube.

The length of time and other disadvantages attending the com-
bustion method have caused investigators to devise other processes.
In 1855 C. Brunner described a method for oxidizing the carbon
to carbon dioxide, which could be estimated by the usual methods,
by heating the substance with potassium bichromate and sulphuric
acid. This process has been considerably developed by J. Messinger,
and we may hope that with subsequent improvements it may be
adapted to all classes of organic compounds. The oxidation, which
is effected by chromic acid and sulphuric acid, is conducted in a flask
provided with a funnel and escape tube, and the carbon dioxide
formed is swept by a current of dry air, previously freed from carbon
dioxide, through a drying tube to a set of potash bulbs and a tube
containing soda-lime; if halogens are present, a small wash bottle
containing potassium iodide, and a (J tube containing glass wool
moistened with silver nitrate on one side and strong sulphuric acid
on the other, must be inserted between the flask and the drying tube.
The increase in weight of the potash bulbs and soda-lime tube gives

PHYSICAL]

CHEMISTRY

the weight of carbon dioxide evolved. C. F. Cross and E. J. Bevan
collected the carbon dioxide obtained in this way over mercury.
They also showed that carbon monoxide was given off towards the
end of the reaction, and oxygen was not evolved unless the tempera-
ture exceeded 100.

Methods depending upon oxidation in the presence of a contact
substance have come into favour during recent years. In that of
M. Dennstedt, which was first proposed in 1902, the substance is
vaporized in a tube containing at one end platinum foil, platinized
quartz, or platinized asbestos. The platinum is maintained at a
bright red heat, either by a gas flame or by an electric furnace, and
the vapour is passed over it by leading in a current of oxygen. If
nitrogen be present, a boat containing dry lead peroxide and heated
to 320 is inserted, the oxide decomposing any nitrogen peroxide
which may be formed. The same absorbent quantitatively takes
up any halogen and sulphur which may be present. The process is
thereforeadapted to the simultaneous estimation of carbon.hydrogen,
the halogens and sulphur.

Nitrogen is estimated by (l) Dumas' method, which consists in
heating the substance with copper oxide and measuring the volume
NUrosea * n 'trogen liberated; (2) by Will and Varrentrapp's
method, in which the substance is heated with soda-lime,
and the ammonia evolved is absorbed in hydrochloric acid, and thence
precipitated as ammonium chlorplatinate or estimated volumetric-
ally ; of (3) by Kjeldahl's method, in which the substance is dissolved
in concentrated sulphuric acid, potassium permanganate added, the
liquid diluted and boiled with caustic soda, and the evolved ammonia
absorbed in hydrochloric acid and estimated as in Will and
Varrentrapp's method.

Dumas' Method. In this method the operation is carried out in a
hard glass tube sealed at one end and packed as shown in fie. 5.
The magnesite (a) serves for the generation of carbon dioxide which
clears the tube of air before the compound (mixed with fine copper
oxide (6)) is burned, and afterwards sweeps the liberated nitrogen
into the receiving vessel (e), which contains a strong potash solution ;
c is coarse copper oxide; and d a reduced copper
gauze spiral, heated in order to decompose any
nitrogen oxides. Ulrich Kreusler generates the
carbon dioxide in a separate apparatus, and
in this case the tube is drawn out to a capillary
at the end (a). This artifice is specially valuable
when the substance decomposes or volatilizes
in a warm current of carbon dioxide. Various
forms of the absorbing apparatus (e) have been
discussed by M. Ilinski (Ber. 17, p. 1347), who
has also suggested the use of manganese car-
bonate instead of magnesite, since the change
of colour enables one to follow the decomposi-

FIG. 5.

tion. Substances which burn with difficulty may be mixed with
mercuric oxide in addition to copper oxide.

Will and Varrentrapp's Method. This method, as originally pro-
posed, is not in common use, but has been superseded by Kjeldahl's
method, since the nitrogen generally comes out too low. It is
susceptible of wider application by mixing reducing agents with the
soda -lime; thus Goldberg (Ber. 16, p. 2546) uses a mixture of
soda-lime, stannous chloride and sulphur for nitro- and azo-com-
pounds, and C. Arnold (Ber. 18, p. 806) a mixture containing
sodium hyposulphite and sodium formate for nitrates.

Kjeldahl s Method. This method rapidly came into favour on
account of its simplicity, both of operation and apparatus. Various
substances other than potassium permanganate have been suggested
for facilitating the operation; J. W. Gunning (Z. anal. Chem., 1889,
p. 189) uses potassium sulphate; Lassar-Cohn uses mercuric oxide.
The applicability of the process has been examined by F. W. Dafert
(Z. anal. Chem., 1888, p. 224), who has divided nitrogenous bodies
into two classes with respect to it. The first class includes those
substances which require no preliminary treatment, and comprises
the amides and ammonium compounds, pyridines, quinolines,
alkaloids, albumens and related bodies; the second class requires
preliminary treatment and comprises, with few exceptions, the nitro-,
nitroso-, azo-, diazo- and amidoazo-compounds, hydrazines, deriva-
tives of nitric and nitrous acids, and probably cyanogen compounds.
Other improvements have been suggested by Dyer (J.C.S. Trans.
67, p. 811). For an experimental comparison of the accuracy of
the Dumas, Will-Varrentrapp and Kjeldahl processes see L. L'H&te,
C.R. 1889, p. 817. Debordeaux (C.R. 1904, p. 905) has obtained
good results by distilling the substance with a mixture of potassium
thiosulphate and sulphide.

The halogens may be estimated by ignition with quicklime, or by
heating with nitric acid and silver nitrate in a sealed tube. In the

VI. 3

first method the substance, mixed with quicklime free from chlorine,
is heated in a tube closed at one end in a combustion furnace.
The product is dissolved in water, and the calcium Halotta*
haloid estimated in the usual way. The same decomposi- su / p /, ur> '
tion may be effected by igniting with iron, ferric oxide and p t,on-
sodium carbonate (E. Kopp, Ber.io, p. 290); the operation p* onu .
is easier if the lime be mixed with sodium carbonate, or a
mixture of sodium carbonate and potassium nitrate be used. With
iodine compounds, iodic acid is likely to be formed, and hence the
solution must be reduced with sulphurous acid before precipitation
with silver nitrate. C. Zulkowsky (Ber. 18, R. 648) burns the
substance in oxygen, conducts the gases over platinized sand, and
collects the products in suitable receivers. The oxidation with
nitric acid in sealed tubes at a temperature of 150 to 200 for aliphatic
compounds, and 250 to 260 for aromatic compounds, is in commoa
use, for both the sulphur and phosphorus can be estimated, the
former being oxidized to sulphuric acid and the latter to phosphoric
acid. This method was due to L. Carius (Ann. 136, p. 129). R.
Klason (Ber. 19, p. 1910) determines sulphur and the halogens by
oxidizing the substance in a current of oxygen and nitrous fumes,
conducting the vapours over platinum foil, and absorbing the vapours
in suitable receivers. Sulphur and phosphorus can sometimes be
estimated by Messinger's method, in which the oxidation is effected
by potassium permanganate and caustic alkali, or by potassium
bichromate and hydrochloric acid. A comparison of the various
methods for estimating sulphur has been given by O. Hammarsten
(Zeit. physiolog. Chem. o, p. 273), and by Holand (Chemiker Zeitung,
!893, p. 99i). H. H. Pnngsheim (Ber. 38, p. 1434) has devised a
method in which the oxidation is effected by sodium peroxide; the
halogens.phosphorusand sulphur can be determined by one operation.

VI. PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

We have seen how chemistry may be regarded as having for
its province the investigation of the composition of matter,
and the changes in composition which matter or energy may
effect on matter, while physics is concerned with the general
properties of matter. A physicist, however, does more than
merely quantitatively determine specific properties of matter;
he endeavours to establish mathematical laws which co-ordinate
his observations, and in many cases the equations expressing such
laws contain functions or terms which pertain solely to the
chemical composition of matter. One example will suffice here.
The limiting law expressing the behaviour of gases under varying
temperature and pressure assumes the form pv=R.T; so stated,
this law is independent of chemical composition and may be
regarded as a true physical law, just as much as the law of uni-
versal gravitation is a true law of physics. But this relation is
not rigorously true; in fact, it does not accurately express the
behaviour of any gas. A more accurate expression (see CON-
DENSATION OF GASES and MOLECULE) is (p+a/v 2 ) (vb) = RT, in
which a and b are quantities which depend on the composition
of the gas, and vary from one gas to another.

It may be surmised that the quantitative measures of most
physical properties will be found to be connected with the
chemical nature of substances. In the investigation of these
relations the physicist and chemist meet on common ground;
this union has been attended by fruitful and far-reaching results,
and the correlation of physical properties and chemical composi-
tion is one of the most important ramifications of physical
chemistry. This branch receives treatment below. Of consider-
able importance, also, are the properties of solids, liquids and
gases in solution. This subject has occupied a dominant position
in physico-chemical research since the investigations of van't
Hoff and Arrhenius. This subject is treated in the article
SOLUTION; for the properties of liquid mixtures reference should
also be made to the article DISTILLATION.

Another branch of physical chemistry has for its purpose the
quantitative study of chemical action, a subject which has
brought out in clear detail the analogies of chemical and physical
equilibrium (see CHEMICAL ACTION). Another branch, related
to energetics (<?..), is concerned with the transformation of
chemical energy into other forms of energy heat, light, electri-
city. Combustion is a familiar example of the transformation
of chemical energy into heat and light; the quantitative measures
of heat evolution or absorption (heat of combustion or combina-
tion), and the deductions therefrom, are treated in the article
THERMOCHEMISTRY. Photography (q.v.) is based on chemical
action induced by luminous rays; apart from this practical

CHEMISTRY

[PHYSICAL

application there are many other cases in which actinic rays
occasion chemical actions; these are treated in the article
PHOTOCHEMISTRY. Transformations of electrical into chemical
energy are witnessed in the processes of electrolysis (q.v.; see
also ELECTROCHEMISTRY and ELECTROMETALLURGY). The con-
verse is presented in the common electric cell.

Physical Properties and Composition.

For the complete determination of the chemical structure of
any compound, three sets of data are necessary: (i) the empirical
chemical composition of the molecule; (2) the constitution, i.e.
the manner in which the atoms are linked together; and (3) the
configuration of the molecule, i.e. the arrangement of the atoms
in space. Identity in composition, but difference in constitution,
is generally known as " isomerism " (q.v.), and compounds
satisfying this relation differ in many of their physical properties.
If, however, two compounds only differ with regard to the spatial
arrangement of the atoms, the physical properties may be (i)
for the most part identical, differences, however, being apparent
with regard to the action of the molecules on polarized light, as
is the case when the configuration is due to the presence of an
asymmetric atom (optical isomerism); or (2) both chemical
and physical properties may be different when the configuration
is determined by the disposition of the atoms or groups attached
to a pair of doubly-linked atoms, or to two members of a ring
system (geometrical isomerism or allo-isomerism). Three sets
of physical properties may therefore be looked for: (i) depending
on composition, (2) depending on constitution, and (3) depending
on configuration. The first set provides evidence as to the
molecular weight of a substance: these are termed " colligative
properties." The second and third sets elucidate the actual
structure of the molecule: these are known as " constitutional
properties."

In any attempts to gain an insight into the relations between
the physical properties and chemical composition of substances,
the fact must never be ignored that a comparison can only be
made when the particular property under consideration is deter-
mined under strictly comparable conditions, in other words,
when the molecular states of the substances experimented upon
are identical. This is readily illustrated by considering the pro-
perties of gases the simplest state of aggregation. According
to the law of Avogadro, equal volumes of different gases under
the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal
numbers of molecules; therefore, since the density depends upon
the number of molecules present in unit volume, it follows that
for a comparison of the densities of gases, the determinations
must be made under coincident conditions, or the observations
reduced or re-computed for coincident conditions. When this
is done, such densities are measures of the molecular weights
of the substances in question.

Volume Relations. 1 When dealing with colligative properties
of liquids it is equally necessary to ensure comparability of con-
ditions. In the article CONDENSATION OF GASES (see also
MOLECULE) it is shown that the characteristic equation of gases
and liquids is conveniently expressed in the form (p+a/v 2 ) (v b)
= RT. This equation, which is mathematically deducible from
the kinetic theory of gases, expresses the behaviour of gases,
the phenomena of the critical state, and the behaviour of liquids;
solids are not accounted for. If we denote the critical volume,
pressure and temperature by Vjt, Pi and Tk, then it may be
shown, either by considering the characteristic equation as a
perfect cube in or by using the relations that dp/dv o,
d*p/dv 2 =o at the critical point, that Vk = $b, Pfc=0/27& 2 ,
T* = 80/276. Eliminating a and b between these relations, we
derive PjfcVfc/Tk=iR, a relation which should hold between the
critical constants of any substance. Experiment, however,
showed that while the quotient on the left hand of this equation
was fairly constant for a great number of substances, yet its
value was not fR but -^rR; this means that the critical density
is, as a general rule, 3-7 times the theoretical density. Deviation
from this rule indicates molecular dissociation or association.

1 For the connexion between valency and volume, see VALENCY.

Name.

Formula.

Crit. Vol.

Vol. per CH,.|

Methyl formate

H-CO 8 CH,

171

Ethyl formate

H-CO,C 2 H 6

228 1

56-5

Methyl acetate

CH.-COjCH,

227 f 227 5

Propyl formate

H-COsC.H,

284!

55-8

Ethyl acetate

CH,-CO S C,H 4

285 r 28 3-3

Methyl propionate

C 2 H 6 -CO 2 CH,

28lJ

Propyl acetate .

CH,-CO 2 C,H 7

343]

57-4

Ethyl propionate
Methyl n-butyrate
Methyl isobutyrate

C,H 4 -C0 2 C 2 H 6
LC 8 H 7 -C0 2 CH 3

3 340-7
337J

By actual observations it has been shown that ether, alcohol,
many esters of the normal alcohols and fatty acids, benzene,
and its halogen substitution products, have critical constants
agreeing with this originally empirical law, due to Sydney Young
and Thomas; acetic acid behaves abnormally, pointing to
associated molecules at the critical point.

The critical volume provides data which may be tested for additive
relations. Theoretically the critical volume is three times the
volume at absolute zero, i.e. the actual volume of the
molecules; this is obvious by considering the result of
making T zero in the characteristic equation. Experi-
mentally (by extrapolation from the" law of the rectilinear ^absolute
diameter ") the critical volume is four times the volume tero .
at absolute zero (see CONDENSATION OF GASES). The
most direct manner in which to test any property for additive
relations is to determine the property for a number of elements, and
then investigate whether these values hold for the elements in com-
bination. Want of data for the elements, however, restricts this
method to narrow limits, and hence an indirect method is necessary.
It is found that isomers have nearly the same critical volume, and
that equal differences in molecular content occasion equal differ-
ences in critical volume. For example, the difference due to an
increment of CH 2 is about 56-6, as is shown in the following table:

Since the critical volume of normal pentane CjHu is 307-2, we
have H 2 = C 6 H 12 -5CH 2 = 307-2-5X56-6 = 24-2,and C = CH,-H,=

32-4. The critical volume of oxygen can be deduced from the data
of the above table, and is found to be 29, whereas the experimental
value is 25.

The researches of H. Kopp, begun in 1842, on the molecular
volumes, i.e. the volume occupied by one gramme molecular weight
of a substance, of liquids measured at their boiling-point
under atmospheric pressure, brought to light a series of
additive relations which, in the case of carbon compounds,
render it possible to predict, in some measure, the com- po
position of the substance. In practice it is generally more convenient
to determine the density, the molecular volume being then obtained
by dividing the molecular weight of the substance by the density.
By the indirect method Kopp derived the following atomic volumes:
C. O. H. Cl. Br. I. S.

II 12-2 5'5 22-8 27-8 37-5 22-6.

These values hold fairly well when compared with the experimental
values determined from other compounds, and also with the mole-
cular volumes of the elements themselves. Thus the actually
observed densities of liquid chlorine and bromine at the boiling-
points are 1-56 and 2-96, leading to atomic volumes 22-7 and 26-9,
which closely correspond to Kopp's values deduced from organic
compounds.

These values, however, require modification in certain cases, for
discrepancies occur which can be reconciled in some cases by assuming
that the atomic value of a polyvalent element varies according to the
distribution of its valencies. Thus a double bond of oxygen, as in the
carbonyl group CO, requires a larger volume than a single bond, as
in the hydroxyl group- OH, being about 12-2 in the first case and
7-8 in the second. Similarly, an increase of volume is associated
with doubly and trebly linked carbon atoms.

Recent researches have shown that the law originally proposed by
Kopp " That the specific volume of a liquid compound (molecular
volume) at its boiling-point is equal to the sum of the specific volumes
of its constituents (atomic volumes), and that every element has a
definite atomic value in its compounds " is by no means exact,
for isomers have different specific volumes, and the volume for an
increment of CH 2 in different homologous series is by no means
constant ; for example, the difference among the esters of the fatty
acids is about 57, whereas for the aliphatic aldehydes it is 49. We
may therefore conclude that the molecular volume depends more
upon the internal structure of the molecule than its empirical content.
W. Ostwald (Lehr. der ollg. Chem.), after an exhaustive review of the
material at hand, concluded that simple additive relations did
exist but with considerable deviations, which he ascribed to differ-
ences in structure. In this connexion we may notice W. Stadel's
determinations :

CH,CC1,
CH 2 C1-CHC1,

108
102-8

CHClBr-CH,
CHjBr-CHsCl

96-5

PHYSICAL]

These differences do not disappear at the critical point, and hence
the critical volumes are not strictly additive.

Theoretical considerations as to how far Kopp was justified in
choosing the boiling-points under atmospheric pressure as being
comparable states for different substances now claim our attention.
Van der Waal's equation (p+a/v 2 )( 6) = RT contains two constants
a and b determined by each particular substance. If we express
the pressure, volume and temperature as fractions of the critical
constants, then, calling these fractions the " reduced " pressure,
volume and temperature, and denoting them by ir, and 9 re-
spectively, the characteristic equation becomes (IT +3/< 2 ) (3* I ) = 89 ;
which ha's the same form for all substances. Obviously, therefore,
liquids are comparable when the pressures, volumes and tem-
peratures are equal fractions of the critical constants. In view
of the extremely slight compressibility of liquids, atmospheric
pressure may be regarded as a coincident condition; also C. M.
Guldberg pointed out that for the most diverse substances the
absolute boiling-point is about two-thirds of the critical temperature.
Hence within narrow limits Kopp's determinations were carried out
under coincident conditions, and therefore any regularities presented
by the critical volumes should be revealed in the specific volumes
at the boiling-point. . .

The connexion between the density and chemical composition of
solids has not been investigated with the same completeness as in the
case of gases and, liquids. The relation between the atomic
Volume volumes and the atomic weights of the solid elements
relation* exhibits the periodicity which generally characterizes the
of solids, elements. The molecular volume is additive in certain
cases, in particular pf analogous compounds of simple constitution.
For instance, constant differences are found between the chlorides,
bromides and iodides of sodium and potassium :

CHEMISTRY

Diff.

II.

Diff.

Diff. I. & II.

KC1=37'4
KBr = 44-3
KI =54-0

6-9
9-7

NaCl = 27-i
NaBr = 33-8
Nal =43-5

6-7
97

io-3
10-5
io-5

geses.

According to H. Schroeder the silver salts of the fatty acids
exhibit additive relations; an increase in the molecule of CH 2
causes an increase in the molecular volume of about 15-3.

Thermal Relations.

Specific Heat and Composition. The nature and experi-
mental determination of specific heats are discussed in the
article CALORIMETRY; here will be discussed the relations exist-
ing between the heat capacities of elements and compounds.

In the article THERMODYNAMICS it is shown that the amount
of heat required to raise a given weight of a gas through a certain
range of temperature is different according as the gas
* s maintained at constant pressure, the volume in-
creasing, or at constant volume, thepressure increasing.
A gas, therefore, has two specific heats, generally
denoted by C p and C r , when the quantity of gas taken as a unit
is one gramme molecular weight, the range of temperature being
i C. It may be shown that C P -C,= R, where R is the gas-
constant, i.e. R in the equation PV = RT. From the ratio C p /C r
conclusions may be drawn as to the molecular condition of the
gas. By considerations based on the kinetic theory of gases
(see MOLECULE) it may be shown that when no energy is utilized
in separating the atoms of a molecule, this ratio is 5/3 = 1-67.
If, however, an amount of energy a is taken up in separating
atoms, the ratio is expressible as C p /C,,= (5+a)/(3+a), which
is obviously smaller than 5/3, and decreases with increasing
values of a. These relations may be readily tested, for the ratio
Cp/C, is capable of easy experimental determination. It is found
that mercury vapour, helium, argon and its associates (neon,
krypton, &c.) have the value 1-67; hence we conclude that these
gases exist as monatomic molecules. Oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen
and carbon monoxide have the value 1-4; these gases have
diatomic molecules, a fact capable of demonstration by other
means. Hence it may be inferred that this value is typical for
diatomic molecules. Similarly, greater atomic complexity is
reflected in a further decrease in the ratio C P /C,. The following
table gives a comparative view of the specific heats and the
ratio for molecules of variable atomic content.

The abnormal specific heats of the halogen elements may be due
to a loosening of the atoms, a preliminary to the dissociation into
monatomic molecules which occurs at high temperatures. In the
more complex gases the specific heat varies considerably with
temperature; only in the case of monatomic gases does it remain

Molecular Content.

Examples.

C,.

C..

C,/C*.

Monatomic .
Diatomic
Triatomic

He, Zn, Cd, He, Ar, &c. .
( H 2 , 0,, N, (o-20o j ) .
JCk Br,, 1 2 (o-200 e ).
( HC1, HBr, HI, NO, CO
HO, H,S, N,O, COi .
( As 4 , P 4

6-83
8-6

9-2
13-4

I:! 3

7-2
11-4

66
41
30

28
175

Tetratomic .

I NH,, C,H, ....
CHCIi

u-6
14

9-6

21
17

Hexatomic .

C 8 H 4 , C,H,Br . . .

16-4

14-4

constant. Le Chatelier (Zeit. f. phys. Chem. i. 456) has given the
formula C p = 6-5+oT, where a is a constant depending on the
complexity of the molecule, as an expression for the molecular heat
at constant pressure at any temperature T (reckoned on the absolute
scale). For a further discussion of the ratio of the specific heats see
MOLECULE.

Specific Heals of Solids. The development of the atomic
theory and the subsequent determination of atomic weights
in the opening decades of the ipth century inspired A. T. Petit
and P. L. Dulong to investigate relations (if any) existing
between specific heats and the atomic weight. Their obser-
vations on the solid elements led to a remarkable generalization,
now known as Dulong and Petit's law. This states that " the
atomic heat (the product of the atomic weight and specific
heat) of all elements is a constant quantity." The value
of this constant when H=i is about 6-4; Dulong and Petit,
using O=i, gave the value -38, the specific heat of water being
unity in both cases. This law purely empirical in origin was
strengthened by Berzelius, who redetermined many specific
heats, and applied the law to determine the true atomic weight
from the equivalent weight. At the same time he perceived
that specific heats varied with temperature and also with allo-
tropes, e.g. graphite and diamond. The results of Berzelius were 1
greatly extended by Hermann Kopp, who recognized that carbon,
boron and silicon were exceptions to the law. He regarded these
anomalies as solely due to the chemical nature of the elements,
and ignored or regarded as insignificant such factors as the state
of aggregation and change of specific heat with temperature.

The specific heats of carbon, boron and silicon subsequently
formed the subject of elaborate investigations by H. F. Weber, who
showed that with rise of temperature the specific (and atomic) heat
increases, finally attaining a fairly constant value; diamond,
graphite and the various amorphous forms of carbon having the value
about 5-6 at 1000, and silicon 5-68 at 232; while he concluded
that boron attained a constant value of 5 5. Nilson and Pettersson's
observations on beryllium and germanium have shown that the
atomic heats of these metals increase with rise of temperature,
finally becoming constant with a value 5-6. W. A. Tilden (Phil.
Trans., 1900, p. 233) investigated nickel and cobalt over a wide
range of temperature (from 182-5 to 100); his results are:

Cobalt.

Nickel.

From

-182-5 to
- 78-4 to
15 to

-78-4 . .
J 5 o ' '

100 . .

4-1687
5-4978
6-0324

4-1874
5-6784
6-3I43

It is evident that the atomic heats of these intimately associated
elements approach nearer and nearer as we descend in temperature,
approximating to the value 4. Other metals were tested in order
to determine if their atomic heats approximated to this value at low
temperatures, but with negative results.

It is apparent that the law of Dulong and Petit is not rigorously
true, and that deviations are observed which invalidate the law as
originally framed. Since the atomic heat of the same element
varies with its state of aggregation, it must be concluded that some
factor taking this into account must be introduced; moreover, the
variation of specific heat with temperature introduces another factor.

We now proceed to discuss molecular heats of compounds,
that is, the product of the molecular weight into the specific
heat. The earliest generalization in this direction is associated
with F. E. Neumann, who, in 1831, deduced from observations
on many carbonates (calcium, magnesium, ferrous, zinc, barium
and lead) that stoichiometric quantities (equimolecular weights)
of compounds possess the same heat capacity. This is spoken of
as " Neumann's law." Regnault confirmed Neumann's obser-
vations, and showed that the molecular heat depended on the
number of atoms present, equiatomic compounds having the
same molecular heat. Kopp systematized the earlier observations,

CHEMISTRY

[PHYSICAL

and, having made many others, he was able to show that
the molecular heat was an additive property, i.e. each element
retains the same heat capacity when in combination as in the
free state. This has received confirmation by the researches
of W. A. Tilden (Phil. Trans., 1904, 203 A, p. 139) for those
elements whose atomic heats vary considerably with temperature.

The specific heat of a compound may, in general, be calculated
from the specific heats of its constituent elements. Conversely, if
the specific heats of a compound and its constituent elements,
except one, be known, then the unknown atomic heat is readily
deducible. Similarjy , by taking the difference of the molecular heats
of compounds differing by one constituent, the molecular (or atomic)
heat of this constituent is directly obtained. By this method it is
shown that water, when present as " water of crystallization,"
behaves as if it were ice.

Deductions from Dulong and Petit's Law. Denoting the
atomic weight by W and the specific heat by s, Dulong and
Petit's law states that 6-4 = Vfs. Thus if s be known, an approxi-
mate value of W is determinate. In the determination of the
atomic weight of an element two factors must be considered:
(i) its equivalent weight, i.e. the amount which is equivalent to
one part of hydrogen; and (2) a factor which denotes the number
of atoms of hydrogen which combines with or is equivalent to
one atom of the particular element. This factor is termed the
valency. The equivalent weight is capable of fairly ready
determination, but the settlement of the second factor is some-
what more complex, and in this direction the law of atomic heats
is of service. To take an example: 38 parts of indium combine
with 35-4 parts of chlorine; hence, if the formula of the chloride
be InCl, InCl 2 or InCU, indium has the atomic weights 38, 76
or 114. The specific heat of indium is 0-057; an< l the -atomic
heats corresponding to the atomic weights 38, 76 and 114 are
3-2, 4-3, 6-5. Dulong and Petit's law thus points to the value
114, which is also supported by the position occupied by this
element in the periodic classification. C. Winkler decided the
atomic weight of germanium by similar reasoning.

Boiling-Point and Composition. From the relation between

the critical constants P* V t /T fc =T^R or T*/P*=3-7V*/R, and

O /

since V* is proportional to the volume at absolute zero, the ratio
T*/P* should exhibit additive relations. This ratio, termed by
Guye the critical coefficient, has the following approximate
values:

r H ri n -o NT M p Doub le Triple
C. H. U. -0-. -O. JN. W=. V. ii n k a g e . linkage.

i -35 0-57 2-66 0-87 1-27 1-6 1-86 3-01 0-88 1-03
Since at the boiling-point under atmospheric pressure liquids
are in corresponding states, the additive nature of the critical
coefficient should also be presented by boiling-points. It may
be shown theoretically that the absolute boiling-point is pro-
portional to the molecular volume, and, since this property is
additive, the boiling-point should also be additive.

These relations have been more thoroughly tested in the case of
organic compounds, and the results obtained agree in some measure
with the deductions from molecular volumes. In general, isomers
boil at about the same temperature, as is shown by the isomeric
esters CHO 2 :

Methyl octoate . . 192-9 Amyl butyrate . . 184-8
Ethyl heptoate . . 187-1 Heptyl acetate . . 191-3
Propyl hexoate . . 185-5 Octyl formate . . 198-1
Butyl pentoate . . 185-8

Equal increments in the molecule are associated with an equal
rise in the boiling-point, but this increment varies in different
homologous series. Thus in the normal fatty alcohols, acids, esters,
nitriles and ketones, the increment per CH 2 is 19 21; in the alde-
hydes it is 26 27. In the aromatic compounds there is no regu-
larity between the increments due to the introduction of methyl
groups into the benzene nucleus or side chains; the normal value
of 20 21 is exhibited, however, by pyridine and its derivatives.
The substitution of a hydrogen atom by the hydroxyl group generally
occasions a rise in boiling-point at about 100. The same increase
accompanies the introduction of the amino group into aromatic nuclei.
While certain additive relations hold between some homologous
series, yet differences occur which must be referred to the constitution
Constltu- f t ^ e molecule. As a general rule, compounds formed
tlve with a great evolution of heat have high boiling-points,

Influences. anc ^ v ' ce versa. The introduction of negative groups into
a molecule alters the boiling-point according to the number
of negative groups already present. This is shown in the case of the
chloracetic acids:

CH,COiH
ClCH,-CO 2 H
Cl,CH-CO,H

Diff.

67
io e

According to van 't Hoff the substitution of chlorine atoms into a
methyl group occasions the following increments:
Cl in CH, 66

Cl CH.C1 39
Cl ,,CHC1 2 13.

The introduction of chlorine, however, may involve a fall in the
boiling-point, as is recorded by Henry in the case of the chlorinated
acetonitriles :

NC-CH,. NC-CH.C1. NC-CHC1 2 . NC-CC1,.
81 123 112 83

42 -ll -29

The replacement of one negative group by another is accompanied by
a change in the boiling-point, which is independent of the compound
in which the substitution is effected, and solely conditioned by the
nature of the replaced and replacing groups. Thus bromine and iodine
replace chlorine with increments of about 22 and 50 respectively.
A factor of considerable importance irwdetermining boiling-points
of isomers is the symmetry of the molecule. Referring to the esters
C 9 Hi 8 O 2 previously mentioned, it is seen that the highest boiling-
points belong to methyl octoate and octyl formate, the least sym-
metrical, while the minimum belongs to amyl butyrate, the most
symmetrical. The isomeric pentanes also exhibit a similar rcla-

similar reason secondary alcohols boil at a lower temperature than
the corresponding primary, the difference being about 19. A. E.
Earp (Phil. Mag., 1893 [5], 35, p. 458) has shown that, while an
increase in molecular weight is generally associated with a rise in
the boiling-point, yet the symmetry of the resulting molecule may
exert such a lowering effect that the final result is a diminution in the
boiling-point. The series H 2 S = -61, CH a SH=2i, (CH 8 ) 2 S = 4i
is an example; in the first case, the molecular weight is in-
creased and the symmetry diminished, the increase of boiling-point
being 82; in the second case the molecular weight is again increased
but the molecule assumes a more symmetrical configuration, hence
the comparatively slight increase of 20. A similar depression is
presented by methyl alcohol (67) and methyl ether (23).

Among the aromatic di-substitution derivatives the ortho com-
pounds have the highest boiling-point, and the mcta boil at a higher,
or about the same temperature as the para compounds. Of the
tri-derivatives the symmetrical compounds boil at the lowest
temperature, the asymmetric next, and the vicinal at the highest.

An ethylenic or double carbon union in the aliphatic hydrocarbons
has, apparently, the same effect on the boiling-point as two hydrogen
atoms, since the compounds C B H2 n+2 and C n H 2n boil at about the
same temperature. An acetylenic or triple linkage is associated
with a rise in the boiling-point ; for example, propargyl compounds
boil about 19-5 higher than the corresponding propyl compound.

Certain regularities attend the corresponding property of the
melting-point. A rule applicable to organic compounds, due to
Adolf v. Baeyer and supported by F. S. Kipping (Jour. Chem. Soc.,
1893, 63, p. 465) states, that the melting-point of any odd member
of a homologous series is lower than the melting-point of the even
member containing one carbon atom .less. This is true of the fatty
acid series, and the corresponding ketones and alcohols, and also of
the succinic acid series. Other regularities exist, but generally with
many exceptions. It is to be noted that although the correlation of
melting-point with constitution has not been developed to such
an extent as the chemical significance of other physical properties,
the melting-point is the most valuable test of the purity of a sub-
stance, a circumstance due in considerable measure to the fact that
impurities always tend to lower the melting-point.

Heat of Combustion and Constitution. In the article THERMO-
CHEMISTRY a general account of heats of formation of chemical
compounds is given, and it is there shown that this constant
measures the stability of the compound. In organic chemistry
it is more customary to deal with the " heat of combustion,"
i.e. the heat evolved when an organic compound is completely
burned in oxygen; the heat of formation is deduced from the
fact that it is equal to the heats of formation of the products
of combustion less the observed heat of combustion. The
researches of Julius Thomsen and others have shown that in many
cases definite conclusions regarding constitution can be drawn
from quantitative measurements of the heats of combustion;
and in this article a summary of the chief results will be given.

The identity of the four valencies of the carbon atom follows
from the fact that the heats of combustion of methane, ethane,
propane, trimethyl methane, and tetramethyl methane, have a
constant differencein the order given, viz. is8-6calories; this means

PHYSICAL]

CHEMISTRY

that the replacement ot a hydrogen atom by a methyl group is
attended by a constant increase in the heat of combustion. The
same difference attends the introduction of the methyl group into
many classes of compounds, for example, the paraffins, defines,
acetylenes, aromatic hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones
and esters, while a slightly lower value (157-1) is found in the case
of the halogen compounds, nitriles, amines, acids, ethers, sulphides
and nitro compounds. It therefore appears that the difference be-
tween the heats of combustion of two adjacent members of a series
of homologous compounds is practically a constant, and that this
constant has two average values, viz. 158-6 and 157-1.

An important connexion between heats of combustion and
constitution is found in the investigation of the effect of single,
double and triple carbon linkages on the thermochemical constants.
If twelve grammes of amorphous carbon be burnt to carbon dioxide
under constant volume, the heat evolved (96-96 cal.) does not measure
the entire thermal effect, but the difference between this and the
heat required to break down the carbon molecule into atoms.
If the number of atoms in the carbon molecule be denoted by n,
and the heat required to split off each atom from the molecule by d,
then the total heat required to break down a carbon molecule
completely into atoms is nd. It follows that the true heat of com-
bustion of carbon, i.e. the heat of combustion of one gramme-atom,
is 96-96 -\-d. The value of d can be evaluated by considering the
combustion of amorphous carbon to carbon monoxidfe and carbon
dioxide. In the first case the thermal effect of 58-58 calories actually
observed must be increased by 2d to allow for the heat absorbed in
splitting off two gramme-atoms of carbon; in the second case the
thermal effect of 96-96 must be increased by d as above. Now in
both cases one gramme-molecule of oxygen is decomposed, and the
two oxygen atoms thus formed are combined with two carbon
valencies. It follows that the thermal effects stated above must be
equal, i.e. 58-58 +2d =96-96+^, and therefore*/ = 38-38. Theabsolute
heat of combustion of a carbon atom is therefore 135-34 calories,
and this is independent of the form of the carbon burned.

Consider now the combustion of a hydrocarbon of the general
formula CnHjm. We assume that each carbon atom and each
hydrogen atom contributes equally to the thermal effect. If o be
the heat evolved by each carbon atom, and ft that by each hydrogen
atom, the thermal effect may be expressed as H=na-f-2mj8-A,
where A is the heat required to break the moleculeintoitsconstituent
atoms. If the hydrocarbon be saturated, i.e. only contain single
carbon linkages, then the number of such linkages is 2nm, and if
the thermal effect of such a linkage be X, then the term Aisobviously
equal to (2n-n)X. The value of H then becomes H=na+2fn/J
(2-f)X or nf+m?;, where and rj are constants. Let double
bonds be present, in number p, and let the energy due to such a
bond be Y. Then the number of single bonds is 2nm2p, and the
heat of combustion becomes HI =nJ+mij+/ > (2X-Y). If triple bonds,
q in number, occur also, and the energy of such a bond be Z, the
equation for H becomes

H = Mt+fmr +#(2X-Y) +S&X-Z).

This is the general equation for calculating the heat of combustion
of a hydrocarbon. It contains four independent constants; two
of these may be calculated from the heats of combustion of
saturated hydrocarbons, and the other two from the combustion of
hydrocarbons containing double and triple linkages. By experiment
it is found that the thermal effect of a double bond is much less than
the effect of two single bonds, while a triple bond has a much smaller
effect than three single bonds. J. Thomsen deduces the actual
values of X, Y, Z to be 14-71, 13-27 and zero; the last value he
considers to be in agreement with the labile equilibrium of acetylenic
compounds. One of the most important applications of these values
is found in the case of the constitution of benzene, where Thomsen
decides in favour of the Claus formula, involving nine single carbon
linkages, and rejects the Kekul6 formula, which has three single
and three double bonds (see section IV.).

The thermal effects of the common organic substituents have
also been investigated. The thermal effect of the " alcohol " group
C-OH may be determined by finding the heat of formation of the
alcohol and subtracting the thermal effects of the remaining linkages
in the molecule. The average value for primary alcohols is 44-67 cal.,
but many large differences from this value obtain in certain cases.
The thermal effects increase as one passes from primary to tertiary
alcohols, the values deduced from propyl and isopropyl alcohols and
trimethyl carbinol being: primary = 45-08, secondary = 50-39, ter-
tiary =60-98. The thermal effect of the aldehyde group has the
average value 64-88 calories, i.e. considerably greater thanthealcohol
group. The ketone group corresponds to a thermal effect of 53-52
calories. It is remarkable that the difference in the heats of forma-
tion of ketones and the paraffin containing one carbon atom less is
67-94 calories, which is the heat of formation of carbon monoxide
at constant volume. It follows therefore that two hydrocarbon
radicals are bound to the carbon monoxide residue with the same
strength as they combine to form a paraffin. The average value for
the carboxyl group is 119-75 calories, i.e. it is equal to the sum of
the thermal effects of the aldehyde and carbonyl groups.

The thermal effects of the halogens are: chlorine = 15- 13 calories,
bromine = 7-68; iodine = -4-25 calories. It is remarkable that the

position of the halogen in the molecule has no effect on the heat of
formation ; for example, chlorpropylene and allylchloride, and also
ethylene dichloride and ethylidene dichloride, have equal heats of
formation. The thermal effect of the ether group has an average
value of 34-31 calories. This value does not hold in the case of

methylene oxide if we assign to it the formula HjC-O-CHj, but
if the formula HjC-O-CHj (which assumes the presence of two free
valencies) be accepted, the calculated and observed heats of formation
are in agreement.

The combination of nitrogen with carbon may result in the
formation of nitriles, cyanides, or primary, secondary or tertiary
amines. Thomsen deduced that a single bond between a carbon and
a nitrogen gramme-atom corresponds to a thermal effect of 2-77
calories, a double bond to 5-44, and a treble bond to 8-31. From
this he infers that cyanogen is C:N-N:C and not N;C-C:N,that
hydrocyanic acid is HC-N, and acetonitrile CH>-C \ N.' In the case
of the amines he decides in favour of the formulae

H 2 C:NH,

iprmary, secondary, tertiary.

These involve pentavalent nitrogen. These formulae, however, only
apply to aliphatic amines; the results obtained in the aromatic series
are in accordance with the usual formulae.

Optical Relations.

Refraction and Composition. Reference should be made to
the article REFRACTION for the general discussion of the pheno-
menon known as the refraction of light. It is there shown that
every substance, transparent to light, has a definite refractive
index, which is the ratio of the velocity of light in vacua to its
velocity in the medium to which the refractive index refers.
The refractive index of any substance varies with (i)- the wave-
length of the light; (2) with temperature; and (3) with the state
of aggregation. The first cause of variation may be at present
ignored; its significance will become apparent when we consider
dispersion (vide infra). The second and third causes, however,
are of greater importance, since they are associated with the
molecular condition of the substance; hence, it is obvious that
it is only from some function of the refractive index which is
independent of temperature variations and changes of state
(i.e. it must remain constant for the same substance at any
temperature and in any form) that quantitative relations between
refractivity and chemical composition can be derived.

The pioneer work in this field, now frequently denominated
" spectro-chemistry," was done by Sir Isaac Newton, who, from
theoretical considerations based on his corpuscular theory of light,
determined the function ( 2 i), where n is the refractive index,
to be the expression for the refractive power; dividing this
expression by the density (d), he obtained (w 2 i)/rf, which he
named the " absolute refractive power." To P. S. Laplace is
due the theoretical proof that this function is independent of
temperature and pressure, and apparent experimental confirma-
tion was provided by Biot and Arago's, and by Dulong's observa-
tions on gases and vapours. The theoretical basis upon which
this formula was devised (the corpuscular theory) was shattered
early in the ipth century, and in its place there arose the modern
wave theory which theoretically invalidates Newton's formula.
The question of the dependence of refractive index on tempera-
ture was investigated in 1858 by J. H. Gladstone and the Rev.
T. P. Dale; the more simple formula (n-i)/d, which remained
constant for gases and vapours, but exhibited slight discrepancies
when liquids were examined over a wide range of temperature,
being adopted. The subject was next taken up by Hans Landolt,
who, from an immense number of observations, supported in
a general way the formula of Gladstone and Dale. He introduced
the idea of comparing the refractivity of equimolecular quantities
of different substances by multiplying the function (n i)/<f
by the molecular weight (M) of the substance, and investigated
the relations of chemical grouping to refractivity. Although
establishing certain general relations between atomic and
molecular refractions, the results were somewhat vitiated by the
inadequacy of the empirical function which he employed, since it
was by no means a constant which depended only on the actual
composition of the substance and was independent of its physical
condition. A more accurate expression (n*i)/(n I +2)d was

CHEMISTRY

[PHYSICAL

suggested in 1880 independently and almost simultaneously by
L. V. Lorenz of Copenhagen and H. A. Lorentz of Leiden, from
considerations based on the Clausius-Mossotti theory of dielectrics.

Assuming that the molecules are spherical, R. J. E. Clausius and
O. F. Mossotti found a relation between the dielectric constant and
the space actually occupied by the molecules, viz. K = (i +2o)/(l a),
or a-(K i)/(K+2), where K is the dielectric constant and a the
fraction of the total volume actually occupied by matter. According
to the electromagnetic theory of light K = N 2 , where N is the
refractive index for rays of infinite wave-length. Making this
substitution, and dividing by d, the density of the substance, we
obtain a/d = (N 2 l)/(N 2 +2)<Z. Since a/d is the real specific volume
of the molecule, it is therefore a constant; hence (N J i)/(N 2 +2)d
is also a constant and is independent of all changes of temperature,
pressure, and of the state of aggregation. To determine N
recourse must be made to Cauchy s formula of dispersion (5.11.),
n = A + B/X 2 +C/X 4 +. . . from which, by extrapolation, X becoming
infinite, we obtain N=A. In the case of substances possessing
anomalous dispersion, the direct measurement of the refractive
index for Hertzian waves of very long wave-length may be
employed.

It is found experimentally that the Lorenz and Lorentz
function holds fairly well, and better than the Gladstone and Dale
formula. This is shown by the following observations of Riihl-
mann on water, the light used being the D line of the spectrum:

(n -!)/</.

(n 2 -l)/(n 2 +2)d.

20
90

100

0-3338
0-3338
0-3336
0-3321
0-3323

0-2061
0-2061
0-2061
0-2059
0-2061

Eykmann's observations also support the approximate
constancy of the Lorenz-Lorentz formula over wide temperature
differences, but in some cases the deviation exceeds the errors
of observation. The values are for the Ha line:

Substance.

Temp.

(rc 2 -l)/(n 2 +2)d.

Isosafrol, CioHioO2

\ I7 ' 6 o
1 141-1

0-2925

0-2962

Diphenyl ethylene, CnHi 2

J 22
? 143-4

0-3339
0-3382

Quinoline, CH 7 N

1 16-2

141"

0-3187
0-3225

The empirical formula (n 2 -i)/( 2 +o-4)d apparently gives more
constant values with change of temperature than the Lorenz-
Lorentz form. The superiority of the Lorenz-Lorentz formula
over the Gladstone and Dale formula for changes of state is
shown by the following observations of Briihl (Zeit.f. phys. Chem.,
1891, 71, p. 4). The values are for the D line:

either directly, by investigating the various elements, or indirectly,
by considering differences in the molecular refractions of related
compounds. The first method needs no explanation. The second
method proceeds on the same lines as adopted for atomic volumes.
By subtracting the value for CH 2 , which may be derived from two
substances belonging to the same homologous series, from the mole-
cular refraction of methane, CH, the value of hydrogen is obtained ;
subtracting this from CH 2 , the value of carbon is determined.
Hydroxylic oxygen is obtained by subtracting the molecular refrac-
tions of acetic acid and acetaldehyde. Similarly, by this method of
differences, the atomic refraction of any element may be determined.
It is found, however, that the same element has not always the same
atomic refraction, the difference being due to the nature of the
elements which saturate its valencies. Thus oxygen varies according
as whether it is linked to hydrogen (hydroxync oxygen), to two
atoms of carbon (ether oxygen), or to one carbon atom (carbonyl
oxygen) ; similarly, carbon varies according as whether it is singly,
doubly, or trebly bound to carbon atoms.

A table of the atomic refractions and dispersions of the principal
elements is here given :

Element.

H..

H 7 .

Dispersion
H-r- H a .

Hydrogen

1-103

1-051

I-I39

0-036

Oxygen, hydroxyl .

1-506

1-521

1-525

0-019

,, ether

1-655

1-683

1-667

O-OI2

carbonyl .

2-328

2-287

2-414

0-086

Chlorine ....

6-014

5-998

6-190

0-I76

Bromine ....

8-863

8-927

9-211

0-348

Iodine ....

13-808

14-12

14-582

0-774

Carbon (singly bound)

2-365

2-501

2-404

0-039

Double linkage of carbon

1-836

1-707

1-859

0-23

Triple

2-22

2-41

0-19

Nitrogen, singly bound

and only to carbon .

2- 7 6

2-95

0-19

Substance.

Temp.

Gladstone and Dale.

Lorenz and Lorentz.

Vapour.

Liquid.

Vapour.

Liquid.

Water
Carbon disulphide .
Chloroform ....

10
10
10

0-3101

0-4347
0-2694

0-3338
0-4977
0-3000

0-2068
0-2898
0-1796

0-2061
0-2805
0-1790

Landolt and Gladstone, and at a later date J. W. Briihl, have
investigated the relations existing between the refractive power
and composition. To Landolt is due the proof that,
in general, isomers, i.e. compounds having the same
composition, have equal molecular refractions, and that
equal differences in composition are associated with equal differences
in refractive power. This is shown in the following table (the values
are for H,) :

Additive
relations.

Dispersion and Composition. In the preceding section we have
seen that substances possess a definite molecular (or atomic) refrac-
tion for light of particular wave-length; the difference between the
refractions for any two rays is known as the molecular (or atomic)
dispersion. Since molecular refractions are independent of tempera-
ture and of the state of aggregation, it follows that molecular dis-
persions must be also independent of these conditions; and hence
quantitative measurements should give an indication as to the
chemical composition of substances. This subject has been princi-
pally investigated by Briihl; he found that molecular dispersions
of liquids and gases were independent of temperature, and fairly
independent of the state of aggregation, but that no simple connexion
exists between atomic refractions and dispersions (see preceding
table). He also showed how changes in constitution effected dis-
persions to a far greater extent than they did refractions; thus,
while the atomic dispersion of carbon is 0-039, the dispersions due
to a double and treble linkage is 0-23 and 0-19 respectively.

Colour and Constitution. In this article a summary of the
theories which have been promoted in order to connect the colour
of organic compounds with their constitution
will be given, and the reader is referred to the
article COLOUR for the physical explanation of
this property, and to VISION for the physiological
and psychological bearings. A clear distinction
must be drawn between colour and the property
of dyeing; all coloured substances are not dyes,

Substance.

Mol.
Refract.

Substance.

Mol.
Refract.

Diff. for
CH 2 .

Ethylene chloride i r Cl

J 20-96

Acetic acid

12-93

\ 4-49

Ethylidene chloride 5 * '

I 21-08

Propionic acid

17-42

Fumaric acid i /-^ u n
Maleicacid S U4 " u

( 70-89
? 70-29

Butyric acid .

22-OI

] 4'59

o-Cresol )

Acetaldehyde .

11-50

I 4-4-1

m-Cresol [ C 7 H,O . . .
p-Cresol )

( 32-57

Propionaldehyde .
Butylaldehyde

15-93
20-52

Additive relations undoubtedly exist, but many discrepancies occur
which may be assigned, as in the case of molecular volumes, to
differences in constitution. Atomic refractions may be obtained

and it is shown in the article DYEING that the property of
entering into chemical or physical combination with fibres involves
properties other than those essential to colour. At the same
time, however, all dyestuffs are coloured substances.

A survey of coloured substances led O. N. Witt in 1876 toformulate
his " chromophore-auxochrome " theory. On this theory colour is
regarded as due to the presence of a chromophore," and dyeing
power to an " auxochrome " ; the latter by itself
cannot produce colour or dyeing power, but it is
only active in the presence of a chromophore, when
it intensifies the colour and confers the property
of dyeing. The principal chromophores are the azo,

N=N , azoxy, = N 2 O, nitro, NO 2 , nitroso,

NO, and carbonyl, = CO, groups. The azo-group
is particularly active, both the aliphatic and
aromatic compounds being coloured. The simplest
aliphatic compounds, such as diazo-methane, diazo-
ethane, and azo-formic acid, are yellow; the
diamide of the latter acid is orange-red. Of the

aromatic compounds azo-benzene is bright orange-red, and a-azo-
naphthalene forms red needles or small steel-blue prisms. 'The azo-
group, however, has little or no colouring effect when present in a

PHYSICAL]

ring system, such as in cinnolene, phthalazine and tolazone. The
nitro group has a very important action mainly on account of the
readiness with which it can be introduced into the molecule, but its
effect is much less than that of the azo group. The colour produced
is generally yellow, which, in accordance with a general rule, is
intensified with an increase in the number of groups; compare, for
example, mono-, di- and tri-nitrobenzene. The nitroso group is
less important. The colour produced is generally of a greenish
shade; for example, njtrosobenzene is green when fused orin solution
(when crystalline, it is colourless), and dinitrosoresorcin has been
employed as a dyestuff under the names " solid green " and
" chlorine." The carbonyl group by itself does not produce colour,
but when two adjacent groups occur in the molecule, as for example
in the o-diketones (such as di-acetyl and benzil), a yellow colour is
produced. It also acts as a chromogenic centre when double bonds
or ethylenic linkages are present, as in fluorene ketone or fluorenone.
A more complex chromophoric group is the triple ethylenic

CHEMISTRY

groupng p = , the introduction of which was rendered neces-

sary by the discovery of certain coloured hydrocarbons. As a general
rule, hydrocarbons are colourless; the exceptions include the golden
yellow acenaphthylene, the red bidiphenylene-ethylene, and the

CH * CH

derivatives of fulvene .., \ ^>CH 2 , which have been discussed by

J. Thiele (Ber., 1900, 33, p. 666). This grouping is not always
colour-producing, since diphenyl is colourless.

The most important auxochromes are the hydroxyl (-OH) and
amino (-NH 2 ) groups. According to the modern theory of auxo-
chromic action, the introduction of a group into the molecule is
accompanied by some strain, and the alteration in colour produced
is connected with the magnitude of the strain. The amino group is
more powerful than the hydroxyl, and the substituted amino group
more powerful still; the repeated substitution of hydroxyl groups
sometimes causes an intensification and sometimes a diminution of
colour.

We may here notice an empirical rule formulated by Nietzski in
1879: the simplest colouring substances are in the greenish-yellow
and yellow, and with increasing molecular weight the colour passes
into orange, red, violet, blue and green. This rule, however, is by
no means perfect. Examination of the absorption spectra of coloured
compounds shows that certain groupings displace the absorption
bands in one direction, and other groupings in the other. If the
bands be displaced towards the violet, involving a regression through
the colours mentioned above, the group is said to be " hypso-
chromic "; if the reverse occurs the group is " bathochromic. ' It
may be generally inferred that an increase in molecular weight is
accompanied by a change in colour in the direction of the violet.

Auxochromic groups generally aid one another, i.e. the tjnt
deepens as the number of auxochromes increases. Also the relative
position of the auxochrome to the chromophore influences colour,
the ortho-position being generally the most powerful. Kauffmann
(Ber., 1906, 39, p. 1959) attempted an evaluation of the effects of
auxochromic groups by means of the magnetic optical constants.
The method is based on the supposition that the magnetic rotation
measures the strain produced in the molecule by an auxochrome,
and he arranges the groups in the following order :
0-COCH, -OCH 3 -NHCOCH 3 -NH 2 -N(CH,) 2 -N(C 2 H 6 ) 2
-0-260 1-459 I- 949 3' 821 8-587 8-816

The phenomena attending the salt formation of coloured and
colouring substances are important. The chromophoric groups are
rarely strongly acid or basic ; on the other hand, the auxochromes
are strongly acid or basic and form salts very readily. Notable
differences attend the neutralization of the chromophoric and auxo-
chromic groups. With basic substances, the chromophoric combina-
tion with a colourless acid is generally attended by a deepening in
colour; auxochromic combination, on the other hand, with a lessen-
ing. Examples of the first case are found among the colourless
acridines and qujnoxalines which give coloured salts; of the second
case we may notice the colourless hydrochloride and sulphate of the
deep yellow o-aminobenzophenone. With acid substances, the com-
bination with " colourless " metals, i.e. metals producing colour-
less salts with acids, is attended by cojour changes contrary to those
given above, auxochromic combination being accompanied by a
deepening, and chromophoric by a lessening of the tint.

Mention may be made of the phenomenon of halochromism, the
name given to the power of colourless or faintly-coloured substances
of combining with acids to form highly-coloured substances without
the necessary production of a chromophoric group. The researches
of Adolf von Baeyer and Villiger, Kehrmann, Kauffmann and others,
show that this property is possessed by very many and varied
substances. In many cases it may be connected with basic oxygen,
and the salt formation is assumed to involve the passage of divalent
into tetravalent oxygen. It seems that intermolecular change also
occurs, but further research is necessary before a sound theory can
be stated.

Quinone Theory of Colour. A theory of colour in opposition to
the Witt theory was proposed by Henry Armstrong in 1888 and 1892.
This assumed that all coloured substances were derivatives of ortho-
or para-quinone (see QUINONES), and although at the time of its

promotion little practical proof was given, yet the theory found
wide acceptance on account of the researches of many other chemists.
It follows on this theory that all coloured substances contain either
of the groupings

Q-

the former being a para-quinonoid, the latter an ortho-quinonoid.
While very many coloured substances must obviously contain this
grouping, yet in many cases it is necessary to assume a simple
intermolecular change, while in others a more complex rearrangement
of bonds is necessary. Quinone, which is light yellow in colour, is
the simplest coloured substance on this theory. Hydrocarbons
of similar structure have been prepared by Thiele, for example, the
orange-yellow tetraphenyl-6ora-xylylene, which is obtained by
boiling the bromide CH4|CBr(CHj) 2 ] 2 with benzene and molecular
silver. The quinonoid structure of many coloured compounds has
been proved experimentally, as, for example, by Hewitt for the
benzene-azo-phenols, and Hantzsch for triaminotriphenyl methane
and acridine derivatives; but, at the same time, many substances
cannot be so explained. A notable example is provided by the
phthaleins, which result by the condensation of phthalic anhydride
with phenols. In the free state these substances are colourless,
and were assumed to have the formula shown in I. Solution in
dilute alkali was supposed to be accompanied by the rupture of the
lactone ring with the formation of the quinonoid salt shown in 2.

Baeyer (Ber., 1905, 38, p. 569) and Silberrad (Journ. Ghent. Soc^
1906, 89, p. 1787) have disputed the correctness of this explanation,
and the latter has prepared melliteins and pyromelliteins, which are
highly-coloured compounds produced from mellitic and pyromellitic
acids, and which cannot be formulated as quinones. Baeyer has
suggested that the nine carbon atom system of xanthone may act as a
chromophore. An alternative view, due to Green, is that the oxygen
atom of the xanthone ring is tetravalent, a supposition which permits
the formulation of these substances as ortho-quinonoids.

The theories of colour have also been investigated by Hantzsch,
who first considered the nitro-phenols. On the chromophore-
auxochrome theory (the nitro group being the chromophore, and the
hydroxyl the auxochrome) it is necessary in order to explain the high
colour of the metallic salts and the colourless alkyl and aryl derivatives
to assume that the auxochromic action of the hydroxyl group is only
brought strongly into evidence by salt formation. Armstrong, on
the other hand, assumed an intermolecular change, thus:

H A

The proof of this was left for Hantzsch, who traced a connexion
with the nitrolic acids of V. Meyer, which are formed when nitrous
acid acts on primary aliphatic nitro compounds. Meyer formulated
these compounds as nitroximes or nitro-isnitroso derivatives, viz.
R-C(NO 2 )(NOH). Hantzsch explains the transformation of the
colourless acid into red salts, which on standing yield more stable,
colourless salts, by the following scheme:

NOH

'Na

Colourless, stable. Coloured, labile. Colourless, stable.
He has also shown that the nitrophenols yield, in addition to the
colourless true nitrophenol ethers, an isomeric series of coloured un-
stable quinonoid oci-ethers, which have practically the same colour
and yield the same absorption spectra as the coloured metallic
salts. He suggests that the term quinone " theory be abandoned,
and replaced by the Umlagerungs theory, since this term implies
some intermolecular rearrangement, and does not connote simply
benzenoid compounds as does " quinonoid." _ H. von Liebig (Ann.,
1908, 360, p. 128), from a very complete discussion of tnphenyl-

methane derivatives, concluded that the grouping ._ was t ' le
only true organic chromophore, colour production, however, re-
quiring another condition, usually the closing of a ring.

The views as to the question of colour and constitution may be
summarized as follows: (i) The quinone theory (Armstrong,
Gomberg, R. Meyer) regards all coloured substances as having
a quinonoid structure. (2) The chromophore-auxochrome
theory (Kauffmann) regards colour as due to the entry of an
" auxochrome " into a " chromophoric " molecule. (3) If a
colourless compound gives a coloured one on solution or by

CHEMISTRY

[PHYSICAL

salt-formation, the production of colour may be explained as a
particular form of ionization (Baeyer), or by a molecular re-
arrangement (Hantzsch). A dynamical theory due to E. C. C.
Baly regards colour as due to " isorropesis " or an oscillation
between the residual affinities of adjacent atoms composing the
molecule.

Fluorescence and Constitution. The physical investigation
of the phenomenon named fluorescence the property of
transforming incident light into light of different refrangibility
is treated in the article FLUORESCENCE. Researches in syntheti-
cal organic chemistry have shown that this property of
fluorescence is common to an immense number of substances,
and theories have been proposed whose purpose is to connect
the property with constitution.

In 1897 Richard Meyer (Zeit. physik. Chemie, 24, p. 468) submitted
the view that fluorescence was due to the presence of certain " fluoro-
phore" groups; such groupings are the pyrone ring and its con-
geners, the central rings in anthracene and acridine derivatives,
and the paradiazine ring in safranines. A novel theory, proposed
by J. T. Hewitt in 1900 (Zeit.f. physik. Chemie, 34, p. i ; B.A. Report,
'903. P- 628, and later papers in the Journ. Chem. Soc.), regards the
property as occasioned by internal vibrations within the molecule
conditioned by a symmetrical double tautomerism, light of one
wave-length being absorbed by one form, and emitted with a different
wave-length by the other. This oscillation may be represented in
the case of acridine and fluorescein as

C 8 H;COOH

This theory brings the property of fluorescence into relation with
that of colour; the forms which cause fluorescence being the coloured
modifications: ortho-quinonoid in the case of acridine, para-
quinonoid in the case of fluorescein. H. Kauffmann(5er., 1900, 33,
p. 1731 ; 1904, 35, p. 294; 1905, 38, p. 789; Ann., 1906, 344, p. 30)
suggested that the property is due to the presence of at least two
groups. The first group, named the "luminophore," is such. that
when excited by suitable aetherial vibrations emits radiant energy ;
the other, named the " fluorogen," acts with the luminophore in
some way or other to cause the fluorescence. This theory explains
the fluorescence of anthranilic acid (0-aminobenzoic acid), by regard-
ing the aniline residue as the luminophore, and the carboxyl group
as the fluorogen, since, apparently, the introduction of the Tatter
into the non-fluorescent aniline molecule involves the production of
a fluorescent substance. Although the theories of Meyer and
Hewitt do not explain (in their present form) the behaviour of
anthranilic acid, yet Hewitt has shown that his theory goes far to
explain the fluorescence of substances in which a double symmetrical
tautomerism is possible. This tautomerism may be of a twofold
nature: (i) it may involve the mere oscillation of linkages, as in
acridine; or (2) it may involve the oscillation of atoms, as in fluor-
escein. A theory of a physical nature, based primarily upon Sir
J. J. Thomson's theory of corpuscles, has been proposed by J. de
Kowalski (Compt. rend. 1907, 144, p. 266). We may notice that
ethyl oxalosuccmonitrile is the first case of a fluorescent aliphatic
compound (see W. Wislicenus and P. Berg, Ber., 1908, 41, p. 3757).

Capillarity and Surface Tension, Reference should be made
to the article CAPILLARY ACTION for the general discussion of this
phenomenon of liquids. It is there shown that the surface
tension of a liquid may be calculated from its rise in a capillary
tube by the formula y = %rhs, where y is the surface tension per
square centimetre, r the radius of the tube, h the height of the
liquid column, and 5 the difference between the densities of
the liquid and its vapour. At the critical point liquid and vapour
become identical, and, consequently, as was pointed out by
Frankenheim in 1841, the surface tension is zero at the critical
temperature.

Mendele'eff endeavoured to obtain a connexion between surface
energy and constitution; more successful were the investigations
Relation ^ Scliiff, who found that the " molecular surface tension,"

no/ecu- which ne defined as the surface tension divided by the
lar weight, molecular weight, is constant for isomers, and that two
atoms of hydrogen were equal to one of carbon, three to
one of oxygen, and seven to one of chlorine; but these ratios were
by no means constant, and afforded practically no criteria as to the
molecular weight of any substance.

In 1886 R. Eotvos (Wied. Ann. 27, p. 452), assuming that two
liquids may be compared when the ratios of the volumes of the
liquids to the volumes of the saturated vapours are the same,
deduced that VV'(where y is the surface tension, and V the molecular
volume of the liquid) causes all liquids to have the same temperature

coefficients. This theorem was investigated by Sir W. Ramsay and
J. Shields (Journ. Ghent. Soc. 63, p. 1089; 65, p. 167), whose results
have thrown considerable light on the subject of the molecular
complexity of liquids. Ramsay and Shields suggested that there
exists an equation for the surface energy of liquids, analogous to the
volume-energy equation of gases, PV = RT. The relation they
suspected to be of the form 78 = KT, where K is a constant analogous
to R, and S the surface containing one gramme-molecule, y and T
being the surface tension and temperature respectively. Obviously
equimolecular surfaces are given by (Mr)*, where M is the molecular
weight of the substance, for equimolecular volumes are Mr, and
corresponding surfaces the two-thirds power of this. Hence S may
be replaced by (Mt>)3. Ramsay and Shields found from investiga-
tions of the temperature coefficient of the surface energy thatTin the
equation -y(M)' = KT must be counted downwards from the critical
temperature T less about 6. Their surface energy equation therefore
assumes the form y(M)' = K(r-6 c ). Now the value of K, y being
measured in dynes and M being the molecular weight of the substance
as a gas, is in general 2-121; this value is never exceeded, but in
many cases it is less. This diminution implies an association of
molecules, the surface containing fewer molecules than it is supposed
to. Suppose the coefficient of association be n, i.e. n is the mean
number of molecules which associate to form one molecule, then by
the normal equation we have y(Mnv)* = 2-i2l(r 6); if the calcu-
lated constant be Ki, then we have also y(M.v)* = K.i(r 6). By
division we obtain n s =2-i2i/Ki, or w = (2-i2i/Ki)', the coefficient
of association being thus determined.

The apparatus devised by Ramsay and Shields consisted of a
capillary tube, on one end of which was blown a bulb provided with
a minute hole. Attached to the bulb was a glass rod and then a tube
containing iron wire. This tube was placed in an outer tube contain-
ing the liquid to be experimented with; the liquid is raised to its
boiling-point, and then hermetically sealed. The whole is enclosed
in a jacket connected with a boiler containing a liquid, the vapour
of which serves to keep the inner tube at any desired temperature.
The capillary tube can be raised or lowered at will by running a
magnet outside the tube.and the heights of the columns are measured
by a cathetometer or micrometer microscope.

Normal values of K were given by nitrogen peroxide, NjC>4, sulphur
chloride, S2C1 2 , silicon tetrachloride, SiCl, phosphorus chloride,
PCls, phosphoryl chloride, POC1 8 , nickel carbonyl, Ni(CO)4, carbon
disulphide, benzene, pyridine, ether, methyl propyl ketone ; associa-
tion characterized many hydroxylic compounds: for ethyl alcohol
the factor of association was 2 74-2-43 , for n-propyl alcohol 2 86-2-72 ,
acetic acid 3-62-2-77, acetone 1-26, water 3-81-2-32; phenol,
nitric acid, sulphuric acid, nitroethane, and propionitril, also exhibit
association.

Crystalline Form and Composition.

The development of the theory of crystal structure, and the
fundamental principles on which is based the classification of
crystal forms, are treated in the article CRYSTALLOGRAPHY; in
the same place will be found an account of the doctrine of iso-
morphism, polymorphism and morphotropy. Here we shall
treat the latter subjects in more detail, viewed from the stand-
point of the chemist. Isomorphism may be defined as the
existence of two or more different substances in the same crystal
form and structure, polymorphism as the existence of the same
substance in two or more crystal modifications, and morphotropy
(after P. von Groth) as the change in crystal form due to altera-
tions in the molecule of closely (chemically) related substances.
In order to permit a comparison of crystal forms, from which
we hope to gain an insight into the prevailing molecular con-
ditions, it is necessary that some unit of crystal dimensions must
be chosen. A crystal may be regarded as built up of primitive
parallelepipeda, the edges of which are in the ratio of the
crystallographic axes, and the angles the axial angles of the
crystals. To reduce these figures to a common standard, so
that the volumes shall contain equal numbers of molecules,
the notion of molecular volumes is introduced, the arbitrary
values of the crystallographic axes (a, b, c) being replaced by the
topic parameters 1 (x, ^, w), which are such that, combined with
the axial angles, they enclose volumes which contain equal
numbers of molecules. The actual values of the topic para-
meters can then readily be expressed in terms of the elements of
the crystals (the axial ratios and angles), the density, and the
molecular weight (see Groth, Physikalische Krystallographie, or
Chemical Crystallography).

1 This was done simultaneously in 1894 by W. Muthmann and
A. E. H. Tutton, the latter receiving the idea from F. Becke (see
Journ. Chem. Soc., 1896, 69, p. 507; 1905, 87, p. 1183).

PHYSICAL]

CHEMISTRY

Polymorphism. On the theory that crystal form and structure
are the result of the equilibrium between the atoms and molecules
composing the crystals, it is probable, a priori, that the same
substance may possess different equilibrium configurations of
sufficient stability, under favourable conditions, to form different
crystal structures. Broadly this phenomenon is termed poly-
morphism; however, it is necessary to examine closely the diverse
crystal modifications in order to determine whether they are
really of different symmetry, or whether twinning has occasioned
the apparent difference. In the article CRYSTALLOGRAPHY the
nature and behaviour of twinned crystals receives full treat-
ment; here it is sufficient to say that when the planes and axes
of twinning are planes and axes of symmetry, a twin would
exhibit higher symmetry (but remain in the same crystal system)
than the primary crystal; and, also, if a crystal approximates
in its axial constants to a higher system, mimetic twinning
would increase the approximation, and the crystal would be
pseudo-symmetric.

In general, polysymmetric and polymorphous modifications
suffer transformation when submitted to variations in either
temperature or pressure, or both. The criterion whether
a pseudo-symmetric form is a true polymorph or not consists
in the determination of the scalar properties (e.g. density,
specific heat, &c.) of the original and the resulting modifica-
tion, a change being in general recorded only when polymorphism
exists. Change of temperature usually suffices to determine
this, though in certain cases a variation in pressure is
necessary; for instance, sodium magnesium uranyl acetate,
NaMg(UO2)s(C2H3O2)9-9H2O shows no change in density unless
the observations are conducted under a considerable pressure.
Although many pseudo-symmetric twins are transformable into
the simpler form, yet, in some cases, a true polymorph results,
the change being indicated, as before, by alterations in scalar
(as well as vector) properties.

For example, boracite forms pseudo-cubic crystals which become
truly cubic at 265, with a distinct change in density; leucite
behaves similarly at about 560. Again, the pyroxenes, RSiOa
(R = Fe, Mg, Mn, &c.), assume the forms (i) monoclinic, sometimes
twinned so as to become pseudo-rhombic; (2) rhombic, resulting
from the pseudo-rhombic structure of (l) becoming ultramicroscopic;
and (3) triclinic, distinctly different from (i) and (2); (i) and (2)
are polysymmetric modifications, while (3) and the pair (i) and (2)
are polymorphs.

While polysymmetry is solely conditioned by the manner
in which the mimetic twin is built up from the single crystals,
there being no change in the scalar properties, and the vector
properties being calculable from the nature of the twinning,
in the case of polymorphism entirely different structures present
themselves, both scalar and vector properties being altered;
and, in the present state of our knowledge, it is impossible to
foretell the characters of a polymorphous modification. We may
conclude that in polymorphs the substance occurs in different
phases (or molecular aggregations), and the equilibrium bet ween
these phases follows definite laws, being dependent upon tempera-
ture and pressure, and amenable to thermodynamic treatment
(cf. CHEMICAL ACTION and ENERGETICS). The transformation
of polymorphs presents certain analogies to the solidification
of a liquid. Liquids may be cooled below their freezing-point
without solidification, the melaslable (after W. Ostwald) form
so obtained being immediately solidified on the introduction
of a particle of the solid modification; and supersaturated
solutions behave in a similar manner. At the same time there
may be conditions of temperature and pressure at which poly-
morphs may exist side by side.

The above may be illustrated by considering the equilibrium
between rhombic and monoclinic sulphur. The former, which is
deposited from solutions, is transformed into monoclinic sulphur
at about 96, but with great care it is possible to overheat it and
even to fuse it (at 113-5) without effecting the transformation.
Monoclinic sulphur, obtained by crystallizing fused sulphur, melts
at i 19-5! and admits of undercooling even to ordinary temperatures,
but contact with a fragment of the rhombic modification spontane-
ously brings about the transformation. From Reicher's determina-
tions, the exact transition point is 95-6; it rise_s with increasing
pressure about 0-05 for one atmosphere ; the density of the rhombic

form is greater than that of the monoclinic. The equilibria of these
modifications may be readily represented on a pressure-temperature
diagram. If OT, OP (fig. 6), be the axes of temperature and pressure,
and A corresponds to the transition point (95-6) of rhombic sulphur,
we may follow out the line AB which shows the elevation of the
transition point with increasing pressure. The overheating curve of
rhombic sulphur extends along the curve
AC, where C is the melting-point of
monoclinic sulphur. The line BC, repre-
senting the equilibrium between mono-
clinic and liquid sulphur, is thermo-
dynamically calculable; the point B is
found to correspond to 131* and 400
atmospheres. From B the curve of
equilibrium (BD) between rhombic and
liquid sulphur proceeds; and from C
(along CE) the curve of equilibrium
between liquid sulphur and sulphur
vapour. Of especial interest is the
curve BD; along this line liquid and FIG. 6.

rhombic sulphur are in equilibrium, which

means that at above 131 and 400 atmospheres the rhombic (and
not the monoclinic) variety would separate from liquid sulphur.

Mercuric iodide also exhibits dimorphism. When precipitated
from solutions it forms red tetragonal crystals, which, on careful
heating, give a yellow rhombic form, also obtained by crystallization
from the fused substance, or by sublimation. The transition point
is 126-3 (W. Schwarz, Zeit.f. Kryst. 25, p. 613), but both modifica-
tions may exist in metastable forms at higher and lower temperatures
respectively; the rhombic form may be cooled down to ordinary
temperature without changing, the transformation, however, being
readily induced by a trace of the red modification, or by friction.
The density and specific heat of the tetragonal form are greater
than those of the yellow.

Hexachlorethane is trimorphous, forming rhombic, triclinic and
cubic crystals; the successive changes occur at about 44 and 71,
and are attended by a decrease in density.

Tetramorphism is exhibited by ammonium nitrate. According to
O. Lehmann it melts at 168 (or at a slightly lower temperature in
its water of crystallization) and on cooling forms optically isotropic
crystals; at 125-6 the mass becomes doubly refracting, and from
a solution rhombohedral (optically uniaxial) crystals are deposited ;
by further cooling acicular rhombic crystals are produced at 82-8,
and at 32-4 other rhombic forms are obtained, identical with the
product obtained by crystallizing at ordinary temperatures. The
reverse series of transformations occurs when this final modification
is heated. M. Bellati and R. Romanese (Zeit. f. Kryst. 14, p. 78)
determined the densities and specific heats of these modifications.
The first and third transformations (reckoned in order with in-
creasing temperature of the transition point) are attended by an
increase in volume, the second with a contraction; the solubility
follows the same direction, increasing up to 82-8, then diminishing
up to 125-6, and then increasing from this temperature upwards.

The physical conditions under which polymorphous modifica-
tions are prepared control the form which the substance assumes.
We have already seen that temperature and pressure exercise
considerable influence in this direction. In the case of separation
from solutions, either by crystallization or by precipitation by
double decomposition, the temperature, the concentration of
the solution, and the presence of other ions may modify the
form obtained. In the case of sodium dihydrogen phosphate,
NaH 2 PO 4 -H2O, a stable rhombic form is obtained from warm
solutions, while a different, unstable, rhombic form is obtained
from cold solutions. Calcium carbonate separates as hexagonal
calcite from cold solutions (below 30), and as rhombic aragonite
from solutions at higher temperatures; lead and strontium
carbonates, however, induce the separation of aragonite at lower
temperatures. From supersaturated solutions the form unstable
at the temperature of the experiment is, as a rule, separated,
especially on the introduction of a crystal of the unstable form;
and, in some cases, similar inoculation of the fused substance
is attended by the same result. Different modifications may
separate and exist side by side at one and the same time from
a solution; e.g. telluric acid forms cubic and monoclinic crystals
from a hot nitric acid solution, and ammonium fluosilicate gives
cubic and hexagonal forms from aqueous solutions between
6 and 13.

A comparison of the transformation of polymorphs leads to
a twofold classification: (i) polymorphs directly convertible
in a reversible manner termed " enantiotropic " by O. Lehmann
and (2) polymorphs in which the transformation proceeds in
one direction only termed " monotropic." In the first class

CHEMISTRY

[PHYSICAL

are included sulphur and ammonium nitrate; monotropy is
exhibited by aragonite and calcite.

It is doubtful indeed whether any general conclusions can yet
be drawn as to the relations between crystal structure and scalar
properties and the relative stability of polymorphs. As a
general rule the modification stable at higher temperatures
possesses a lower density; but this is by no means always the
case, since the converse is true for antimonious and arsenious
oxides, silver iodide and some other substances. Attempts to
connect a change of symmetry with stability show equally a lack
of generality. It is remarkable that a great many polymorphous
substances assume more symmetrical forms at higher tempera-
tures, and a possible explanation of the increase in density of
such compounds as silver iodide, &c., may be sought for in the
theory that the formation of a more symmetrical configuration
would involve a drawing together of the molecules, and conse-
quently an increase in density. The insufficiency of this argu-
ment, however, is shown by the data for arsenious and anti-
monious oxides, and also for the polymorphs of calcium carbonate,
the more symmetrical polymorphs having a lower density.

Morphotropy. Many instances have been recorded where sub-
stitution has effected a deformation in one particular direction,
the crystals of homologous compounds often exhibiting the same
angles between faces situated in certain zones. The observations
of Slavik (Zeit. f. Kryst., 1902, 36, p. 268) on ammonium and
the quaternary ammonium iodides, of J. A. Le Bel and A. Ries
(Zeit.f. Kryst., 1902, 1904, et seq.) on the substituted ammonium
chlorplatinates, and of G. Mez (ibid., 1901, 35, p. 242) on
substituted ureas, illustrate this point.

Ammonium iodide assumes cubic forms with perfect cubic cleavage ;
tetramethyl ammonium iodide is tetragonal with perfect cleavages
parallel to (100) and jooi( a difference due to the lengthening of
the a axes; tetraethyl ammonium iodide also assumes tetragonal
forms, but does not exhibit the cleavage of the tetramethyl com-
pound ; while tetrapropyl ammonium ioaide crystallizes in rhombic
form. The equivalent volumes and topic parameters are tabulated :

NHJ.

NMeJ.

NEtJ.

NPrJ.

57-5i
3-86o
3-860
3-860

108-70
S-3'9
5-3I9

3-842

162-91
6-648
6-648
3-686

235-95
6-093

7-85I
4-933

From these figures it is obvious that the first three compounds
form a morphotropic series; the equivalent volumes exhibit a
regular progression; the values of x and 4>, corresponding to the a
axes, are regularly increased, while the value of , corresponding
to the c axis, remains practically unchanged. This points to the
conclusion that substitution has been effected in one of the cube
faces. We may therefore regard the nitrogen atoms as occupying
the centres of a cubic space lattice composed of iodine atoms, between
which the hydrogen atoms are distributed on the tetrahedron face
normals. Coplanar substitution in four hydrogen atoms would
involve the pushing apart of the iodine atoms in four horizontal
directions. The magnitude of this separation would obviously
depend on the magnitude of the substituent group, which may be
so large (in this case propyl is sufficient) as to cause unequal horizontal
deformation and at the same time a change in the vertical direction.

The measure of the loss of symmetry associated with the intro-
duction of alkyl groups depends upon the relative magnitudes
of the substituent group and the rest of the molecule; and the
larger the molecule, the less would be the morphotropic effect
of any particular substituent. The mere retention of the same
crystal form by homologous substances is not a sufficient reason
for denying a morphotropic effect to the substituent group;
for, in the case of certain substances crystallizing in the cubic
system, although the crystal form remains unaltered, yet the
structures vary. When both the crystal form and structure are
retained, the substances are said to be isomorphous.

Other substituent groups exercise morphotropic effects similar
to those exhibited by the alkyl radicles; investigations have
been made on halogen-, hydroxy-, and nitro-derivatives of
benzene and substituted benzenes. To Jaeger is due the deter-
mination of the topic parameters of certain haloid-derivatives,
and, while showing that the morphotropic effects closely resemble
those occasioned by methyl, he established the important fact

that, in general, the crystal form depended upon the orientation
of the substituents in the benzene complex.

Benzoic acid is pseudo-tetragonal, the principal axis being remark-
ably long; there is no cleavage at right angles to this axis. Direct
nitration gives (principally) wi-nitrobenzoic acid, also pseudo-
tetragonal with a much shorter principal axis. From this two
chlornitrobenzoic acids [COOH-NOj-Cl = 1.3.6 and 1.3.4] may be
obtained. These are also pseudotetragonal; the (1.3.6) acid" has
nearly the same values of x and <!/ as benzoic acid, but u is increased ;
compared with ra-nitrobenzoic acid, x and ^ have been diminished,
whereas a is much increased; the (1.3.^) acid is more closely
related to m-nitrobenzoic acid, x and <!/ being increased, a diminished.
The results obtained for the (I. 2) and (1.4) chlorbenzoic acids also
illustrate the dependence of crystal form and structure on the
orientation of the molecule.

The hydroxyl group also resembles the methyl group in its morpho-
tropic effects, producing, in many cases, no change in symmetry but
a dimensional increase in one direction. This holds for benzene and
phenol, and is supported by the observations of Gossner on [i. 3.5]
trinitrobenzene and picric acid (i.3.s-trinitro, 2 oxy benzene);
these last two substances assume rhombic forms, and picric acid
differs from trinitrobenzene in having a considerably greater,
with x and <!/ slightly less. A similar change, in one direction only,
characterizes benzoic acid and salicylic acid.

The nitro group behaves very similarly to the hydroxyl group.
The effect of varying the position of the nitro group in the molecule
is well marked, and conclusions may be drawn as to the orientation
of the groups from a knowledge of the crystal form; a change in
the symmetry of the chemical molecule being often attended by a
loss in the symmetry of the crystal.

It may be generally concluded that the substitution of alkyl,
nitro, hydroxyl, and haloid groups for hydrogen hi a molecule
occasions a deformation of crystal structure in one definite
direction, hence permitting inferences as to the configuration
of the atoms composing the crystal; while the nature and degree
of the alteration depends (i) upon the crystal structure of the
unsubstituted compound; (2) on the nature of the substituting
radicle; (3) on the complexity of the substituted molecule;
and (4) on the orientation of the substitution derivative.

Isomorphism. It has been shown that certain elements and
groups exercise morphotropic effects when substituted in a
compound; it may happen that the effects due to two or more
groups are nearly equivalent, and consequently the resulting
crystal forms are nearly identical. This phenomenon was first
noticed in 1822 by E. Mitscherlich, in the case of the acid phos-
phate and acid arsenate of potassium, KH2P(As)C>4, who adopted
the term isomorphism, and regarded phosphorus and arsenic as
isomorphously related elements. Other isomorphously related
elements and groups were soon perceived, and it has been shown
that elements so related are also related chemically.

Tutton's investigations of the morphotropic effects of the metals
potassium, rubidium and caesium, in combination with the acid
radicals of sulphuric and selenic acids, showed that the replacement
of potassium by rubidium, and this metal in turn by caesium.was
accompanied by progressive changes in both physical and crystal-
lographical properties, such that the rubidium salt was always inter-
mediate between the salts of potassium and caesium (see table;
the space unit is taken as a pseudo-hexagonal prism). This fact finds
a parallel in the atomic weights of these metals.

KjSO*
Rb,SO 4
Cs,SO 4

64-92
73-36
83-64

4.464

4-634
4-846

4-491
4-664
4-885

4-997
5-237
5-519

K 2 SeO 4
RbjSeO*
CseO,

71-71

79-95
91-16

4-636

4-785
4-987

4-662
4-826
5-035

5-118
5-346
5-697

By taking appropriate differences the following facts will be
observed: (i) the replacement of potassium by rubidium occasions
an increase in the equivalent volumes by about eigh t units, and of rubi-
dium by caesium by about eleven units; (2) replacement in the same
order is attended by a general increase in the three topic parameters, a
greater increase being met with in the replacement of rubidium by
caesium ; (3) the parameters x and ^ are about equally increased,
while the increase in a is always the greatest. Now consider the
effect of replacing sulphur by selenium. It will be seen that (i) the
increase in equivalent volume is about 6-6; (2) all the topic para-
meters are increased; (3) the greatest increase is effected in the
parameters x and <//, which are equally lengthened.

These observations admit of ready explanation in the following

K _o-s-o-K.

PHYSICAL]

manner. The ordinary structural formula of potassium sulphate is

If the crystal structure be regarded as composed of

three interpenetrating point systems, one consisting of sulphur
atoms, the second of four times as many oxygen atoms, and the
third of twice as many potassium atoms, the systems being soarranged
that the sulphur system is always centrally situated with respect
to the other two, and the potassium system so that it would affect
the vertical axis, then it is obvious that the replacement of potassium
by an element of greater atomic weight would specially increase the
length of w (corresponding to the vertical axis), and cause a smaller
increase in the horizontal parameters (x and \M; moreover, the
increments would advance with the atomic weight of the replacing
metal. If, on the other hand, the sulphur system be replaced by a
corresponding selenium system, an element of higher atomic weight,
it would be expected that a slight increase would be observed in the
vertical parameter, and a greater increase recorded equally in the
horizontal parameters.

Muthmann (Zeit.f. Kryst., 1 894), in his researches on the tetragonal
potassium and ammonium dihydrogen phosphates and arsenates,
found that the replacement of potassium by ammonium was attended
by an increase of about six units in the molecular volume, and of
phosphorus by arsenic by about 4-6 units. In the topic parameters
the following changes were recorded: replacement of potassium by
ammonium was attended by a considerable increase in to, x and <l/
being equally, but only slightly, increased; replacement of phos-
phorus by arsenic was attended by a considerable increase, equally
in x and ^, while o> suffered a smaller, but not inconsiderable, increase.
It is thus seen that the ordinary plane representation of the structure
of compounds possesses a higher significance than could have been
suggested prior to crystallographical researches.

Identity, or approximate identity, of crystal form is not in
itself sufficient to establish true isomorphism. If a substance
deposits itself on the faces of a crystal of another substance
of similar crystal form, the substances are probably isomorphous.
Such parallel overgrowths, termed episomorphs, are very common
among the potassium and sodium felspars; and K. von Hauer
has investigated a number of cases in which salts exhibiting
episomorphism have different colours, thereby clearly demonstrat-
ing this property -of isomorphism. For example, episomorphs
of white potash alum and violet chrome alum, of white mag-
nesium sulphate and green nickel sulphate, and of many other
pairs of salts, have been obtained. More useful is the property
of isomorphous substances of forming mixed crystals, which
are strictly isomorphous with their constituents, for all variations

in composition. In such
crystals each component
plays its own part in de-
termining the physical pro-
perties; in other words,
any physical constant of a
mixed crystal can be cal-
culated as additively com-
posed of the constants of
the two components.

Fig. 7 represents the
specific volumes of mixtures
of ammonium and potassium
sulphates; the ordinates re-
presenting specific volumes,
and the abscissae the per-
centage composition of the
mixture. Fig. 8 shows the
variation of refractive index
of mixed crystals of potash
alum and thallium alum with
variation in composition.
In these two instances the component crystals are miscible in all
proportions; but this is by no means always the case. It may
happen that the crystals dp not form double salts, and are only
miscible in certain proportions. Two cases then arise: (i) the
properties may be expressed as linear functions of the composition,
the terminal values being identical with those obtained for the
individual components, and there being a break in the curve corre-
sponding to the absence of mixed crystals ; or (2) similar to (l) except
that different values must be assigned to the terminal values in order
to preserve collinearity. Fig. 9 illustrates the first case : the ordinates
represent specific volumes, and the abscissae denote the composition
of isomorphous mixtures of ammonium and potassium dihydrogen
phosphates, which mutually take one another up to the extent of
20 % to form homogeneous crystals. The second case is illustrated
in fig. 10. Magnesium sulphate (orthorhombic) takes up ferrous

CHEMISTRY

10 30 30 40 60 00 TO 80 OO

(NH 4 )jSQ,=o%

FIG. 7.

K AJum=o%
T) Alum- too

FIG. 8.

sulphate (monoclinic) to the extent of 19%, forming isomorphous
orthorhombic crystals; ferrous sulphate, on the other hand, takes
up magnesium sulphate to the extent of 54 % to form monoclinic
crystals. By plotting the specific volumes of these mixed crystals
as ordinates, it is found that they fall on two lines, the upper corre-
sponding to the orthorhombic crystals, the lower to the monoclinic.
From this we may conclude that these salts are isodimorphous :
the upper line represents isomorphous crystals of stable orthorhombic
magnesium sulphate and unstable orthorhombic ferrous sulphate,
the lower line isomor-
phous crystals of stable
monoclinic ferrous sul-
phate and unstable
monoclinic magnesium
sulphate.

An important distinc-
tion separates true mixed
crystals and crystallized
double salts, for in the
latter the properties are
not linear functions of
the properties of the
components ; generally
there is a contraction in
volume, while the re-
fractive indices and other
physical properties do

K H,P0 4 = ,

N H 4 H a P0 4

FIG. 9.

0-S33
O-837

not, in general, obey the
additive law.

Isomorphism is most p e so,<7H,o=x>*,
clearly discerned be-
tween elements of

FIG. 10.

analogous chemical properties; and from the wide generality
of such observations attempts have been made to form a classifica-
tion of elements based on isomorphous replacements. The
following table shows where isomorphism may be generally
expected. The elements are arranged in eleven series, and the
series are subdivided (as indicated by semicolons) into groups;
these groups exhibit partial isomorphism with the other groups
of the same series (see W. Nernst, Theoretical Chemistry).

Series I. Cl, Br, I, F; Mn (in permanganates).

2. S, Se; Te (in tellurides) ; Cr, Mn, Te (in the acids

H 2 RO 4 ) ; As, Sb (in the glances MR 2 ).

3. As, Sb, Bi; Te (as an element); P, Vd (in salts); N,

P (in organic bases).

4. K, Na, Cs, Rb, Li; Tl, Ag.

5. Ca, Ba, Sr, Pb; Fe, Zn, Mn, Mg; Ni, Co, Cu; Ce, La,

Di, Er, Y, Ca; Cu, Hg, Pb; Cd, Be, In, Zn; Tl, Pb.

6. Al, Fe, Cr, Mn; Ce, U (in sesquioxides).
7- Cu, Ag (when monovalent) ; Au.

8. Pt, Ir, Pd, Rh. Ru, Os; Au, Fe, Ni; Sn, Te.

9. C, Si.Ti, Zr, Th, Sn; Fe, Ti.

10. Ta, Cb (Mb).

11. Mo, W, Cr.

For a detailed comparison of the isomorphous relations of the
elements the reader is referred to P. von Groth, Chemical Crystal-
lography. Reference may also be made to Ida Freund, The Study
of Chemical Composition; and to the Annual Reports of the Chemical
Society for 1908, p. 258.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. History: F. Hoefer, Histoire de la chimie (2nd
ed., 1866-1869); Hermann Kopp, Geschichte der Chemie (1869),
Entwickelung der Chemie in d. neueren Zeit (1871-1874); E. von
Meyer, Geschichte der Chemie (yd ed., 1905, Eng. trans.); A.
Ladenburg, Entwickelungsgeschichte der Chemie (4th ed., 1907); A.
Stange, Die Zeitalter der Chemie (1908). Reference may also be
made to M. M. Pattison Muir, History of Chemical Theories and Laws
(1907); Ida Freund, Study of Chemical Composition (1904); T. E.
Thorpe, Essays in Historical Chemistry (2nd ed., 1902). See also
the article ALCHEMY.

Principles and Physical. W. Ostwald, Principles of Inorganic
Chemistry (yA Eng. ed., 1908), Outlines of General Chemistry,
Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Chemie; W. Nernst, Theoretische Chemie
(4th ed., 1907, Eng. trans.); J. H. van't Hoff, Lectures on Theoretical
and Physical Chemistry; J. Walker, Introduction to Physical Chemistry
(4th ed., 1907); H. C. Jones, Outlines of Physical Chemistry (1903);
D. Mendefeeff, Principles of Chemistry (3rd ed., 1905).

Inorganic. Roscoe and Schorlemmer, Inorganic Chemistry (3rd
ed., Non-metals, 1905; Metals, 1907); R. Abegg, Handbuch der
anorganischen Chemie; Gmelin- Kraut, Handbuch der anorganischen
Chemie; O. Dammer, Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie; H.
Moissan, Chimie minerale.

Organic. F. Beilstein, Handbuch der organischen Chemie; M. M.
Richter, Lexikon der Kohlenstoffverbindungen (these are primarily
works of reference) ; V. Meyer and P. H. Jacobson, Lehrbuch der
organischen Chemie; Richter-Anschutz, Organische Chemie (l ith ed.,

7 6

CHEMNITZ, MARTIN CHEMNITZ

vol. i., 1909, Eng. trans.); G. K. Schmidt, Kurzes Lehrbuch der
organischen Chemie; A. Bernthsen, Orginische Chemie (Eng. trans.).
Practical methods are treated in Lassar-Cohn, Arbeitsmethoden fur
organisch-chemische Laboratorien (4th ed., 1906-1907). Select chap-
ters are treated in A. Lachmann, Spirit of Organic Chemistry; J. B.
Cohen, Organic Chemistry (1908) ; A. W. Stewart, Recent Advances in
Organic Chemistry (1908) ; and in a series of pamphlets issued since
1896 with the title Sammlung chemischer und cnemisch-technischer
Vortraee.

Analytical. For Blowpipe Analysis: C. F. Plattner, Probirkunst
mil dem Lothrohr. For General Analysis: C. R. Fresenius, Qualita-
tive and Quantitative Analysis, Eng. trans, by C. E. Groves (Qualita-
tive, 1887) and A. I. Cohn (Quantitative, 1903); F. P. Treadwell,
Kurzes Lehrbuch der analytischen Chemie (1905); F. Julian, Textbook
of Quantitative Chemical Analysis (1904); A. Classen, Ausgewahlte
Methoden der analytischen Chemie (1901-1903); W. Crookes, Select
Methods in Chemical Analysis (1894). Volumetric Analysis:
F. Sutton, Systematic Handbook of Volumetric Analysis (1904);
F. Mohr, Lehrbuch der chemisch-analytischen Titrirmethode (1896).
Organic Analysis: Hans Meyer, Analyse und Konstitutionsermittlung
organischer Verbindungen (1909) ; Wilhelm Vaubel, Die physikalischen
und chemischen Methoden der quantitativen Bestimmung organischer
Verbindungen. For the historical development of the proximate
analysis of organic compounds see M. E. H. Dennstedt, DieEntwicke-
lung der organischen Elementaranalyse (1899).

Encyclopaedias. The early dictionaries of Muspratt and Watts
are out of date; there is a later edition of the latter by H. F. Morley
and M. M. P. Muir. A. Ladenburg, Handworterbuch der Chemie,
A. Wurtz, Dictionnaire de chimie, and F. Selmi, Encyclopedia di
chimica, are more valuable; the latter two are kept up to date by
annual supplements. (C. E.*)

CHEMNITZ (or KEMNITZ), MARTIN (1522-1586), German
Lutheran theologian, third son of Paul Kemnitz, a cloth-worker
of noble extraction, was born at Treuenbrietzen, Brandenburg,
on the gth of November 1522. Left an orphan at the age of
eleven, he worked for a time at his father's trade. A relative at
Magdeburg put him to school there (1539-1542). Havingmadea
little money by teaching, he went (1543) to the university of
Frankfort-on-Oder; thence (1545) to that of Wittenberg. Here
he heard Luther preach, but was more attracted by Melanchthon,
who interested him in mathematics and astrology. Melanchthon
gave him (i 547) an introduction to his son-in-law, Georg Sabinus,
at Konigsberg, where he was tutor to some Polish youths, and
rector (1548) of the Kneiphof school. He practised astrology;
this recommended him to Duke Albert of Prussia, who made him
his librarian (1550). He then turned to Biblical, patristic and
kindred studies. His powers were first brought out in contro-
versy with Osiander on justification by faith. Osiander, main-
taining the infusion of Christ's righteousness into the believer,
impugned the Lutheran doctrine of imputation; Chemnitz
defended it with striking ability. As Duke Albert sided with
Osiander, Chemnitz resigned the h'brarianship. Returning (1553)
to Wittenberg, he lectured on Melanchthon 's Loci Communes, his
lectures forming the basis of his own Loci Theologici (published
posthumously, 1591), which constitute probably the best ex-
position of Lutheran theology as formulated and modified by
Melanchthon. His lectures were thronged, and a university career
of great influence lay before him, when he accepted a call to become
coadjutor at Brunswick to the superintendent, Joachim Morlin,
who had known him at Konigsberg. He removed to Brunswick
on the isth of December 1554, and there spent the remainder of
his life, refusing subsequent offers of important offices from
various Protestant princes of Germany. Zealous in the duties of
his pastoral charge, he took a leading part in theological con-
troversy. His personal influence, at a critical period, did much to
secure strictness of doctrine and compactness of organization
in the Lutheran Church. Against Crypto-Calvinists he upheld
the Lutheran view of the eucharist in his Repetitio sanae doctrinae
de Vera Praesentia (1560; in German, 1561). To check the
reaction towards the old religion he wrote several works of great
power, especially his Theologiae Jesuitarum praecipua capita
(1562), an incisive attack on the principles of the society, and the
Examen concilii Tridentini (four parts, 1565-66-72-73), his
greatest work. His Corpus doctrinae Prutenicum (1567), drawn
up in conjunction with Morlin, at once acquired great authority.
In the year of its publication he became superintendent of
Brunswick, and in effect the director of his church throughout
Lower Saxony. His tact was equal to his learning. In conjunc-

tion with Andrea and Selnecker he induced the Lutherans of
Saxony and Swabia to adopt the Formula Concordiae and so
become one body. Against lax views of Socinian tendency he
directed his able treatise De duabus naturis in Chrislo (1570).
Resigning office in infirm health (1584) he survived till the 8th of
April 1586.

Lives of Chemnitz are numerous, e.g. by J. Gasmerus (1588).
T. Pressel (1862), C. G. H. Lentz (1866). H. Hachfeld (1867), H.

Schmid in J. J. Herzog's Realencyklopddie (1878), J. Kunze in A.

CHEMNITZ, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
the capital of a governmental district, 50 m. W.S.W. of Dresden
and 51 S.E. of Leipzig by rail. Pop. (1885) 110,817; (1895)
161,017; (i9S) 244,405- It lies 950 ft. above the sea, in a
fertile plain at the foot of the Erzgebirge, watered by the
river Chemnitz, an affluent of the Mulde. It is the chief
manufacturing town in the kingdom, ranks next to Dresden
and Leipzig in point of population, and is one of the principal
commercial and industrial centres of Germany. It is well
provided with railway communication, being directly connected
with Berlin and with the populous and thriving towns of the
Erzgebirge and Voigtland. Chemnitz is in general well built,
the enormous development of its industry and commerce having
of late years led to the laying out of many fine streets and
to the embellishing of the town with handsome buildings. The
centre is occupied by the market square, with the handsome
medieval Rathaus, now superseded for municipal business by a
modern building in the Post-strasse. In this square are monu-
ments to the emperor William I., Bismarck and Moltke. The
old inner town is surrounded by pleasant promenades, occupying
the site of the old fortifications, and it is beyond these that
industrial Chemnitz h'es, girdling the old town on all sides with a
thick belt of streets and factories, and ramifying far into the
country. Chemnitz has eleven Protestant, churches, among
them the ancient Gothic church of St James, with a fine porch,
and the modern churches of St Peter, St Nicholas and St Mark.
There are also a synagogue and chapels of various sects. The
industry of Chemnitz has gained for the town the name of

Saxon Manchester." First in importance are its locomotive
and engineering works, which give employment to some 20,000
hands in 90 factories. Next come its cotton-spinning, hosiery,
textile and glove manufactures, in which a large trade is done
with Great Britain and the United States. It is also the seat
of considerable dyeworks, bleachworks, chemical and woollen
factories, and produces leather and straps, cement, small vehicles,
wire-woven goods, carpets, beer and bricks. The town is well
provided with technical schools for training in the various
industries, including commercial, public, economic and agri-
cultural schools, and has a chamber of commerce. There are
also industrial and historical museums, and collections of paint-
ing and natural history. The local communications are main-
tained by an excellent electric tramway system. To the north-
west of the town is the Gothic church of a former Benedictine
monastery, dating from 1514-1525, with a tower of 1897.
Chemnitz is a favourite tourist centre for excursions into the
Erzgebirge, the chain of mountains separating Saxony from
Bohemia.

Chemnitz (Kaminizi) was originally a settlement of the
Sorbian Wends and became a market town in 1 143. Its municipal
constitution dates from the I4th century, and it soon became the
most important industrial centre in the mark of Meissen. A
monopoly of bleaching was granted to the town, and thus a
considerable trade in woollen and linen yarns was attracted to
Chemnitz; paper was made here, and in the i6th century the
manufacture of cloth was very flourishing. In 1 539 the Reforma-
tion was introduced, and in 1546 the Benedictine monastery,
founded about 1136 by the emperor Lothair II. about 2 m. north
of the town, was dissolved. During the Thirty Years' War
Chemnitz was plundered by all parties and its trade was com-
pletely ruined, but at the beginning of the i8th century it had
begun to recover. Further progress in this direction was made

CHEMOTAXIS CHENG

during the ipth century, especially after 1834 when Saxony
joined the German Zollverein.

See Zollner, Geschichte der Fabrik- und Handelsstadt Chemnitz
(1891) ; and Straumer, Die Fabrik- und Handelsstadt Chemnitz (1892).

CHEHOTAXIS (from the stem of " chemistry" and Gr. rAfis,
arrangement), a biological term for the attraction exercised on
living or growing organisms or their members by chemical
substances; e.g. the attraction of the male cells of ferns or
mosses by an organic acid or sugar-solution.

CHENAB (the Greek Acesines), one of the " Five rivers " of the
Punjab, India. It rises in the snowy Himalayan ranges of
Kashmir, enters British territory in the Sialkot district, and flows
through the plains of the Punjab, forming the boundary between
the Rechna and the Jech Doabs. Finally it joins the Jhelum
at Trimmu.

The CHENAB COLONY, resulting from the great success of the
Chenab Canal in irrigating the desert of the Bar, was formed out
of the three adjacent districts of Gujranwala, Jhang, and
Montgomery in 1892, and contained in 1901 a population of
791,861. It lies in the Rechna Doab between the Chenab and
Ravi rivers in the north-east of the Jhang district, and is designed
to include an irrigated area of 25 million acres. The Chenab
Canal (opened 1887) is the largest and most profitable per-
ennial canal in India. The principal town is Lyallpur, called after
Sir J. Broadwood Lyall, lieutenant-governor of the Punjab 1887-
1892, which gives its name to a district created in 1904.

CHENEDOLLE, CHARLES JULIEN LIOULT DE (1769-1833),
French poet, was born at Vire (Calvados) on the 4th of November
1769. He early showed a vocation for poetry, but the outbreak
of the Revolution temporarily diverted his energy. Emigrating
in 1791, he fought two campaigns in the army of Conde, and
eventually found his way to Hamburg, where he met Antoine de
Rivarol, of whose brilliant conversation he has left an account.
He also visited Mme de Stael in her retreat at Coppet. On his
return to Paris in 1799 he met Chateaubriand and his sister
Lucile (Mme de Caud), to whom he became deeply attached.
After her death in 1804, Chenedolle returned to Normandy,
where he married and became eventually inspector of the
academy of Caen (1812-1832). With the exception of occasional
visits to Paris, he spent the rest of his life in his native province.
He died at the chateau de Coisel on the 2nd of December 1833.
He published his Genie de I'Homme in 1807, and in 1820 his
Uludes poetiques, which had the misfortune to appear shortly
after the Meditations of Lamartine, so that the author did not
receive the credit of their real originality. Chenedolle had many
sympathies with the romanticists, and was a contributor to their
organ, the Musefranfaise. His other works include the Esprit de
Rivarol (1808) in conjunction with F. J. M. Fayolle.

The works of Chgnedoll6 were edited in 1864 by Sainte-Beuve,
who drew portraits of him in his Chateaubriand el son groupe and in
an article contributed to the Revue des deux mondes (June 1849).
See also E. Helland, Etude bingraphique et litteraire sur Chenedolle
(1857); Cazin, Notice sur Chenedolle (1869).

CHENERY, THOMAS (1826-1884), English scholar and editor
of The Times, was born in 1826 at Barbados. He was educated at
Eton and Caius College, Cambridge. Having been called to the
bar, he went out to Constantinople as The Times correspondent
just before the Crimean War, and it was under the influence there
of Algernon Smythe (afterwards Lord Strangford) that he first
turned to those philological studies in which he became eminent.
After the war he returned to London and wrote regularly for The
Times for many years, eventually succeeding Delane as editor in
1877. He was then an experienced publicist, particularly well
versed in Oriental affairs, an indefatigable worker, with a rapid
and comprehensive judgment, though he lacked Delane's
intuition for public opinion. It was as an Orientalist, however,
that he had meantime earned the highest reputation, his
knowledge of Arabic and Hebrew being almost unrivalled and his
gift for languages exceptional. In 1868 he was appointed Lord
Almoner's professor of Arabic at Oxford, and retained his
position until he became editor of The Times. He was one of the
company of revisers of the Old Testament. He was secretary for

some time to the Royal Asiatic Society, and published learned
editions of the Arabic classic The Assemblies of Al-Harirl and of
the Machberoth Ithiel. He died in London on the nth of
February 1884.

CHENG, TSCHENG or TSCHIANO (Ger. Scheng), an ancient
Chinese wind instrument, a primitive organ, containing the
principle of the free reed which found application in the accordion,
concertina and harmonium. The cheng resembles a tea-pot
filled with bamboo pipes of graduated lengths. It consists of a
gourd or turned wooden receptacle acting as wind reservoir, in
the side of which is inserted an insufflation tube curved like a
swan's neck or the spout of a tea-pot. The cup-shaped reservoir
is closed by means of a plate of horn pierced with seventeen round
holes arranged round the edge in an unfinished circle, into which
fit the bamboo pipes. The pipes are cylindrical as far as they are
visible above the plate, but the lower end inserted in the wind
reservoir is cut to the shape of a beak, somewhat like the mouth-
piece of the clarinet, to receive the reed. The construction of the
free reed is very simple: it consists of a thin plate of metal gold
according to the Jesuit missionary Joseph Amiot, 1 but brass in
the specimens brought to Europe of the thickness of ordinary
paper. In this plate is cut a rectangular flap or tongue which
remains fixed at one end, while at the other the tongue is filed so
that, instead of closing the aperture, it passes freely through,
vibrating as the air is forced through the pipe (see FREE-REED
VIBRATOR). The metal plate is fastened with wax longitudinally
across the diameter of the beak end of the pipe, a little layer of
wax being applied also to the free end of the vibrating tongue for
the purpose of tuning by adding weight and impetus. About
half an inch above the horn plate a small round hole or stop is
bored through the pipe, which speaks only when this hole is
covered by the finger. A longitudinal aperture about an inch
long cut in the upper end of the bamboo pipe serves to determine
the length of the vibrating column of air proper to respond to the
vibrations of the free reed. The length of the bamboo above this
opening is purely ornamental, as are also four or five of the
seventeen pipes which have no reeds and do not speak, being
merely inserted for the purposes of symmetry in design. The
notes of the cheng, like those of the concertina, speak either by
inspiration or expiration of air, the former being the more usual
method. Mahillon states that performers on the cheng in China
are rare, as the method of playing by inspiration induces in-
flammation of the throat. 2 Amiot, who gives a description of the
instrument with illustrations showing the construction, states
that in the great Chinese encyclopaedia Eulh-ya, articles Yu and
Ho, the Yu of ancient China was the large cheng with nineteen
free reeds (twenty-four pipes), and the Ho the small cheng with
thirteen reeds or seventeen pipes described in this article. The
compass of the latter is given by him as the middle octave with
chromatic intervals, the thirteenth note giving the octave of the
first. Mahillon gives the compass of a modern cheng as follows:

?&^- F-

* 1 = E

V IS 7

5 14 4 or 8 3

E. F. F. Chladni, 3 who examined a cheng sent from China to Herr
Muller, organist of the church of St Nicholas, Leipzig, at the
beginning of the igth century, gives an excellent description of
the instrument, reproducing in illustration a plate from Giulio
Ferrario's work on costume. 4 Miiller's cheng had the same
compass as Mahillon's. Chladni's article was motived by the
publication of an account of the exhibition of G. J. Greni6's
Orgue expressif, invented about 1810, in the Conservatoire of

1 Memoirs sur la musique des Chinois (Paris, 1779), pp. 78 and 82,
pi. vi., or Memoire sur les Chinois, tome vi. pi. vi.

8 Catalogue descriptif, vol. ii. (Ghent, 1896), p. 91 ; also vol. i.
(1880), pp. 29, 44, 154.

3 " Weitere Nachrichten von dem . . . chinesischen Blasinstru-
mente Tscheng oder Tschiang," in Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung
(Leipzig, 1821), Bd. xxiii. No. 22,pp.369, 374 et seq., and illustration
appendix ii.

4 // Costume anticho e moderno (Milan, 1816), pi. 66, vol. i.

CHEN-HAI CHENIER, A. DE

Paris. 1 Greni6's invention, perfected by Alexandre and Debain
about 1840, produced the harmonium. Kratzenstein (see under
HARMONIUM) of St Petersburg was the first to apply the free
reed to the organ in the second half of the i8th century. In-
ventions of similar instruments, which after a short life were
relegated to oblivion, followed at the beginning of the ipth
century. An interesting reproduction of a Persian cheng dating
from the loth or nth century is to be seen on a Persian vase
described and illustrated together with a shawm in the Gazette
archeologique (tome xi., 1886). (K. S.)

CHEN-HAI [CHiNHAi],a district town of China, in the province
of Cheh-kiang, at the mouth of the Yung-kiang, 12 m. N.E.
of Ningpo, in 29 58' N., 121 45' E. It lies at the foot of a hill on
a tongue of land, and is partly protected from the sea on the N.
by a dike about 3 m. long, composed entirely of large blocks of
hewn granite. The walls are 20 ft. high and 3 m. in circumfer-
ence. The defences were formerly of considerable strength, and
included a well-built but now dismantled citadel on a precipitous
cliff, 250 ft. high, at the extremity of the tongue of land on which
the town is built. In the neighbourhood an engagement took
place between the English and Chinese in 1841.

CHENIER, ANDRfiDE (1762-1794), French poet, was born at
Constantinople on the 3oth of October 1762. His father, Louis
Ch6nier, a native of Languedoc, after twenty years of successful
commerce in the Levant as a cloth-merchant, was appointed to a
position equivalent to that of French consul at Constantinople.
His mother, Elisabeth Santi-Lomaca, whose sister was grand-
mother of A. Thiers, was a Greek. When the poet was three
years old his father returned to France, and subsequently from
1768101775 served as consul-general of France in Morocco. The
family, of which Andre was the third son, and Marie- Joseph (see
below) the fourth, remained in France; and after a few years,
during which Andre ran wild with " la tante de Carcasonne," he
distinguished himself as a verse-translator from the classics at
the College de Navarre (the school in former days of Gerson and
Bossuet) in Paris. In 1783 he obtained a cadetship in a French
regiment at Strassburg. But the glamour of the military life
was as soon exhausted by Chenier as it was by Coleridge. He
returned to Paris before the end of the year, was well received by
his family, and mixed in the cultivated circle which frequented
the salon of his mother, among them Lebrun-Pindare, Lavoisier,
Lesueur, Dorat, Parmy, and a little later the painter David. He
was already a poet by predilection, an idyllist and steeped in the
classical archaism of the time, when, in 1784, his taste for the
antique was confirmed by a visit to Rome made in the company
of two schoolfellows, the brothers Trudaine. From Naples, after
visiting Pompeii, he returned to Paris, his mind fermenting with
poetical images and projects, few of which he was destined to
realize. For nearly three years, however, he was enabled to
study and to experiment in verse without any active pressure or
interruption from his family three precious years in which the
first phase of his art as a writer of idylls and bucolics, imitated to
a large extent from Theocritus, Bion and the Greek anthologists,
was elaborated. Among the poems written or at least sketched
during this period were L'Oaristys, L'Aveugle, La Jeune Malade,
Bacchus, Euphrosine and La Jeune Tarentine, the last a synthesis
of his purest manner, mosaic though it is of reminiscences of at
least a dozen classical poets. As in glyptic so in poetic art, the
Hellenism of the time was decadent and Alexandrine rather than
Attic of the best period. But Ch6nier is always far more than an
imitator. La Jeune Tarentine is a work of personal emotion and
inspiration. The colouring is that of classic mythology, but the
spiritual element is as individual as that of any classical poem by
Milton, Gray, Keats or Tennyson. Apart from his idylls and his
elegies, Chenier also experimented from early youth in didactic
and philosophic verse, and when he commenced his Hermes in
1783 his ambition was to condense the Encyclopedic of Diderot
into a poem somewhat after the manner of Lucretius. This poem
was to treat of man's position in the Universe, first in an isolated
state, and then in society. It remains fragmentary, and though

'See Allg. mus. Zt. (Leipzig, 1821), Bd. xxiii. Nos. 9 and 10, pp.
133 and 149 et seq.

some of the fragments are fine, its attempt at scientific exposition
approximates too closely to the manner of Erasmus Darwin to
suit a modern ear. Another fragment called L'Invention sums
Ch6nier's Ars Poetica in the verse " Sur des pensers nouveaux,
faisons des vers antiques." Suzanne represents the torso of a
Biblical poem on a very large scale, in six cantos.

In the meantime, Andre had published nothing, and some of
these last pieces were in fact not yet written, when in November
1787 an opportunity of a fresh career presented itself. The new
ambassador at the court of St James's, M. de la Luzerne, was
connected in some way with the Chenier family, and he offered to
take Andre with him as his secretary. The offer was too good to
be refused, but the poet hated himself on the banks of the fiere
Tamise, and wrote in bitter ridicule of

" Ces Anglais.

Nation toute a vendre & qui peut la payer.
De contree en contree allant au monde entier,
Offrir sa joie ignoble et son faste grossier."

He seems to have been interested in the poetic diction of Milton
and Thomson, and a few of his verses are remotely inspired by
Shakespeare and Gray. To say, however, that he studied
English literature would be an exaggeration. The events of 1 789
and the startling success of his younger brother, Marie- Joseph,
as political playwright and pamphleteer, concentrated all his
thoughts upon France. In April 1790 he could stand London no
longer, and once more joined his parents at Paris in the rue
de Clery.

The France that he plunged into with such impetuosity was
upon the verge of anarchy. A strong constitutionalist, Chenier
took the view that the Revolution was already complete and that
all that remained to be done was the inauguration of the reign of
law. Moderate as were his views and disinterested as were his
motives, his tactics were passionately and dangerously aggressive.
From an idyllist and elegist we find him suddenly transformed
into an unsparing master of poetical satire. His prose Avis au
peuple franqais (August 24, 1790) was followed by the rhetorical
Jeu de paume, a somewhat declamatory moral ode addressed
" a Louis David, peintre." In the meantime he orated at the
Feuillants Club, and contributed frequently to the Journal de
Paris from November 1791 to July 1792, when he wrote his
scorching lambes to Collot d'Herbois, Sur les Suisses revoltes du
regiment de Chdteauvieux. The loth of August uprooted his party,
his paper and his friends, and the management of relatives who
kept him out of the way in Normandy alone saved him from the
massacre of September. In the month following these events his
democratic brother, Marie- Joseph, had entered the Convention.
Andre's sombre rage against the course of events found vent in
the line on the Maenads who mutilated the king's Swiss Guard,
and in the Ode a Charlotte Corday congratulating France that
" Un scelerat de moins rampe dans cette fange." At the express
request of Malesherbes he furnished some arguments to the
materials collected for the defence of the king. After the execu-
tion he sought a secluded retreat on the Plateau de Satory at
Versailles and took exercise after nightfall. There he wrote the
poems inspired by Fanny (Mme Laurent Lecoulteux), including
the exquisite Ode a Versailles, one of his freshest, noblest and
most varied poems.

His solitary life at Versailles lasted nearly a year. On the 7th
of March 1794 he was taken at the house of Mme Piscatory at
Passy. Two obscure agents of the committee of public safety
were in search of a marquise who had flown, but an unknown
stranger was found in the house 'and arrested on suspicion.
This was Andre, who had come on a visit of sympathy. He was
taken to the Luxembourg and afterwards to Saint-Lazare.
During the 140 days of his imprisonment there he wrote the
marvellous lambes (in alternate lines of 12 and 8 syllables), which
hiss and stab like poisoned bullets, and which were transmitted to
his family by a venal gaoler. There he wrote the best known of
all his verses, the pathetic Jeune captive, a poem at once of
enchantment and of despair. Suffocating in an atmosphere of
cruelty and baseness, Chinier's agony found expression almost to
the last in these murderous lambes which he launched against the

CHENIER, M.-J. B. DE

Convention. Ten days before the end, the painter J. B. Suvee
executed the well-known portrait. He might have been over-
looked but for the well-meant, indignant officiousness of his
father. Marie- Joseph had done his best to prevent this, but he
could do nothing more. Robespierre, who was himself on the
brink of the volcano, remembered the venomous sallies in the
Journal de Paris. At sundown on the 25th of July 1794, the very
day of his condemnation on a bogus charge of conspiracy, Andr6
Ch6nier was guillotined. The record of his last moments by La
Touche is rather melodramatic and is certainly not above
suspicion.

Incomplete as was his career he was not quite thirty-two
his life was cut short in a crescendo of all its nobler elements.
Exquisite as was already his susceptibility to beauty and his
mastership of the rarest poetic material, we cannot doubt that
Ch6nier was preparing for still higher flights of lyric passion and
poetic intensity. Nothing that he had yet done could be said
to compare in promise of assured greatness with the lambes, the
Odes and the Jeune Captive. At the moment he left practically
nothing to tell the world of his transcendent genius, and his
reputation has had to be retrieved from oblivion page by page,
and almost poem by poem. During his lifetime only his Jeu
de paume (1791) and Hymne sur les Suisses (1792) had been
given to the world. The Jeune Captive appeared in the Decade
philosophique, Jan. 9, 1795; La Jeune Tarentine in the Mercure
of March 2 2 , 1 801 . Chateaubriand quoted three or four passages
in his Genie du christianisme. Fayette and Lefeuvre-Deumier
also gave a few fragments; but it was not until 1819 that a
first imperfect attempt was made by H. de la Touche to collect
the poems in a substantive volume. Since the appearance of the
editio princeps of Chenier's poems in La Touche's volume, many
additional poems and fragments have been discovered, and an
edition of the complete works of the poet, collated with the MSS.
bequeathed to the Bibliotheque Nationale by Mme Elisa de
Chenier in 1892, has been edited by Paul Dimoff and published
by Delagrave. During the same period the critical estimates
of the poet have fluctuated in a truly extraordinary manner.
Sainte-Beuve in his Tableau of 1828 sang the praises of Chenier
as an heroic forerunner of the Romantic movement and a
precursor of Victor Hugo. Chenier, he said, had " inspired and
determined " Romanticism. This suggestion of modernity in
Chenier was echoed by a chorus of critics who worked the idea
to death; in the meantime, the standard edition of Chenier's
works was being prepared by M. Becq de Fouquieres and was
issued in 1862, but rearranged and greatly improved by the
editor in 1872. The same patient investigator gave his New
Documents on Andre Chenier to the world in 1875.

In the second volume of La Vie litteraire Anatole France
contests the theory of Sainte-Beuve. Far from being an initiator,
he maintains that Chenier's poetry is the last expression of an
expiring form of art. His matter and his form belong of right
to the classic spirit of the i8th century. He is a contemporary,
not of Hugo and Leconte de Lisle, but of Suard and Moreliet.
M. Faguet sums up on the side of M. France in his volume on the
i8th century ,(1890). Chenier's real disciples, according to the
latest view, are Leconte de Lisle and M. de Heredia, mosa'istes
who have at heart the cult of antique and pagan beauty, of
" pure art " and of " objective poetry." Heredia himself
reverted to the judgment of Sainte-Beuve to the effect that
Chenier was the first to make modern verses, and he adds,
" I do not know in the French language a more exquisite fragment
than the three hundred verses of the Bucoliques." Chenier's
influence has been specially remarkable in Russia, where Pushkin
imitated him, Kogloff translated La Jeune Captive, La jeune
Tarentine and other famous pieces, while the critic Vesselovsky
pronounces " II a retabli le lyrisme pur dans la poesie franchise."
The general French verdict on his work is in the main well
summed by Morillot, when he says that, judged by the usual
tests of the Romantic movement of the 'twenties (love for strange
literatures of the North, medievalism, novelties and experiments),
Chenier would inevitably have been excluded from the cenacle of
1817. On the other hand, he exhibits a decided tendency to

the world-ennui and melancholy which was one of the earlier
symptoms of the movement, and he has experimented in French
verse in a manner which would have led to his excommunication
by the typical performers of the i8th century. What is univer-
sally admitted is that Chdnier was a very great artist, who like
Ronsard opened up sources of poetry in France which had long
seemed dried up. In England it is easier to feel his attraction
than that of some far greater reputations in French poetry, for,
rhetorical though he nearly always is, he yet reveals something
of that quality which to the Northern mind has always been of
the very essence of poetry, that quality which made Sainte-
Beuve say of him that he was the first great poet " personnel
et reveur " in France since La Fontaine. His diction is still very
artificial, the poetic diction of Delille transformed in the direction
of Hugo, but not very much. On the other hand, his descriptive
power in treating of nature shows far more art than the Trianin
school ever attained. His love of the woodland and his political
fervour often remind us of Shelley, and his delicate perception of
Hellenic beauty, and the perfume of Greek legend, give us
almost a foretaste of Keats. For these reasons, among others,
Chenier, whose art is destined to so many vicissitudes of criticism
in his own country, seems assured among English readers of a
place among the Dii Majores of French poetry.

The Chenier literature of late years has become enormous. His
fate has been commemorated in numerous plays, pictures and poems,
notably in the fine epilogue of Sully Prudnomme, the Stella of A. de
Vigny, the delicate statue by Puech in the Luxembourg, and the
well-known portrait in the centre of the " Last Days of the Terror."
The best editions are still those of Becq de Fouquieres (Paris, 1862,
1872 and 1881), though these are now supplemented by those of
L. Moland (2 vols., 1889) and R. Guillard (2 vols., 1899). (T.SE.)

CHENIER, MARIE-JOSEPH BLAISE DE (1764-1811), French
poet, dramatist and politician, younger brother of Andre de
Chenier, was born at Constantinople on the nth of February
1 764.' He was brought up at Carcassonne, and educated in
Paris at the College de Navarre. Entering the army at seventeen,
he left it two years afterwards; and at nineteen he produced
Azemire, a two-act drama (acted in 1786), and Edgar, on le page
suppost, a comedy (acted in 1785), which were failures. His
Charles IX was kept back for nearly two years by the censor.
Chenier attacked the censorship in three pamphlets, and the
commotion aroused by the controversy raised keen interest in
the piece. When it was at last produced on the 4th of November
1789, it achieved an immense success, due in part to its political
suggestion, and in part to Talma's magnificent impersonation of
Charles IX. Camilla Desmoulins said that the piece had done
more for the Revolution than the days of October, and a con-
temporary memoir-writer, the marquis de Ferriere, says that
the audience came away " ivre de vengeance et tourmente d'une
soif de sang." The performance was the occasion of a split among
the actors of the Comedie Francaise, and the new theatre in the
Palais Royal, established by the dissidents, was inaugurated
with Henri VIII (1791), generally recognized as Chenier's
masterpiece; Jean Galas, ou I'icole des juges followed in the
same year. In 1792 he produced his Cains Gracchus, which was
even more revolutionary in tone than its predecessors. It was
nevertheless proscribed in the next year at the instance of the
Montagnard deputy Albitte, for an anti-anarchical hemistich
(Des lois et non du sangl); Finelon (1793) was suspended after
a few representations; and in 1794 his Timollon, set to fitienne
Mehul's music, was also proscribed. This piece was played
after the fall of the Terror, but the fratricide of Timoleon became
the text for insinuations to the effect that by his silence Joseph
de Chenier had connived at the judicial murder of Andr6, whom
Joseph's enemies alluded to as A bel. There is absolutely nothing
to support the calumny, which has often been repeated since.
In fact, after some fruitless attempts to save his brother, variously
related by his biographers, Joseph became aware that Andre's
only chance of safety lay in being forgotten by the authorities,
and that ill-advised intervention would only hasten the end.
Joseph Chenier had been a member of the Convention and of

1 This is the date given by G. de Chenier in his La VMU sur la
famUle de Chenier (1844).

CHENILLE CHEOPS

the Council of Five Hundred, and had voted for the death of
Louis XVI.; he had a seat in the tribunate; he belonged to
the committees of public instruction, of general security, and of
public safety. He was, nevertheless, suspected of moderate
sentiments, and before the end of the Terror had become a
marked man. His purely political career ended in 1802, when
he was eliminated with others from the tribunate for his opposi-
tion to Napoleon. In 1801 he was one of the educational jury
for the Seine ; from 1803 to 1606 he was inspector-general of
public instruction. He had allowed himself to be reconciled
with Napoleon's government, and Cyrus, represented in 1804,
was written in his honour, but he was temporarily disgraced
in 1806 for his pitre a Voltaire. In 1806 and 1807 he delivered
a course of lectures at the Athen6e on the language and literature
of France from the earliest years; and in 1808 at the emperor's
request, he prepared his Tableau historique de I'etat el du progris
de la litteraturc fran^aise depuis 1789 jusqu'd 1808, a book con-
taining some good criticism, though marred by the violent
prejudices of its author. He died on the loth of January 1811.
The list of his works includes hymns and national songs among
others, the famous Chant du depart; odes, Sur la mart de
Mirabeau, Sur I' oligarchic de Robespierre, &c.; tragedies which
never reached the stage, Brutus et Cassius, Philippe deux,
Tibere; translations from Sophocles and Lessing, from Gray
and Horace, from Tacitus and Aristotle; with elegies, dithyr-
ambics and Ossianic rhapsodies. As a satirist he possessed
great merit, though he sins from an excess of severity, and is
sometimes malignant and unjust. He is the chief tragic poet
of the revolutionary period, and as Camille Desmoulins expressed
it, he decorated Melpomene with the tricolour cockade.

See the (Euvres completes de Joseph Chenier (8 vols., Paris, 1823-
1826), containing notices of the poet by Arnault and Daunou;
Charles Labitte, ludes litteraires (1846) ; Henri Welschinger, Le
Tht&tre revolutionnaire, ifSQ-iJQQ (1881); and A. Lieby, tude sur
le thULtre de Marie-Joseph Chenier (1902).

CHENILLE (from the Fr. chenille, a hairy caterpillar), a
twisted velvet cord, woven so that the short outer threads
stand out at right angles to the central cord, thus giving a
resemblance to a caterpillar. Chenille is used as a trimming
for dress and furniture.

CHENONCEAUX, a village of central France, in the department
of Indre-et-Loire, on the right bank of the Cher, 20 m. E. by S.
of Tours on the Orleans railway. Pop. (1906) 216. Chenonceaux
owes its interest to its chateau (see ARCHITECTURE: Renaissance
Architecture in France), a building in the Renaissance style
on the river Cher, to the left bank of which it is united by a
two-storeyed gallery built upon five arches, and to the right by
a drawbridge flanked by an isolated tower, part of an earlier
building of the i$th century. Founded in 1515 by Thomas
Bohier (d. 1523), financial minister in Normandy, the chateau
was confiscated by Francis I. in 1535. Henry II. presented
it to his mistress Diane de Poitiers, who on his death was forced
to exchange it for Chaumont-sur-Loire by Catherine de' Medici.
The latter built the gallery which leads to the left bank of the
Cher. Chenonceaux passed successively into the hands of
Louise de Vaudemont, wife of Henry III., the house of Vend6me,
and the family of Bourbon-Conde. In the i8th century it came
into the possession of the farmer-general Claude Dupin (1684-
1769), who entertained the most distinguished people in France
within its walls. In 1864 it was sold to the chemist Theophile
P61ouze, whose wife executed extensive restorations. It sub-
sequently became the property of the Credit Foncier, and again
passed into private occupancy.

CHENOPODIUM, or GOOSE-FOOT, a genus of erect or prostrate
herbs (natural order Chenopodiaceae), usually growing on the
seashore or on waste or cultivated ground. The green angular
stem is often striped with white or red, and, like the leaves,
often more or less covered with mealy hairs. The leaves are
entire, lobed or toothed, often more or less deltoid or triangular
in shape. The minute flowers are bisexual, and borne in dense
axillary or terminal clusters or spikes. The fruit is a membranous
one-seeded utricle often enclosed by the persistent calyx. Ten
species occur in Britain, one of which, C. Bonus-Henricus, Good

King Henry, is cultivated as a pot-herb, in lieu of asparagus^
under the name mercury, and all-good.

CHEOPS, in Herodotus, the name of the king who built the
Great Pyramid in Egypt. Following on a period of good rule
and prosperity under Rhampsinitus, Cheops closed the temples,
abolished the sacrifices and made all the Egyptians labour for
his monument, working in relays of 100,000 men every three
months (see PYRAMID). Proceeding from bad to worse, he
sacrificed the honour of his daughter in order to obtain the money
to complete his pyramid; and the princess built herself besides
a small pyramid of the stones given to her by her lovers. Cheops
reigned 50 years and was succeeded by his brother, Chephren,
who reigned 56 years and built the second pyramid. During
these two reigns the Egyptians suffered every kind of misery
and the temples remained closed. Herodotus continues that
in his own day the Egyptians were unwilling to name these
oppressors and preferred to call the pyramids after a shepherd
named Philition, who pastured his flocks in their neighbour-
hood. At length Mycerinus, son of Cheops and successor of
Chephren, reopened the temples and, although he built the Third
Pyramid, allowed the oppressed people to return to their proper
occupations.

Cheops, Chephren and Mycerinus are historical personages
of the fourth Egyptian dynasty, in correct order, and they built
the three pyramids attributed to them here. But they are
wholly misplaced by Herodotus. Rhampsinitus, the predecessor
of Cheops, appears to represent Rameses III. of the twentieth
dynasty, and Mycerinus in Herodotus is but a few generations
before Psammetichus, the founder of the twenty-sixth dynasty.
Manetho correctly places the great Pyramid kings in Dynasty IV.
InEgyptianthe name of Cheops (Chemmisor Chembisin Diodorus
Siculus, Suphis in Manetho) is spelt Hwfw (Khufu), but the
pronunciation, in late times perhaps Khoouf, is uncertain.
The Greeks and Romans generally accepted the view that Hero-
dotus supplies of his character, and moralized on the uselessness
of his stupendous work; but there is nothing else to prove that
the Egyptians themselves execrated his memory. Modern
writers rather dwell on the perfect organization demanded by his
scheme, the training of a nation to combined labour, the level
attained here by art and in the fitting of masonry, and finally
the fact that the Great Pyramid was the oldest of the seven
wonders of the ancient world and now alone of them survives.
It seems that representations of deities, and indeed any represen-
tations at all, were rare upon the polished walls of the great
monuments of the fourth dynasty, and Petrie thinks that he
can trace a violent religious revolution with confiscation of
endowments at this time in the temple remains at Abydos;
but none the less the wants of the deities were then attended to
by priests selected from the royal family and the highest in the
land. Khufu's work in the temple of Bubastis is proved by a
surviving fragment, and he is figured slaying his enemy at Sinai
before the god Thoth. In late times the priests of Denderah
claimed Khufu as a benefactor; he was reputed to have built
temples to the gods near the Great Pyramids and Sphinx (where
also a pyramid of his daughter Hentsen is spoken of), and there
are incidental notices of him in the medical and religious
literature. The funerary cult of Khufu and Khafre was practised
under the twenty-sixth dynasty, when so much that had fallen
into disuse and been forgotten was revived. Khufu is a leading
figure in an ancient Egyptian story (Papyrus Westcar), but it
is unfortunately incomplete. He was the founder of the fourth
dynasty, and was probably born in Middle Egypt near Beni
Hasan, in a town afterwards known as " Khufu's Nurse," but
was connected with the Memphite third dynasty. Two tablets
at the mines of Wadi Maghara in the peninsula of Sinai, a
granite block from Bubastis, and a beautiful ivory statuette
found by Petrie in the temple at Abydos, are almost all that can
be definitely assigned to Khufu outside the pyramid at Giza
and its ruined accompaniments. His date, according to Petrie,
is 3960-3908 B.C., but in the shorter chronology of Meyer,
Breasted and others he reigned (23 years) about a thousand years
later, c. 2900 B.C.

CHEPSTOW CHER

See Herodotus ii. 124; Diodorus Siculus i. 64; Sethe in Pauly-
Wisspwa's Realencydopddie, s.v. ; W. M. F. Petrie, History of Egypt,
vol. i., and Abydos, part ii. p. 48; J. H. Breasted, History.

(F. LL. G.)

CHEPSTOW, a market town and river-port in the southern
parliamentary division of Monmouthshire, England, on the Wye,
2 m. above its junction with the Severn, and on the Great Western
railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3067. It occupies the
slope of a hill on the western (left) bank of the river, and is
environed by beautiful scenery. The church of St Mary, origin-
ally the conventual chapel of a Benedictine priory of Norman
foundation, has remains of that period in the west front and
the nave, but a rebuilding of the chancel and transepts was
effected in the beginning of the igth century. The church
contains many interesting monuments. The castle, still a mag-
nificent pile, was founded in the nth century by William
Fitz-Osbern, earl of Hereford, but was almost wholly rebuilt
in the I3th. There are, however, parts of the original building in
the keep. The castle occupies a splendid site on the summit of
a cliff above the Wye, and covers about 3 acres. The river is
crossed by a fine iron bridge of five arches, erected in 1816, and
by a tubular railway bridge designed by Sir Isambard Brunei.
There is a free passage on the Wye for large vessels as far as the
bridge. From the narrowness and depth of the channel the tide
rises suddenly and to a great height, forming a dangerous bore.
The exports are timber, bark, iron, coal, cider and millstones.
Some shipbuilding is carried on.

As the key to the passage of the Wye, Chepstow (Estrighorel,
Striguil) was the site successively of British, Roman and Saxon
fortifications. Domesday Book records that the Norman castle
was built by William Fitz-Osbern to defend the Roman road
into South Wales. On the confiscation of his son's estates,
the castle was granted to the earls of Pembroke, and after its
reversion to the crown in 1306, Edward II. in 1310 granted it
to his half-brother Thomas de Brotherton. On the latter's
death it passed, through his daughter Margaret, Lady Segrave,
to the dukes of Norfolk, from whom, after again reverting to the
crown, it passed to the earls of Worcester. It was confiscated
by parliament and settled on Oliver Cromwell, but was restored
to the earls in 1660. The borough must have grown up between
1310, when the castle and vill were granted to Thomas de
Brotherton, and 1432, when John duke of Norfolk died seised
of the castle, manor and borough of Struguil. In 1524 Charles,
first earl of Worcester and then lord of the Marches, granted a
new charter of incorporation to the bailiffs and burgesses of the
town, which had fallen into decay. This was sustained until
the reign of Charles II., when, some dispute arising between the
earl of Bridgwater and the burgesses, no bailiff was appointed
and the charter lapsed. Chepstow was afterwards governed by
a board of twelve members. A port since early times, when the
lord took dues of ships going up to the forest of Dean, Chepstow
had no ancient market and no manufactures but that of glass,
which was carried on for a short time within the ruins of the
castle.

CHEQUE, or CHECK, in commercial law, a bill of exchange
drawn on a banker and signed by the drawer, requiring the
banker to pay on demand a certain sum in money to or to the
order of a specified person or to bearer. In this, its most modern
sense, the cheque is the outcome of the growth of the banking
system of the igth century. For details see BANKS AND BANK-
ING: Law, and BILL OF EXCHANGE. The word check, 1 of which
" cheque " is a variant now general in English usage, signified
merely the counterfoil or indent of an exchequer bill, or any
draft form of payment, on which was registered the particulars
of the principal part, as a check to alteration or forgery. The

wt!- T hV' g Jr aI mea ? in , f " check " 's a move in the game of chess
which directly attacks the king; the word comes through the Old

*uF%Zi ^^ ft T th? M ^' Ut - f f m scaccus of the Pers i an
shah, king, t.e the king in the game of chess; cf. the origin of

rf cJ r?m the Ar ? b ' C * hah - mat < th king is dead. The word was
early used m a transferred sense of a stoppage or rebuff, and so is
applied to anything wh.ch stops or hinders a matter in progresVor
which controls or restrains anything, hence a token, ticket or
counterfoil which serves as a means ofidentification &c

check or counterfoil parts remained in the hands of the banker,
the portion given to the customer being termed a " drawn note "
or " draft." From the beginning of the igth century the word
" cheque " gradually became synonymous with " draft " as
meaning a written order on a banker by a person having money
in the banker's hands, to pay some amount to bearer or to a
person named. Ultimately, it entirely superseded the word
" draft," and has now a statutory definition (Bills of Exchange
Act 1882, s. 73) " a bill of exchange drawn on a banker payable
on demand." The word " draft " has come to have a wider
meaning, that of a bill drawn by one person on another for a sum
of money, or an order (whether on a banker or other) to pay
money. The employment of cheques as a method of payment
offering greater convenience than coin is almost universal in
Great Britain and the United States. Of the transactions
through the banks of the United Kingdom between 86 and 90%
are conducted by means of cheques, and an even higher propor-
tion in the United States. On the continent of Europe the use
of cheques, formerly rare, is becoming more general, particularly
in France, and to some extent in Germany.

CHER, a department of central France, embracing the eastern
part of the ancient province of Berry, and parts of Bourbonnais,
Nivernais and Orleanais, bounded N. by the department of
Loiret, W. by Loir-et-Cher and Indre, S. by Allier and Creuse,
and E. by Nievre. . Pop. (1906) 343,484. Area 2819 sq. m.
The territory of the department is elevated in the south, where
one point reaches 1654 ft., and in the east. The centre is occupied
by a wide calcareous table-land, to the north of which stretches
the plain of Sologne. The principal rivers, besides the Cher and
its tributaries, are the Grande Sauldre and the Petite Sauldre
on the north, but the Loire and Allier, though not falling within
the department, drain the eastern districts, and are available
for navigation. The Cher itself becomes navigable when it
receives the Arnon and Yevre, and the communications of the
department are greatly facilitated by the Canal du Berry, which
traverses it from east to west, the lateral canal of the Loire,
which follows the left bank of that river, and the canal of the
Sauldre. The climate is temperate, and the rainfall moderate.
Except in the Sologne, the soil is generally fertile, but varies
considerably in different localities. The most productive region
is that on the east, which belongs to the valley of the Loire;
the central districts are tolerably fertile but marshy, being often
flooded by the Cher; while in the south and south-west there
is a considerable extent of dry and fertile land. Wheat and oats
are largely cultivated, while hemp, vegetables and various
fruits are also produced. The vine flourishes chiefly in the east
of the arrondissement of Sancerre. The department contains
a comparatively large extent of pasturage, which has given rise
to a considerable trade in horses, cattle, sheep and wool for the
northern markets. Nearly one-fifth of the whole area consists
of forest. Mines of iron are worked, and various sorts of stone
are quarried. Brick, porcelain and glassworks employ large
numbers of the inhabitants. There are also flour-mills, dis-
tilleries, oil-works, saw-mills and tanneries. Bourges and Vierzon
are metallurgical and engineering centres. Coal and wine are
leading imports, while cereals, timber, wool, fruit and industrial
products are exported. The department is served by the Orleans
railway, and possesses in all more than 300 m. of navigable
waterways. It is divided into three arrondissements (29 cantons,
292 communes) cognominal with the towns of Bourges, Saint-
Amand-Mont-Rond, and Sancerre, of which the first is the
capital, the seat of an archbishop and of a court of appeal and
headquarters of the VIII. army-corps. The department
belongs to the acadSmie (educational division) of Paris. Bourges,
Saint-Amand-Mont-Rond, Vierzon and Sancerre (q.v.) are the
principal towns. Mehun-sur- Yevre (pop. 5227), a town with an
active manufacture of porcelain, has a Romanesque church and
a chateau of the i4th century. Among the other interesting
churches of the department, that at St Satur has a fine choir
of the i4th and isth centuries; those of Dun-sur-Auron,
Plaimpied, Aix d'Angillon and Jeanvrin are Romanesque in
style, while Aubigny-Ville has a church of the I2th, i3th and

CHERAT CHERCHEL

15th centuries and a chateau of later date. Drevant, built on
the site of a Roman town, preserves ruins of a large theatre and
other remains. Among the megalithic monuments of Cher,
the most notable is that at Villeneuve-sur-Cher, known as the
Pierre-de-la-Roche.

CHERAT, a hill cantonment and sanatorium hi the Peshawar
district of the North- West Frontier Province, India, 34 m. S.E.
of Peshawar. It is situated at an elevation of 4500 ft., on the
west of the Khattak range, which divides the Peshawar from the
Kohat district. It was first used in 1861, and since then has
been employed during the hot weather as a health station for
the British troops quartered in the hot and malarious vale of
Peshawar.

CHERBOURG, a naval station, fortified town and seaport
of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the
department of Manche, on the English Channel, 232 m. W.N.W.
of Paris on the Ouest-Etat railway. Pop. (1906) town, 35,710;
commune, 43,827. Cherbourg is situated at the mouth of the
Divette, on a small bay at the apex of the indentation formed
by the northern shore of the peninsula of Cotentin. Apart from
a fine hospital and the church of La Trinite dating from the
1 5th century, the town has no buildings of special interest. A
rich collection of paintings is housed hi the h6tel de ville. A
statue of the painter J. F. Millet, born near Cherbourg, stands
in the public garden, and there is an equestrian statue of
Napoleon I. in the square named after him. Cherbourg is a
fortified place of the first class, headquarters of one of the five
naval arrondissements of France, and the seat of a sub-prefect.
It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber
of commerce, a lycee and a naval school. The chief industries
of the town proper are fishing, saw-milling, tanning, leather-
dressing, ship-building, iron and copper-founding, rope-making
and the manufacture of agricultural implements. There are
stone quarries in the environs, and the town has trade in farm
produce.

Cherbourg derives its chief importance from its naval and
commercial harbours, which are distant from each other about
half a mile. The former consists of three main basins cut out
of the rock, and has an area of 55 acres. The minimum depth
of water is 30 ft. Connected with the harbour are dry docks,
the yards where the largest ships in the French navy are con-
structed, magazines, rope walks, and the various workshops
requisite for a naval arsenal of the first class. The works and
town are carefully guarded on every side by redoubts and
fortifications, and are commanded by batteries on the surround-
ing hills. There is a large naval hospital close to the harbour.
The commerical harbour at the mouth of the Divette com-
municates with the sea by a channel 650 yds. long. It consists
of two parts, an outer and tidal harbour 17$ acres in extent, and
an inner basin 15 acres in extent, with a depth on sill at ordinary
spring tide of 25 ft. Outside these harbours is the triangular
bay, which forms the roadstead of Cherbourg. The bay is
admirably sheltered by the land on every side but the north. On
that side it is sheltered by a huge breakwater, over 2 m. in length,
with a width of 650 ft. at its base and 30 ft. at its summit, which
is protected by forts, and leaves passages for vessels to the east
and west. These passages are guarded by forts placed on islands
intervening between the breakwater and the mainland, and
themselves united to the land by breakwaters. The surface
within these barriers amounts to about 3700 acres. Cherbourg
is a port of call for the American, North German Lloyd and other
important lines of transatlantic steamers. The chief exports
are stone for road-making, butter, eggs and vegetables; the
chief imports are coal, timber, superphosphates and wine from
Algeria. Great Britain is the principal customer.

Cherbourg is supposed by some investigators to occupy the
site of the Roman station of Coriallum, but nothing definite is
known about its origin. The name was long regarded as a
corruption of Caesaris Burgus (Caesar's Borough). William
the Conqueror, under whom it appears as Carusbur, provided
it with a hospital and a church; and Henry II. of England on
several occasions chose it as his residence. In 1295 it was

pillaged by an English fleet from Yarmouth-, and in the i4th
century it frequently suffered during the wars against the
English. Captured by the English in 1418 after a four months'
siege, it was recovered by Charles VII. of France in 1450. An
attempt was made under Louis XIV. to construct a military port;
but the fortifications were dismantled in 1688, and further
damage was inflicted by the English in 1758. In 1686 Vauban
planned harbour-works which were begun under Louis XVI.
and continued by Napoleon I. It was left, however, to Louis
Philippe, and particularly to Napoleon III., to complete them,
and their successful realization was celebrated in 1858, in the
presence of the queen of England, against whose dominions they
had at one time been mainly directed. At the close of 1857,
8,000,000, of which the breakwater cost over 2,500,000, had
been expended on the works; in 1889 a further sum of 680,000
was voted by the Chamber of Deputies for the improvement of
the port.

CHERBULIEZ, CHARLES VICTOR (1820-1899), French
novelist and miscellaneous writer, was born on the igth of July
1829, at Geneva, where his father, Andr6 Cherbuliez (1795-1874),
was a classical professor at the university. He was descended
from a family of Protestant refugees, and many years later
Victor Cherbuliez resumed his French nationality, taking
advantage of an act passed in the early days of the Revolution.
Geneva was the scene of his early education; thence he proceeded
to Paris, and afterwards to the universities of Bonn and Berlin.
He returned to his native town and engaged in the profession of
teaching. After his resumption of French citizenship he was
elected a member of the Academy (1881), and having received
the Legion of Honour in 1870, he was promoted to be officer of
the order in 1892. He died on the ist of July 1899. Cherbuliez
was a voluminous and successful writer of fiction. His first book,
originally published in 1860, reappeared in 1864 under the title
of Un Cheval de Phidias: it is a romantic study of art in the
golden age of Athens. He went on to produce a series of novels,
of which the following are the best known: Le Comte Kostia
(1863), Le Prince Vitale (1864), Le Roman d'une honnete femme
(1866), L'Aventure de Ladislas Bolski (1869), Miss Hovel (1875),
Samuel Brohl et Cie (1877), L'ldee de Jean Telerol (1878), Noirs
el rouges (1881), La Vocation du Comte Ghislain (1888), Une
Gageure (1890), Le Secret du precepteur (1893), Jacquine Vanesse
(1898), &c. Most of these novels first appeared in the Revue des
deux mondes, to which Cherbuh'ez also contributed a number
of political and learned articles, usually printed with the pseu-
donym G. Valbert. Many of these have been published in
collected form under the titles L'Allemagne politique (1870),
L'Espagne politique (1874), Profils Grangers (1889), L'Arl et la
nature (1892), &c. The volume ludesde litterdture etd'art (1873)
includes articles for the most part reprinted from Le Temps.
The earlier novels of Cherbuliez have been said with truth to
show marked traces of the influence of George Sand; and in
spite of modification, his method was that of an older school.
He did not possess the sombre power or the intensely analytical
skill of some of his later contemporaries, but his books are
distinguished by a freshness and honesty, fortified by cosmo-
politan knowledge and lightened by unobtrusive humour, which
fully account for their wide popularity in many countries besides
his own. His genius was the reverse of dramatic, and attempts
to present two of his stories on the stage have not succeeded.
His essays have all the merits due to liberal observation and
thoroughness of treatment; their style, like that of the novels,
is admirably lucid and correct. (C.)

CHERCHEL, a seaport of Algeria, in the arrondissement and
department of Algiers, 55 m. W. of the capital. It is the centre
of an agricultural and vine-growing district, but is commercially
of no great importance, the port, which consists of part only of
the inner port of Roman days, being small and the entry difficult.
The town is chiefly noteworthy for the extensive ruins of former
cities on the same site. Of existing buildings the most remarkable
is the great Mosque of the Hundred Columns, now used as a
military hospital. The mosque contains 89 columns of diorite,
surmounted by a variety of capitals brought from other buildings.

CHERCHEN CHERNIGOV

The population of the town in 1906 was 4733; of the commune
of which Cherchel is the centre 11,088.

Cherchel was a city of the Carthaginians, who named it Jol.
Juba II. (25 B.C.) made it the capital of the Mauretanian king-
dom under the name of Caesarea. Juba's tomb, the so-called
Tombeau de la Chretienne (see ALGERIA), is ;J m. E. of the town.
Destroyed by the Vandals, Caesarea regained some of its im-
portance under the Byzantines. Taken by the Arabs it was
renamed by them Cherchel. Khair-ed-Din Barbarossa captured
the city in 1520 and annexed it to his Algerian pashalik. In
the early years of the i8th century it was a commercial city
of some importance, but was laid in ruins by a terrible earthquake
in 1738. In 1840 the town was occupied by the French. The
ruins suffered greatly from vandalism during the early period
of French rule, many portable objects being removed to
museums in Paris or Algiers, and most of the monuments
destroyed for the sake of their stone. Thus the dressed stones
of the ancient theatre served to build barracks; the material
of the hippodrome went to build the church; while the portico
of the hippodrome, supported by granite and marble columns,
and approached by a fine flight of steps, was destroyed by
Cardinal Lavigerie in a search for the tomb of St Marciana. The
fort built by Arouj Barbarossa, elder brother of Khair-ed-Din,
was completely destroyed by the French. There are many
fragments of a white marble temple. The ancient cisterns still
supply the town with water. The museum contains some of
the finest statues discovered in Africa. They include colossal
figures of Aesculapius and Bacchus, and the lower half of a
seated Egyptian divinity in black basalt, bearing the cartouche
of Tethmosis (Thothmes) I. This statue was found at Cherchel,
and is held by some archaeologists to indicate an Egyptian
settlement here about 1500 B.C.

See AFRICA, ROMAN, and the description of the museum by
P. Gauckler in the Musees et collections archeologiques de I'Algerie.

CHERCHEN, a town of East Turkestan, situated at the
northern foot of the Altyn-tagh, a range of the Kuen-lun, in
85 35' E., and on the Cherchen-darya, at an altitude of 4100 ft.
It straggles mostly along the irrigation channels that go off from
the left side of the river, and in 1900 had a population of about
2000. The Cherchen-darya, which rises in the Arka-tagh, a more
southerly range of the Kuen-lun, in 87 E. and 36 20' N., flows
north until it strikes the desert below Cherchen, after which it
turns north-east and meanders through a wide bed (300400 ft.),
beset with dense reeds and flanked by older channels. It is
probable that anciently it entered the disused channel of the
Ettek-tarim, but at present it joins the existing Tarim in the
lake of Kara-buran, a sort of lacustrine " ante-room " to the
Kara-koshun (N. M. Przhevalsky's Lop-nor). At its entrance
into the former lake the Cherchen-darya forms a broad delta.
The river is frozen in its lower course for two to three months
in the winter. From the foot of the mountains to the oasis of
Cherchen it has a fall of nearly 4000 ft., whereas in the 300 m.
or so from Cherchen to the Kara-buran the fall is 1400 ft. The
total length is 500-600 m., and the drainage basin measures
6000-7000 sq. m.

See Sven Hedin, Scientific Results of a Journey in Central Asia,
1899-1902, vols. i. and ii. (1905-1906) ; also TAKLA-MAKAN.

CHEREMISSES, or TCHEREMISSES, a Finnish people living in
isolated groups in the governments of Kazan, Viatka, Novgorod,
Perm, Kostroma and Ufa, eastern Russia. Their name for
themselves is Mori or Mari (people) , possibly identifiable with the
ancient Merians of Suzdalia. Their language belongs to the
Finno-Ugrian family. They number some 240,000. There are
two distinct physical types: one of middle height, black-haired,
brown skin and flat-faced; the other short, fair-haired, white
skinned, with narrow eyes and straight short noses. Those
who live on the right bank of the Volga are sometimes known
as Hill Cheremis, and are taller and stronger than those who
inhabit the swamps r of the left bank. They are farmers and herd
horses and cattle. Their religion is a hotchpotch of Shamanism,
Mahommedanism and Christianity. They are usually mono-
gamous. The chief ceremony of marriage is a forcible abduction

of the bride. The women, naturally ugly, are often disfigured
by sore eyes caused by the smoky atmosphere of the huts. They
wear a head-dress, trimmed with glass jewels, forming a hood
behind stiffened with metal. On their breasts they carry a
breastplate formed of coins, small bells and copper disks.

See Smirinov, Mordres et Tcheremisses (Paris, 1895); J. Aber-
cromby, Pre- arid Proto-historic Finns (London, 1898).

CHERIBON, a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East
Indies, bounded S. and W. by the Preanger regencies, N.W. by
Krawang, N. by the Java Sea, and E. by the residencies of Tegal
andBanyumas. Pop.(i897) i, 577, 521, including867 Europeans,
2 1 , 108 Chinese, and 2016 Arabs and other Asiatic foreigners. The
natives consist of Middle Javanese in the north and Sundanese
in the south. Cheribon has been for many centuries the centre
of Islamism in western Java, and is also the seat of a fanatical
Mahommedan sect controlled from Mecca. The native population
is on the whole orderly and prosperous. The northern half of the
residency is flat and marshy in places, especially in the north-
western corner, while the southern half is mountainous. In the
middle stands the huge volcano Cherimai, clad with virgin
forest and coffee plantations, and surrounded at its foot by rice
fields. South-south-west of Cherimai on the Preanger border is
the Sawal volcano, at whose foot is the beautiful Penjalu lake.
Sulphur and salt springs occur on the slopes of Cherimai, and
near Palimanan there is a cavernous hole called Guwagalang (or
Payagalang), which exhales carbonic acid gas, and is considered
holy by the natives and guarded by priests. There is a similar
hole Li the Preanger. The principal products of cultivation are
sugar, coffee, rice and also tea and pulse (rachang),.the planta-
tions being for the most part owned by Europeans. The chief
towns are Cheribon, a seaport and capital of the residency, the
seaport of Indramaya, Palimanan, Majalengka, Kuningan and
Chiamis. Cheribon has a good open roadstead. The town is
very old and irregularly built, and the climate is unhealthy;
nevertheless it has a lively export trade hi sugar and coffee and
is a regular port of call. In 1008 the two descendants of the old
sultans of Cheribon still resided there in their respective Kratons
or palaces, and each received an annual income of over 1500 for
the loss of his privileges. A country residence belonging to one
of the sultans is situated close to Cheribon and is much visited
on account of its fantastic architecture. Indramaya was a
considerable trading place in the days of the early Portuguese
and Dutch traders. Kuningan is famous for a breed of small
but strong horses.

CHERKASY (Polish, Czerkasy) , a town of Russia, in the
government of Kiev, 96 m. S.E. of Kiev, on the right bank of the
Dnieper. Pop. (1883) 15,740; (1897) 26,619. The inhabitants
(Little Russians) are mostly employed in agriculture and garden-
ing; but sugar and tobacco are manufactured and spirits distilled.
Cherkasy was an important town of the Ukraine in the isth
century, and remained so, under Polish rule, until the revolt
of the Cossack hetman Chmielnicki (1648). It was annexed by
Russia in 1795.

CHERNIGOV, a government of Little Russia, on the left bank
of the Dnieper, bounded by the governments of Mogilev and
Smolensk on the N., Orel and Kursk on the E., Poltava on the
S., and Kiev and Minsk on the W. Area, 20,233 S Q- m - Its
surface is an undulating plain, 650 to 750 ft. high in the north
and 370 to 600 ft. in the south, deeply grooved by ravines and
the valleys of the rivers. In the north, beyond the Desna river,
about one-third of the area is under forest (rapidly disappearing),
and marshes occur along the courses of the rivers; while to the
south of the Desna the soil is dry and sometimes sandy, and
gradually it assumes the characters of a steppe-land as one
proceeds southward. The government is drained by the Dnieper,
which forms its western boundary for 180 m., and by its tributary
the Desna. The latter, which flows through Chernigov for
nearly 350 m., is navigable, and timber is brought down its
tributaries. The climate is much colder in the wooded tracts
of the north than in the south; the average yearly temperature
at the city of Chernigov is 44-4 F. (January, 23; July 68-5).

The population reached 1,996,250 in 1883, 2,316,818 in 1897,

CHERNIGOV CHERRY

and 2,746,300 (estimate) in 1906. It is chiefly Little Russian
(85-6%); but Great Russians (6-1%), mostly Raskolniks,
i.e. nonconformists, and White Russians (5-6%) inhabit the
northern districts. There are, besides, some Germans, as well
as Greeks, at Nyezhin. Agriculture is the principal occupation;
in the north, however, many of the inhabitants are engaged in
the timber trade, and in the production of tar, pitch, wooden
wares, leather goods and so forth. Cattle-breeding is carried
on in the central districts. Beet is extensively cultivated. The
cultivation of tobacco is increasing. Hemp is widely grown in
the north, and the milder climate of the south encourages
gardening. Bee-keeping is extensively carried on by the Raskol-
niks. Limestone, grindstones, china-clay and building-stone
are quarried. Manufactures have begun to develop rapidly of
late, the most important being sugar-works, distilleries, cloth-
mills and glass-works. The government is divided into fifteen
districts, their chief towns being Chernigov (<?..), Borzna (pop.
12,458 in 1897), Glukhov (14,856), Gorodnya (4197), Konotop
(23,083), Kozelets (5160), Krolevets (10,375), Mglin (7631),
Novgorod-Syeversk (9185), Novozybkov (15,480), Nyezhin
(32,481), Oster (5384), Sosnitsa (2507), Starodub (12,451) and
Surazh (4004).

CHERNIGOV, a town of Russia, capital of the above govern-
ment, on the right bank of the Desna, nearly half a mile
from the river, 141 m. by rail N.E. of Kiev on a branch line.
Pop. (1897) 27,006. It is an archiepiscopal see and possesses a
cathedral of the nth century. In 907 the city is mentioned
in the treaty of Oleg as next in importance to Kiev, and in the
nth century it became the capital of the principality of Syeversk
and an important commercial city. The Mongol invasion put
an end to its prosperity in 1239. Lithuania annexed it in the
I4th century, but it was soon seized by Poland, which held it until
the 1 7th century. In 1686 it was definitely annexed to Russia.

CHEROKEE (native Tsalagi, " cave people "), a tribe of North
American Indians of Iroquoian stock. Next to the Navaho they
are the largest tribe in the United States and live mostly in
Oklahoma (formerly Indian territory). Before their removal
they possessed a large tract of country now distributed among
the states of Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, Tennessee and the
west of Florida. Their chief divisions were then settled around
the head-waters of the Savannah and Tennessee rivers, and
were distinguished as the Elati Tsalagi or Lower Cherokees,
i.e. those in the plains, and Atali Tsalagi or Upper Cherokees,
i.e. those on the mountains. They were further divided into
seven exogamous clans. Fernando de Soto travelled through
their country in 1540, and during the next three centuries they
were important factors in the history of the south. They
attached themselves to the English in the disputes and contests
which arose between the European colonizers, formally recog-
nized the English king in 1730, and in 1755 ceded a part of
their territory and permitted the erection of English forts.
Unfortunately this amity was interrupted not long after;
but peace was again restored in 1761. When the revolutionary
war broke out they sided with the royalist party. This led
to their subjugation by the new republic, and they had to
surrender that part of their lands which lay to the south of the
Savannah and east of the Chattahoochee. Peace was made in
1781, and in 1785 they recognized the supremacy of the United
States and were confirmed in their possessions. In 1820 they
adopted a civilized form of government, and in 1827, as a
" Nation," a formal constitution. The gradual advance of white
immigration soon led to disputes with the settlers, who desired
their removal, and exodus after exodus took place; a small part
of the tribe agreed (1835) to remove to another district, but
the main body remained. An appeal was made by them to
the United States government; but President Andrew Jackson
refused to interfere. A force of 2000 men, under the command
of General Winfield Scott, was sent in 1838, and the Cherokees
were compelled to emigrate to their present position. After
the settlement various disagreements between the eastern and
western Cherokees continued for some time, but in 1839 a union
was effected. In the Civil War they all at first sided with the

South; but before long a strong party joined the North, and
this led to a disastrous internecine struggle. On the close of the
contest they were confirmed in the possession of their territory,
but were forced to give a portion of their lands to their eman-
cipated slaves. Their later history is mainly a story of hopeless
struggle to maintain their tribal independence against the white
man. In 1892 they sold their western territory known as the
" Cherokee outlet." Until 1906, when tribal government
virtually ceased, the " nation " had an elected chief, a senate and
house of representatives. Many of them have become Christians,
schools have been established and there is a tribal press. Those
in Oklahoma still number some 26,000, though most are of mixed
blood. A group, known as the Eastern Band, some 1400 strong,
are on a reservation in North Carolina. Their language consists
of two dialects a third, that of the " Lower " branch, having
been lost. The syllabic alphabet invented in 1821 by George
Guess (Sequoyah) is the character employed.

See also Handbook of American Indians (Washington, 1907);
T. V. Parker, Cherokee Indians (N. Y., 1909) ; and INDIANS, NORTH
AMERICAN.

CHEROOT, or SHEROOT (from the Tamil word " shuruttu,"
a roll), a cigar made from tobacco grown in southern India and
the Philippine Islands. It was once esteemed very highly for
its delicate flavour. A cheroot differs from other cigars in having
both ends cut square, instead of one being pointed, and one end
considerably larger than the other.

CHERRAPUNJI, a village in the Khasi hills district of Assam.
It is notable as having the heaviest known rainfall in the world.
In 1861 it registered a total of 905 in., and its annual average
is 458 in. This excessive rainfall is caused by the fact that
Cherrapunji stands on the edge of the plateau overlooking the
plains of Bengal, where it catches the full force of the monsoon
as it rises from the sea. There is a good coal-seam in the vicinity.

CHERRY. As a cultivated fruit-tree the cherry is generally
supposed to be of Asiatic origin, whence, according to Pliny, it
was brought to Italy by Lucullus after his defeat of Mithradates,
king of Pontus, 68 B.C. As with most plants which have been
long and extensively cultivated, it is a matter of difficulty, if not
an impossibility, to identify the parent stock of the numerous
cultivated varieties of cherry; but they are generally referred
to two species: Prunus Cerasus, the wild or dwarf cherry, the
origin of the morello, duke and Kentish cherries, and P. Avium,
the gean, the origin of the geans, hearts and bigarreaus. Both
species grow wild through Europe and western Asia to the
Himalayas, but the dwarf cherry has the more restricted range
of the two in Britain, as it does not occur in Scotland and is rare
in Ireland. The cherries form a section Cerasus of the genus
Prunus; and they have sometimes been separated as a distinct
genus from the plums proper; both have a stone-fruit or drupe,
but the drupe of the cherry differs from that of the plum in not
having a waxy bloom ; further, the leaves of the plum are rolled
(convolute) in the bud, while those of the cherry are folded (con-
duplicate).

The cherries are trees of moderate size and shrubs, having
smooth, serrate leaves and white flowers. They are natives
of the temperate regions of both hemispheres; and the cultivated
varieties ripen their fruit in Norway as far as 63 N. The geans
are generally distinguished from the common cherry by the
greater size of the trees, and the deeper colour and comparative
insipidity of the flesh in the ripe fruit, which adheres firmly
to the " nut " or stone; but among the very numerous cultivated
varieties specific distinctions shade away so that the fruit
cannot be ranged under these two heads. The leading varieties
are recognized as bigarreaus, dukes, morellos and geans. Several
varieties are cultivated as ornamental trees and on account
of their flowers.

The cherry is a well-flavoured sub-acid fruit, and is much
esteemed for dessert. Some of the varieties are particularly
selected for pies, tarts, &c., and others for the preparation of
preserves, and for making cherry brandy. The fruit is also very
extensively employed in the preparation of the liqueurs known
as kirschwasser, ratafia and maraschino. Kirschwasser is made

CHERRYVALE CHERSO

chiefly on the upper Rhine from the wild black gean, and in
the manufacture the entire fruit-flesh and kernels are pulped up
and allowed to ferment. By distillation of the fermented pulp
the liqueur is obtained in a pure, colourless condition. Ratafia
is similarly manufactured, also by preference from a gean.
Maraschino, a highly valued liqueur, the best of which is produced
at Zara in Dalmatia, differs from these in being distilled from
a cherry called marasca, the pulp of which is mixed with honey,
honey or sugar being added to the distillate for sweetening.
It is also said that the flavour is heightened by the use of the
leaves of the perfumed cherry, Primus Mahaleb, a native of
central and southern Europe. .

The wood of the cherry tree is valued by cabinetmakers,
and that of the gean tree is largely used in the manufacture
of tobacco pipes. The American wild cherry, Prunus serotina,
is much sought after, its wood being compact, fine-grained, not
liable to warp, and susceptible of receiving a brilliant polish.
The kernels of the perfumed cherry, P. Mahaleb, are used in
confectionery and for scent. A gum exudes from the stem of
cherry trees similar in its properties to gum arable.

The cherry is increased by budding on the wild gean, obtained
by sowing the stones of the small black or red wild cherries. To
secure very dwarf trees the Prunus Mahaleb has been used for
the May duke, Kentish, morello and analogous sorts, but it is
not adapted for strong-growing varieties like the bigarreaus.
The stocks are budded, or, more rarely, grafted, at the usual
seasons. The cherry prefers a free, loamy soil, with a well-
drained subsoil. Stiff soils and diy gravelly subsoils are both
unsuitable, though the trees require a large amount of moisture,
particularly the large-leaved sorts, such as the bigarreaus. For
standard trees, the bigarreau section should be planted 30 ft.
apart, or more, in rich soil, and the May duke, morello and
similar varieties 20 or 25 ft. apart; while, as trained trees against
walls and espaliers, from 20 to 24 ft. should be allowed for the
former, and from 1 5 to 20 ft. for the latter! In forming the stems
of a standard tree the temporary side-shoots should not be
allowed to attain too great a length, and should not be more
than two years old when they are cut close to the stem. The
first three shoots retained to form the head should be shortened
to about 15 in., and two shoots from each encouraged, one at the
end, and the other 3 or 4 in. lower down. When these have
become established, very little pruning will be required, and
that chiefly to keep the principal branches as nearly equal in
strength as possible for the first few years. Espalier trees
should have the branches about a foot apart, starting from the
stem with an upward curve, and then being trained horizontally.
In summer pruning the shoots on the upper branches must be
shortened at least a week before those on the lower ones. After
a year or two clusters of fruit buds will be developed on spurs
along the branches, and those spurs will continue productive
for an indefinite period. For wall trees any form of training
may be adopted; but as the fruit is always finest on young
spurs, fan-training is probably the most advantageous. A
succession of young shoots should be laid in every year. The
morello, which is of twiggy growth and bears on the young wood,
must be trained in the fan form, and care should be taken to
avoid the very common error of crowding its branches.

Forcing. The cherry will not endure a high temperature nor
close atmosphere. A heat of 45 at night will be sufficient at
starting, this being gradually increased during the first few
weeks to 55, but lowered again when the blossom buds are about
to open. After stoning the temperature may be again gradually
raised to 60, and may go up to 70 by day, or 75 by sun heat,
and 60 at night. The best forcing cherries are the May duke
and the royal duke, the duke cherries being of more compact
growth than the bigarreau tribe and generally setting better;
nevertheless a few of the larger kinds, such as bigarreau Napoleon,
black tartarian and St Margaret's, should be forced for variety.
The trees may be either planted out in tolerably rich soil, or
grown in large pots of good turfy friable calcareous loam mixed
with rotten dung. If the plants are small, they may be put into
12-in. pots in the first instance, and after a year shifted into

iS-in. pots early in autumn, and plunged in some loose or even
very slightly fermenting material. The soil of the pots should
be protected from suow-showers and cold rains. Occasionally
trees have been taken up in autumn with balls, potted and
forced in the following spring; but those which have been
established a year in the pots are to be preferred. Such only as
are well furnished with blossom-buds should be selected. The
trees should be removed to the forcing house in the beginning
of December, if fruit be required very early in the season. During
the first and second weeks it may be kept nearly close; but, as
vegetation advances, air becomes absolutely necessary during
the day, and even at night when the weather will permit. If
forcing is commenced about the middle or third week of December,
the fruit ought to be ripe by about the end of March. After the
fruit is gathered, the trees should be duly supplied with water
at the root, and the foliage kept well syringed till the wood is
mature. (See also FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING.)

CHERRYVALE, a city of Montgomery county, Kansas, U.S.A.,
about 140 m. S.S.E. of Kansas City. Pop. (1890) 2104; (1900)
3472, including 180 negroes; (1905, stats census) 5089; (1910)
4304. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Sania Fe, and the
main line and a branch (of which it is a terminus) of the St Louis
& San Francisco railways. It is in a farming district and in the
Kansas natural-gas and oil-field, and has large zinc smelters, an
oil refinery, and various manufactures, including vitrified brick,
flour, glass, cement and ploughs. Cherryvale was laid out in
1871 by the Kansas City, Lawrence & South Kansas Railway
Company (later absorbed by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa F6).
The mam part of the town was destroyed by fire ia 1873, but
was soon rebuilt, and in 1880 Cherryvale became a city of the
third and afterwards of the second class. Natural gas, which
is used as a factory fuel and for street and domestic lighting,
was found here in 1889, and oil several years later.

CHERRY VALLEY, a village of Otsego county, New York,
U.S.A., in a township of the same name, 68 m. N.W. of Albany.
Pop. (1890) 685; (1900) 772; (1905) 746; (1910)792; of the
township (1910) 1706. It is served by the Delaware &
Hudson railway. Cherry Valley is in the centre of a rich farming
and dairying region, has a chair factory, and is a summer resort
with sulphur and lithia springs. It was the scene of a terrible
massacre during the War of Independence. The village was
attacked on the nth of November 1778 by Walter Butler
(d. 1781) and Joseph Brant with a force of 800 Indians and Tories,
who killed about 50 men, women and children, sacked and
burned most of the houses, and carried off more than 70 prisoners,
who were subjected to the greatest cruelties and privations,
many of them dying or being tomahawked before the Canadian
settlements were reached. Cherry Valley was incorporated
in 1812.

CHERSIPHRON, a Cretan architect, the traditional builder
(with his son Metagenes) of the great Ionic temple of Artemis
at Ephesus set up by the Greeks in the 6th century. Some
remains of this temple were found by J. T. Wood and brought
to the British Museum. In connexion with the pillars, which
are adorned with archaic reliefs, a fragmentary inscription has
been found, recording that they were presented by King Croesus,
as indeed Herodotus informs us. This temple was burned on
the day on which Alexander the Great was born.

CHERSO, an island in the Adriatic Sea, off the east coast
of Istria, from which it is separated by the channel of Farasina.
Pop. (1900) 8274. It is situated in the Gulf of Quarnero, and is
connected with the island of Lussin, lying on the S.W. by a
turn bridge over the small channel of Ossero, and with the
island of Veglia, lying on the E. by the Canale di Mezzo. These
three are the principal islands of the Quarnero group, and form
together the administrative district of Lussin in the Austrian
crownland of Istria. Cherso is an elongated island about 40 m.
long, i \ to 7 m. wide, and has an area of 150 sq. m. It is traversed
by a range of mountains, which attain in the peak of Syss an
altitude of 2090 ft. and form natural terraces, planted with vines
and olive trees, specially in the middle and southern parts of
the island. The northern part is covered with bushes of laurel

CHERSONESE CHERUBIM

and mastic, but there are scarcely any large trees. There is a
scarcity of springs, and the bouses are generally furnished with
cisterns for rain water. In the centre of the island is an interesting
lake called the Vrana or Crow's Lake, situated at an altitude of
40 ft. above the level of the sea, 3$ m. long, i m. wide and 184
ft. deep. This lake is in all probability fed by subterranean
sources. The chief town of the island is Cherso, situated on
the west coast. It possesses a good harbour and is provided
with a shipwright's wharf.

CHERSONESE, CHERSONESUS, or CHERRONESUS (Gr. xv ' 05 !
dry, and vrjtros, island), a word equivalent to " peninsula."
In ancient geography the Chersonesus Thracica, Chersonesus
Taurica or Scythica, and Chersonesus Cimbrica correspond to
the peninsulas of the Dardanelles, the Crimea and Jutland; and
the Golden Chersonese is usually identified with the peninsula
of Malacca. The Tauric Chersonese was further distinguished
as the Great, in contrast to the Heracleotic or Little Chersonese
at its S.W. corner, where Sevastopol now stands.

The Tauric Chersonese 1 (from and century A.D. called
Cherson) was a Dorian colony of Heraclea in Bithynia, founded
in the 5th century B.C. in the Crimea about 2 m. S. of the
modern Sevastopol. After defending itself against the kingdom
of Bosporus (<?.?'.), and the native Scythians and Tauri, and even
extending its power over the west coast of the peninsula, it
was compelled to call in the aid of Mithradates VI. and hy>
general Diophantus, c. no B.C., and submitted to the Pontic
dynasty. On regaining a nominal independence, it came more
or less under the Roman suzerainty. In the latter part of the
ist century A.D., and again in the succeeding century, it received
a Roman garrison and suffered much interference in its internal
affairs. In the time of Constantine, in return for assistance
against the Bosporans and the native tribes, it regained its
autonomy and received special privileges. It must, however,
have been subject to the Byzantine authorities, as inscriptions
testify to restorations of its walls by Byzantine officials. Under
Theophilus the central government sent out a governor to take
the place of the elected magistrate. Even so it seems to have
preserved a measure of self-government and may be said to
have been the last of the Greek city states. Its ruin was brought
about by the commercial rivalry of the Genoese, who forbade
the Greeks to trade there and diverted its commerce to Caffa
and Sudak. Previous to this it had been the main emporium
of Byzantine commerce upon the N. coast of the Euxine.
Through it went the communications of the empire with the
Petchenegs and other native tribes, and more especially with
the Russians. The commerce of Cherson is guaranteed in the
early treaties between the Greeks and Russians, and it was in
Cherson, according to Ps. Nestor's chronicle, that Vladimir was
baptized in 988 after he had captured the city. The constitution
of the city was at first democratic under Damiorgi, a senate and
a general assembly. Latterly it appears to have become aristo-
cratic, and most of the power was concentrated in the hands of
the first archon or Proteuon, who in time was superseded by
the strategus sent out from Byzantium. Its most interesting
political document is the form of oath sworn to by all the citizens
in the 3rd century B.C.

The remains of the city occupy a space about two-thirds of a
mile long by half a mile broad. They are enclosed by a Byzantine
wall. Foundations and considerable remains of a Greek wall
going back to the 4th century B.C. have been found beneath
this in the eastern or original part of the site. Many Byzantine
churches, both cruciform and basilican, have been excavated.
The latter survived here into the I3th century when they had
long been extinct in other Greek-speaking lands. The churches
were adorned with frescoes, wall and floor mosaics, some well
preserved, and marble carvings similar to work found at Ravenna.
The fact that the site has not been inhabited since the I4th
century makes it important for our knowledge of Byzantine
life. The city was used by the Romans as a place of banishment :
St Clement of Rome was exiled hither and first preached the

1 In Pliny " Heraclea Chersonesus," probably owing to a confusion
with the name of the mother city.

Gospel; another exile was Justinian II., who is said to have
destroyed the city in revenge. We have a considerable series
of coins from the 3rd century B.C. to about A.D. 200, and also
some of Byzantine date.

See B. Koehne, Beitr&ge zur Geschichte von Cherronesus in Taurien
(St Petersburg, 1848) ; art. " Chersonesos " (20) by C. G. Brandis in
Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopiidie, vol. iii. 221; A. A. Bobrinskoj,
Chersonesus Taurica (St Petersburg, 1905) (Russian); V. V. Laty-
shev, Inscrr. Orae Septentr. Ponti Euxini,\o\s. i. and iv. Reports of ex-
cavations appear in the Compte rendu of the Imperial Archaeological
Commission of St Petersburg from 1888 and in its Bulletin. See
E. H. Minns, Scythians and Greeks (Cambridge, 1907). (E. H. M.)

CHERTSEY, a market town in the Chertsey parliamentary
division of Surrey, England, 22 m. W.S.W. from London by
the London & South-Western railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 12,762. It is pleasantly situated on the right bank of
the Thames, which is crossed by a bridge of seven arches, built
of Purbeck stone in 1785. The parish church, rebuilt in 1808,
contains a tablet to Charles James Fox, who resided at St
Anne's Hill in the vicinity, and another to Lawrence Tomson, a
translator of the New Testament in the I7th century. Hardly
any remains are left of a great Benedictine abbey, whose buildings
at one time included an area of 4 acres. They fell into almost
complete decay in the I7th century, and a "fair house" was
erected out of the ruins by Sir Nicholas Carew of Beddington.
The ground-plan can be traced; the fish-ponds are complete;
and carved stones, coffins and encaustic tiles of a peculiar
manufacture are frequently exhumed. Among the abbots the
most famous was John de Rutherwyk, who was appointed in
1307, and continued, till his death in 1346, to carry on a great
system of alteration and extension, which almost made the abbey
a new building. The house in which the poet Cowley spent the
last years of his life remains, and the chamber in which he
died is preserved unaltered. The town is the centre of a large
residential district. Its principal trade is in produce for the
London markets.

The first religious settlement in Surrey, a Benedictine abbey,
was founded in 666 at Chertsey (Cerotesei, Certesey), the manor
of which belonged to the abbot until 1 539, since when it has been
a possession of the crown. In the reign of Edward the Confessor
Chertsey was a large village and was made the head of Godley
hundred. The increase of copyhold under Abbot John de
Rutherwyk led to discontent, the tenants in 1381 rising and
burning the rolls. Chertsey owed its importance primarily to
the abbey, but partly to its geographical position. Ferries over
the Redewynd were subjects of royal grant in 1340 and 1399;
the abbot built a new bridge over the Bourne in 1333, and
wholly maintained the bridge over the Thames when it replaced
the i4_th century ferry. In 1410 the king gave permission to
build a bridge over the Redewynd. As the centre of an agri-
cultural district the markets of Chertsey were important and are
still held. Three days' fairs were granted to the abbots in 1129
for the feast of St Peter ad Vincula by Henry III. for Holy Rood
day; in 1282 for Ascension day; and a market on Mondays
was obtained in 1282. In 1590 there were many poor, for whose
relief Elizabeth gave a fair for a day in Lent and a market on
Thursdays. These fairs still survive.

See Lucy Wheeler, Chertsey Abbey (London, 1905); Victoria
County History, Surrey.

CHERUBIM, the Hebrew plural of "cherub" (kgrOb),
imaginary winged animal figures of a sacred character, referred
to in the description of Solomon's temple (i Kings vi. 23-35,
vii. 29, viii. 6, 7), and also in that of the ark of the tabernack
(Ex. xxv. 18-22, xxvi. i, 31, xxxvii. 7-9). The cherub-images,
where such occur, represent to the imagination the supernatural
bearers of Yahweh's throne or chariot, or the guardians of His
abode; the cherub-carvings at least symbolize His presence,
and communicate some degree of His sanctity. In Gen. iii. 24
the cherubim are the guards of Paradise; Ezek. xxviii. 14, 16
cannot be mentioned here, the text being corrupt. We also find
(i Sam. iv. 4; 2 Sam. vi. 2) as a divine title " that sitteth upon
the cherubim"; here it is doubted whether the cherubim are
the material ones in the temple, or those which faith assumes and

CHERUBINI

the artist tries to represent the supernatural steeds upon which
Yahweh issues forth to interfere in human affairs. In a poetic
theophany (Ps. xviii. 10) we find " upon a cherub " parallel to
"upon the wings of the wind" (cp. Isa. xix. i; Ps. civ. 3).
One naturally infers from this that the " cherub " was sometimes
viewed as a bird. For the clouds, mythologically, are birds.
" The Algonkins say that birds always make the winds, that they
create the waterspouts, and that the clouds are the spreading
and agitation of their wings." " The Sioux say that the thunder
is the sound of the cloud-bird flapping his wings." If so, Ps. xviii.
10 is a solitary trace of the archaic view of the cherub. The
bird, however, was probably a mythic, extra-natural bird. At
any rate the cherub was suggested by and represents the storm-
cloud, just as the sword in Gen. iii. 24 corresponds to the lightning.
In Ezek. i. the four visionary creatures are expressly connected
with a storm-wind, and a bright cloud (ver. 4). Elsewhere
(xli. 18) the cherub has two faces (a man's and a bird's), but
in i. 10 and x. 14 each cherub has four faces, a view tastefully
simplified in the Johannine Apocalypse (Rev. iv. 7).

It is best, however, to separate Ezekiel from other writers,
since he belongs to what may be called a great mythological
revival. Probably his cherubim are a modification of older
ones, which may well have been of a more sober type. His own
accounts, as we have seen, vary. Probably the cherub has
passed through several phases. There was a mythic bird-cherub,
and then perhaps a winged animal-form, analogous to the winged
figures of bulls and lions with human faces which guarded
Babylonian and Assyrian temples and palaces. Another analogy
is furnished by the winged genii represented as fertilizing the
sacred tree the date-palm (Tylor); here the body is human,
though the face is sometimes that of an eagle. It is perhaps even
more noteworthy that figures thought to be cherubs have been
found at Zenjirli, within the ancient North Syrian kingdom of
Ya'di (see Jeremias, Das Alte Testament im Lichte des Allen
Orients, pp. 350 f.); we may combine this with the fact that one
of the great gods of this kingdom was called Rakab'el or Rekub'el
(also perhaps Rakab or Rekub). A Sabaean (S. Arabian)
name Karab'el also exists. The kerubim might perhaps be
symbolic representatives of the god Rakab'el or Rekub'el,
probably equivalent to Hadad, whose sacred animal was the bull.
That the figures symbolic of Rakab or Hadad were compounded
or amalgamated by the Israelites with those symbolic of Nergal
(the lion-god) and Ninib (the eagle-god), is not surprising.

See further " Cherubim," in Ency. Bib. and Hast. D.B.; Cheyne,
Genesis; Tylor, Proc. Sac. Bibl. Arch. xii. 383 ff. ; Zimmern, Die
Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, pp. 529 f., 631 f. ; Dibelius,
Die Lade Jahves (1906), pp. 72-86. (T. K. C.)

CHERUBINI, MARIA LUIGI CARLO ZENOBIO SALVATORE

(1760-1842), Italian musical composer, was born at Florence
on the I4th of September 1760, and died on the isth of March
1842 in Paris. His father was accompanist (Maestro al Cembalo)
at the Pergola theatre. Cherubini himself, in the preface of his
autograph catalogue of his own works, states, " I began to learn
music at six and composition at nine, the former from my father,
the latter from Bartolomeo and Alessandro Felici, and, after
their death, from Bizzarri and J Castrucci." By the time he
was sixteen he had composed a great deal of church music, and
in 1777 he went to Bologna, where for four years he studied under
Sarti. This deservedly famous master well earned the gratitude
which afterwards impelled Cherubini to place one of his double
choruses by the side of his own Et Vitam Venturi as the crown
of his Treatise on Counterpoint and Fugue, though the juxta-
position is disastrous for Sarti. But besides grounding Cherubini
in the church music for which he had early shown so special a
bent, Sarti also trained him in dramatic composition; some-
times, like the great masters of painting, entrusting his pupil
with minor parts of his own works. From 1780 onwards for the
next fourteen years dramatic music occupied Cherubini almost
entirely. His first complete opera, Quinto Fabio, was produced
in 1780, and was followed in 1782 by Armida, Adriano in Siria,
and other works. Between 1782 and 1784 the successful pro-
duction of five operas in four different towns must have secured

Cherubini a dignified position amongst his Italian contemporaries;
and in 1784 he was invited to London to produce two works for
the Italian opera there, one of which, La Finta Frincipessa, was
favourably received, while the other, Giulio Sabino, was, accord-
ing to a contemporary witness, " murdered " by the critics.

In 1786 he left London for Paris, which became his home after
a visit to Turin in 1787-1788 on the occasion of the production
there of his Ifigenia in Aulide. With Cherubini, as with some
other composers first trained in a school where the singer reigned
supreme, the influence of the French dramatic sensibility proved
decisive, and his first French opera, Dtmophon (1788), though
not a popular success, already marks a departure from the
Italian style, which Cherubini still cultivated in the pieces he
introduced into the works of Anfossi, Paisiello and Cimarosa,
produced by him as director of the Italian opera in Paris (estab-
lished in 1789). As in Paris Gluck realized his highest ambitions,
and even Rossini awoke to a final effort of something like dra-
matic life in Guittaume Tell, so in Paris Cherubini became a
great composer. If his melodic invention had been as warm as
Gluck's, his immensely superior technique in every branch of
the art would have made him one of the greatest composers that
ever lived. But his personal character shows in quaint exaggera-
tion the same asceticism that in less sour and more negative
form deprives even his finest music of the glow of that lofty
inspiration that fears nothing.

With Lodoiska (1791) the series of Cherubini's masterpieces
begins, and by the production of Medee (1797) his reputation was
firmly established. The success of this sombre classical tragedy,
which shows Cherubini's genius in its full power, is an honour to
the Paris public. If Cherubini had known how to combine his
high ideals with an urbane tolerance of the opinions of persons of
inferior taste, the severity of his music would not have prevented
his attaining the height of prosperity. But Napoleon Bonaparte
irritated him by an enthusiasm for the kind of Italian music
against which his whole career, from the time he became Sarti's
pupil, was a protest. When Cherubini said to Napoleon, " Citoyen
General, I perceive that you love only that music which does not
prevent you thinking of your politics," he may perhaps have been
as firmly convinced of his own conciliatory manner as he was
when many years afterwards he " spared the feelings " of a
musical candidate by " delicately " telling him that he had " a
beautiful voice and great musical intelligence, but was too ugly for
a public singer." Napoleon seems to have disliked opposition in
music as in other matters, and the academic offices held by
Cherubini under him were for many years far below his deserts.
But though Napoleon saw no reason to conceal his dislike of
Cherubini, his appointment of Lesueur in 1804 as his chapel-
master must not be taken as an evidence of his hostility. Lesueur
was not a great genius, but, although recommended for the post
by the retiring chapelmaster, Paesiello (one of Napoleon's
Italian favourites), he was a very meritorious and earnest
Frenchman whom the appointment saved from starvation.
Cherubini's creative genius was never more brilliant than at this
period, as the wonderful two-act ballet, Anacreon, shows; but
his temper and spirits were not improved by a series of dis-
appointments which culminated in the collapse of his prospects of
congenial success at Vienna, where he went in 1805 in compliance
with an invitation to compose an opera for the Imperial theatre.
Here he produced, under the title of Der Wassertrager, the great
work which, on its first production on the 7th of January 1801
(26 Nivdse, An 8) as Les Deux JournSes, had thrilled Paris with the
accents of a humanity restored to health and peace. It was
by this time an established favourite in Austria. On the 2$th
of February Cherubini produced Faniska, but the war between
Austria and France had broken out immediately after his
arrival, and public interest in artistic matters was checked by
the bombardment and capitulation of Vienna. Though the
meeting between Cherubim and the victorious Napoleon was
not very friendly, he was called upon to direct the music at
Napoleon's soirees at Schonbrunn. But this had not been his
object in coming to Vienna, and he soon returned to a retired
and gloomy life in Paris.

CHERUBINI

His stay at Vienna is memorable for his intercourse with
Beethoven, who had a profound admiration for him which he
could neither realize nor reciprocate. It is too much to expect
that the mighty genius of Beethoven, which broke through all
rules in vindication of the principles underlying them, would
be comprehensible to a mind like Cherubini's, in which, while
the creative faculties were finely developed, the critical faculty
was atrophied and its place supplied by a mere disciplinary
code inadequate even as a basis for the analysis of his own
works. On the other hand, it would be impossible to exaggerate
the influence Les Deux Journees had on the lighter parts of
Beethoven's Fidelia^ Cherubini's librettist was also the author
of the libretto from which Fidelia was adapted, and Cherubini's
score was a constant object of Beethoven's study, not only
before the production of the first version of Fidelia as Leonore,
but also throughout Beethoven's life. Cherubini's record of
his impressions of Beethoven as a man is contained in the
single phrase, " II 6tait toujours brusque," which at least shows
a fine freedom from self-consciousness on the part of the man
whose only remark on being told of the death of Brod, the famous
oboist, was, " Ah, he hadn't much tone " (" Ah, petit son ").
Of the overture to Leonore Cherubini only remarked that he
could not tell what key it was in, and of Beethoven's later
style he observed, " It makes me sneeze." Beethoven's brusque-
ness, notorious as it was, did not prevent him from assuring
Cherubini that he considered him the greatest composer of the
age and that he loved him and honoured him. In 1806 Haydn
had just sent out his pathetic " visiting card " announcing that
he was past work; Weber was still sowing wild oats, and Schubert
was only nine years old. We need not, then, be surprised at
Beethoven's judgment. And though we must regret that
Cherubini's disposition prevented him from understanding
Beethoven, it would be by no means true to say that he was
uninfluenced at least by the sheer grandeur of the scale which
Beethoven had by that time established as the permanent
standard for musical art. Grandeur of proportion was, in fact,
eminently characteristic of both composers, and the colossal
structure of such a movement as the duet Perfides ennemis in
MM.ee is almost inconceivable without the example of Beethoven's
C minor trio, op. i, No. 3, published two years before it; while
the cavatina Eterno iddio in Faniska is not only worthy of
Beethoven but surprisingly like him in style.

After Cherubini's disappointing visit to Vienna he divided
his time between teaching at the conservatoire and cutting up
playing-cards into figures and landscapes, which he framed and
placed round the walls of his study. Not until 1809 was he
aroused from this morbid indolence. He was staying in retire-
ment at the country seat of the prince de Chimay, and his
friends begged him to write some music for the consecration of
a church there. After persistent refusals he suddenly surprised
them with a mass in F for three-part chorus and orchestra.
With this work the period of his great church music may be said
to begin; although it was by no means the end of his career
as an opera writer, which, in fact, lasted as late as his seventy-
third year. This third period is also marked by some not un-
important instrumental compositions. An early event in the
annals of the Philharmonic Society was his invitation to London
in 1815 to produce a symphony, an overture and a vocal piece.
The symphony (hi D) was afterwards arranged with a new slow
movement as the string quartet in C (1829), a fact which, taken
in connexion with the large scale of the work, illustrates Cheru-
bini's deficient sense of style in chamber music. Nevertheless all
the six string quartets written between 1814 and 1837 are
interesting works performed with success at the present day,
though the last three, discovered hi 1889, are less satisfactory
than the earlier ones. The requiem hi C minor (1817) caused
Beethoven to declare that if he himself ever wrote a requiem
Cherubini's would be his model.

At the eleventh hour Cherubini received recognition from
Napoleon, who, during the Hundred Days, made him chevalier of
the Legion of Honour. Then, with the restoration of the Bour-
bons, the very fact that Cherubini had not been persona grata

with Napoleon brought him honour and emoluments. He
was appointed, jointly with Lesueur, as composer and conductor
to the Chapel Royal, and in 1822 he obtained the permanent
directorship of the conservatoire. This brought him into con-
tact, for the most part unfriendly, with all the most talented
musicians of the younger generation. It is improbable that
Berlioz would have been an easy subject for the wisest and
kindest of spiritual guides; but no influence, repellent or
attractive, could have been more disastrous for that passionate,
quick-witted and yet eminently puzzle-headed mixture of
Philistine and genius, than the crabbed old martinet whose
regulations forbade the students access to Gluck's scores in the
library, and whose only theory of art (as distinguished from his
practice) is accurately formulated in the following passage from
Berlioz's Grande Traitt de I' instrumentation et d' orchestration:
" It was no use for the modern composer to say, ' But do just
listen! See how smoothly this is introduced, how well motived,
how deftly connected with the context, and how splendid it
sounds 1' He was answered, 'That is not the point. This
modulation is forbidden; therefore it must hot be made.' "
The lack of really educative teaching, and the actual injustice
for which Cherubini's disciplinary methods were answerable,
did much to weaken Berlioz's at best ill-balanced artistic sense,
and it is highly probable that, but for the kindliness and com-
parative wisdom of his composition master, Lesueur, he would
have broken down from sheer lack of any influence which could
command the respect of an excitable youth starving hi the
pursuit of a fine art against the violent opposition of his family.
Only when Mendelssohn, at the age of seventeen, visited Paris
in 1825, did Cberubini startle every one by praising a young
composer to his face.

In 1833 Cherubini produced his last work for the stage, AH
Baba, adapted (with new and noisy features which excited
Mendelssohn's astonished disgust) from a manuscript opera,
Koukourgi, written forty years earlier. It is thus, perhaps, not
a fair illustration of the vigour of his old age; but the requiem
in D minor (for male voices), written in 1836, is one of his greatest
works, and, though not actually his last composition, is a worthy
close to the long career of an artist of high ideals who, while
neither by birth nor temperament a Frenchman, must yet be
counted with a still greater foreigner, Gluck, as the glory of
French classical music. In this he has no parallel except his
friend and contemporary, Mehul, to whom he dedicated Medie,
and who dedicated to him the beautiful Ossianic one-act opera
Uthal. The direct results of his teaching at the conservatoire
were the steady, though not as yet unhealthy, decline of French
opera into a lighter style, under the amiable and modest Boieldieu
and the irresponsible and witty Auber; for, as we have seen,
Cherubini was quite incapable of making his ideals intelligible
by any means more personal than his music; and the crude
grammatical rules which he mistook for the eternal principles
of his own and of all music had not the smallest use as a safeguard
against vulgarity and pretentiousness.

Lest the passage above quoted from Berlioz should be suspected
of bias or irrelevance, we cite a few phrases from Cherubini's
Treatise on Counterpoint and Fugue, of which, though the letter-
press is by his favourite pupil, Halevy, the musical examples
and doctrine are beyond suspicion his own. Concerning the
16th-century idiom, incorrectly but generally known as the
" changing note " (an idiom which to any musical scholar is as
natural as " attraction of the relative " is to a Greek scholar),
Cherubini remarks, " No tradition gives us any reason why the
classics thus faultily deviated from the rule." Again, he dis-
cusses the use of " suspensions " in a series of chords which
without them would contain consecutive fifths, and after making
all the observations necessary for the rational conclusion that
the question whether the fifths are successfully disguised or not
depends upon the beauty and force of the suspensions, he merely
remarks that " The opinion of the classics appears to me
erroneous, notwithstanding that custom has sanctioned it, for,
on the principle that the discord is a mere suspension of the
chord, it fhould not affect the nature of the chord. But since

CHERUEL CHESHIRE

the classics have pronounced judgment we must of course
submit." In the whole treatise not one example is given from
Palestrina or any other master who handled as a living language
what are now the forms of contrapuntal discipline. As a dead
language Cherubini brought counterpoint up to date by abandon-
ing the church modes; but in true severity of principle, as
in educational stimulus, his treatise shows a deplorable falling
off from the standard set a hundred years before in Fux's Gradus
ad Parnassum with its delightful dialogues between master and
pupil and its continual appeal to artistic experience. Whatever
may have been Cherubini's success in imparting facility and
certainty to his light-hearted pupils who established 19th-century
French opera as a refuge from the terrors of serious art, there
can be no doubt that his career as a teacher did more harm than
good. In it the punishment drill of an incompetent schoolmaster
was invested with the authority of a great composer, and by it
the false antithesis between the " classical " and the " romantic "
was erected into a barrier which many critics still find an insuper-
able obstacle to the understanding of the classical spirit. And
yet as a composer Cherubini was no pseudo-classic but a really
great artist, whose purity of style, except at rare moments, just
failed to express the ideals he never lost sight of, because in his
love of those ideals there was too much fear.

His principal works are summarized by Fetis as thirty-two operas,
twenty-nine church compositions, four cantatas and several instru-
mental pieces, besides the treatise on counterpoint and fugue.

Good modern full scores of the two Requiems and of Les Deux
Journees (the latter unfortunately without the dialogue, which,
however, is accessible in its fairly good German translation in the
Reclam Bibliothek), and also of ten opera overtures, are current in
the Peters edition. Vocal scores of some of the other operas are not
difficult to get. The great Credo is in the Peters edition, but is
becoming scarce. The string quartets are in Payne's Miniature
Scores. It is very desirable that the operas, from Demophon onwards,
should be republished in full score.

See also E. Bellasis, Cherubini (1874) ; and an article with personal
reminiscences by the composer Ferdinand Hiller, in Macmillan's
Magazine (1875). A complete catalogue of his compositions (1773-
1841) was edited by Bottee du Toulmon. (D. F. T.)

CH&RUEL, PIERRE ADOLPHE (1800-1891), French historian,
was born at Rouen on the I7th of January 1809. He. was
educated at the Ecole Normale Superieure, and became a fellow
(agrege) in 1830. His early studies were devoted to his native
town. His Histoire de Rouen sous la domination anglaise au
XV' sti.de (1840) and Histoire de Rouen pendant Vepoque com-
munale, 1150-1382 (Rouen, 1843-1844), are meritorious pro-
ductions for a time when the archives were neither inventoried
nor classified, and contain useful documents previously un-
published. His theses for the degree of doctor, De I'adminis-
tration de Louis XIV d'apres les Memoir es inedits d'Olivier
d'Ormesson and De Maria Stuarta et Henrico III. (1849), led
him to the study of general history. The former was expanded
afterwards under the title Histoire de I' administration monarchique
en France depuis Vavenemsnt de Philippe- Auguste jusqu'd. la
mart de Louis XIV (1855), and in 1855 he also published his
Dictionnaire historique des institutions, mceurs et coutumes de
la France, of which many editions have appeared. These works
may still be consulted for the I7th century, the period upon
which Cheruel concentrated all his scientific activity. He edited
successively the Journal d'Olivier Lefevre d'Ormesson (1860-1862) ,
interesting for the history of the parlement of Paris during the
minority of Louis XIV.; Leltres du cardinal Mazarin pendant
son ministere (6 vols., 1870-1891), continued by the vicomte
G. d'Avenel; and Memoires du due de Saint-Simon, published
for the first time according to the original MSS. (2 editions,
1856-1858 and 1878-1881). To Saint-Simon also he devoted
two critical studies, which are acute but not definitive: Saint-
Simon considere comme historien de Louis XIV (1865) and
Notice sur la vie et sur les memoires du due de Saint-Simon (1876).
The latter may be considered as an introduction to the famous
Memoires. Among his later writings may be mentioned the
Histoire de la France pendant la minorite de Louis XIV (4 vols.,
1880) and Histoire de la France sous le ministere de Mazarin
(3 vols., 1882-1883). These two works are valuable for abund-
ance of facts, precision of details, and clear and intelligent

arrangement, but are characterized by a slightly frigid style.
In their compilation Che'ruel used a fair number of unpublished
documents. To the student of the second half of the 1 7th century
in France the works of Ch6ruel are a mine of information. He
died in Paris on the ist of May 1891.

CHERUSCI, an ancient German tribe occupying the basin
of the Weser to the north of the Chatti. Together with the
other tribes of western Germany they submitted to the Romans
in 11-9 B.C., but in A.D. 9 Arminius, one of their princes, rose in
revolt, and defeated and slew the Roman general Quintilius
Varus with his whole army. Germanicus Caesar made several
unsuccessful attempts to bring them into subjection again. By
the end of the ist century the prestige of the Cherusci had
declined through unsuccessful warfare with the Chatti. Their
territory was eventually occupied by the Saxons.

Tacitus, Annals, \. 2, II, 12, 13; Germania, 36; Strabo, p. 291 f.;
E. Devrient, in Neue Jahrb.f. d. klass. Alter. (1900), p. 517.

CHESELDEN, WILLIAM (1688-1752), English surgeon, was
born at Somerby, Leicestershire, on the ipth of October 1688.
He studied anatomy in London under William Cowper (1666-
1709), and in 1713 published his Anatomy of the Human Body,
which achieved great popularity and went through thirteen
editions. In 1718 he was appointed an assistant surgeon at
St Thomas's hospital (London), becoming full surgeon in the
following year, and he was also chosen one of the surgeons to
St George's hospital on its foundation in 1733. He retired from
St Thomas's in 1738, and died at Bath on the loth of April
1752. Cheselden is famous for his " lateral operation for the
stone," which he first performed in 1727. He also effected a
great advance in ophthalmic surgery by his operation of iridec-
tomy, described in 1728, for the treatment of certain forms of
blindness by the production of an " artificial pupil." He at-
tended Sir Isaac Newton in his last illness, and was an intimate
friend of Alexander Pope and of Sir Hans Sloane.

CHESHAM, a market town in the Aylesbury parliamentary
division of Buckinghamshire, England, 26 m. W.N.W. of London
by the Metropolitan railway. Pop. of urban district (1901)
7245. It is pleasantly situated in the narrow valley of the river
Chess, closely flanked by low wooded hills. The church of St
Mary is cruciform and mainly Perpendicular. Some ancient
frescoes and numerous monuments are preserved. All sorts of
small dairy utensils, chairs, malt-shovels, &c., are made of
beech, the growth of which forms a feature of the surrounding
country. Shoemaking is also carried on. In Waterside hamlet,
adjoining the town, are flour-mills, duck farms, and some of the
extensive watercress beds for which the Chess is noted, as it is
also for its trout-fishing.

CHESHIRE, a north-western county of England, bounded N.
by Lancashire, N.E. by Yorkshire and Derbyshire, S.E. by
Staffordshire, S. by Shropshire, W. by Denbighshire and Flint,
and N.W. by the Irish Sea. Its area is 1027-8 sq. m. The
coast-line is formed by the estuaries of the Dee and the Mersey,
which are separated by the low rectangular peninsula of Wirral.
The estuary of the Dee is dry at low tide on the Cheshire shore,
but that of the Mersey bears upon its banks the ports of Liverpool
(in Lancashire) and Birkenhead (on the Wirral shore). The
Dee forms a great part of the county boundary with Denbigh-
shire and Flint, and the Mersey the boundary along the whole
of the northern side. The principal river within the county is
the Weaver, which crosses it with a north-westerly course, and,
being joined by the Dane at Northwich, discharges into the
estuary of the Mersey south of Runcorn. The surface of Cheshire
is mostly low and gently undulating or flat; but the broken
line of the Peckforton hills, seldom exceeding 600 ft. in height,
runs north and south flanking the valley of the Weaver on the
west. A low narrow gap in these hills is traversed by the small
river Gowy, which rises to the east but has the greater part of
its course to the west of them. Commanding this gap on the
west, the Norman castle of Beeston stands on an isolated
eminence. The northern part of the hills coincides approxi-
mately with the district still called Delamere Forest, formerly
a chase of the earls of Chester, and finally disforested in 1812.

9 o

CHESHIRE

In certain sequestered parts the forest has not wholly lost its
ancient character. On the east Cheshire includes the western
face of the broad belt of high land which embraces the Peak
district of Derbyshire; these hills rise sharply to the east of
Congleton, Macclesfield and Hyde, reaching a height of about
1800 ft. within Cheshire. Distributed over the county, but
principally in the eastern half, are many small lakes or meres,
such as Combermere, Tatton, Rostherne, Tabley, Doddington,
Marbury and Mere, and it was a common practice among the
gentry of the county to build their mansions on the banks of
these waters. The meres form one of the most picturesque
features of the county.

Geology. With the exception of a small area of Carboniferous
rocks on the eastern border, and a small patch of Lower Lias near
Audlem, the whole country is occupied by Triassic strata. The
great central plain is covered by red and mottled Keuper Marls.
From these marls salt is obtained; there are many beds of rock-
salt, mostly thin ; two are much thicker than the others, being from
75 ft. to over 100 ft. thick. Thin beds and veins of gypsum are
common in the marls. The striking features of the Peckforton Hills
are due to the repeated faulting of the Lower Keuper Sandstone,
which lies upon beds of Bunter Sandstone. Besides forming this
well-marked ridge, the Lower Keuper Sandstones or " Waterstones "
form several ridges north-west of Macclesfield and appear along
most of the northern borders of the county and in the neighbourhood
of New Brighton and Birkenhead. The Lower Keuper Sandstone is
quarried near the last-named place, also at Storeton, Delamere and
Manley. This is a good building stone and an important water-
bearing stratum; it is often ripple-marked, and bears the footprints
of the Cheirotherium. At Alderley Edge ores of copper, lead and
cobalt are found. West of the Peckforton ridge, Bunter Sandstones
and pebble beds extend to the border. They also form low foothills
between Cheadle and Macclesfield. They fringe the northern bound-
ary and appear on the south-eastern boundary as a narrow strip
of hilly ground near Woore. The oldest rock exposed in the county
is the small faulted anticline of Carboniferous limestone at Astbury,
followed in regular succession eastward by the shale, and thin
limestones and sandstones of the Pendleside series. These rocks
extend from Congleton Edge to near Macclesfield, where the outcrop
bends sharply eastward and runs up the Goyt valley. Some hard
quartzites in the Pendleside series, known locally as " Crowstones,"
have contributed to the formation of the high Bosley Min and neigh-
bouring hills. East of Bosley Min, on either side or the Goyt valley,
are the Millstone Grits and Shales, forming the elevated moorland
tracts. Cloud Hill, a striking feature near Congleton, is capped by
the " Third Grit," one of the Millstone Grit series. From Maccles-
field northward through Stockport is a narrow tongue of Lower and
Middle Coal-Measures an extension of the Lancashire coalfield.
Coal is mined at Neston in the Wirral peninsula from beneath the
Trias; it is a connecting link between the Lancashire and Flintshire
coalfields. Glacial drift is thickly spread over all the lower ground ;
laminated red clays, stiff clay with northern erratics and lenticular
sand masses with occasional gravels, are the common types. At
Crewe the drift is over 400 ft. thick. Patches of Drift sand, with
marine shells, occur on the high ground east of Macclesfield at an
elevation of 1250 ft.

Agriculture and Industries. The climate is temperate and
rather damp; the soil is varied and irregular, but a large pro-
portion is a thin-skinned clay. More than four-fifths of the total
area is under cultivation. The crop of wheat is comparatively
insignificant; but a large quantity of oats is grown, and a great
proportion of the cultivated land is in permanent pasture. The
vicinity of such populous centres as Liverpool and Manchester, as
well as the several large towns within the county, makes cattle
and dairy-farming profitable. Cheese of excellent quality is
produced, the name of the county being given to a particular
brand (see DAIRY). Potatoes are by far the most important
green crop. Fruit-growing is carried on in some parts, especially
the cultivation of stone fruit and, among these, damsons; while
the strawberry beds near Farndon and Holt are celebrated. In
the first half of the ipth century the condition of agriculture
in Cheshire was notoriously backward; and in 1865-1866 the
county suffered with especial severity from a visitation of cattle
plague. The total loss of stock amounted to more than 66,000
head, and it was necessary to obtain from the Treasury a loan of
270,000 on the security of the county rate, for purposes of
relief and compensation. The cheese-making industry naturally
received a severe blow, yet to agriculture at large an ultimate
good resulted as the possibility and even the necessity of new
methods were borne in upon the farmers.

The industries of the county are various and important. The
manufacture of cotton goods extends from its seat in Lancashire
into Cheshire, at the town of Stockport and elsewhere in the
north-east. Macclesfield and Congleton are centres of silk
manufacture. At Crewe are situated the great workshops of the
London & North-Western railway company, the institution of
which actually brought the town into being. Another instance of
the modern creation of a town by an individual industrial
corporation is seen in Port Sunlight on the Mersey, where the
soap-works of Messrs Lever are situated. On the Mersey there
are shipbuilding yards, and machinery and iron works. Other
important manufactures are those of tools, chemicals, clothing
and hats, and there are printing, bleaching and dye works, and
metal foundries. Much sandstone is quarried, but the mineral
wealth of the county lies in coal and salt. The second is a
specially important product. Some rock-salt is obtained at
Northwich and Winsford, but most of the salt is extracted from
brine both here and at Lawton, Wheelock and Middlewich. At
Northwich and other places in the locality curious accidents
frequently occur owing to the sinking of the soil after the brine is
pumped out; walls crack and collapse, and houses are seen
leaning far out of the perpendicular. A little copper and lead
are found.

Communications. The county is well served with railways.
The main line of the London & North-Western railway, passing
north from Crewe to Warrington in Lancashire, serves no large
town, but from Crewe branches diverge fanwise to Manchester,
Chester, North Wales and Shrewsbury. The Great Western
railway, with a line coming northward from Wrexham, obtains
access through Cheshire to Liverpool and Manchester. These two
companies jointly work the Birkenhead railway from Chester
to Birkenhead. The heart of the county is traversed by the
Cheshire Lines, serving the salt district, and reaching Chester
from Manchester by way of Delamere Forest. In the east the
Midland and Great Central systems enter the county, and the
North Staffordshire line serves Macclesfield. The Manchester,
South Junction & Altrincham and the Wirral railways are small
systems serving the localities indicated by their names. The
river Weaver is locked as far up as Winsford, and the transport of
salt is thus expedited. The profits of the navigation, which was
originally undertaken in 1720 by a few Cheshire squires, belong
to the county, and are paid annually to the relief of the county
rates. In the salt district through which the Weaver passes
subsidence of the land has resulted in the formation of lakes of
considerable extent, which act as reservoirs to supply the
navigation. There are further means of inland navigation by the
Grand Trunk, Shropshire Union and other canals, and many
small steamers are in use. The Manchester Ship Canal passes
through a section of north Cheshire, being entered from the
estuary of the Mersey by locks near Eastham, and following its
southern shore up to Runcorn, after which it takes a more direct
course than the river.

Population and Administration. The ancient county, which is
a county palatine, has an area of 657,783 acres, with a population
in 1891 of 730,058 and in 1901 of 815,099. Cheshire has been
described as a suburb of Liverpool, Manchester and the Potteries
of Staffordshire, and many of those whose business lies in these
centres have colonized such districts as Bowdon, Alderley, Sale
and Marple near Manchester, the Wirral, and Alsager on the
Staffordshire border, until these localities have come to resemble
the richer suburban districts of London. On the short seacoast of
the Wirral are found the popular resorts of New Brighton and
Hoylake. This movement and importance of its industries have
given the county a vast increase of population in modern times.
In 1871 the population was 561,201; from 1801 until that year it
had increased 191 %. The area of the administrative county is
654,825 acres. The county contains 7 hundreds. The municipal
boroughs are Birkenhead (pop. 110,915), Chester (38,309),
Congleton (10,707), Crewe (42,074), Dukinfield (18,929), Hyde
(32,766), Macclesfield (34,624), Stalybridge (27,673), Stockport
(92,832). Chester,thecountytown,isacity,countyofacity, and
county borough, and Birkenhead and Stockport are county

CHESHIRE

boroughs. The other urban districts with their populations are
as follows:

Alderley Edge (a)
Alsager
Altrincham (a) ...
Ashton-upon-Mersey (o) .
Bollington (a) .
Bpwdon (a) ....
Bredbury and Romiley (o)
Bromborough (ft) ...
Buglawton (Congleton)
Cheadle and Gatley (a) .
Compstall (o) . . .
Ellesmere Port and Whitby (ft)
Hale (a)

2,856

2,597
16,831

5.563
5.245
2,788
7,087
1,891
1,452
7,916

875
4,082

4,5 62

Hoylake and West Kirby (ft) .
Knutsford (a) ....
Lower Bebington (ft)
Lymm (a)
Marple (a)
Middlewich ....
Mottram-in-Longdendale (o) .
Nantwich
Neston and Parkgate (6)
Northwich
Runcorn
Sale (o)
Sandbach

10,911
5.172
8,398
4.707
5,595
4,669
3,128
7,722

4,154
17,611
16,491
12,088
5,558

Handforth (a) .
Hazel Grove and Bramhall (a)
Higher Bebington (ft)
Hollingworth (o)
Hoole (Chester)

911

7.934
1,540
2,447
5,341

Tarporley
Wallasey (6) ....
Wilmslow (o)
Winsford
Yeardsley-cum-Whaley (o)

2,644
53,579
7.36i
10,382
1,487

Of the townships in this table, those marked (o) are within a radius
of about 15 m. from Manchester (Knutsford being taken as the
limit), while those marked (ft) are in the Wirral. The localities of
densest population are thus clearly illustrated.

The county is in the North Wales and Chester circuit, and
assizes are held at Chester. It has one court of quarter sessions,
and is divided into fourteen petty sessional divisions. The
boroughs already named, excepting Dukinfield, have separate
commissions of the peace, and Birkenhead and Chester have
separate courts of quarter sessions. There are 464 civil parishes.
Cheshire is almost wholly in the diocese of Chester, but small
parts are in those of Manchester, St Asaph or Lichfield. There
are 268 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part
within the county. There are eight parliamentary divisions,
namely, Macclesfield, Crewe, Eddisbury, Wirral, Knutsford,
Altrincham, Hyde and Northwich, each returning one member;
the county also includes the parliamentary borough of Birkenhead
returning one member, and parts of the borough of Stockport,
which returns two members, and of Ashton-under-Lyne, Chester,
Stalybridge, and Warrington, which return one member
each.

History. The earliest recorded historical fact relating to the
district which is now Cheshire is the capture of Chester and
destruction of the native Britons by the Northumbrian king
^Ethelfrith about 614. After a period of incessant strife between
the Britons and their Saxon invaders the district was subjugated
by Ecgbert in 830 and incorporated in the kingdom of Mercia.
During the gth century ^Ethelwulf held his parliament at Chester,
and received the homage of his tributary kings from Berwick to
Kent, and in the loth century ^Ethelflffid rebuilt the city, and
erected fortresses at Eddisbury and Runcorn. Edward the
Elder garrisoned Thelwall and strengthened the passages of the
Mersey and the Irwell. On the splitting up of Mercia in the
loth century the dependent districts along the Dee were made a
shire for the fortress of Chester. The shire is first mentioned in
the Abingdon Chronicle, which relates that in 980 Cheshire was
plundered by a fleet of Northmen. At the time of the Domesday
Survey the county was divided into twelve hundreds, exclusive
of the six hundreds between the Ribble and the Mersey, now
included in Lancashire, but then a part of Cheshire. These
divisions have suffered great modification, both in extent and
in name, and of the seven modern hundreds Bucklow alone
retains its Domesday appellation. The hundreds of Atiscross
and Exestan have been transferred to the counties of Flint and
Denbigh, with the exception of a few townships now in the
hundred of Broxton. The prolonged resistance of Cheshire to
the Conqueror was punished by ruthless harrying and sweeping
confiscations of property, and no Englishman retained estates
of importance after the Conquest. In order that the shire
might be relieved of all obligations beyond the ever-pressing
necessity of defending its borders against the inroads of hostile
neighbours, it was constituted a county palatine which the earl
of Chester " held as freely by his sword as the king held England
by his crown." The county had its independent parliament

consisting of the barons and clergy, and courts, and all lands
except those of the bishop were held of the earl. The court of
exchequer was presided over by a chamberlain, a
vice-chamberlain, and a baron of the exchequer.
It was principally a court of revenue, but prob-
ably a court of justice also, before that of the
justiciary was established, and had besides the
functions of a chancery court, with an exclusive
jurisdiction in equity. Other officers of the
palatinate were the constable, high-steward and
the Serjeants of the peace and of the forests.
The abbots of St Werburgh and Combermere
and all the eight barons held courts, in any of
which cases of capital felony might be tried.

During the I2th and i3th centuries the county
was impoverished by the constant inroads of the
Welsh. In 1264 the castle and city of Chester
were granted to Simon de Montfort, and in 1267
the treaty of Shrewsbury procured a short interval of peace.
Richard II., in return for the loyal support furnished him by
the county, made it a principality, but the act was revoked in
the next reign. In 1403 Cheshire was the headquarters of
Hotspur, who roused the people by telling them that Richard
II. was still living. At the beginning of the Wars of the Roses
Margaret collected a body of supporters from among the Cheshire
gentry, and Lancastrian risings occurred as late as 1464. At
the time of the Civil War feeling was so equally divided that
an attempt was made to form an association for preserving
internal peace. In 1643, however, Chester was made the head-
quarters of the royalist forces, while Nantwich was garrisoned
for the parliament, and the county became the scene of con-
stant skirmishes until the surrender of Chester in 1646 put an
end to the struggle.

From the number of great families with which it has been
associated Chester has been named " the mother and nurse of
English gentility." Of the eight baronies of the earldom none
survives, but the title of that of Kinderton was bestowed in 1762
on George Venables-Vernon, son of Anne, sister of Peter Venables,
last baron of Kinderton, from whom the present Lord Vernon
of Kinderton is descended. Other great Domesday proprietors
were William FitzNigel, baron of Halton, ancestor of the Lacys;
Hugh de Mara, baron of Montalt, ancestor of the Ardens;
Ranulph, ancestor of the Mainwarings; and Hamo de Massey.
The Davenports, Leighs and Warburtons trace their descent
back to the I2th century, and the Grosvenors are descended
from a nephew of Hugh Lupus.

In the reign of Henry VIII. the distinctive privileges of
Cheshire as a county palatine were considerably abridged. The
right of sanctuary attached to the city of Chester was abolished;
justices of the peace were appointed as in other parts of the
kingdom, and in 1 542 it was enacted that in future two knights
for the shire and two burgesses for the city of Chester should be
returned to parliament. After the Reform Act of 1832 the
county returned four members from two divisions, and Maccles-
field and Stockport returned two members each. Birkenhead
secured representation in 1859. From 1868 until the Redistribu-
tion Act of 1885 the county returned six members from three
divisions.

From earliest times the staple products of Cheshire have been
salt and cheese. The salt-pits of Nantwich, Middlewich and
Northwich were in active operation at the time of Edward the
Confessor, and at that date the mills and fisheries on the Dee
also furnished a valuable source of revenue. Twelfth century
writers refer to the excellence of Cheshire cheese, and at the
time of the Civil War three hundred tons at 33 per ton were
ordered in one year for the troops in Scotland. The trades of
tanners, skinners and glove-makers existed at the time of
the Conquest, and the export trade in wool in the I3th and
i4th centuries was considerable. The first bed of rock-salt
was discovered in 1670. Weaving and wool-combing were
introduced in 1674.

Antiquities. The main interest in the architecture of the

CHESHUNT CHESNEY, C. C.

county lies in the direction of domestic buildings rather than
ecclesiastical. Old half-timbered houses are common in almost
every part of the county; many of these add to the picturesque-
ness of the streets in the older towns, as in the case of the famous
Rows in Chester, while in the country many ancient manor-
houses remain as farm-houses. Among the finest examples
are Bramhall Hall, between Stockport and Macclesfield, and
Moreton Old Hall, near Congleton (see HOUSE, Plate IV., fig. 13).
The first, occupying three sides of a quadrangle (formerly
completed by a fourth side), dates from the I3th and i4th
centuries, and contains a splendid panelled hall and other rooms.
Of Moreton Hall, which is moated, only three sides similarly
remain; its date is of the i6th century. Other buildings of the
Elizabethan period are not infrequent, such as Brereton and
Dorfold Halls, while more modern mansions, set in fine estates,
are numerous. Crewe Hall is a modern building on an ancient
site, and Vale Royal near Winsford incorporates fragments of a
Cistercian monastery founded in 1277. A noteworthy instance
of the half-timbered style applied to an ecclesiastical building
is found in the church of Lower Peover near Knutsford, of which
only the tower is of stone. The church dates from the I3th
century, and was carefully restored in 1852. Cheshire has no
monastic remains of importance, save those attached to the
cathedral of Chester, nor are its village churches as a rule of
special interest. There is, however, a fine late Perpendicular
church (with earlier portions) at Astbury near Congleton, and
of this style and the Decorated the churches of Bunbury and
Malpas may be noticed as good illustrations. In Chester, besides
the cathedral, there is the massive Norman church of St John;
and St Michael's church and the Rivers chapel at Macclesfield
are noteworthy. No more remarkable religious monuments
remain in the county than the two sculptured Saxon crosses in
the market-place at Sandbach. Ruins of two Norman castles
exist in Beeston and Halton.

AUTHORITIES. Sir John Dpddridge, History of the Ancient and
Modern State of the Principality of Wales, Duchy of Cornwall, and
Earldom of Chester (London, 1630; 2nd ed., 1714); D. King, The
Vale-Royall of England, or the County Palatine of Cheshire Illustrated,
4 parts (London, 1656) ; D. and S. Lysons, Magna Britannia, vol. ii.
pt. ii. (London, 1810) ; J. H. Hanshall, History of the County Palatine
of Chester (Chester, 1817-1823); J. O. Halliwell, Palatine Anthology
(London, 1850) ; G. Ormerod, History of the County Palatine and
City of Chester (London, 1819; new ed., London, 1875-1882);
J. P. Earwaker, East Cheshire (2 vols., London, 1877) ; R. Wilbraham,
Glossary (London, 1820; 2nd ed., London, 1826); and Glossary
founded on Wilbraham by E. Leigh (London, 1877); J. Croston,
Historic Sites of Cheshire (Manchester, 1883) ; and County Families of
Cheshire (Manchester, 1887) ; W. E. A. Axon, Cheshire Gleanings
(Manchester, 1884) ; Holland, Glossary of Words used in the County
of Cheshire (London, 1884-1886) ; N. G. Philips, Views of Old Halls
in Cheshire (London, 1893) ; Victoria County History, Cheshire.
See also various volumes of the Chetham Society and of the Record
Society of Manchester, as well as the Proceedings of the Cheshire
Antiquarian Society, and Cheshire Notes and Queries.

CHESHUNT, an urban district in the Hertford parliamentary
division of Hertfordshire, England, on the Lea, 14 m. N. of
London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1891) 9620;
(1901) 12,292. The church of St Mary is Perpendicular and
has been enlarged in modern times. A college was founded,
for the education of young men to the ministry of the Connexion,
by Selina countess of Huntingdon in 1768 at Trevecca-isaf near
Talgarth, Brecknockshire. In 1792 it was moved to Cheshunt,
and became known as Cheshunt College. In 1904, as it was
felt that the college was unable properly to carry on its work
under existing conditions, it was proposed to amalgamate it
with Hackney College, but the Board of Education refused to
sanction any arrangement which would set aside the require-
ments of the deed of foundation, namely that the officers and
students of Cheshunt College should subscribe the fifteen articles
appended to the deed, and should take certain other obligations.
In 1905 it was decided by the board to reorganize the college
and remove it to Cambridge.

Nursery and market gardening, largely under glass, brick-
making and saw-mills are the chief industries of Cheshunt.
Roman coins and other remains have been found at this place,
and an urn appears built into the wall of an inn. A Romano-

British village or small town is indicated. There was a Bene-
dictine nunnery here in the i3th century. Of several interesting
mansions in the vicinity one, the Great House, belonged to
Cardinal Wolsey, and a former Pengelly House was the residence
of Richard Cromwell the Protector after his resignation. Theo-
balds Park was built in the i8th century, but the original
mansion was acquired by William Cecil, Lord Burghley, in
1561; being taken in 1607 by James I. from Robert Cecil, first
earl of Salisbury, in exchange for Hatfield House. James died
here in 1625, and Charles I. set out from here for Nottingham in
1642 at the outset of the Civil War. One of the entrances to
Theobalds Park is the old Temple Bar, removed from Fleet
Street, London, in 1878.

CHESIL BANK (A.S. ceosol, pebble bank), a remarkable
beach of shingle on the coast of Dorsetshire, England. It is
separated from the mainland for 8 m. by an inlet called the Fleet,
famous for its swannery, and continues in all for 1 8 m. south-
eastward from Abbotsbury, terminating at the so-called Isle
of Portland. The height of the bank at the Portland end is
35 ft. above spring-tide level, and its breadth 200 yds. The
greater height at this end accords with the general movement
of shingle along this coast from west to east; and for the same
reason the pebbles of the bank decrease in size from i to 3 in.
in diameter at Portland to the size of peas at the western end,
where the breadth is only 170 yds.

CHESNELONG, PIERRE CHARLES (1820-1894), French
politician, was born at Orthez in the department of the Basses-
Pyrenees, on the I4th of April 1820. In 1848 he proclaimed
himself a Republican; but after the establishment of the Second
Empire he changed his views, and in 1865 was returned to the
chamber as the official candidate for his native place. He at
once became conspicuous, both for his eloquence and for his
uncompromising clericalism, especially in urging the necessity
for maintaining the temporal power of the papacy. In 1869 he
was again returned, and, devoting himself with exceptional
ability to financial questions, was in 1870 appointed to report
the budget. During and after the war, for which he voted, he
retired for a while into private life; but in 1872 he was again
elected deputy, this time as a Legitimist, and took his seat
among the extreme Right. He was the soul of the reactionary
opposition that led to the fall of Thiers; and in 1873 it was he
who, with Lucien Brun, carried to the comte de Chambord the
proposals of the chambers. Through some misunderstanding,
he reported on his return that the count had accepted all the
terms offered, including the retention of the tricolour flag; and
the count published a formal denial. Chesnelong now devoted
himself to the establishment of Catholic universities and to the
formation of Catholic working-men's clubs. In 1876 he was
again returned for Orthez, but was unseated, and then beaten
by the republican candidate. On the 24th of November, how-
ever, he was elected to a seat in the senate, where he continued
his vigorous polemic against the progressive attempts of the
republican government to secularize the educational system of
France until his death in 1894.

CHESNEY, CHARLES CORNWALLIS (1826-1876), British
soldier and military writer, the third son of Charles Cornwallis
Chesney, captain on the retired list of the Bengal Artillery, and
nephew of General F. R. Chesney, was born in Co. Down, Ireland,
on the 29th of September 1826. Educated at Blundell's school,
Tiverton, and afterwards at the Royal Military Academy,
Woolwich, he obtained his first commission as second lieutenant
of engineers in 1845, passing out of the academy at the head of
his term. His early service was spent in the ordinary course
of regimental duty at home and abroad, and he was stationed
in New Zealand during the Crimean War. Among the various
reforms in the British military system which followed from that
war was the impetus given to military education; and in 1858
Captain Chesney was appointed professor of military history
at Sandhurst. In 1864 he succeeded Colonel (afterwards Sir
Edward) Hamley in the corresponding chair at the Staff College.
The writings of these two brilliant officers had a great influence
not only at home, but on the continent and in America. Chesney's

CHESNEY, F. R. CHESS

first published work (1863) was an account of the Civil War in
Virginia, which went through several editions. But the work
which attained the greatest reputation was his Waterloo Lectures
(1868), prepared from the notes of lectures orally delivered at
the Staff College. Up to that time the English literature on the
Waterloo campaign, although voluminous, was made up of
personal reminiscences or of formal records, useful materials
for history rather than history itself; and the French accounts
had mainly taken the form of fiction. In Chesney's lucid and
vigorous account of the momentous struggle, while it illustrates
both the strategy and tactics which culminated in the final
catastrophe, the mistakes committed by Napoleon are laid bare,
and for the first time an English writer is found to point out that
the dispositions of Wellington were far from faultless. And in
the Waterloo Lectures the Prussians are for the first time credited
by an English pen with their proper share in the victory. The
work attracted much attention abroad as well as at home, and
French and German translations were published.

Chesney was for many years a constant contributor to the
newspaper press and to periodic literature, devoting himself
for the most part to the critical treatment of military operations,
and professional subjects generally. Some of his essays on
military biography, contributed mainly to the Edinburgh Review,
were afterwards published separately (1874). In 1868 he was
appointed a member of the royal commission on military educa-
tion, under the presidency first of Earl De Grey and afterwards
of Lord Dufferin, to whose recommendations were due the
improved organization of the military colleges, and the develop-
ment of military education in the principal military stations
of the British army. In 1871, on the conclusion of the Franco-
German War, he was sent on a special mission to France and
Germany, and furnished to the government a series of valuable
reports on the different siege operations which had been carried
out during the war, especially the two sieges of Paris. These
reports were published in a large volume, which was issued
confidentially. Never seeking regimental or staff preferment,
Colonel Chesney never obtained any, but he held at the time of
his death a unique position in the army, altogether apart from
and above his actual place in it. He was consulted by officers
of all grades on professional matters, and few have done more
to raise the intellectual standard of the British officer. Con-
stantly engaged in literary pursuits, he was nevertheless laborious
and exemplary in the discharge of his public duties, while
managing also to devote a large part of his time to charitable
and religious offices. He was abstemious to a fault; and,
overwork of mind and body telling at last on a frail constitution,
he died after a short illness on the igth of March 1876. He had
become lieutenant-colonel in 1873, an d at tne ti me f his death
he was commanding Royal Engineer of the London district.
He was buried at Sandhurst.

CHESNEY, FRANCIS RAWDON (1789-1872), British general
arid explorer, was the son of Captain Alexander Chesney, an
Irishman of Scottish descent who, having emigrated to South
Carolina in 1772, did brilliant service under Lord Rawdon
(afterwards marquess of Hastings) in the War of Independence,
and subsequently received an appointment as coast officer at
Annalong, Co. Down, Ireland. There F. R. Chesney was born
on the i6th of March 1789. Lord Rawdon gave the boy a cadet-
ship at Woolwich, and he was gazetted to the Royal Artillery
in 1805. But though he rose to be lieutenant-general and
colonel-commandant of the i4th brigade Royal Artillery (1864),
and general in 1868, Chesney's memory lives not for his military
record, but for his connexion with the Suez Canal, and with the
exploration of the Euphrates valley, which started with his being
sent out to Constantinople in the course of his military duties
in 1829, and his making a tour of inspection in Egypt and Syria.
His report in 1830 on the feasibility of making the Suez Canal
was the original basis of Lesseps' great undertaking (in 1869
Lesseps greeted him in Paris as the "father" of the canal);
and in 1831 he introduced to the home government the idea of
opening a new overland route to India, by a daring and ad-
venturous journey (for the Arabs \v ^re hostile and he was ignorant

of the language) along the Euphrates valley from Anah to the
Persian Gulf. Returning home, Colonel Chesney (as he then
was) busied himself to get support for the latter project, to
which the East India Company's board was favourable; and
in 1835 he was sent out in command of a small expedition, for
which parliament voted 20,000, in order to test the navigability
of the Euphrates. After encountering immense difficulties, from
the opposition of the Egyptian pasha, and from the need of
transporting two steamers (one of which was lost) in sections
from the Mediterranean over the hilly country to the river,
they successfully arrived by water at Bushire in the summer of
1836, and proved Chesney's view to be a practicable one. In
the middle of 1837 he returned to England, and was given the
Royal Geographical Society's gold medal, having meanwhile
been to India to consult the authorities there; but the preparation
of his two volumes on the expedition (published in 1850) was
interrupted by his being ordered out in 1843 to command the
artillery at Hong Kong. In 1847 his period of service was
completed, and he went home to Ireland, to a life of retirement;
but both in 1856 and again in 1862 he went out to the East to
take a part in further surveys and negotiations for the Euphrates
valley railway scheme, which, however, the government would
not take up, in spite of a favourable report from the House of
Commons committee in 1871. In 1868 he published a further
volume of narrative on his Euphrates expedition. He died on
the 3Oth of January 1872.

His Life, edited by Stanley Lane Poole, appeared in 1885.

CHESNEY, SIR GEORGE TOMKYNS (1830-1895), English
general, brother of Colonel C. C. Chesney, was born at Tiverton,
Devonshire, on the 3oth of April 1830. Educated at Blundell's
school, Tiverton, and at Addiscombe, he entered the Bengal
Engineers as second lieutenant in 1848. He was employed for
some years in the public works department and, on the outbreak
of the Indian Mutiny in 1857, joined the Ambala column, was
field engineer at the battle of Badli-ke-serai, brigade-major of
engineers throughout the siege of Delhi, and was severely
wounded in the assault (medal and clasp and a brevet majority).
In 1860 he was appointed head of a new department in connexion
with the public works accounts. His work on Indian Polity
(i868),dealingwith the administration of tbeseveraldepartments
of the Indian government, attracted wide attention and remains
a permanent text-book. The originator of the Royal Indian
Civil Engineering College at Cooper's Hill, Staines, he was also
its first president (1871-1880). In 1871 he contributed to
Blackwood's Magazine, " The Battle of Dorking," a vivid
account of a supposed invasion of England by the Germans
after their victory over France. This was republished in many
editions and translations, and produced a profound impression.
He was promoted lieutenant-colonel, 1869; colonel, 1877;
major-general, 1886; lieutenant-general, 1887; colonel-com-
mandant of Royal Engineers, 1890; and general, 1892. From
1881 to 1886 he was secretary to the military department of
the government of India, and was made a C.S.I, and a C.I.E.
From 1886 to 1892, as military member of the governor-general's
council, he carried out many much-needed military reforms.
He was made a C.B. at the jubilee of 1887, and a K.C.B. on
leaving India in 1892. In that year he was returned to parlia-
ment, in the Conservative interest, as member for Oxford, and
was chairman of the committee of service members of the House
of Commons until his death on the 3ist of March 1895. He wrote
some novels, The Dilemma, The Private Secretary, The Lesters,
&c., and was a frequent contributor to periodical literature.

CHESS, once known as " checker," a game played with certain
" pieces " on a special " board " described below. It takes its
name from the Persian word shah, a king, the name of one of the
pieces or men used in the game. Chess is the most cosmopolitan
of all games, invented in the East (see History, below), intro-
duced into the West and now domiciled in every part of the
world. As a mere pastime chess is easily learnt, and a very
moderate amount of study enables a man to become a fair player,
iut the higher ranges of chess-skill are only attained by persistent
.abour. The real proficient or " master " not merely must know

CHESS

BLACK.

the subtle variations in which the game abounds, but must be able
to apply his knowledge in the face of the enemy and to call to his
aid, as occasion demands, all that he has of foresight, brilliancy
and resource, both in attack and in defence. Two chess players
fighting over the board may fitly be compared to two famous
generals encountering each other on the battlefield, the strategy
and the tactics being not dissimilar in spirit.

The Board, Pieces and Moves. The chessboard is divided
(see accompanying diagrams) into sixty-four chequered squares.
In diagram i, the pieces, or chess-men, are arranged for the
beginning of a game, while diagram 2 shows the denomination of
the squares according to the English and German systems of
notation. Under diagram i are the names of the various "pieces "
each side, White or Black, having a King, a Queen, two Rooks
(or Castles), two Knights, and two Bishops. The eight men in
front are called Pawns. At the beginning of the game the queen
always stands upon a square of her own colour. The board is so
set that each player has a white square at the right hand end of
the row nearest to him. The rook, knight and bishop on the right
of the king are known as King's rook, King's knight, and King's
bishop; the other three as Queen's rook, Queen's knight, and
Queen's bishop.

Briefly described, the powers of the various pieces and of the
pawns are as follows.

The king may move in any direction, only one square at a time,
except in castling. Two kings can never be on adjacent squares.

The queen moves in any direc-
tion square or diagonal, whether
forward or backward. There is
no limit to her range over vacant
squares; an opponent she may
take; a piece of her own colour
stops her. She is the most power-
ful piece on the board, for her
action is a union of those of the
rook and bishop. The rooks (from
the Indian rukh and Persian rokh,
meaning a soldier or warrior)
move in straight lines forward
or backward but they cannot

wmit. ^ move diagonally. Their range is

DIAGRAM i. Showing the ... , 6 * . . , 6 ...
arrangement of the pieces at llke the queen's, unlimited, With
the commencement of a game, the same exceptions.

The bishops move diagonally

in any direction whether backward or forward. They have
an unlimited range, with the same exceptions.

The knights' moves are of an absolutely different kind. They
move from one corner of any rectangle of three squares by two to
the opposite corner; thus, in diagram 3, the white knight can
move to the square occupied by the black one, and vice versa, or a
knight could move from C to D, or D to C. The move may be
made in any direction. It is no obstacle to the knight's move if
squares A and B are occupied. It will be perceived that the
knight always moves to a square of a different colour.

The king, queen, rooks and bishops may capture any foeman
which stands anywhere within their respective ranges; and the
knights can capture the adverse men which stand upon the
squares to which they can leap. The piece which takes occupies
the square of the piece which is taken, the latter being removed
from the board. The king cannot capture any man which is
protected by another man.

The moves and capturing powers of the pawns are as follows:
Each pawn for his first move may advance either one or two
squares straight forward, but afterwards one square only, and
this whether upon starting he exercised his privilege of moving
two squares or not. A pawn can never move backwards. He can
capture only diagonally one square to his right or left front. A
pawn moves like a rook, captures like a bishop, but only one
square at a time. When a pawn arrives at an eighth square,
viz. at the extreme limit of the board, he may, at the option of
his owner, be exchanged for any other piece, so that a player
may, e.g., have two or more queens on the board at once.

Bp. Q. K. Dp. Kt.
WHITE.

"Check and Checkmate." The king can never be captured, but
when any piece or pawn attacks him, he is said to be " in check,"
and the fact of his being so attacked should be announced by the

BLACK.
abcdefgh

d e f g h

WHITE.

DIAGRAM 2. Showing English and German Methods of Notation.

adverse player saying " check," whereupon the king must move
from the square he occupies, or be screened from check by the
interposition of one of his own men, or the attacking piece must
be captured. If, however, when the king is in check, none of
these things can be done, it is " checkmate " (Persian, shah mat,
the king is dead), known generally as " mate," whereupon the
game terminates, the player whose king has been thus check-
mated being the loser. When the adversary has only his king
left, it is very easy to checkmate him with only a queen and
king, or only a rook and king. The problem is less easy with
king and two bishops, and still less easy with king, knight and
bishop, in which case the opposing king has to be driven into a
corner square whose colour corresponds with the bishop's, mate
being given with the bishop. A king and two knights cannot
mate. To mate with king and rook the opposing king must be
driven on to one of the four side files and kept there with the
rook on the next file, till it is held by the other king, when the
rook mates.

The pawn gives check in the same way as he captures, viz.
diagonally. One king cannot give check to another, nor may a
king be moved into check.

" Check by discovery " is given when a player, by moving one
of his pieces, checks with another of them. "Double check"
means attacking the king at once with two
pieces one of the pieces in this case giving
check by discovery.

" Perpetual check " occurs when one player,
seeing that he cannot win the game, finds the
men so placed that he can give check ad
infinitum, while his adversary cannot possibly
avoid it. The game is then drawn. A game is
also drawn " if, before touching a man, the K . , ,
player whose turn it is to play, claims that the Km S ht s move,
game be treated as drawn, and proves that the existing position
existed, in the game and at the commencement of his turn of play,
twice at least before the present turn."

" Stalemate." When a king is not in check, but his owner has
no move left save such as would place the king in check, it is
" stalemate," and the game is drawn.

" Castling." This is a special move permitted to the king once
only in the game. It is performed in combination with either
rook, the king being moved two squares laterally, while the rook
towards which he is moved 'which must not have previously

CHESS

moved from its square) is placed next him on the other side; the
king must be touched first. The king cannot castle after having
been once moved, nor when any piece stands between him and
the rook, nor if he is in check, nor when he has to cross a square
commanded by an adverse piece or pawn, nor into check. It will
be perceived that after castling with the king's rook the latter
will occupy the KB square, while the king stands on the KKt
square, and if with the queen's rook, the latter will occupy the
queen's square while the king stands on the QB square.

" Taking en passant." This is a privilege possessed by any
of the pawns under the following circumstances: If a pawn,
say of the white colour, stands upon a fifth square, say upon K.5
counting from the white side, and a black pawn moves from Qa
or KB 2 to Q4 or KB4 counting from the black side, the white
pawn can take the black pawn en passant. For the purposes of
such capture the latter is dealt with as though he had only moved
to Q3 or KB3, and the white pawn taking him diagonally then
occupies the square the captured pawn would have reached had
he moved but one square. The capture can be made only
on the move immediately succeeding that of the pawn to be
captured.

" Drawn Game." This arises from a stalemate (noticed
above), or from either player not having sufficient force where-
with to effect checkmate, as when there are only two kings
left on the board, or king and bishop against king, or king with
one knight, or two knights against king, or from perpetual
check. One of the players can call upon the other to give check-
mate in fifty moves, the result of failure being that the game is
drawn. But, if a pawn is moved, or a piece is captured, the
counting mus* begin again.

A " minor piece " means either a knight or a bishop. " Winning
the exchange " signifies capturing a rook in exchange for a
minor piece. A " passed pawn " is one that has no adverse
pawn either in front or on either of the adjoining files. A
" file " is simply a line of squares extending vertically from
one end of the board to the other. An " open file " is one on
which no piece or pawn of either colour is standing. A pawn
or piece is en prise when one of the enemy's men can capture it.
" Gambit " is a word derived from the Ital. gambetlo, a tripping
up of the heels; it is a term used to signify an opening in which
a pawn or piece is sacrificed at the opening of a game to obtain
an attack. An " opening," or debut, is a certain set method
of commencing the game. When a player can only make one
legal move, that move is called a " forced move."

Value of the Pieces. The relative worth of the chess-men
cannot be definitely stated on account of the increase or decrease
of their powers according to the position of the game and the
pieces, but taking the pawn as the unit the following will be
an estimate near enough for practical purposes: pawn i,
bishop3-2S, knight 3-25, rook s.queeng-so. Three minor pieces
may mere often than not be advantageously exchanged for the
queen. The knight is generally stronger than the bishop in the
end game, but two bishops are usually stronger than two knights,
more especially in open positions.

Laws. The laws of chess differ, although not very materially,
in different countries. Various steps have been taken, but as
yet without success, to secure the adoption of a universal code.
In competitions among English players the particular laws to
be observed are specially agreed upon, the regulations most
generally adopted being those laid down at length in Staunton's
Chess Praxis, or the modification of the Praxis laws issued in
the name of the British Chess Association in_i862.

First Move and Odds. To decide who moves first, one player
conceals a white pawn in one hand and a black pawn in the
other, his adversary not seeing in which hand the different pawns
are put. The other holds out his hands with the pawns concealed,
and his adversary touches one. If that contains the white pawn,
he takes the white men and moves first. If he draws the black
pawn his adversary has the first move, since white, by convention,
always plays first. Subsequently the first move is taken alter-
nately. If one player, by way of odds, " gives " his adversary
a pawn or piece, that piece is removed before play begins. If

the odds are " pawn and move," or " pawn and two," a black
pawn, namely, the king's bishop's pawn, is removed and white
plays one move, or any two moves in succession. " Pawn and
two " is generally considered to be slightly less in point of odds
than to give a knight or a bishop; to give a knight and a bishop
is to give rather more than a rook; a rook and bishop less than
a queen; two rooks rather more than a queen. The odds of
" the marked pawn" can only be given to a much weaker player.
A pawn, generally KB's pawn, is marked with a cap of paper.
If the pawn is captured its owner loses the game; he can also
lose by being checkmated in the usual way, but he cannot give
mate to his adversary with any man except the marked pawn,
which may not be moved to an eighth square and exchanged
for a piece.

Rules. If a player touch one of his men he must move it,
unless he saysfadoube (I adjust), or words of a similar meaning,
to the effect that he was only setting it straight on its square.
If he cannot legally move a touched piece, he must move his
king, if he can, but may not castle; if not, there is no penalty.
He must say j'adoube before touching his piece. If a player
touch an opponent's piece, he must take it, if he can: if not,
move his king. If he can do neither, no penalty. A move is
completed and cannot be taken back, as soon as a player, having
moved a piece, has taken his hand off it. If a player is called
upon to mate under the fifty-move rule, " fifty moves " means
fifty moves and the forty-nine replies to them. A pawn that
reaches an eighth square must be exchanged for some other piece,
the move not being complete until this is done; a second king
cannot be selected.

Modes of Notation. The English and German methods of
describing the moves made in a game are different. According to
the English method each player counts from his own side of
the board, and the moves are denoted by the names of the files
and the numbers of the squares. Thus when a player for his
first move advances the king's pawn two squares, it is described
as follows: " i. P- K4." The following moves, with the aid
of diagram 2, will enable the reader to understand the principles
of the British notation. The symbol X is used to express
" takes "; a dash - to express " to."

White. Black.

1. P-K4 i.

2. KKt-KBs 2.

(i.e. King's Knight to the
third square of the King's
Bishop's file)

3. KB-QB4 3.

(King's Bishop to the fourth
square of the Queen's
Bishop's file)

4. P-QB3 4. KKt-KB3

5. P-Q4 5. P takes P (or PXP)

(King's pawn takes White's

eueen's pawn)
-QKtS (ch., i.e. check)
(Queen's Bishop's pawn
takes pawn : no other pawn
has a pawn en prise)

It is now usual to express the notation as concisely as possible;
thus, the third moves of White and Black would be given as
3. B - 64, because it is clear that only the fourth square of the
queen's bishop's file is intended.

The French names for the pieces are, King, Roi; Queen, Dame;
Rook, Tour; Knight, Cavalier; Pawn, Pion; for Bishop the
French substitute Fou, a jester. Chess is Les checs.

The German notation employs the alphabetical characters
a, b, c, d, e, f, g and h, proceeding from left to right, and the
numerals i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8, running upwards, these being
always calculated from the white side of the board (see diagram
2). Thus the White Queen's Rook's square is 01, the White
Queen's square is di; the Black Queen's square, d8; the
White King's square, ei; the Black King's square, e8, and so
with the other pieces and squares. The German names of the
pieces are as follows: King, Konig; Queen, Dame; Rook,
Turm; Bishop, Lttufer; Knight, Springer; Pawn, Bauer;
Chess, Schach.

P-K4

QKt-QB 3

(i.e. Queen's Knight to the
third square of the Queen's
Bishop's file)

KB-QB 4

9 6

CHESS

The initials only of the pieces are given, the pawns (.Bauern)
being understood. The Germans use the following signs in their
notation, viz.: for " check " (f); " checkmate " (J); " takes "
(:); " castles on king's side " (o-o); "castles on queen's side "
(o-o-o); for " best move " a note of admiration (I); for " weak
move " a note of interrogation ( ?). The opening moves just given
in the English will now be given in the German notation:

White.

1. 62-64

2. S gi-f3

5.
6.

gi-t
Lfi-c

C2 C3

Black.

1. e;-es

2. Sb8-c6
3- Lf8-cs
4. Sg8

5-
6.

-cs
-f6!

In both notations the moves are often given in a tabular form,
thus:

I. p_KT i. - _ 1 > the moves above the line being White's
and below the line Black s.

Illustrative Games. The text-books should be consulted by
students who wish to improve their game. The following are
some of the leading openings:

9.
10.

II.

3-
4-
5-
6.

9-
10.
ii.

White.

P-K4

KKt-B 3

B-B 4

P-B 3

B-Q2

QKtXB

PXP

Q-Kt 3

Castles (K's side)

Giuoco PIANO.

3-
4-
5-
6.

9-
10.
ii.

White.

P-K4

KKt-B3

B-Kts

B-R4

E=8J

Castles

R-Ksq

BXKt

KtXP

Kt-QB 3

Even game.
RUY LOPEZ.

Even game.

i.
2.
3-

9-
10.
ii.

Black.
P-K4
QKt-B 3
B-B 4
Kt-KB3
PXP

B-Kts (ch)
BXB (ch)

P-Q4
KKtXP
QKt-K2
Castles

Black.
P-K4
QKt -83

Kt-B 3

PXP

Kt-Ks

B-K2

Kt-B4

QPXB

Castles

P-KB 3

GAMBIT.

Black.

1. P-K4

2. QKt -B 3
3- PXP

B-B4

SCOTCH
White.

1. P-K4

2. KKt-Bs

4! B-Q?H

5- P-B3 5- Kt-B 3
6. PXP

The position here arrived at is the same as in the Giuoco Piano
opening above.

EVANS GAMBIT.

White. Black.

1. P-K4 i. P-K4

2. KKt-B3 2. QKt -83
3- B-B 4 3. B-B4

4. P-QKt4 4. BXKtP

5- P-B3 5- B-B 4

6. P-Q 4 6. PXP

7. Castles 7.

8. PXP 8.

White has for its ninth move three approved continuations, viz.
B-Kt2, P-Qs, and Kt-B3. To take one of them:

P-Q5 9- Kt-R4

B-Kt2 10. Kt-K2

B-Q3 ii. Castles

Kt-B3 12. Kt-Kt3

Kt-K2 13. "

14.

_sq 15.

10.
ii.

12.
13-
14-

16. QR-B sq 16. R-Kt sq

This game may be considered about even.

B-B2

I.
2.
3.

5-
6.

7-
8.
9-

10.

ii.

5-
6.

9.
10.
ii.
12.

KING'S KNIGHT'S GAMBIT (PROPER).

White. Black.

P-KA i. P-K4

P-KB4 2. PXP

KKt-B 3 3. P-KKt4

B-B 4 4. B-Kt2

Castles 5. P-Q3

P-Q 4 6. P-RT13

P-B 3 7. Kt-K2
Black has the advantage.

ALLGAIER-KIESERITZKI GAMBIT.

White. Black.

P-K4 i. P-K4

P-KB 4 2. PXP

Kt-KB 3 3. P-KKt4

P-KR4 4. P-Kt5

Kt-K 5 5. KKt-%3

6-64 6. P-Q4

PXP 7. B-Kt2

P-Q4 8. Castles

BXP 9. KtXP

BXKt 10. QXB

Castles ii. P QB4
Black has the better game.

White.

KING'S BISHOP'S GAMBIT.

P-KB4

15.

K-Bsq
KKt-B3

P-KR4
Kt-B 3
K Kt sq
Kt-Ks
PXB

1$ ">

Q-Kt2

4
5.
6.
7.

White.

1. P-K4

2. P-KB4

3. KKt-B 3

4. 8-84
5- Kt-Ks

6. K-B sq

7. P Q4

8. Kt QB3

9. Kt-Q3
10. KXP

n. Kt-KB4

12. B-K 3

13. QKt-Qs '
H- P-B3

Black.

1. P-K4

2. PXP

3- P-Q4
Q-R5 (ch)
P-KKt4

-R4
-Kt2

8. P-KR 3

9. Kt-K2

10. P-Kts

11. BXKt

12. QXKP

13. P-B6

14. Q-Kt6 (ch)

Drawn game.

SALVIO GAMBIT.

Black.

1. P-K4

2. PXP

3. P-KKt4

4- P-Kts

5- Q-Rs(ch)

6. Kt-KR 3

7. P-B6
8- P-Q3

9. PXP (ch)

10. B-Kt2

11. Kt-B3

12. Castles

13- QrQsq

White has a slight advantage.
Muzio GAMBIT.

P-K 4 P-l
l - P-K4 2 - PXi

84 KKt-B3 6-84

P 3- P-KKt4 * P-Kt5

White.

Black.

5. Castles

5- PXKt

6. QXP

7. P-KS

6. Q-B 3
7- QXP

8. P-Q 3
9. B-Q2

8. B-R3
9. Kt-K2

10. Kt-B3
n. QR-K sq

10. QKt -63
ii. Q-KB4

12. R-K 4

12. Castles

13- QBXP

13. B-Kt2

14. Q-K2
15. BXBP

14. P-Q 4
15 Q-Kt4

16. P-KR4

16. Q-Kt3

17. KtXP

17. KtXKt

18. BXKt

18. 8-64

19. QR-KB4

19- B-K 3

20. BXB

20. PXB

21. R-K4

21. RXR (ch)

22. KXR

22. R-B sq (ch)

23. K-Kt sq

23. Kt-Qs

And Black

has the better game.

CHESS

QUEEN'S GAMBIT.

QUEEN'S GAMBIT DECLINED.

White. Black.

White. Black. White. Black.

i. P Q4 i. P Q4

W. Steinitz. Dr E. Lasker. W. Steinitz. Dr E. Lasker.

2. P-QB4 2. PXP
3- P-K3 3- P-K4
4. BXP 4- PXP

I. P-Q4 P-Q4
2. P-QBA P-Rj
3. Kt-QB 3 Kt-KB 3

21. Kt-B 3 Kt-Qs
22. QXP KtXB (ch)
23. PxKt R-Ktsq

6. Kt-KB 3 6! Kt-KB3

4. B-B 4 B-K2
5. P-K3 Castles

24. QXP R-Kt3
25. Q-BA RXP

7. Ca-tles 7. Castles

6. R-B sq P-B4

26. P-KR4 B-R2

8. P-KR3 8. P-KR 3

7. QPXP BXP

27. B K4 Q Q3

9. Kt-QB 3 9. P-QB 3

8. PXP PXP

28. P-B4 Q-Q 2

The game is about equal, though White has a somewhat freer

9. Kt-B 3 Kt-B 3

29. B Kt2 Q Kts

position.
The following is a selection of noteworthy games played by

io- B-Q3 P-Qs
n. PXP KtXP
12. Castles B-KKts

30. Q-Q3 Kt-B 4
31. Kt-K4 B-K6
3 2. R-B 3 RXB

great masters:

13. Kt-QKts BXKt

33 . KXR KtXP(ch)

KING'S BISHOP'S GAMBIT.

14. P-B Kt-K3
15. B-K 5 Kt-R4

34. K-R2 KtXR (ch)
35. K-Kt2 Kt-Rs (ch)

White. Black.

16. K-Rsq Q-Kt4

36. K-R2 Kt-B4

Anderssen. Kieseritzki.

17. B-Kt3 QR-Q sq

37- R-QKtsq P-R4

I. P-KA I..P-K4
2. P-K&4 2. PXP

18. Q-B2 Q-RS
19. QR-Qsq 1 -Bsq

38. R-KtS R-Rsq
39. P-R 3 RXP

3- 6-64 3. Q-RS (ch)
4. K-B sq 4. P-QKt4
5. BXKtP 5. Kt-KB 3
6. Kt-KB 3 6. Q-R3
7- P-Q3 7- Kt-R4

20. Q-Kt3 P-R3 Resigns.

This game was played in the St Petersburg tournament, 1895, a
fine specimen of Lasker's style. The final attack, beginning with
21. with Kt-Qs, furnishes a gem of an ending.

8. Kt-R4 8. Q-Kt4
9- Kt-B 5 9. P-QB 3
10. P-KKt4 io. Kt-B3

RICE C
White. Black.

AMBIT.

White. Black.

ii. R-Kt sq n. PXB

Professor Major

12. P-KR4 12. Q-Kt3

Rice. Hanham.

13- P-R5 13- Q-Kt4

I. P-KA P-K4

IS- Q-R3 Kt-B 7

14. Q-B3 14. Kt-Ktsq

2. P-KRi PXP

16. RXB (ch) B-K3

IS- BXP 15- Q-B3
16. Kt-B 3 16. 8-84

3 . Kt-KB 3 P-KKt4
4. P-KR 4 P-Kts

17- K-B sq Q-R8(ch)
18. Kt-Ktsq Kt-R6

17. Kt-Qs 17- QXKtP

5. Kt-K 5 Kt-KB 3

19. PXKt P-B6

18. B-Q6 18. QXR (ch)

6. 8-64 P-Q4

20. B- Kt 5 Q-Kt7(ch)

19. K-K2 19. BXR

7. PXP B-Q 3

21. K-Ksq P-B7(ch)

20. P-Ks 20. Kt-QR 3

8. Castles BXKt

22. K-Q2 P-B8 = Kt

White mates in three moves.

9. R-K sq Q-K2

(ch)

io. P-B 3 P-Kt6

23- K-Q3 K-Q2

PHILIDOR'S DEFENCE.

ii. P-Q4 Kt-Kts

24. PXB (ch) K-B2

White. Black.

12. Kt-Q2 QXP

25- Q-K7 (ch) K-Kt3

Barnes. Morphy.

15. Kt-B 3 Q-R 3
14. Q-R 4 (ch)P-B 3

26. Q-Q8 (ch) RXQ
27. BXQ and mates

i. P K4 i. P K4

2 Kt KB* 2 P Oi

The Rice Gambit (so called after its inventor, Prof. Isaac L. Rice

* 1 vL iVUJ ^. 1 )<O

3- P-Q4 3- P-KB 4

4. PXKP 4. BPXP

5. Kt-Kts 5. P-QA
6 P K6 6 B 064

of New York), whether right or not, is only possible if Black plays
7. B-Q3. Paulsen's 7. B-Kt2 is better, and avoids unnecessary
complications. 8. P-Q4 is the usual move. Leaving the knight
en prise, followed by 9. R-Ksq, constitutes the Rice Gambit.

7- Kt-B 7 7. Q-6 3
8. B-K 3 8. P-Qs
9. B KKtS 9' Q 64

The interesting points in the game are that White subjects himself
to a most violent attack with impunity, for in the end Black could
not save the game by 22. P-B8 claiming a second queen with a

io. KtXR "" io. QXB

discovered check, nor by claiming a knight with double check, as

ii. 8-84 ii. Kt-QB 3

it is equally harmless to White.

12. Kt-B7 12. QXP
13. R-B sq 13. Kt-Bt

Giuoco PIANO.

114. P-KB 3 14. Kt-QKtS

White. Black.

15. Kt-QR3 15. BXP

Steinitz. Bardeleben.

16. BXB 16. Kt-Q6 (ch)

i. P-K4 P-K4

14. R-Ksq. P-KB3

17- QxKt 17. PXQ

18. Castles 18. BXKt

2. Kt-KB 3 Kt-QB 3
3 . 6-84 B-BA

IS- Q-K2 Q-Q2
16. QR-B sq P-8 3

19. B-Kt3 19. P-Q7 (ch)

4. P-B 3 Kt-B 3

17- P-Qs PXP

20. K Kt sq 20. 8 84

5. P-Q4 PXP

18. Kt-Q4 K-B2

21. Kt-Ks 21. K-Bsq
22. Kt-Q 3 22. R-K sq
23. KtXB 23. QXR

6. PXP B-KtS (ch)
7. Kt-B 3 P-Q 4
8. PXP KKtXP

19. Kt-K6 KR-QBsq
20. Q-Kt4 P-KK13
21. Kt-Kts(ch) K-Ksq

And White resigns.

9. Castles B-K 3
io. B-KKts B-K2

22. RXKt (ch) K-Bsq
23. R-B7 (ch) K-Kt sq

BISHOP'S GAMBIT.
White. Black. White. Black.

II. BXKt QBXB
12. KtXB QXKt
13. BXB KtXB

24. R-Kt7 (ch) K-Rsq
25. RXP (ch) Resigns.

Charousek. Tchigorin. Charousek. Tchigorin.
i. P-K4 P-K4 13. QXP (ch) K-K2
2. P-KB 4 PXP 14. KtXP KtXKt
3. 8-84 Kt-QB 3 15. BXKt P-R3
4. P-Q4 Kt-B3 16. Kt-B3 6-85
5. P-Ks P-Q 4 17. P-K6 R-B sq

As a matter of fact, Bardeleben left the board here, and lost the
game by letting his clock run out the time-limit; but Steinitz,
who remained at the board, demonstrated afterwards the following
variation leading to a forced win :

White. Black. . White. Black.

6. B-Kt 3 B-KtS 18. 8-87 PXP

Steinitz. Bardeleben.

7- Q-Q3 Kt-KR4 19. BXQ(ch) RXB
8. Kt-KR 3 Kt-Kts 20. Q-Kt7 (ch) R-Q2
9- Q-QB 3 Kt-R3 21. R-B7 (ch) KXR
io. Castles B-K7 22. QXR (ch) B-K2
II. B-R4(ch)P-B 3 23. R-Ksq R-Ksq

25 K-Kt sq

31. Q-Kt8 (ch) K-K2
32. Q-B7 (ch) K-Qsq
33- Q-B8 (ch) Q-K sq
34- Kt-B 7 (ch) K-Q2
35- Q Q6 mate.

26. R-Kt7 (ch) K-Rsq
27. Q-R4 (ch) KXR
28. Q-R7 (ch) K-B sq
29. Q-R8 (ch) K-K2

12. BXP(ch) PXB 24. P-QKt3 Resigns.

30. Q-Kt? (ch) K-Ksq

This pretty game was played in the tie match for first prize at

This game was awarded the prize for " brilliancy " at the Hastings

the Budapest tournament, 1896.

tournament, 1895.

vi. 4

9 8

CHESS

RUY LOPEZ.

White.
Halprin.

1. P-Ki

2. Kt-KB3

3. B-Kts

4. Castles

5. P-Q 4

6. PXP

7. P-QR4

8. P-K6

9. PXKt

10. Kt-B3

11. Kt-Kts

12. Q-RS
13- BXB

Black.
Pillsbury.
P-K4
Kt-QB 3
Kt-B 3
KtXP

White.
Halprin.
14. P-Kt6

15- Kt-Q

16. KR r K sq (ch) K-B sq

Black.
Pillsbury.
BPXP
PXKt

17. R-R3

18. RXKt

19. R-B3(ch)

20. B-R6

21. BXP

22. R-Kt3 (ch)

23. R-B 3 (ch)

24. R-Kt 3 (ch)

25. R-B3(ch)

Draw.

Kt-K4

PXR

K-Ktsq

Q-K2

KXB

K-Bsq

K-Kt2

K-Bsq

K-Ktsq

KtXB

P-Q3

PXP

Kt-K2

Kt-Kt3

B-K2

BXKt

Q-Q2

This brilliant game, played at the Munich tournament, 1900,
would be unique had the combinations occurred spontaneously in
the game. As a matter of fact, however, the whole variation had
been elaborated by Maroczy and Halprin previously, on the chance
of Pillsbury adopting the defence in the text. The real merit
belongs to Pillsbury, who had to find the correct defence to an
attack which Halprin had committed to memory and simply had to
be careful to make the moves in regular order.

SICILIAN DEFENCE.

White. Black.

Pillsbury. Mieses.

i. P-K4 P-QB4
2. Kt-KBs P-K3

16. PXP Kt-Qs
17. BXR KXB

3. P-Q4 PXP

18. R-R2 B-Ks

4. KtXP Kt-KB 3

19. R-Q2 R-Ks,

5. Kt-QB 3 Kt-B 3

20. Castles B-Kt6

6. KKt-Kts B-KtS

21. Q-Ktsq B-Q4

7. P-QR3 BXKt(ch)

22. B-Qsq BXP

8. KtXB P-Q4

23. KXB Q-Kt4(ch)

9. PXP PXP

24. K-Rsq QXR

10. B-KKt5 Castles

25. B-Kt 4 Q-Bs

n. B-K2 P-Qs

26. R-Kt sq P-B4

12. Kt-K4 Q-R4 (ch)

27. B-Rs Kt-B6

13. P-Kt4 Q-K4

28. BXKt QXB (ch)

14. KtXKt (ch) PXKt
15. B-R6 P-Q6

29. R-K12 R-K?
30. Q-QBsq QXQP

Drawn eventually.

This brilliant game occurred at the Paris tournament, 1900.

EVANS GAMBIT.

White. Black.

Anderssen. Dufresne.

i. P-K4 P-K4

13. Q-R4 B-Kts

2. Kt-KB 3 Kt-QB 3

14. QKt-Q2 B-Kt2

3. 6-64 6-64

15. Kt K4 Q 84

4. P-QKt4 BXP

16. BXP Q-R4

5. P-B 3 B-R 4

17. Kt-B6 (ch) PXKt

6. P-Q4 PXP

18. PXP R-Ktsq

7. Castles P-Q6

19. QR-Qsq QXKt

g. O Kt3 Q 83

20. RXKt (ch) KtXR

9. P-Ks Q-Kt3

21. QXP (ch) KXQ

10. R-Ksq KKt-K2

22. B-Bs(ch) K-Ksq

11. B-Rs P-Kt4
12. QXP R-QKtsq

23. B Q7 (ch) K moves
24. B X Kt mate.

This game is most remarkable and brilliant. The coup de repos
of 19. QR Q sq is the key-move to the brilliant final combination,

the depth and subtlety of which have never been equalled, except

perhaps in the following game between Zukertort and Blackburne:

ENGLISH OPENING.

White. Black.

Zukertort. Blackburne.

I. P-QB4 P-Ks
2. P-K 3 Kt-KB 3
3. Kt-KB 3 P-QKts

18. P-K4 , QR = QBsq
19. P-Ks Kt-Ksq
20. P-B4 P-Kts

4. B-K2 B-Kt2

21. R-Ks P-B4

5. Castles P Q4

22. PXPe. p. KtXP

6. P-Q4 B-Q 3

23. P-Bs Kt-Ks

7. Kt 83 Castles

24. BXKt PXB

8. P-QKts QKt-Q2

25. PxKtP R-B7

9. B-Kt2 Q-K2

26. PXP(ch) K-Rsq

10. Kt-QKts Kt-Ks
ii. KtXB PXKt
12. Kt-Q2 'QKt-Bs
13. P-Bs KtXKt

27- P-Q5dis. (ch) P-K 4
28. Q-Kt4 QR-B4
29. R-B8(ch) KXP
30. QXP(ch) K-Kt2

14. QXKt PXP

31. BXP(ch) KXR

15. BXP P-Q4

32. B-Kt7(ch) K-Ktsq

16. B-Qs KR-Bsq
17. QR-Ksq R-B2

33- QXQ Resigns.

This game, played in the London tournament, 1883, is one of the

most remarkable productions of modern times, neither surpassed

nor indeed equalled hitherto.

End Games. A game of chess consists of three branches the ^
opening, the middle and the end game. The openings have
been analysed and are to be acquired by the study of the books
on the subject. The middle game can only be acquired practically.
The combinations being inexhaustible in their variety, individual
ingenuity has its full scope. Those endowed with a fertile
imagination will evolve plans and combinations leading to
favourable issues. The less endowed player, however, is not left
quite defenceless; he has necessarily to adopt a different system,
namely, to try to find a weak point in the arrangement of his
opponent's forces and concentrate his attack on that weak spot.
As a matter of fact, in a contest between players of equal strength,
finding the weak point in the opponent's armour is the only
possible plan, and this may be said to be the fundamental
principle of the modern school. In the good old days the battles
were mostly fought in the neighbourhood of the king, each side
striving for a checkmate. Nowadays the battle may be fought
anywhere. It is quite immaterial where the advantage is gained
be it ever so slight. Correct continuation will necessarily increase
it, and the opponent may be compelled to surrender in the end
game without being checkmated, or a position may be reached
when the enemies, in consequence of the continual fight, are so
reduced that the kings themselves have to take the field the
end game. The end game, therefore, requires a special study.
It has its special laws and the value of the pieces undergoes a
considerable change. The kings leave their passive r61e and
become attacking forces. The pawns increase in value, whilst
that of the pieces may diminish in certain cases. Two knights,
for instance, without pawns, become valueless, as no checkmate
can be effected with them. In the majority of cases the players
must be guided by general principles, as the standard examples
do not meet all cases.

The handbooks as a rule give asprinklingof elementary endings,
such as to checkmate with queen, rook, bishop and knight,
two bishops, and pawn endings pure and simple, as well as pawns
in connexion with pieces in various forms. Towards the' end of
the ipth century a valuable work on end games was published
in England by the late B. Horwitz; thus for the first time a
theoretical classification of the art was given. This was followed
by a more comprehensive work by Professor J. Berger of Gratz,
which was translated a few years later by the late Mr Freeborough.

A few specimens of the less accessible positions are given
below :

Position from a Game played by the late J. G. Campbell in 1863.

BLACK.

Obviously White has to lose the
game, not being able to prevent the.
pawns from queening. By a re-
markably ingenious device White
averts the loss of the game by
stalemating himself as follows:

i. B-Q2, P-Kt7; 2. B-Rs,
P-Kt8 = Q; 3. P-Kt4 stale-
mate.

Position by Sarratt, 1808.
BLACK.

WHITE.

White wins as follows :

i. P-Kt6, RPXP; 2. P-B6,
P(Kt2)XP; 3. P-R6 and wins
by queening the pawn. If
I. ... BPXP then 2. P-R6,
KtPXP; 3- P B6 and queens
the pawn.

WHITE.

CHESS

Problems. A chess problem ' has been described as " merely
a position supposed to have occurred in a game of chess, being
none other than the critical point where your antagonist announces
checkmate in a given number of moves, no matter what defence
you play," but the above description conveys no idea of the

Position by B. Horwitz.
BLACK.

As a rule the game should be
drawn. Supposing by a series of
checks White were to compel Black
to abandon the pawn, he would
move K-R8; QXP and Black is
stale-mate. Therefore the ingenious
way to win is:

I. K-B4, P-B8=Q ch; K-
Kt3 and wins. Or; I . . . . K
R8 (threatening P B8 = Kt); then
2. Q Q2 preliminary to K Kt3

now wins.

WHITE.

Position by B. Horwitz.

BLACK-

Without Black's pawn White
could only draw. The pawn being
on the board, White wins as
follows :

i. Kt-B4, K-Kt sq; ~2.
Kt (B 4 )-K 3 , K-R sq; 3.
K - Kt4, K - Kt sq; 4. K - RS,
K-Rsq; 5. Kt-BA, K-Kt sq;
6.3 Kt (B4)-Q2, K-R sq; 7.
Kt - Kt3 ch, K-Kt sq; 8.
Kt-B3 mate.

Position by B. Horwitz.
BLACK.

WHITE.

White wins with two pieces against
one a rare occurrence.

i. Kt-K6, B-R3; 2. B-Q4
ch, K-R2; 3. 8-83, B moves
anywhere not en prise; 4. B Kt7
and Kt mates.

Position by 0. Schubert.

BLACK.

WHITE.

White wins as follows :

i. P-Kts, Kt-Kts; 2. K-Bs,
Kt-K6; 3. B-K6, Kt-B8; 4.
BXP, Kt-Q7 ch; 5. K-Kt 4 ,
KtXP; 6. P-Kt6, Kt-B3, ch;
7. K-Kt5, P-K 5 ; 8. KXKt,
P-K6; 9. 8-84, KXB; 10.
P-Kt7, P-K7; u. P-Kt8 = Q
ch, and wins by the simple process
of a series of checks so timed that
the king may approach systematic-
ally. The fine points in this instruc-
tive ending are the two bishop's
moves, 3. B K6, and 9. 8 84,
the latter move enabling White to
queen the pawn with a check.

degree to which problem-composing has become a specialized
study. Owing its inception, doubtless, to the practice of recording
critical phases from actual play, the art of problem composition
has so grown in favour as to earn the title of the " poetry " of
the game.

1 The earliest known problem is ascribed to an Arabian caliph of
the gth century. The first known collection is in a manuscript (in
the British Museum) of King Alphonso of Castile, dated 1250; it
contains 103 problems. The collection of Nicolas of Lombardy,
dated 1300, comprises 192 problems.

WHITE.

A good chess problem exemplifies chess strategy idealized and
concentrated. In examples of actual play there will necessarily
remain on the board pieces immaterial to the issue (checkmate),
whereas in problems the composer employs only indispensable
force so as to focus attention on the idea, avoiding all material
Position by F. Amelung.

BLACK.

WHITE.

White with the inferior position
saves the game as follows :

i. P-R6, PXP; 2. K-B3 dis.
ch, K moves; 3. R R2, or Kt2 ch,
KXR; 4. K-Kt2 and draw, as
Black has to give up the rook, and
the RP cannot be queened, the Black
bishop having no power on the
White diagonal. Extremely subtle.

Position by B. Horwitz.
BLACK.

The main idea being to checkmate
with the bishop, this is accomplished
thus: i. B-K4 ch, K-IU; 2.
QXR, QXQ; 3- K-B 7 , Q-B sq
ch; 4. KXQ, BXP;

BXP; 6. B-Kt6mate.

5. K-B7,

Position by A. Troilzky.

BLACK.

WHITE.

White wins as follows :

i. P-R8=Q, R-Kt7 ch; 2.
K-Kts, RXQ; 3. Kt-Q7 ch,
K-Kt2; 4. P-B6 ch, K-R2;
5- QPXKt, R-R sq; 6. Kt-Bj

WHITE.

ch,KXKt;7. PXR = Ktmate.

Position by Hoffer.
BLACK.

A position from actual play.
White plays i. R 85 threatening
to win a piece. Black replies with
the powerful Kt Kt5, threatening
two mates, and finally White (Mr
Hoffer) finds an ingenious sacrifice
of the Queen the saving clause.

The following are the moves:

i. R-Bs, Kt-Kts; 2. Q-Kt8
ch, K-Kt3; 3. Q-K6 ch, K-R2;
4. Q Kt8 ch, and drawn by per-
petual check, as Black cannot cap-
ture the Queen with K or R without
losing the game.

WHITE.

which would tend to " obscure the issue." Hence the first
object in a problem is to extract the maximum of finesse with a
sparing use of the pieces, but " economy of force " must be
combined with " purity of the mate." A very common mistake,
until comparatively recent years, was that of appraising the
" economy " of a position according to the slenderness of the
force used, but economy is not a question of absolute values. The
true criterion is the ratio of the force employed to the skill
demanded. The earliest composers strove to give their produc-
tions every appearance of real play, and indeed their compositions

100

CHESS

partook of the nature of ingenious end-games, in which it was
usual to give Black a predominance of force, and to leave the
White king in apparent jeopardy. From this predicament he
was extricated by a series of checking moves, usually involving
a number of brilliant sacrifices. The number of moves was
rarely less than five. In the course of time the solutions were
reduced to shorter limits and the beauty of quiet (non-checking)
moves began to make itself felt. The early transition school, as
it has been called, was the first to recognize the importance of
economy, i.e. the representation of the main strategic point
without any extraneous force. The mode of illustrating
single-theme problems, often of depth and beauty, was being
constantly improved, and the problems of C. Bayer, R. Willmers,
S. Loyd, J. G. Campbell, F. Healey, " J. B." of Bridport, and W.
Grimshaw are, of their kind, unsurpassed. In the year 1845 the
" Indian " problem attracted much notice, and in 1861 appeared
Healey's famous " Bristol " problem. To this period must be
ascribed the discovery of most of those clever ideas which have
been turned to such good account by the later school. In an
article written in 1899 F. M. Teed mentions the fact that his
incomplete collection of " Indians " totalled over three hundred.

In 1870 or thereabouts, the later transition period, a more
general tendency was manifest to illustrate two or more finished
ideas in a single problem with strict regard to purity and economy,
the theory of the art received greater attention than before and
the essays of C. Schwede, Kohtz and Kockelkorn, Lehner and
Gelbfuss, helped to codify hitherto unwritten rules of taste. The
last quarter of the igth century, and its last decade especially,
saw a marked advance in technique, until it became a common
thing to find as much deep and quiet play embodied in a single
first-class problem as in three or four of the old-time problems,
and hence arose the practice of blending several distinct ideas in.
one elaborate whole.

In the composition of " two-movers " it is customary to allow
greater elasticity and a less rigorous application of the principles
of purity and economy. By this means a greater superficial
complexity is attained; but the Teutonic and Bohemian schools,
and even English and American two-move specialists, recognize
that complexity, if it involves the sacrifice of first principles, is
liable to abuse. The blind master, A. F. Mackenzie of Jamaica,
however, with a few others (notably T. Taverner, W. Gleave,
H. and E. Bcttman and P. F. Blake) have won some of their
greatest successes with problems which, under stricter ruling,
would not be allowed.

Bohemian (Czech) composers have long stood unrivalled as
exponents of that blending of ideas which is the distinguishing
trait of the later problem. Such is their skill in construction
that it is rare to find in a problem of the Bohemian school fewer
than three or four lines of play which, in economy and purity,
are unimpeachable. Amongst the earliest composers of this
class Anton Konig, the founder of the school, Makovky, Drtina,
Palct and Pilnacek deserve to be honourably mentioned, but it
was not until the starting of a chess column in the weekly journal
Svetozor that the merits of the new school were fully asserted. It
was in 1871 that Jan Dobrusky contributed his first composition
to that paper: he was followed by G. Chocholous, C. Kondelik,
Pospisil, Dr Mazel, Kviciala, KesI, Tuzar, Musil and J. Kotrc;
and later still, Havel, Traxler and Z. Mach were no unworthy
followers of Dobrusky.

The faculty for blending variations is not without " the defects
of its qualities," and consequently among the less able composers
a certain tendency to repeat combinations of similar companion
ideas is discernible at times, while the danger that facile con-
struction might usurp the place of originality and strategy was
already apparent to Chocholous when, in an article on the
classification of chess problems (Deutsche Schachzeitung, 1890), he
warned the younger practitioners of the Bohemian school against
what has been dubbed by H. Von Gottschall Varianten-leierei,
or " the grinding out of variations." When this one reservation
is made few will be inclined to dispute the pre-eminence
of the Bohemian school. To some tastes, however, a greater
appeal is made by the deeper play of the older German school,

the quaint fancy of the American composer Samuel Loyd, or the
severity and freedom from " duals " which mark the English
composers.

The idea of holding a problem competition open to the world
was first mooted in connexion with the chess congress of 1851,
but it was in 1854 that a tourney (confined to British composers)
was first held. Since then a number of important problem
tournaments have been held.

History of Chess.

The origin of chess is lost in obscurity. Its invention has been
variously ascribed to the Greeks, Romans, Babylonians, Scythians,
Egyptians, Jews, Persians, Chinese, Hindus, Arabians, Arau-
canians, Castilians, Irish and Welsh. Some have endeavoured
to fix upon particular individuals as the originators of the game;
amongst others upon Japheth, Shem, King Solomon, the wife of
Ravan, king of Ceylon, the philosopher Xerxes, the Greek chieftain
Palamedes, Hermes, Aristotle, the brothers Lydo and Tyrrhene,
Semiramis, Zenobia, Attalus (d. c. 200 B.C.), the mandarin Han-
sing, the Brahman Sissa and Shatrenscha, stated to be a celebrated
Persian astronomer. Many of these ascriptions are fabulous,
others rest upon little authority, and some of them proceed from
easily traceable errors, as where the Roman games of Ludus
Latruncidorum and Lttdus Calculorum, the Welsh recreation of
Tawlbwrdd (throw-board) and the ancient Irish pastime of
FithcheaU are assumed to be identical with chess; so far as the
Romans and Welsh are concerned, the contrary can be proved,
while from what little is known of the Irish game it appears not
to have been a sedentary game at all. The claims 'of the Chinese
were advocated in a letter addressed by Mr Eyles Irwin in 1793
to the earl Charlemont. This paper was published in the Trans-
actions of the Roy all risk Academy, and its purport was that chess,
called in the Chinese tongue chong-ki (the " royal game ") was
invented in the reign of Kao-Tsu, otherwise Lin-Pang, then king,
but afterwards emperor of Kiang-Nang, by a mandarin named
Han-sing, who was in command of an army invading the Shen-Si
country, and who wanted to amuse his soldiers when in winter
quarters. This invasion of the Shen-Si country by Han-Sing took
place about 174 B.C. Capt. Hiram Cox states that the game is
called by the Chinese choke-choo-hong ki, " the play of the science
of war." (See also a paper published by the Hon. Daines
Barrington in the gth vol. of the Archoeologia.) Mr N. Bland,
M.R.A.S., in his Persian Chess (London, 1850), endeavours to
prove that the Persians were the inventors of chess, and maintains
that the game, born in Persia, found a home in India, whence
after a series of ages it was brought back to its birthplace. The
view, however, which has obtained the most credence, is that
which attributes the origin of chess to the Hindus. Dr Thomas
Hyde of Oxford, writing in 1694 (De Ludis Orienlalibus) , seems
to have been the first to propound this theory, but he appears to
have been ignorant of the game itself, and the Sanskrit records
were not accessible in his time. About 1783-1789 Sir William
Jones, in an essay published in the 2nd vol. of Asiatic Researches,
argued that Hindustan was the cradle of chess, the game having
been known there from time immemorial by the name of chatur-
anga, that is, the four angas, or members of an army, which are
said in the Amarakosha to be elephants, horses, chariots and foot
soldiers. As applicable to real armies, the term chaturanga is fre-
quently used by the epic poets of India. Sir William Jones's essay
is substantially a translation of the Bhawishya Purana, in which
is given a description of a four-handed game of chess played with
dice. A pundit named Rhadhakant informed him that this was
mentioned in the oldest law books, and also that it was invented
by the wife of Ravan, king of Lanka (Ceylon), in the second age
of the world in order to amuse that monarch while Rama was
besieging his metropolis. This account claims for chess an
existence of 4000 or 5000 years. Sir William, however, grounds
his opinions as to the Hindu origin of chess upon the testimony of
the Persians and not upon the above manuscript, while he con-
siders the game described therein to be more modern than the
Persian game. Though sure that the latter came from India and
was invented there, he admits that he could not find any account

CHESS

101

of it in the classical writings of the Brahmans. He lays it down
that chess, under the Sanskrit name chaturanga, was exported from
India into Persia in the 6th century of our era; that by a natural
corruption the old Persians changed the name into chatrang, but
when their country was soon afterwards taken possession of by the
Arabs, who had neither the initial nor final letter of the word in
their alphabet, they altered it further into shatranj, which name
found its way presently into modern Persian and ultimately into
the dialects of India.

Capt. Hiram Cox, in a letter upon Burmese chess, written in
1799 and published in the 7th vol. of Asiatic Researches, refers to
the above essay, and considers the four-handed game described
in the Sanskrit manuscript to be the most ancient form of chess,
the Burmese and Persian games being second and third in order
of precedence. Later, in the nth and 24th vols. of the Archaeo-
logia, Mr Francis Douce and Sir Frederick Madden expressed
themselves in favour of the views held by Hyde and his followers.

In ProfessorDuncanForbes'sfiTi5/or3'o/CAew(i86o)Capt. Cox's
views, as founded upon Sir William Jones's Sanskrit manuscript,
are upheld and are developed into an elaborate theory. Professor
Forbes holds that the four-handed game of chaturanga described
in the Bhawishya Pur ana was the primeval form of chess; that
it was invented by a people whose language was Sanskrit (the
Hindus) ; and that it was known and practised in India from a
time lost in the depths of a remote antiquity, but for a period the
duration of which may have been from 3000 to 4000 years before
the 6th century of the Christian era. He endeavours to show, but
adduces no proof, how the four armies commanded by four kings
in Sir William Jones's manuscript became converted into two
opposing armies, and how two of the kings were reduced to a
subordinate position, and became " monitors " or " counsellors,"
one standing by the side of the White and the other of the Black
king, these counsellors being thefarzins from which we derive our
" queens." Among other points he argues, apparently with justice,
that chaturanga was evidently the root of shatranj, the latter word
being a mere exotic in the language of the inhabitants of Persia.

Van der Linde, in his exhaustive work, Geschichte und Litteratur
des Schachspiels (Berlin, 1874), has much to say of the origin-
theories, nearly all of which he treats as so many myths. He
agrees with those who consider that the Persians received the
game from the Hindus; but the elaborate chaturanga theories
of Forbes receive but scant mercy. Van der Linde argues that
chaturanga is always used by the old Indian poets of an army
and never of a game, that all Sanskrit scholars are agreed that
chess is not mentioned in really ancient Hindu records; that the
Puranas generally, though formerly considered to be extremely
old, are held in the light of modern research to reach no farther
back than the loth century while the copies of the Bhawishya
Purana in the British Museum and the Berlin Library do not
contain the extract relied upon by Forbes, though it is to be found
in the Raghunandana, which was translated by Weber in 1872,
and is stated by Btihler to date from the i6th century. The
outcome of van der Linde's studies appears to be that chess cer-
tainly existed in Hindustan in the 8th century, and that probably
that country is the land of its birth. He inclines to the idea that
the game originated among the Buddhists, whose religion was
prevalent in India from the 3rd to the pth century. According to
their ideas, war and the slaying of one's fellow-men, for any pur-
poses whatever, is criminal, and the punishment of the warrior
in the next world will be much worse than that of the simple
murderer; hence chess was invented as a substitute for war. In
opposition to Forbes, therefore, and in agreement with Sir William
Jones, vari der Linde takes the view that the four-handed game of
the original manuscript is a comparatively modern adaptation of
the Hindu chess, and he altogether denies that there is any proof
that any form of the game has the antiquity attributed to it.
Internal evidence certainly seems to contradict the theory that
Sir William Jones's manuscript is very ancient testimony; for it
mentions two great sages, Vyasa and Gotama, the former as
teaching chaturanga to Prince Yudhishthira, and the other as
giving an opinion upon certain principles of the game; but this
could not well be, seeing that it was played with dice, and that all

games of hazard were positively forbidden by Manu. It would
appear also that Indian manuscripts are not absolutely trust-
worthy as evidence of the antiquity of their contents; for the
climate has the effect of destroying such writings in a period of 300
or 400 years. They must, therefore, be recopied from time to time
and in this way later interpolations may easily creep in.

Von der Lasa, who had, in an article prefixed to the Hand-
buck in 1864, accepted Forties's views, withdrew his support in
a review of the work just noticed, published in the September
and November numbers of the Deutsche Schachzeitung, 1874, and
expressed his adherence to the opinions of van der Linde.

Altogether, therefore, we find the best authorities agreeing that
chess existed in India before it is known to have been played
anywhere else. In this supposition they are strengthened by the
names of the game and of some of the pieces. Shatranj, as Forbes
has pointed out, is a foreign word among thePersians and Arabians,
whereas its natural derivation from the termchaturanga is obvious.
Again al-fil, the Arabic name of the bishop, means the elephant,
otherwise alephhind, the Indian ox. Our earliest authority on
chess is Masudi, an Arabic author who wrote about A.D. 950.
According to him, shatranj had existed long before his time; and
though he may speak not only for his own generation but for a
couple of centuries before, that will give to chess an existence of
over a thousand years.

Early and Medieval Times. The dimness which shrouds the
origin of chess naturally obscures also its early history. We
have seen that chess crossed over from India into Persia, and
became known in the latter country by the name of shatranj.
Some have understood that word to mean " the play of the
king "; but undoubtedly Sir William Jones's derivation carries
with it the most plausibility. How and when the game was
introduced into Persia we have no means of knowing. The
Persian poet Firdusi, in his historical poem, the Shahnama,
gives an account of the introduction of shatranj into Persia
in the reign of Chosroes I. Anushirwan, to whom came am-
bassadors from the sovereign of Hind (India), with a chess-
board and men asking him to solve the secrets of the game, if
he could, or pay tribute. Chosroes I. was the contemporary
of Justinian, and reigned in the 6th century A.D. Professor
Forbes seems to think that this poem may be looked upon as
an authentic history. This appears, however, to be somewhat
dangerous, especially as Firdusi lived some 450 years after the
supposed event took place; but since other Persian and Arabian
writers state that shatranj came into Persia from India, there
appears to be a consensus of opinion that may be considered to
settle the question. Thus we have the game passing from the
Hindus to the Persians and thence to the Arabians, after the
capture of Persia by the Caliphs in the 7th century, and from
them, directly or indirectly, to various parts of Europe, at a
time which cannot be definitely fixed, but either in or before the
nth century. That the source of the European game is Arabic
is clear enough, not merely from the words " check " and " mate,"
which are evidently from Shah mat (" the king is dead "), but
also from the names of some of the pieces. There are various
chess legends having reference to the 7th and 8th centuries, but
these may be neglected as historically useless; and equally use-
less appear the many oriental and occidental romances which
revolve around those two great central figures, Harun al-Rashid
and Charlemagne. There is no proof that either of them knew
anything of chess or, so far as the latter is concerned, that it had
been introduced into Europe in his time. True, there is an
account given in Gustavus Selenus, taken from various old
chronicles, as to the son of Prince Okar or Otkar of Bavaria
having been killed by a blow on the temple, struck by a son of
Pippin after a game of chess; and there is another well-known
tradition as to the magnificent chess-board and set of men said to
have been sent over as a present by the empress Irene to Charle-
magne. But both tales are not less mythical than the romance
which relates how the great Prankish monarch lost his kingdom
over a game of chess to Guerin de Montglave; for van der Linde
shows that there was no Bavarian prince of the name of Okar or
Otkar at the period alluded to, and as ruthlessly shatters the

IO2

CHESS

tradition about Irene's chessmen. With respect to Harun al-
Rashid, among the various stories told which connect him with
chess, there is one that at first sight may seem entitled to some
degree of credit. In the annals of the Moslems by Abulfeda (Abu'l
Fida), there is given a copy of a letter stated to be " From
Nicephorus, emperor of the Romans, to Harun, sovereign of
the Arabs," which (using Professor Forbes's translation) after
the usual compliments runs thus: " The empress (Irene) into
whose place I have succeeded, looked upon you as a Rukh and
herself as a mere Pawn; therefore she submitted to pay you a
tribute more than the double of which she ought to have exacted
from you. All this has been owing to female weakness and
timidity. Now, however, I insist that you, immediately on
reading this letter, repay to me all the sums of money you ever
received from her. If you hesitate, the sword shall settle our
accounts." Harun 's reply, written on the back of the Byzantine
emperor's letter, was terse and to the point. " In the name of
God the merciful and gracious. From Harun, the commander
of the faithful, to the Roman dog Nicephorus. I have read thine
epistle, thou son of an infidel mother; my answer to it thou
shall see, not hear." Harun was as good as his word, for he
marched immediately as far as Heraclea, devastating the Roman
territories with fire and sword, and soon compelled Nicephorus
to sue for peace. Now the points which give authority to this
narrative and the alleged correspondence are that the relations
which they assume between Irene and Nicephorus on the one
hand and the warlike caliph on the other are confirmed by the
history of those times, while, also, the straightforward brevity
of Harun's reply commends itself as what one might expect
from his soldier-like character. Still, the fact must be remem-
bered that Abulfeda lived about five centuries after the time to
which he refers. Perhaps we may assume that it is not improb-
able that the correspondence is genuine; but that the words
rukh and pawn may have been substituted for other terms of
comparison originally used.

As to how chess was introduced into western and central
Europe nothing is really known. The Spaniards very likely
received it from their Moslem conquerors, the Italians not
improbably from the Byzantines, and in either case it would pass
northwards to France, going on thence to Scandinavia and
England. Some say that chess was introduced into Europe at
the time of the Crusades, the theory being that the Christian
warriors learned to play it at Constantinople. This is nega-
tived by a curious epistle of St Peter Damian, cardinal bishop
of Ostia, to Pope Alexander II., written about A.D. 1061, which,
assuming its authenticity, shows that chess was known in Italy
before the date of the first crusade. The cardinal, as it seems,
had imposed a penance upon a bishop whom he had found
diverting himself at chess; and in his letter to the pope he
repeats the language he had held to the erring prelate, viz.
" Was it right, I say, and consistent with thy duty, to sport away
thy evenings amidst the vanity of chess, and defile the hand
which offers up the body of the Lord, and the tongue that
mediates between God and man, with the pollution of a sacri-
legious game ? " Following up the same idea that statutes of the
church of Elna, in the 3rd vol. of the Councils of Spain, say,
" Clerks playing at dic,e or chess shall be ipso facto excommuni-
cated." Eudes de Sully, bishop of Paris under Philip Augustus,
is stated in the Ordonn. des Rois de France to have forbidden
clerics to play the game, and according to the Hist. Eccles. of
Fleury, St Louis, king of France, imposed a fine on all who
should play it. Ecclesiastical authorities, however, seemed to
have differed among themselves upon the question whether
chess was or was not a lawful game according to the canons, and
Peirino (De Proelat. chap, i) holds that it was permissible for
ecclesiastics to play thereat. Among those who have taken
an unfavourable view of the game may be mentioned John Huss,
who, when in prison, deplored his having played at chess, whereby
he had lost time and run the risk of being subject to violent
passions. Among authentic records of the game may be quoted
the Alexiad of the princess Anna Comnena, in which she relates
how her father, the emperor Alexius, used to divert his mind

from the cares of state by playing at chess with his relatives.
This emperor died in 1118.

Concerning chess in England there is the usual confusion
between legend and truth. Snorre Sturleson relates that as
Canute was playing at chess with Earl Ulf, a quarrel arose, which
resulted in the upsetting of the board by the latter, with the
further consequence of his being murdered in church a few days
afterwards by Canute's orders. Carlyle, in The Early Kings of
Norway, repeats this tale, but van der Linde treats it as a myth.
The Ramsey Chronicle relates how bishop Utheric, coming to
Canute at night upon urgent business, found the monarch and
his courtiers amusing themselves at dice and chess. There is
nothing intrinsically improbable in this last narrative; but
Canute died about 1035, and the date, therefore, is suspiciously
early. Moreover, allowance must be made for the ease with
which chroniclers described other games as chess. William the
Conqueror, Henry I., John and Edward I. are variously stated
to have played at chess. It is generally supposed that the
English court of exchequer took its name from the cloth, figured
with squares like a chess-board, which covered the table in it
(see EXCHEQUER). An old writer says that at the coronation
of Richard I. in 1189, six earls and barons carried a chess-board
with the royal insignia to represent the exchequer court. Accord-
ing to Edmonson's Heraldry, twenty-six English families bore
chess rooks in their coats of arms.

As regards the individual pieces, the king seems to have had
the same move as at present; but it is said he could formerly be
captured. His " castling " privilege is a European invention;
but he formerly leaped two and even three squares, and also to
his Kt 2nd. Castling dates no farther back than the first half of
the 1 6th century. The queen has suffered curious changes in
name, sex and power. In shalranj the piece was called farz or
fin (also farzan, farzin and farzi), signifying a " counsellor,"
" minister " or " general." This was latinized into farzia or
fercia. The French slightly altered the latter form into fierce,
fierge, and as some say, merge, which, if true, might explain its
becoming a female. Another and much more probable account
has it that whereas formerly a pawn on reaching an eighth square
became a farzin, and not any other piece, which promotion was
of the same kind as at draughts (in French, dames), so she became
a dame or queen as in the latter game, and thence dama, donna,
&c. There are old Latin manuscripts in which the terms ferzia
and regina are used indifferently. The queen formerly moved
only one square diagonally and was consequently the weakest
piece on the board. The immense power she now possesses
seems to have been conferred upon her so late as about the middle
of the isth century. It will be noticed that under the old
system the queens could never meet each other, for they operated
on diagonals of different colours. The bishop's scope of action
was also very limited formerly; he could only move two squares
diagonally, and had no power over the intermediate square,
which he could leap over whether it was occupied or not. This
limitation of their powers prevailed in Europe until the i^th
century. This piece, according to Forbes, was called among the
Persians pil, an elephant, but the Arabs, not having the letter
p in their alphabet, wrote it fil, or with their definite article
al-fil, whence alphilus, alfinus, aliferc, the latter being the word
used by the Italians; while the French perhaps get their fol
and/ow from the same source. The pawns formerly could move
only one square at starting; their powers in this respect were
increased about the early part of the i6th century. It was
customary for them on arriving at an eighth square to be ex-
changed only for a farzin (queen), and not any other piece;
the rooks (so called from the Indian rukh and Persian roth,
meaning " a soldier ") and the knights appear to have always
had the same powers as at present. As to the chessboards, they
were formerly uncol cured, and it is not until the i3th century
that we hear of checkered boards being used in Europe.

Development in Play. The change of shatranj into modern
chess took place most probably first in France, and thence made
its way into Spain early in the isth century, where the new game
was called Axedrez de la dama, being also adopted by the Italians

CHESS

103

under the name of scacci alia rabiosa. The time of the first im-
portant writer on modern chess, the Spaniard Ruy Lopez deSegura
(1561), is also the period when the latest improvement, castling,
was introduced, for his book (Libra de la invention liberal y arte
del juego del Axedrez), though treating of it as already in use,
also gives the old mode of play, which allowed the king a leap
of two or three squares. Shortly afterwards the old shatranj
disappears altogether. Lopez was the first who merits the name
of chess analyst. At this time flourished the flower of the Spanish
and Italian schools of chess the former represented by Lopez,
Ceron, Santa Maria, Busnardo and Avalos; the latter by
Giovanni Leonardo da Cutri (il Puttino) and Paolo Boi (il
Syracusano). In the years 1562-1575 both Italian masters
visited Spain and defeated their Spanish antagonists. During
the whole I7th century we find but one worthy to be mentioned,
Giacchino Greco (il Calabrese).. The middle o{ the i8th century
inaugurates a new era in chess. The leading man of this time
was Francois Andre Danican Philidor. He was born in 1726
and was trained by M. de Kermur, Sire de Legal, the star of
the Cafe de la Regence in Paris, which has been the centre of
French chess ever since the commencement of the i8th century.
In 1747 Philidor visited England, and defeated the Arabian
player, Phillip Stamma, by 8 games to i and i draw. In 1749
' he published his Analyse des echccs, a book which went through
more editions and was more translated than any other work
upon the game. During more than half a century Philidor
travelled much, but never went to Italy, the only country where
he could have found opponents of first-rate skill. Italy was
represented in Philidor's time by Ercole del Rio, Lolli and
Ponziani. Their style was less sound than that of Philidor,
but certainly a much finer and in principle a better one. As
an analyst the Frenchman was in many points refuted by
Ercole del Rio (" the anonymous Modenese "). Blindfold
chess-play, already exhibited in the nth century by Arabian
and Persian experts, was taken up afresh by Philidor, who
played on many occasions three games simultaneously without
sight of board or men. These exhibitions were given in London,
at the Chess Club in St James's Street, and Philidor died in that
city in 1795. As eminent players of this period must be men-
tioned Count Ph. J. van Zuylen van Nyevelt (1743-1826),
and the German player, J. Allgaier (1763-1823). after whom a
well-known brilliant variation of the King's Gambit is named.
Philidor was succeeded by Alexandre Louis Honore .Lebreton
Deschapelles (1780-1847), who was also a famous whist player.
The only player who is known to have fought Deschapelles not
unsuccessfully on even terms is John Cochrane. He also lost
a match (1821) to W. Lewis, to whom he conceded the odds of
" pawn and move," the Englishman winning one and drawing the
two others. Deschapelles' greatest pupil, and the strongest player
France ever possessed, was Louis Charles Mahe de la Bourdonnais,
who was born in 1797 and died in 1840. His most memorable
achievement was his contest with the English champion,
Alexander Macdonnell, the French player winning in the pro-
portion of three to two.

The English school of chess began about the beginning of the
igth century, and Sarratt was its first leader. He flourished from
1808 to 1821, and was followed by his great pupil, W. Lewis,
who will be principally remembered for his writings. His
literary career belongs to the period from 1818 to 1848 and he
died in 1869. A. Macdonnell (1798-1835) has been already
mentioned. To the same period belong also Captain Evans,
the inventor of the celebrated " Evans Gambit " (1828), who
died at a very advanced age in 1873; Perigal, who participated
in the correspondence matches against Edinburgh and Paris;
George Walker, for thirty years chess editor of Bell's Life in
London; and John Cochrane, who met every strong player from
Deschapelles downwards. In the same period Germany possessed
but one good player, J. Mendheim of Berlin. The fifth decade
of the 1 9th century is marked by the fact that the leadership
passed from the French school to the English. After the death
of la Bourdonnais, Fournie de Saint-Amant became the leading
player in France; he visited England in the early part of 1843,

and successfully met the best English players, including Howard
Staunton (?..); but the latter soon took his revenge, for in
November and December 1843 a great match between Staunton
and Saint-Amant took place in Paris, the English champion
winning by 1 1 games to 6 with 4 draws. During the succeeding
eight years Staunton maintained his reputation by defeating
Popert, Horwitz and Harrwitz. Staunton was defeated by
Anderssen at the London tournament in 1851, and this con-
cluded his match-playing career. Among the contemporaries of
Staunton may be mentioned Henry Thomas Buckle, author
of the History of Civilization, who defeated Kieseritzki, Anderssen
and Lowenthal.

In the ten years 1830-1840 a new school arose in Berlin, the
seven leaders of which have been called " The Pleiades." These
were Bledow (1795-1846), Bilguer (1815-1840), Hanstein (1810-
1850), Mayet (1810-1868), Schorn (1802-1850), B. Horwitz
(b. 1809) and von Heydebrandt und der Lasa, once German
ambassador at Copenhagen. As belonging to the same period
must be mentioned the three Hungarian players, Grimm, Szen
and J. Lowenthal.

Among the great masters since the middle of the igth century
Paul Morphy (1837-1884), an American, has seldom been sur-
passed as a chess player. His career was short but brilliant.
Born in New Orleans in 1837, he was taught chess by his father
when only ten years of age, and in two years' time became a strong
player. When not quite thirteen he played three games with
Lowenthal, and won two of them, the other being drawn. He
was twenty years of age when he competed in the New York
congress of 1857, where he won the first prize. In 1858^6 visited
England, and there defeated Boden, Medley, Mongredien, Owen,
Bird and others. He also beat Lowenthal by 9 games to 3
and 2 drawn. Jn the same year he played a match at Paris with
Harrwitz, winning by 5 to 2 and i drawn; and later on he
obtained a victory over Anderssen. On two or three occasions
he played blindfold against eight strong players simultaneously,
each time with great success. He returned to America in 1859
and continued to play, but with decreasing interest in the game,
until 1866. He died in 1884.

Wilhelm Steinitz (b. 1836) took the sixth prize at the London
congress of 1862. He defeated Blackburne in a match by

7 to i and 2 drawn. In 1866 he beat Anderssen in a match by

8 games to 6. In 1868 he carried off the first prize in the British
Chess Association handicap, and in 1872 in the London grand
tourney, also defeating Zukertort in a match by 7 games to i
and 4 drawn. In 1873 he carried off the first prize at the Vienna
congress; and in 1876 he defeated Blackburne, winning 7 games
right off. In 1872-1874, in conjunction with W. N. Potter,
he conducted and won a telegraphic correspondence match for
London against Vienna. In Philidor's age it was considered
almost incredible that he should be able to play three simultaneous
games without seeing board or men, but Paulsen, Blackburne
and Zukertort often played 10 or 12 such games, while as many
as 14 and 15 have been so played.

In 1876 England was in the van of the world's chess army.
English-born players then were Boden, Burn, Macdonnell, Bird,
Blackburne and Potter; whilst among naturalized English
players were Lowenthal, Steinitz, Zukertort, who died in 1888,
and Horwitz. This illustrious contingent was reinforced in
1878 by Mason, an Irish-American, who came over for the
Paris tournament? by Gunsberg, a Hungarian; and later by
Teichmann, who also made England his home. English chess
flourished under the leadership of these masters, the chief prizes
in- tournaments being consistently carried off by the English
representatives.

To gauge the progress made by the game since about 1875
it will suffice to give the following statistics. In London Simpson's
Divan was formerly the chief resort of chess players; the
St George's Chess Club was the principal chess club in the West
End, and the City of London Chess Club in the east. About
a hundred or more clubs are now scattered all over the city.
Formerly only the British Chess Association existed; after its
dissolution the now defunct Counties' Chess Association took

IO4

CHESS

its place, and this was superseded by the re-establishment by
Mr Hoffer of the British Chess Association, which again fell
into abeyance after having organized three international tourna-
ments London, 1886; Bradford, 1888; and Manchester, 1890
and four national tournaments. There were various reasons
why the British Chess Association ceased to exercise its functions,
one being that minor associations did not feel inclined to merge
their identity in a central association. The London League
was established, besides the Northern Chess Union, the Southern
Counties' Chess Union, the Midland Counties' Union, the Kent
County Association; and there are associations in Surrey,
Sussex, Essex, Hampshire, Wiltshire, Gloucestershire, Somerset-
shire, Cambridgeshire, Herefordshire, Leicestershire, North-
amptonshire, Staffordshire, Worcestershire and Lancashire.
All these associations are supported by the affiliated chess clubs
of the respective counties. Scotland (which has its own associa-
tion), Wales and Ireland have also numerous clubs.

Still, England did not produce one new eminent player between
1875 and 1905. First-class chess remained in the hands of the
veterans Burn, Blackburne, Mason and Bird. The old amateurs
passed away, their place being taken by a new generation of
powerful amateurs, so well equipped that Great Britain could
hold its own in an amateur contest against the combined forces
of Germany, Austria, Holland and Russia. The terms master
and amateur are not used in any invidious sense, but simply
as designating, in the former case, first-class players, and in the
latter, those just on the borderland of highest excellence. The
professional element as it existed in the heydey of Simpson's
Divan almost disappeared, the reason being the increased number
of chess clubs, where enthusiasts and students might indulge
in their favourite pastime to their heart's content, tournaments
with attractive prizes being arranged during the season. The
former occupation of the masters vanished in consequence; the
few who remained depended upon the passing visitors from the
provinces who were eager to test their strength by the standard
of the master. Blackburne visited the provinces annually,
keeping the interest in first-class chess alive by his simultaneous
play and his extraordinary skill as a blindfold player unsur-
passed until the advent of Harry Nelson Pillsbury (1872-1906),
the leading American master since Morphy.

Germany has produced great chess players in Tarrasch,
E. Lasker, Lipke, Fritz, Bardeleben, Walbrodt and Mieses,
besides a goodly number of amateurs. Austria produced
Max Weiss, Schlechter, Marco and Hruby, to say nothing of
such fine players as the Fleissigs, Dr Mertner, Dr Kaufmann,
Fahndrich, Jacques Schwarz and others. Hungary was worthily
represented by Maroczy, Makovetz and Brody, Maroczy being
the best after Charousek's death. Russia, having lost Jaenisch,
Petroff and Schumoff, discovered Tchigorin, Janowsky.
Schiffers, Alapin, Winawer and Taubenhaus. France showed
'a decline for many years, having only the veteran M. Arnous
de Riviere and the naturalized M. Rosenthal left, followed by
Goetz and two good amateurs, MM. Didier and Billecard.
Italy had only Signer Salvioli, although Signer Reggio came to
the fore. Holland had a fair number of players equal to the
English amateurs, but no master since the promising young
van Lennep died.

The first modern International Chess Tournament held in
London in 1851 was the forerunner of various similar contests
of which the following is a complete table:

Tournaments.

1851. London. I Anderssen, 2 Wyvill, 3 Williams.
1857. Manchester, i Lowenthal, 2 Anderssen.

1857. New York. I Morphy, 2 L. Paulsen.

1858. Birmingham. I Lowenthal, 2 Falkbeer.

1860. Cambridge, i Kolisch, 2 Stanley.

1861. Bristol, i L. Paulsen, 2 Boden.

1862. London, i Anderssen, 2 L. Paulsen, 3 Owen.

1865. Dublin. I Steinitz, 2 MacDonnell.

1866. Redcar. De Vere.

1866. English Championship Cup. De Vere.

1866. British Chess Association, i Steinitz, 2 Green.

1867. Paris. I Kolisch, 2 Winawer, 3 Steinitz.

1867. Dundee, i Neumann, 2 Steinitz, 3 De Vere and MacDonnell.

1868. English Championship Cup. i Blackburne, 2 De Vere.
1868. British Chess Association Handicap. I Steinitz, 2 Wisker,

3 Blackburne.
1870. Baden-Baden, i Anderssen, 2 Steinitz, 3 Blackburne and

Neumann.

1870. English Championship Cup. i Wisker, 2 Burn.
1870-1871. City of London Handicap. I Potter, 2 De Vere.
1871-1872. City of London Handicap, i Steinitz, 2 Keats.
1872. London. I Steinitz, 2 Blackburne, 3 ZuUertort.

1872. English Championship Cup. I Wisker (becoming permanent

holder of the cup), 2 De Vere.

1873. Vienna, i Steinitz, 2 Blackburne, 3 Anderssen.
1876. London. I Blackburne, 2 Zukertort, 3 Potter.

1878. Paris, i Zukertort, 2 Winawer (after a tie with Zukertort),
3 Blackburne.

1880. Wiesbaden. I, 2, and 3, a tie between Blackburne, Englisch

and A. Schwarz.

1 88 1. Berlin. I Blackburne, 2 Zukertort, 3 Tchigorin and Winawer.

Tchigorin made his first public appearance in this contest.

1882. Vienna. I Steinitz and Winawer, 3 Mason.

1883. London, i Zukertort, 2 Steinitz, 3 Blackburne.

1883. Nuremberg, i Winawer, 2 Blackburne, 3 Mason. This
tournament is a milestone in modern chess history. The
prizes being comparatively small, it was thought that it
necessarily must be a failure, the munificently endowed
London tournament having just been completed. But,
strange to say, whilst in London fourteen players competed,
there were nineteen entries in Nuremberg. Winawer, not
placed in the former, won the first prize in the latter.

1885. Hamburg. I Gunsberg; the next prizes were divided by
Blackburne, Mason, Englisch, Tarrasch and Weiss.

1885. Hereford. I Blackburne, 2 and 3 Bird and Schallopp.

1886. London, i Blackburne, 2 Burn, 3 Gunsberg and Taubenhaus.

1886. Nottingham, i Burn, 2 Schallopp, 3 Gunsberg and Zukertort.

1887. Frankfort. I Mackenzie, 2 Blackburne and Weiss.

1888. Bradford, i Gunsberg, 2 Mackenzie, 3 Mason and Bardeleben.

1889. New York, i Tchigorin and Weiss, 3 Gunsberg.

1889. Breslau. i Tarrasch, 2 Burn, 3 Weiss.

1890. Amsterdam, i Burn, 2 Lasker, 3 Mason. There were only

nine competitors, Lasker unexpectedly losing to van Vlk-t

by a trap.

1890. Manchester, i Tarrasch, 2 Blackburne, 3 Bird and Mackenzie.
1892. Dresden, i Tarrasch, 2 Makovetz and Porges. Blackburne

received a special prize.

1894. Leipzig. I Tarrasch, 2 Lipke and Teichmann.

1895. Hastings, i Pillsbury, 2 Tchigorin, 3 Lasker. This tourna-

ment is historical for the first appearance of Pillsbury, the
American champion, and Maroczy, the Hungarian champion.

1896. Nuremberg. I Lasker, 2 Maroczy, 3 Pillsbury and Tarrasch.

1896. Budapest. I Tchigorin, 2 Charousek, 3 Pillsbury.

1897. Berlin. I Charousek, 2 Walbrodt, 3 Blackburne. Englisch

had to abandon the tournament and return to Vienna ill.
He never recovered and died a few weeks later.

1898. Vienna. I Tarrasch, 2 Pillsbury, 3 Janowsky. Tarrasch

achieved a remarkable victory in this important tournament.
Pillsbury's chances were better than his, but he managed
to run him neck and neck and beat him in the tie match
which followed.

1898. Cologne, i Burn, 2 Charousek, Cohn and Tchigorin.

1899. London. I Lasker, 2 Janowsky, Maroczy and Pillsbury.

Janowsky sacrificed the second prize by trying to win a
game against Steinitz when with an easy draw in hand he
could have secured the second place for himself alone.

1900. Munich. Tie between Maroczy, Pillsbury and Schlechter for

three chief prizes.

1900. Paris. I Lasker, 2 Pillsbury, 3 Maroczy and Marshall.

1901. Monte Carlo, i Janowsky, 2 Schlechter, 3 Scheve and

Tchigorin. A novel rule was introduced at this tournament,
viz. the first drawn game to count j to each player, to be
replayed, and in case of a draw again to count J each, and
in case of win J to the winner. Theoretically this seems
logical, but in practice it did not work well.

1902. Monte Carlo. I Pillsbury and Maroczy, 3 Janowsky.

1902. Hanover. I Janowsky, 2 Pillsbury, 3 Atkins.

1903. Monte Carlo. I Tarrasch, 2 Maroczy, 3 Pillsbury.

1904. Monte Carlo. I Maroczy, 2 Schlechter, 3 Marshall.

1904. Cambridge Springs. I Marshall, 2 Lasker and Janowsky.

1905. Ostend. I Maroczy, 2 Tarrasch and Janowsky.

1905. Scheveningen. I Marshall, 2 Leussen, 3 Spielmann.

1906. Stockholm. I Schlechter and Bernstein, 3 Mieses.
1906. Ostend. I Schlechter, 2 Maroczy, 3 Rubenstein.

1906. Nuremberg, i Marshall, 2 Duras, 3 Schlechter and Fleisch-

mann.

1907. Vienna, i Mieses, 2 Duras, 3 Maroczy and Vidmare.
1907. Ostend. i Bernstein and Rubenstein, 3 Mieses.

1907. Ostend. i Tarrasch, 2 Schlechter, 3 Janowsky and Marshall.
1907. Carlsbad.- I Rubenstein, 2 Maroczy, 3 Niemzowitch and
Leonhardt.

In the absence of any recognized authority to confer the title

CHESS

105

of chess champion of the world, it has usually been appropriated
by the most successful competitor in tournaments. On this
ground Tarrasch claimed the title in 1907, although Lasker, who
had twice beaten Steinitz, the previous champion, in champion-
ship matches, in addition to such masters as Bird, Blackburne,
Mieses and Marshall, was well qualified to assume it. Accord-
ingly in arranging the programme for the tournament at Ostend
in 1907 it was agreed that the winner of this contest should
receive the title of tournament champion, and should play a
match with Lasker for the championship of the world. Tarrasch
having proved successful at Ostend, the match between him
and Lasker was played at Munich in September 1908, and re-
sulted in the victory of Lasker by 8 games to 3 and 5 draws.

Chess has developed various schools of play from time to time.
The theory of the game, however, did not advance in proportion
to the enormous strides in its popularity. Formerly the theory
of play had been enriched by such enthusiasts as Dr Max Lange,
Louis Paulsen, Professor Anderssen, Neumann, Dr Suhle,
Falkbeer, Kieseritzki, Howard Staunton, Dr Zukertort, W. N.
Potter and Steinitz, foremost amongst them being Louis Paulsen.
The openings were thoroughly overhauled, new variations dis-
covered and tested in practical play over the board. These
arc now things of the past. The masters who find flaws in old
variations and discover new ones bring them to light only in
matches or tournaments, as new discoveries have now a market
value and may gain prizes in matches or tournaments. The
old " romantic " school consequently became extinct, and the
eliminating process resulted in the retention of a small repertoire
only, sufficient for practical purposes in important contests.
Gambits and kindred openings containing elements of chance
were avoided, and the whole stock which a first-class player
requires is a thorough knowledge of the " Ruy Lopez," the
" Queen's Pawn Openings," and the " French " and " Sicilian
Defences " openings which contain the least element of chance.
The rfpertoire being restricted it necessarily follows that the
scope for grand combinations is also diminished and only
strategy or position play remains. The "romantic" school
invariably aimed at an attack on the king's position at any cost;
nowadays the struggle is to obtain a minute advantage, and the
whole plan consists in finding or creating a weak spot in the
opponent's arrangement of forces; such is the theory of the
modern school, conceived and advocated by Steinitz. But it is
a curious fact that Steinitz founded the modern school rather
late in life. He felt his powers of combination waning, and being
the world's champion and eager to retain that title, he started
the new theory. This novel departure revolutionized chess
entirely. The attacking and combination style was sacrificed
to a sound, sober and dry method; but Steinitz, strange to say,
was not even the best exponent of his own theory, this position
falling to younger players, Siegbert Tarrasch, Schlechter, Amos
Burn and Emanuel Lasker. Pillsbury and Janowsky adhered
to both styles, the former in a high degree, and so did Zukertort
and Charousek; Tchigorin being a free-lance with a style of his
own. The old charm of the game disappeared in match and
tournament play at least and beauty was sacrificed to exact
calculation and 'to scoring points. This is to be regretted, for
the most beautiful games still occur when a player resorts to
the gambits. One of the finest games in the Hastings tourna-
ment was played by Tchigorin against Pillsbury, and this was
a " King's Gambit Declined." Charousek won a " Bishop's
Gambit" against Dr Lasker in the Nuremberg tournament;
and some brilliant games occur in the " Queen's Gambit De-
clined," if either White or Black sacrifices the KP. Another
reason why gambits should be adopted by players in tourna-
ments is that competitors would necessarily be readily prepared
for the regulation openings, so that the gambits might take them
by surprise. After all, the new school is a natural consequence
of the progress of the game. Paulsen, Anderssen and Tchigorin
devoted a lifetime to the Evans Gambit, volumes of analyses
were written on it, and then Lasker revives an obsolete defence,
and the Evans Gambit disappears! Zukertort achieved a great
success with " i. Kt to KB3 " in the London tournament, 1883,

and this, or the kindred " i. P to Q4 " opening, has since become
the trusty weapon in serious encounters. Lasker wrote Common
Sense in Chess, and gave the best defences of the Ruy Lopez (a
certain form of it); but the " common sense " was demolished
in the Paris and Nuremberg tournaments, and old forms of that
remarkable opening have to be refurbished. These instances will
suffice to show the reason for the cautious style of modern times.
The Moltkes have replaced the Napoleons.

The old versatility of style could be revived if club tournaments
were organized differently. The players might be compelled
to adopt one single opening only in a two-round contest, each
player thus having attack and defence in turn. The next season
another opening would form the programme, and so on. Even
in international tournaments this condition might be imposed;
the theory would be enriched; full scope would be given to
power of combination and ingenuity; whilst the game would be
more interesting.

There are still amateurs who devote their energies to the
theory of the game; but so long as innovations or new dis-
coveries are not tested by masters in serious games, they are of
no value. Steinitz used to keep a number of new discoveries
ready to be produced in masters' contests, the result being that
his novelties were regularly demolished when it came to a
practical test. The mistake was that he did not try his novelties
over the board with an opponent of equal strength, instead of
trusting to his own judgment alone.

The British Chess Federation was instituted in 1904, its
first congress being held at Hastings in that year, when_a British
championship, a ladies' championship and a first-class amateur
tournament were played. These competitions have been con-
tinued annually at the congresses of the federation, with the
following results:

British Championship.

1904. Hastings, i H. E. Atkins and W. E. Napier, 3 J. H. Blaek-

burne.

1905. Southport. i H. E. Atkins, 2 G. E. H. Bellingham and

J. H. Blackburne.

1906. Shrewsbury. I H. E. Atkins, 2 R. P. Michell, 3 G. E. Wain-

wright.

1907. Crystal Palace, i H. E. Atkins, 2 J. H. Blackburne, R. P.

Michell, E. G. Sergeant and G. E. Wainwright.

Ladies' Championship.

1904. Hastings. I Miss Finn, 2 Mrs Anderson and Mrs Herring.

1905. Southport. i Miss Finn. 2 Mrs Anderson and Mrs Houlding.

1906. Shrewsbury, i Mrs Herring, 2 Mrs Anderson, 3 Miss Ellisand

Mrs Houlding.

1907. Crystal Palace. I Mrs Herring and Mrs Houlding, 3 Mrs

Anderson.

First Class Amateur Tournament.

Section A. i VV. H. Gunston, 2 H. F. Cheshire

and F. Brown.
Section B. i G. E. Wainwright and C. H.

Sherrard, 3 W. P. M'Bean.
Section.A. i Dr Holmes, 2 J. Mortimer, 3 H. G.

Cole and J. E. Purry.
Section B. i F. E. Hamond, 2 F. Brown. T. J.

Kelly and C. H. Wallwork.
1906. Shrewsbury, i G. Shories, J. F. Allcock, P. W. Fairweather
and E. D. Palmer.

In 1896 and following years matches between representative
players of Great Britain and the United States respectively
were played by cable, with the following results:

1896. America

1897. Great Britain

1898. Great Britain

1899. America

1900. America

1901. Drawn

1902. America

1903. America

1907. Great Britain

1908. America

1909. Great Britain

Since 1899 cable matches have also been played annually
between representatives of English and American universities;
of the first six three were won by England, the remaining three

1904. Hastings

1905. Southport

won by 4! games to 3 :

io6

CHEST

being drawn. In England chess matches have been played
annually since 1873 between the universities of Oxford and
Cambridge, seven players on each side. Up to 1907 Oxford
won eleven matches, Cambridge twenty-one, and three were
drawn.

LITERATURE OF THE GAME. The first known writer on chess was
Jacobus de Cessolis (Jacopo Dacciesole), whose main object, how-
ever, though he gives the moves, &c., was to teach morals rather
than chess. He was a Dominican friar, and his treatise, Solatium
Liidi Scacchorum, scilicet, Libellus de Moribus Hominum et Officiis
Nobilium, was written before the year 1200. It was afterwards
translated into French, and in the year 1/174 Caxton, under the title
of The Game and Playe of Chesse, printed an English translation of
the French version.

In 1490 we have the Gottinger Handschrift, a work containing nine
different openings and fifty problems. Theauthorof this manuscript
is not known. Then comes Vicent, a Spanish writer, whose book
bears date 1495. Only the title-page has been preserved, the rest
of the work having been lost in the first Carlist war. Of Lucena,
another Spanish author who wrote in or about 1497, we are better
informed. His treatise, Repetition des Amores y Arte de Axedres,
comprises various practical chess matters, including 150 positions,
illustrated by 160 well-executed woodcuts. Various of these
positions are identical with those in the Gottinger Handschrift. In
the i6th century works upon the game were written by Damiano,
Ruy Lopez and Horatio Gianutio della Mantia; in the I7th century
by Salvio, Polerio, Gustavus Selenus, Carrera, Greco, Fr. Antonio
and the authors of the Traite de Lausanne; in the i8th century by
Berlin, Stamma, Ercole del Rio, Lolli, Cozio, Philidor, Ponziam,
Stein, van Nyevelt, Allgaier and Peter Pratt; in the loth century
by J. F. W. Koch and C. F. Koch, Sarratt, John Cochrane, Wm.
Lewis, Silberschmidt, Ghulam Kassim and James Cochrane, George
Walker, A. MacDonnell, Jaenisch, Petroff, von Bilguer, von der
Lasa, Staunton, Kling and Horwitz, Bledow, Dubois, Kieseritzki,
Max Lange, Lowenthal, Dufresne, Neumann, Suhle, Zukertort, Preti
and others.

English chess owes much to W. Lewis and George Walker. But
to Howard Staunton must be ascribed the most important share in
creating the later popularity which the game achieved in England.
Staunton's first work, The Chess Player's Handbook, was published
in 1847, and again (revised) in 1848. For want of further adequate
revision many of its variations a*e now out of date; but taking the
handbook as it was when issued, very high praise must be bestowed
upon the author. His other works are: The Chess Player's Text-
Book and The Chess Player's Companion (1849) (the latter being a
collection of his own games), the Chess Praxis (1860), republished in
1903, his posthumous work, Chess Theory and Practice, edited by
R. B. Wormald (1876), and various smaller treatises. The laws of the
game as laid down in the Praxis formed the basis of the rules adopted
by the British Chess Association in 1862. Besides editing The
Chess Player's Chronicle and The Chess World, he was the chess
editor of The Illustrated London News from 1844 till his death in
1874.

Among continental chess authorities von Heydebrandt und der
Lasa (more usually known by his second title) stood pre-eminent.
The German Handbuch was completed in 1843 by von Bilguer, who
died before the first edition was completed. The second, third, fourth
and fifth editions (the last published in 1874) were edited and revised
by von der Lasa.

Among the more important modern works the following may
be mentioned: Vasquez, El Ajedrez de memoria; La Odisea de
Pablo Morphy (Havana, 1893); Bauer, Schachlexikon (Leipzig,
1893) ; Jean Dufresne, Kleines Lehrbuch des Schachspiels (6th ed.,
Leipzig, 1893); E. Freeborough and Rev. C. E. Ranken, Chess
Openings, Ancient and Modern; Arnelung, Baltische Schachblatter ,
Sfc. (Berlin, 1893) ; Bachman, Geistreiche Schachpartien (containing
a number of brilliant games) (Ansbach, 1893-1899); E. H. Bird,
Chess History and Reminiscences (London, 1893); The Steinitz-
Lasker Match (1894); Chess Novelties (1895); Max Lange, Paul
Morphy (1894); C. Bardeleben and J. Mieses, Lehrbuch des
Schachspiels (very useful) ; Jas. Mason, The Principles of Chess in
Theory and Practice (1894) ; The Art of Chess (1895) ; Social Chess
(Horace Cox, London); Dr Tarrasch, Dreihundert Schachpartien
(Leipzig, 1895); Dr Eugen V. Schmidt, Systematische Anordung von.
Schacherdffnungen (Veit & Co., Leipzig, 1895) ; Numa Preti, ABC
des echecs (Paris, 1895) ; C. Salvioli, Teoria generate del giuoco degli
Scacchi (Livorno, 1895); W. Steinitz, Modern Chess Instructor (New
York, 1895) ; L. Hoffer, Chess (Routledge) ; E. Freeborough, Select
Chess End-Games (London, 1895); Euclid, The Chess Ending King
and Queen against King and Rook (London, 1895); Tassilo von
Heydebrandt und der Lasa, Leitfaden des Schachspiels and Zur
Geschichte und Literatur des Schachspiels (Leipzig, 1897) ; Dr. Lasker,
Common Sense in Chess (London, 1896); Oscar Cordel, Neuester
Leitfaden des Schachspiels (Berlin, 1896); and a vast number of
other publications.

Further, The London Tournament Book (1883); Twelve Tourna-
ment Books of the German Chess Association (Veit & Co., Leipzig);
The Hastings Tournament Book (London, 1896); The Vienna

Tournament Book, by Halprin and Marco (1900); The Nuremberg
Tournament Book, by Dr Tarrasch; The Book of the London
Congress, by L. Hoffer (Longman, 1899); The Pans Tournament
Book (Paris, 1900), by Rosenthal, &c.

The following are some of the best works in English on chess
problems: " I. B." of Bridport, Chess Strategy (1865); F. Healey,
A Collection 0/200 Chess Problems (1866); English Chess Problems,
edited by James and W. T. Pierce (1876); H. J. C. Andrews, E. N.
Frankenstein, B. G. Laws, and C. Planck, The Chess Problem Text-
Book (1887); A. F. Mackenzie, Chess: its Poetry and its Prose
(Jamaica, 1887); J. A. Miles, Chess Stars (self-mates), (1888);
James Rayner, Chess Problems (1890); B. G. Laws, The Two-Move
Chess Problem (1890); The Chess Bouquet, compiled by F. R.
Gittins (1897); Mr and Mrs T. B. Rowland, The Problem Art (2nd
ed., 1898); E. B. Cook, T. Henery and C. A. Gilberg, American
Chess-Nuts (1868); Samuel Loyd, Chess Strategy (1878); W. H.
Lyons, Chess-Nut Burrs and how to open them (1886) ; C. A. Gilberg,
Crumbs from the Chess Board (1890); Canadian Chess Problems,
edited by C. F. Stubbs (1890) ; W. Pulitzer, Chess Harmonies (1894) ;
G. E. Carpenter (N. Preti of Paris), 200 Chess Problems (1900).

CHEST (Gr. Kio-rri, Lat. cista, O. Eng. cist, cest, &c.), a large
box of wood or metal with a hinged lid. The term is also used
of a variety of kinds of receptacle; and in anatomy is transferred
to the portion of the body covered by the ribs and breastbone
(see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM). In the more ordinary meaning
chests are, next to the chair and the bed, the most ancient articles
of domestic furniture. The chest was the common receptacle
for clothes and valuables, and was the direct ancestor of the
" chest of drawers," which was formed by enlarging the chest
and cutting up the front. It was also frequently used as a seat.
Indeed, in its origin it took in great measure the place of the
chair, which, although familiar enough to the ancients, had
become a luxury in the days when the chest was already an
almost, universal possession. The chief use of chests was as
wardrobes, but they were also often employed for the storing of
valuables. In the early middle ages the rich possessed them in
profusion, used them as portmanteaux, and carried them about
from castle to castle. These portable receptacles were often
covered with leather and emblazoned with heraldic designs.
As houses gradually became less sparsely furnished, chests and
beds and other movables were allowed to remain stationary,
and the chest lost its covered top, and took the shape in which we
best know it that of an oblong box standing upon raised feet.
As a rule it was made of oak, but it was sometimes of chestnut
or other hard wood.

There are, properly speaking, three types of chest the
domestic, the ecclesiastical and the strong box or coffer. Old
domestic chests still exist in great number and some variety,
but the proportion of those earlier than the latter part of the
Tudor period is very small; most of them are Jacobean in date.
Very frequently they were made to contain the store of house-
linen which a bride took to her husband upon her marriage.
In the 1 7th century Boulle and his imitators glorified the marriage-
coffer until it became a gorgeous casket, almost indeed a sarco-
phagus, inlaid with ivory and ebony and precious woods, and
enriched with ormolu, supported upon a stand of equal magnifi-
cence. The Italian marriage-chests (cassone) were also of a
richness which was never attempted in England. The main
characteristics of English domestic chests (which not infrequently
are carved with names and dates) are panelled fronts and ends,
the feet being formed from prolongations of the " stiles " or side
posts. There were, however, exceptions, and a certain number
of 17th-century chests have separate feet, either circular or
shaped after the indications of a somewhat later style. There
is usually a strong architectural feeling about the chest, the front
being divided into panels, which are plain in the more ordinary
examples, and richly carved in the choicer ones. The plinth
and frieze are often of well-defined guilloche work, or are carved
with arabesques or conventionalized flowers. Architectural
detail, especially the detail of wainscoting, has indeed been
followed with considerable fidelity, many of the earlier chests
being carved in the linenfold pattern, while the Jacobean
examples are often mere reproductions of the pilastered and
recessed oaken mantelpieces of the period. Occasionally a
chest is seen which is inlaid with coloured woods, or with

CHESTER, EARLS OF CHESTER

107

geometrical parquetry. Perhaps the most elaborate type of
English parquetry chest is that named after the vanished Palace
of Nonesuch. Such pieces are, however, rarely met with. The
entire front of this type is covered with a representation of the
palace in coloured woods. Another class ofthest is incised, some-
times rather roughly, but often with considerable geometrical
skill. The more ordinary variety has been of great value to the
forger of antique furniture, who has used its carved panels for
conversion into cupboards and other pieces, the history of
which is not easily unravelled by the amateur who collects old
oak without knowing much about it. Towards the end of the
1 7th century chests were often made of walnut, pr even of exotic
woods such as cedar and cypress, and were sometimes clamped
with large and ornamental brass bands and hinges. The chests
of the i8th century were much larger than those of the preceding
period, and as often as not "were furnished with two drawers at
the bottom an arrangement but rarely seen in those of the i7th
century while they were often fitted with a small internal box
fixed across one end for ready access to small articles. The chest
was not infrequently unpanelled and unornamented, and in the
latter period of its history this became the ruling type. It will
not have been forgotten that it was in an old oak chest that the
real or mythical heroine of the pathetic ballad of " The Mistletoe
Bough " concealed herself, to her undoing.

Ecclesiastical chests appear to have been used almost entirely
as receptacles for vestments and church plate, and those which
survive are still often employed for the preservation of parish
documents. A considerable variety of these interesting and
often exceedingly elaborate chests are still left in English
churches. They are usually of considerable size, and of a length
disproportionate to their depth. This no doubt was to facilitate
the storage of vestments. Most of them are of great antiquity.
Many go back to the I4th century, and here and there they are
even earlier, as in the case of the coffer in Stoke d'Abernon
church, Surrey, which is unquestionably 13th-century work.
One of the most remarkable of these early examples is in Newport
church, Essex. It is one of the extremely rare painted coffers
of the I3th century, the front carved with an upper row of shields,
from which the heraldic painting has disappeared, and a lower
row of roundels. Between is a belt of open tracery, probably of
pewter, and the inside of the lid is decorated with oil paintings
representing the Crucifixion, the Virgin Mary, St Peter, St John
and St Paul. The well-known " jewel chest " in St Mary's,
Oxford, is one of the earliest examples of i4th century work.
Many of these ecclesiastical chests are carved with architectural
motives traceried windows most frequently, but occasionally
with the linenfold pattern. There is a whole class of chests
known as " tilting coffers," carved with representations of
tournaments or feats of arms, and sometimes with a grotesque
admixture of chivalric figures and mythical monsters. Only
five or six examples of this type are known still to exist in
England, and two of them are now in the Victoria and Albert
Museum. It is not certain that even these few are of English origin
indeed, very many of the chests and coffers of the i6th and 1 7th
centuries are of foreign make. They were imported into England
chiefly from Flanders, and were subsequently carved by native
artisans, as was the case with other common pieces of furniture
of those periods. The huche or " hutch " was a rough type of
household chest.

The word " coffer " is properly applied to a chest which was
intended for the safe keeping of valuables. As a rule the coffer
is much more massive in construction than the domestic chest;
it is clamped by iron bands, sometimes contains secret receptacles
opening with a concealed spring, and is often furnished with an
elaborate and complex lock, which occupies the whole of the
underside of the lid. Pieces of this type are sometimes described
as Spanish chests, from the belief that they were taken from
ships belonging to the Armada. It is impossible to say that this
may not sometimes have been the case, but these strong boxes
are frequently of English origin, although the mechanism of the
locks may have been due to the subtle skill of foreign locksmiths.

typical example of the treasure chest is that which belonged

to Sir Thomas Bodley, and is preserved in the Bodleian library at
Oxford. The locks of this description of chest are of steel, and
are sometimes richly damascened. It was for being implicated
in the breaking open and robbing of just such a chest as this,
to which the College de Navarre had confided coin to the value of
500 ecus, that Francois Villon was hanged on the gibbet of
Montfaucon.

CHESTER, EARLS OF. The important palatine earldom of
Chester was first held by a certain Fleming named Ghcrbod
(fl. 1070), and then by Hugh of Avranches (d. 1101), a son of
Richard, viscount of Avranches. Hugh, who was probably one
of William the Conqueror's companions, was made earl of Chester
in 1071; he had special privileges in his earldom, and he held
land in twenty counties. He was called Le Gros on account of
his great bulk and Lupus on account of his ferocity. However,
he regarded St Anselm as his friend, and he showed the customary
liberality to religious houses. His life was mainly spent in
fighting the Welsh and in Normandy, and he died on the 27th
of July 1101. Hugh's only son Richard, who was childless,
was drowned in the White Ship in November 1 1 20. Among sub-
sequent holders were Ralph, or Randulph, de Gernon (d. 1153),
who took a prominent part in the civil wars of the reign of
Stephen, fighting first on one side and then on the other; and
his son Hugh de Kevelioc (1147-1181), who shared in the rising
against Henry II. in 1173. But perhaps the most celebrated of
the early earls was .Ralph, Ranulf, or Randulph, de Blundevill
(c. 1172-1232), who succeeded his father Hugh de Kevelioc as
earl in 1181, and was created earl of Lincoln in 1217. Ranulf
married Constance, widow of Henry II. 's son, Geoffrey of Brittany,
and is sometimes called duke of Brittany and earl of Richmond.
He fought in Wales, was on the side of John during his struggle
with the barons over Magna Carta, and was one of this king's
executors; he also fought for the young king Henry III. against
the French invaders and their allies. In 1 2 18 he went on crusade
to the Holy Land and took part in the capture of Damietta;
then returning to England he died at Wallingford in October
1 232. After speaking of Ranulf's unique position in the kingdom,
which " fitted him for the part of a leader of opposition to royal
or ministerial tyranny," Stubbs sums up his character in these
words: "On more than one occasion he refused his consent to
taxation which he deemed unjust; his jealousy of Hubert (de
Burgh), although it led him to join the foreign party in 1223,
did not prevent him from more than once interposing to prevent
his overthrow. He was, moreover, almost the last relic of the
great feudal aristocracy of the Conquest." Although twice
married he left no children, and his immense possessions passed
to his four sisters. The earl's memory remained green for a long
time, and in the Vision of Piers Plowman his name is linked with
that of Robin Hood. In November 1 23 2 the earldom of Chester
was granted to his nephew John the Scot, earl of Huntingdon
(c. 1207-1237), and in 1246, nine years after John had died
childless, it was annexed to the English crown " lest so fair a
dominion should be divided among women."

In 1 2 54 Prince Edward, afterwards King Edward I. , was created
earl of Chester, and since this date the earldom has always been
held by the heirs apparent to the Engh'sh crown with the single
exception of Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester. Since 1399
the earls of Chester have been also princes of Wales, although
the act of Richard II. (1398), which created Chester into a prin-
cipality to be held by the king's eldest son, was revoked by
Henry IV.

CHESTER, an episcopal city and county of a city, municipal,
county and parliamentary borough, and the county town of
Cheshire, England, 179 m. N.W. of London. Pop. (1901) 38,309.
It lies in a low plain on the Dee, principally on the north (right)
bank, 6 m. above the embouchure of the river into its wide,
shallow estuary. It is an important railway centre, the principal
lines serving it being the London & North-Western, Great
Western, Cheshire Lines and Great Central. The city is divided
into four principal blocks by the four principal streets North-
gate Street, Eastgate Street, Bridge Street and Watergate Street,
which radiate at right angles from the Cross, and terminate in

io8

CHESTER

the four gates. These four streets exhibit in what are called
" the Rows " a characteristic feature of the city. Their origin
is a mystery, and has given rise to much controversy. In East-
gate Street, Bridge Street and Watergate Street, the Rows
exist on each side of the street throughout the greater part of
its length, and may be described as continuous galleries open
to the street, over and under which the houses lining the streets
project, and which are formed as it were out of the front first-
floor of the houses, approached by flights of steps from the
roadway. The Rows are flagged or boarded under foot and ceiled
above, thus forming a covered way, standing in the same relation
to the shops, which are at their back, as the foot pavement
does in other towns. In Northgate Street, on the other hand,
the Row on the west side is formed as it were out of the ground
floor of the houses, having cellars beneath, while on the east side
the Row is formed at the same elevation as in the other three
principal streets. In these streets are' several examples of old
timbered houses and some good modern imitations of them,
all combining to give a picturesque and individual character
to the city. Among the most interesting of the ancient houses are
Derby House, bearing the date 1591, Bishop Lloyd's house, and
God's Providence House in Watergate Street, and the Bear and
Billet in Lower Bridge Street; the three last date from the i7th
century. There is also a chamber with stone groined roof of the
1 4th century in the basement of a house in Eastgate Street, and
another of a similar character in Watergate Street. A mortuary
chapel of the early part of the i3th century exists in the basement
of a house in Bridge Street.

Chester is the only city in England that still possesses its walls
perfect in their entire circuit of 2 m. The gateways have all been
rebuilt at various dates; the north and east gates on the site of
the Roman gates. The Grosvenor bridge, a single span of stone
200 ft. in length, said to be the largest save one in Europe,
carries the road to Wrexham and Shrewsbury over the Dee on the
south-west; while the old bridge of seven arches is interesting
on account of its antiquity and picturesqueness. The castle,
with the exception of " Caesar's Tower," and a round tower with
adjacent buildings, in the upper ward, was taken down towards
the end of the i8th century, and replaced by a gateway, barracks,
county hall, gaol and assize courts.

The cathedral church of Christ and the Virgin Mary, which
stands towards the north of the city within the walls, rose on the
site of a church of extreme antiquity. It appears that the
dedication of this church was altered, perhaps in the reign of
Athelstan, from St. Peter and St Paul to St Werburgh and
St Oswald, St Werburgh being a niece of St Etheldreda of Ely.
In 1093 Hugh Lupus, earl of Chester, richly endowed the founda-
tion as a Benedictine monastery. The bishops of Mercia had
apparently a seat at Chester, but the city had ceased to be epis-
copal, until in 1075 Peter, bishop of Lichfield, removed his seat
thence to Chester, having for his cathedral the collegiate church
of St John. The seat of the see, however, was quickly removed
again to Coventry (1102), but Cheshire continued subject to
Lichfield until in 1541 Chester was erected into a bishopric by
Henry VIII., the church of the dissolved abbey of St Werburgh
becoming the cathedral. The diocese covers nearly the whole
of Cheshire, with very small portions of Lancashire and Stafford-
shire. The cathedral does not rank among the most splendid
English churches, but possesses certain details of the highest
interest, and gains in beauty from the tones of its red sandstone
walls and the picturesque close in which it stands. It is cruciform
with a central tower 127 ft. high. The south transept is larger
than the north. The nave is short (145 ft.), being of six bays;
the southern arcade is Decorated, while the northern, which
differs in detail, is of uncertain date. The basement of the north-
western tower all that remains of it, now used as a baptistery
is Norman, and formed part of Hugh Lupus' church; and the
fabric of the north wall is also of this period. The north transept
also retains Norman work, and its size shows the original plan,
as the existence of the conventual buildings to the north probably
rendered its extension undesirable. The south transept has
aisles, with Decorated and Perpendicular windows. The fine

organ stands on a screen across the north transept; but some
of its pipes are upon the choir screen, both screens being the
work of Sir Gilbert Scott. The 'style of the choir is transitional
from Early English to Decorated, and its length is 125 ft. It
is a fine example, and its beauty is enhanced by the magnificent
series of ancient carved wooden stalls unsurpassed in England.
The Lady Chapel, east'of the choir, is of rich Early English
workmanship. Of the conventual buildings the cloisters are
Perpendicular. The chapter-house, entered by a beautiful
vestibule from the east cloister, and lined with cases containing
the chapter library, is Early English (c. 1240). The refectory,
adjoining the north cloister, is of the same period, with Perpen-
dicular insertions; it has been curtailed in size, but retains its
beautiful Early English lector's pulpit. An early Norman
chamber, with massive pillars and vaulting, adjoins the west
cloister, and may be the substructure of the abbot's house. The
abbey gateway is of the i4th century.

Within the walls there are several churches of ancient founda-
tion; thus St Peter's is said to occupy the site of a church erected
by ^Ethelfiaed, queen of Mercia, and St Mary's dates from
the 1 2th century. None, however, is of any special interest;
but the church of St John, outside the walls, which as already
stated became the cathedral in 1075, is a massive early Norman
structure, with later additions, and, especially as regards the
exterior, considerably restored in modern times. Its fine tower
fell in 1 88 1. It was a collegiate church until 1547, and there are
some remains of the adjoining buildings. Among numerous
modern churches there may be mentioned St Mary's without the
walls, built in 1887 by the duke of Westminster, of red sandstone,
with a fine spire and peal of bells.

Among the chief secular buildings, the town hall replaced in
1869 the old exchange, which had been burnt down in 1862.
The Grosvenor Museum and School of Art, the foundation of
which was suggested by Charles Kingsley the novelist, when
canon of Chester cathedral, contains many local antiquities,
along with a fine collection of the fauna of Cheshire and the
neighbourhood. The King's school was founded by Henry VIII.
(1541), who provided that twenty-four poor scholars should be
taught free of cost. It was reorganized as a public school in
1873, and possesses twelve king's scholarships tenable in the
school, and close scholarships tenable at the universities. Among
other schools may be mentioned the blue-coat school (1700),
the Queen's school for girls (1878), the girls' school attached to
the Roman Catholic convent, and the diocesan training college
for schoolmasters. For recreation provision is made by the New
Grosvenor Park, presented to the city in 1867 by the marquess
of Westminster; Handbridge Park, opened in 1892; and the
Roodee, a level tract by the river at the base of the city wall,
appropriated as a race-course. An annual race-meeting is held
in May and attended by thousands. The chief event is the race
for the Chester Cup, which dates from 1540, when a silver bell
was given as the prize by the Saddlers' Company. Pleasure
vessels ply on the Dee in summer, and an annual regatta is held,
at which all the principal northern rowing-clubs are generally
represented. The town gains in prosperity from its large number
of visitors. The principal industries are carried on without the
walls, where there are lead, shot and paint works, leather and
tobacco factories, and iron foundries. The trade gilds number
twenty-four. There is a considerable amount of shipping on the
Dee, the navigation having been much improved in modern
times. The parliamentary borough returns one member. The
municipal council consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30
councillors. Area, 2862 acres.

History. Setting aside the numerous legends with regard to
the existence of a British city on the site now occupied by
Chester, the earliest authentic information relating to its history
is furnished by the works of Ptolemy and Antoninus. As the
Roman station of Deva it was probably founded about A.D. 48
by Ostorius Scapula, and from its advantageous position, both
as the key to communication with Ireland and as a bulwark
against the hostile tribes of the north, it became a military and
commercial centre of considerable importance. In A.D. 78-79

CHESTER CHESTERFIELD, LORD

109

nui

it was the winter-quarters of Agricola, and later became illustrious
as the permanent headquarters of Legio XX. Valeria Victrix.
Many inscriptions and remains of the Roman military occupation
have been found, and the north and east walls stand in great
part on Roman foundations. The Saxon form of the name
was Leganceaster. About 614 the city was captured and
destroyed by ^Ethelfrith, and henceforth lay in ruins until
/Ethelflaed in 907 rebuilt the walls, restored the monastery of St
'erburgh, and made the city " nigh two such as it was before."
the reign of jEthelstan a mint was set up at Chester, and in
73 it was the scene of Edgar's truimph when, it is said, he was
wed on the Dee by six subject kings. Chester opposed a deter-
ined resistance to the Conqueror, and did not finally surrender
ntil 1070. On the erection of Cheshire to a county palatine
after the Conquest, Chester became the seat of government of the
palatine earls. The Domesday account of the city includes a
description of the Saxon laws under which it had been governed
in the time of Edward the Confessor. All the land, except the
bishop's borough, was held of the earl, and assessed at fifty
hides. There were seven mint-masters and twelve magistrates,
and the city paid a fee-farm rent of 45. It had been much
devastated since the time of Edward the Confessor, and the
umber of houses reduced by 205.

The earliest extant charter, granted by Henry II. in 1160,
ipowered the burgesses to trade with Durham as freely as they
had done in the reign of Henry I. From this date a large collec-
tion of charters enumerates privileges granted by successive earls
and later sovereigns. One from Ralph or Ranulf de Blundevill,
granted between 1190 and 1211, confirms to the citizens a gild
merchant and all liberties and free customs, and three from
John protect their privilege of trading with Ireland. Edward I.
empowered the citizens to elect coroners and to hold courts of
justice, and granted them the fee-farm of the city at a yearly
rent of 100. In the i4th century Chester began to lose its
standing as a port through the gradual silting up of the estuary
of the Dee, and the city was further impoverished by the inroads
of the Welsh and by the necessity of rebuilding the Dee bridge,
which had been swept away by an unusually high tide. In con-
sideration of these misfortunes Richard II. remitted part of the
fee-farm. Continued misfortunes led to a further reduction of
the farm to 50 for a term of fifty years by Henry VI., who also
made a grant for the completion of a new Dee bridge. Henry
VII. reduced the fee-farm to 20, and in 1506 granted to the
citizens what is known as " the Great Charter." This charter
constituted the city a county by itself, and incorporated the
governing body under the style of a mayor, twenty-four aldermen
and forty common councilmen; it also instituted two sheriffs,
two coroners and a recorder, and the mayor, the ex-mayors
and the recorder were appointed justices of the peace. This
charter was confirmed by James I. and Charles II. A charter of
George IH. in 1804 instituted the office of deputy-mayor. The
charter of Hugh Lupus to the abbey of St Werburgh includes
a grant of the tolls of the fair at the feast of St Werburgh
for three days, and a subsequent charter from Ranulf
de Blundevill (i2th century) licensed the abbot and monks
to hold their fairs and markets before the abbey gates. A
charter of John the Scot, earl of Chester, mentions fairs at the
feasts of the Nativity of St John Baptist and St Michael. For
many centuries the rights claimed by the abbot in connexion
with the fairs gave rise to constant friction with the civic
authorities, which lasted until, in the reign of Henry VIII.,
it was decreed that the right of holding fairs was vested ex-
clusively in the citizens. Charles II. in 1685 granted a cattle-
fair to be held on the first Thursday in February.

In 1553 Chester first returned two members to parliament,
having hitherto been represented solely in the parliament of
the palatinate. By the Redistribution Act of 1885 the representa-
tion was reduced to one member. The trades of tanners, skinners
and glove-makers existed at the time of the Conquest, and the
importation of marten skins is mentioned in Domesday. In
the I4th century the woollen trade was considerable, and in 1674
weavers and wool-combers were introduced into Chester from

Norwich. The restoration of the channel of the Dee opened
up a flourishing trade in Irish linen, which in 1786 was at its
height, but from that date gradually diminished.

See Victoria County History, Cheshire; R. H. Morris, Chester in
the Plantagenet and Tudor Reigns (Chester, 1894); Joseph Heming-
way, History of the City of Chester (2 vols., Chester, 1831).

CHESTER, a city of Delaware county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.,
on the Delaware river, about 13 m. S.W. of Philadelphia. Pop.
(1890) 20,226; (1900) 33,988, of whom 5074 were foreign-born
and 4403 were negroes; (U. S. census, 1910) 38,537. It is served
by the Baltimore & Ohio and the Philadelphia & Reading
railways, by the Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington division
of the Pennsylvania system, and by steamboat lines. Chester has
several interesting buildings dating from early in the i8th century
among them the city hall (1724), one of the oldest public
buildings in the United States, and the house (1683) occupied
for a time by William Penn. It is the seat of the Pennsylvania
Military College (1862); and on the border of Chester, in the
boiough of Upland (pop. in 1900, 2131), is the Crozer Theological
Seminary (Baptist), which was incorporated in 1867, opened in
1868, and named after John P. Crozer (1793-1866), by whose
family it was founded. Chester has a large shipbuilding industry,
and manufactories of cotton and worsted goods, iron and
steel, the steel-casting industry being especially important, and
large quantities of wrought iron and steel pipes being manu-
factured. Dye-stuffs and leather also are manufactured. The
value of the city's factory products in 1905 was $16,644,842.
Chester is the oldest town in Pennsylvania. It was settled by
the Swedes about 1645, was called Upland and was the seat of the
Swedish courts until 1682, when William Penn, soon after his
landing at a spot in the town now marked by a memorial stone,
gave it its present name. The first provincial assembly was
convened here in December of the same year. After the battle
of Brandywine in the War of Independence, Washington re-
treated to Chester, and in the " Washington House," still
standing, wrote his account of the battle. Soon afterwards
Chester was occupied by the British. In 1701 it was incorporated
as a borough; in 1795 and again in 1850 it received a new
borough charter; and in 1866 it was chartered as a city. For
a long time it was chiefly a small fishing settlement, its population
as late as 1820 being only 657; but after the introduction of
large manufacturing interests in 1850, when its population was
only 1667, its growth was rapid.

See H. G. Ashmead, Historical Sketch of Chester (Chester, 1883).
CHESTERFIELD, PHILIP DORMER STANHOPE, 4 TH EARL
OF (1694-1773), son of Philip Stanhope, third earl (1673-
1726), and Elizabeth Savile, daughter of George Savile, marquess
of Halifax, was born in London on the 22nd of September 1694;
Philip, the first earl (1584-1656), son of Sir John Stanhope of
Shelford, was a royalist who in 1616 was created Baron Stanlfope
of Shelford, and in 1628 earl of Chesterfield; and his grandson
the 2nd earl (1633-1714) was grandfather of the 4th earl. De-
prived at an early age of his mother, the care of the boy devolved
upon his grandmother, the marchioness of Halifax, a lady of
culture and connexion, whose house was frequented by the
most distinguished Whigs of the epoch. He soon began to
prove himself possessed of that systematic spirit of conduct
and effort which appeared so much in' his life and character.
His education, begun under a private tutor, was continued
(1712) at Trinity Hall, Cambridge; here he remained little
more than a year and seems to have read hard, and to have
acquired a considerable knowledge of ancient and modern
languages. The great orators of all times were a special object
of study with him, and he describes his boyish pedantry pleas-
antly enough, but by no means without a touch of self-satisfac-
tion in the memory. His university training was supplemented
(1714) by a continental tour, untrammelled by a governor;
at the Hague his ambition for the applause awarded to adventure
made a gamester of him, and at Paris he began, from the same
motive, that worship of the conventional Venus, the serious
inculcation of which has earned for him the largest and most
unenviable part of his reputation.

CHESTERFIELD, LORD

The death of Anne and the accession of George I. opened up
a career for him and brought him back to England. His relative
James Stanhope (afterwards first Earl Stanhope), the king's
favourite minister, procured for him the place of gentleman of
the bedchamber to the prince of Wales. In 1715 he entered
the House of Commons as Lord Stanhope of Shelford and
member for St Germans, and when the impeachment of James,
duke of Ormonde, came before the House, he used the occasion
(Sth of August 1715) to put to prool his old rhetorical studies.
His maiden speech was youthfully fluent and dogmatic; but
on its conclusion the orator was reminded with many compli-
ments, by an honourable member, that he wanted six weeks of
his majority, and consequently that he was amenable to a fine
of 500 for speaking in the House. Lord Stanhope quitted the
Commons with a low bow and started for the continent. From
Paris he rendered the government important service by gathering
and transmitting information respecting the Jacobite plot;
and in 1716 he returned to England, resumed his seat, and took
frequent part in the debates. In that year came the quarrel
between the king and the heir apparent. Stanhope, whose
politic instinct obliged him to worship the rising rather than the
setting sun. remained faithful to the prince, though he was too
cautious to break entirely with the king's party. He was on
friendly terms with the prince's mistress,Henrietta Howard,after-
wards countess of Suffolk. He maintained a correspondence with
this lady which won for him the hatred of the princess of Wales
(afterwards Queen Caroline). In 1723 a vote for the government
got him the place of captain of the Gentlemen Pensioners. In
January 1725, on the revival of the Bath, the red riband was
offered to him, but was declined.

In 1726 his father died, and Lord Stanhope became earl of
Chesterfield. He took his seat in the Upper House, and his
oratory, never effective in the Commons by reason of its want
of force and excess of finish, at once became a power. In 1728
Chesterfield was sent to the Hague as ambassador. In this place
his tact and temper, his dexterity and discrimination, enabled
him to do good service, and he was rewarded with Walpole's
friendship, a Garter and the place of lord high steward. In 1732
there was born to him, by a certain Mile du Bouchet, the son,
Philip Stanhope, for whose advice and instruction were after-
wards written the famous Letters. He negotiated the second
treaty of Vienna in 1731, and in the next year, being somewhat
broken in health and fortune, he resigned his embassy and re-
turned to England.

A few months' rest enabled him to resume his seat in the Lords,
of which he was one of the acknowledged leaders. He supported
the ministry, but his allegiance was not the blind fealty Walpole
exacted of his followers. The Excise Bill, the great premier's
favourite measure, was vehemently opposed by him in the Lords,
and by his three brothers in the Commons. Walpole bent before
the storm and abandoned the measure; but Chesterfield was
summarily dismissed from his stewardship. For the next two
years he led the opposition in the Upper House, leaving no stone
unturned to effect Walpole's downfall. In 1741 he signed the
protest for Walpole's dismissal and went abroad on account of
his health. He visited Voltaire at Brussels and spent some
time in Paris, where he associated with the younger Crebillon,
Fontenelle and Montesquieu. In 1742 Walpole fell, and Carteret
was his real, though not his nominal successor. Although
Walpole's administration had been overthrown largely by
Chesterfield's efforts the new ministry did not count Chesterfield
either in its ranks or among its supporters. He remained in
opposition, distinguishing himself by the courtly bitterness of his
attacks on George II., who learned to hate him violently. In
1743 a new journal, Old England; or, the Constitutional Journal
appeared. For this paper Chesterfield wrote under the name of
" Jeffrey Broadbottom." A number of pamphlets, in some of
which Chesterfield had the help of Edmund Waller, followed.
His energetic campaign against George II. and his government
won the gratitude of the dowager duchess of Marlborough, who
left him 20,000 as a mark of her appreciation. In 1744 the king
was compelled to abandon Carteret, and the coalition or " Broad

Bottom" party, led by Chesterfield and Pitt, came into office.
In the troublous state of European politics the earl's conduct
and experience were more useful abroad than at home, and he
was sent to the Hague as ambassador a second time. The object
of his mission was to persuade the Dutch to join in the War of the
Austrian Succession and to arrange the details of their assistance.
The success of his mission was complete; and on his return a
few weeks afterwards he received the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland
a place he had long coveted.

Short as it was, Chesterfield's Irish administration was of great
service to his country, and is unquestionably that part of his
political life which does him most honour. To have conceived
and carried out a policy which, with certain reservations, Burke
himself might have originated and owned, is indeed no small
title to regard. The earl showed himself finely capable in practice
as in theory, vigorous and tolerant, a man to be feared and a
leader to be followed; he took the government entirely into his
own hands, repressed the jobbery traditional to the office,
established schools and manufactures, and at once conciliated
and kept in check the Orange and Roman Catholic factions.
In 1746, however, he had to exchange the lord-lieutenancy for
the place of secretary of state. With a curious respect for those
theories his familiarity with the secret social history of France had
caused him to entertain, he hoped and attempted to retain a
hold over the king through the influence of Lady Yarmouth,
though the futility of such means had already been demonstrated
to him by his relations with Queen Caroline's "ma bonne Howard."
The influence of Newcastle and Sandwich, however, was too
strong for him; he was thwarted and over-reached; and in
1 748 he resigned the seals, and returned to cards and his books
with the admirable composure which was one of his most striking
characteristics. He declined any knowledge of the Apology for
a late Resignation, in a Letter from an English Gentleman to his
Friend at The Hague, which ran through four editions in 1748,
but there is little doubt that he was, at least in part, the
author.

The dukedom offered him by George II., whose ill-will his
fine tact had overcome, was refused. He continued for some
years to attend the Upper House, and to take part in its proceed-
ings. In 1751, seconded by Lord Macclesfield, president of the
Royal Society, and Bradley, the eminent mathematician, he
distinguished himself greatly in the debates on the calendar, and
succeeded in making the new style a fact. Deafness, however,
was gradually affecting him, and he withdrew little by little
from society and the practice of politics. In 1755 occurred
the famous dispute with Johnson over the dedication to the
English Dictionary. In 1747 Johnson sent Chesterfield, who was
then secretary of state, a prospectus of his Dictionary, which
was acknowledged by a subscription of 10. Chesterfield appar-
ently took no further interest in the enterprise, and the book
was about to appear, when he wrote two papers in the World in
praise of it. It was said that Johnson was kept waiting in the
anteroom when he called while Gibber was admitted. In any
case the doctor had expected more help from a professed patron
of literature, and wrote the earl the famous letter in defence
of men of letters. Chesterfield's " respectable Hottentot," now
identified with George, Lord Lyttelton, was long supposed,
though on slender grounds, to be a portrait of Johnson. During
the twenty years of life that followed this episode, Chesterfield
wrote and read a great deal, but went little into society.

In 1768 died Philip Stanhope, the child of so many hopes.
The constant care bestowed by his father on his education
resulted in an honourable but not particularly distinguished
career for young Stanhope. His death was an overwhelming
grief to Chesterfield, and the discovery that he had long been
married to a lady of humble origin must have been galling in the
extreme to his father after his careful instruction in worldly
wisdom. Chesterfield, who had no children by his wife, Melusina
von Schulemberg, illegitimate daughter of George I., whom
he married in 1733, adopted his godson, a distant cousin, named
Philip Stanhope (1755-1815), as heir to the title and estates.
His famous jest (which even Johnson allowed to have merit)

CHESTERFIELD CHESTERTON, G. K.

" Tyrawley and I have been dead these two years, but we don't
choose to have it known " is the best description possible of his
humour and condition during the latter part of this period of
decline. To the deafness was added blindness, but his memory
and his fine manners only left him with life; his last words
(" Give Dayrolles a chair ") prove that he had neither forgotten
his friend nor the way to receive him. He died on the 24th of
March 1773.

Chesterfield was selfish, calculating and contemptuous; he
was not naturally generous, and he practised dissimulation till
it became part of his nature. In spite of his brilliant talents
and of the admirable training he received, his life, on the whole,
cannot be pronounced a success. His anxiety and the pains he
took to become an orator have been already noticed, and Horace
Walpole, who had heard all the great orators, preferred a speech
of Chesterfield's to any other; yet the earl's eloquence is not to be
compared with that of Pitt. Samuel Johnson, who was not
perhaps the best judge in the world, pronounced his manners to
have been" exquisitely elegant "; yet as a courtier he was utterly
worsted by Robert Walpole, whose manners were anything but
refined, and even by Newcastle. He desired to be known as a
protector of letters and literary men; and his want of heart or
head over the Dictionary dedication, though explained and ex-
cused by Croker, none the less inspired the famous change in a
famous line " Toil, envy, want, the patron, and the jail. "
His published writings have had with posterity a very indifferent
success; his literary reputation rests on a volume of letters never
designed to appear in print. The son for whom he worked
so hard and thought so deeply failed especially where his father
had most desired he should succeed.

As a politician and statesman, Chesterfield's fame rests on his
short but brilliant administration of Ireland. As an author he
was a clever essayist and epigrammatist. But he stands or falls
by the Letters to his Son, first published by Stanhope's widow
in 1774, and the Letters to his Godson (1890). The Letters are
brilliantly written full of elegant wisdom, of keen wit, of
admirable portrait-painting, of exquisite observation and deduc-
tion. Against the charge of an undue insistence on the external
graces of manner Chesterfield has been adequately defended by
Lord Stanhope (History, iii. 34). Against the often iterated
accusation of immorality, it should be remembered that the
Letters reflected the morality of the age, and that their author
only systematized and reduced to writing the principles of
conduct by which, deliberately or unconsciously, the best and
the worst of his contemporaries were governed.

The earldom of Chesterfield passed at his death to his godson,
already mentioned, as 5th earl, and so to the latter's son and
grandson. On the death of the latter unmarried in 1871, it
passed in succession to two collateral heirs, the 8th and gth
earls, and so in 1887 to the latter's son as loth earl.

See Chesterfield's Miscellaneous Works (London, 1777, 2 vols. 4to) ;
Letters to his Son, &c., edited by Lord Mahon (London, 1845-1853,
5 vols.); and Letters to his Godson (1890) (edited by the earl of
Carnarvon). There are also editions of the first series of letters
by J. Bradshaw (3 vols., 1892) and Mr C. Strachey (2 vols., 1901).
In 1893 a biography, including numerous letters first published from
the Newcastle Papers, was issued by Mr W. Ernst; and in 1907
appeared an elaborate Life by W. H. Craig. (A. D.)

CHESTERFIELD, a market town and municipal borough in
the Chesterfield parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England,
24 m. N. by E. of Derby, on the Midland and the Great Central
railways. Pop. (1891) 22,009; (1901) 27,185. It lies at the
junction of two streams, the Rother and Hipper, in a populous
industrial district. It is irregularly built, with narrow streets,
but has a spacious market-place. The church of St Mary and All
Saints is a large and beautiful cruciform building principally of
the Decorated period. Its central tower carries a remarkable
twisted spire of wood covered with lead, 230 ft. high; the dis-
tortion has evidently taken place through the use of unseasoned
timber and consequent warping of the woodwork. The church,
which contains numerous interesting monuments, possesses also
the unusual feature of an apsidal Decorated chapel. There is an
example of flamboyant tracery in one of the windows. Among

public buildings, the Stephenson memorial hall (1879) , containing
a free library, art and science class-rooms, a theatre and the
rooms of the Chesterfield Institute, commemorates George
Stephenson, the engineer, who resided at Tapton House, close
to Chesterfield, in his later life; he died here in 1848, and was
buried in Trinity church. Chesterfield grammar school was
founded hi 1574. The industries of the town include manu-
factures of cotton, silk, earthenware, machinery and tobacco,
with brass and iron founding; while slate and stone arc quarried,
and there are coal, iron and lead mines in the neighbourhood.
The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
Area, 1216 acres. In the immediate neighbourhood of Chester-
field on the west is the urban district of Brampton and Walton
(pop. 2698), to the south-east is Hasland (7427), and to the
north-east Brimington (4569).

In spite of the Roman origin suggested by its name, so few
remains have been found here that it is doubtful whether Chester-
field was a Roman station. Chesterfield (Cestrefeld) owes its
present name to the Saxons. It is mentioned in Domesday only
as a bailiwick of Newbold belonging to the king, and granted to
William Peverell. In 1204 John gave the manor to William
Bruere and granted to the town all the privileges of a free
borough which were enjoyed by Nottingham and Derby; but
before this it seems to have had prescriptive borough rights.
Later charters were granted by various sovereigns, and it was
incorporated by Elizabeth in 1598 under the style of a mayor,
6 brethren and 1 2 capital burgesses. This charter was confirmed
by Charles II. (1662), and the town was so governed till the
Municipal Act 1835 appointed a mayor, 3 aldermen and 12
councillors. In 1204 John granted two weekly markets, on
Tuesday and Saturday, and an annual fair of eight days at the
feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross (Sept. 14). This fair,
which is still held, and another on Palm Tuesday, are mentioned
in the Quo Warranto roll of 1330. The Tuesday market has long
been discontinued. That Chesterfield was early a thriving centre
is shown by the charter of John Lord Wake, lord of the manor,
granting a gild merchant to the town. In 1 266 the town was the
scene of a battle between the royal forces and the barons, when
Robert de Ferrers, earl of Derby, was taken prisoner. In 1586
there was a terrible visitation of the plague; and the parlia-
mentarian forces were overthrown here in the Civil War. With
the development of cotton and silk industries the town has
increased enormously, and is now second in importance only to
Derby among the towns of the county. There is no record
that it ever returned representatives to parliament.

See Stephen Glover, History and Gazetteer of the County of Derby
(Derby, 1831-1833); J. Pym Yeatman, Records of the Borough of
Chesterfield (Chesterfield and Sheffield, 1884) ; Thomas Ford, History
of Chesterfield (London, 1839).

CHESTER-LE-STREET, a town in the Chester-le-Street
parliamentary division of Durham, England, near the river
Wear, 6 m. N. of the city of Durham on the North-Eastern
railway. Pop. (1901) 11,753. The parish church of St Mary
and St Cuthbert is an interesting building, formerly collegiate,
with a tower 156 ft. high, and a remarkable series of monumental
tombs of the Lumley family, collected here from Durham
cathedral and various ruined monasteries, and in some cases
remade. About i m. along the river is Lumley Castle, the seat
of the earl of Scarborough, and about 2 m. north lies Lambton
Castle, the residence of the earl of Durham, built in 1797 on the
site of the old House of Harraton. Collieries and iron-works
employ the industrial population. Chester-le-Street is a place of
considerable antiquity. It lies on a branch of the Roman north
road, on which it was a station, but the name is not known.
Under the name of Cunecaslre it was made the seat of a bishop
in 882, and continued to be the head of the diocese till the
Danish invasion of 995. During that time the church was the
repository of the shrine of St Cuthbert, which was then removed
to Durham.

CHESTERTON, GILBERT KEITH (1874- ), English
journalist and author, who came of a family of estate-agents,
was born in London on the 29th of May 1874. He was educated

112

CHESTERTON CHESTNUT

at St Paul's school, which he left in 1891 with the idea of studying
art. But his natural bent was literary, and he devoted himself
mainly to cultivating that means of expression, both in prose
and verse; he did occasional reviewing, and had some experience
in a publisher's office. In 1900, having already produced a
volume of clever poems, The Wild Knight, he definitely took to
journalism as a career, and became a regular contributor of signed
articles to the Liberal journals, the Speaker and Daily News.
He established himself from the first as a writer with a distinct
personality, combative to a swashbuckling degree, uncon-
ventional and dogmatic; and the republication of much of his
work in a series of volumes (e.g. Twelve Types, Heretics, Ortho-
doxy), characterized by much acuteness of criticism, a pungent
style, and the capacity of laying down the law with unflagging
impetuosity and humour, enhanced his reputation. His powers
as a writer are best shown in his studies of Browning (in the
" English Men of Letters " series) and of Dickens; but these
were only rather more ambitious essays among a medley of
characteristic utterances, ranging from fiction (including The
Napoleon oj Notting-hill) to fugitive verse, and from artistic
criticism to discussions of ethics and religion. The interest
excited by his work and views was indicated and analysed in an
anonymous volume (G. K. Chesterton: a Criticism) published
in 1908.

CHESTERTON, an urban district in the Chesterton parlia-
mentary division of Cambridgeshire, England, ij m. N. from
Cambridge station, on the north bank of the Cam. Pop. (1901)
9591. The church of St Andrew is Decorated and Perpendicular,
retaining ancient woodwork and remains of fresco painting.
Along the river are several boat-houses erected by the Cambridge
University Boat Club. Boat-building and tile manufacture are
local industries.

CHESTNUT (nux Castanea), the common name given to two
sorts of trees and their fruit, (i) the so-called " horse-chestnut,"
and (2) the sweet or " Spanish " chestnut.

(i) The common horse-chestnut, Aesculus Hippocastanum
(Ger. Rosskastanie; Fr. marronnier d' Inde), has been stated to
be a native of Tibet, and to have been brought thence to England
in 1550; it is now, however, thought to be indigenous in the
mountains of northern Greece, where it occurs wild at 3000 to
4000 ft. above sea-level. Matthiolus, who attributes the origin
of the name of the tree to the use of the nuts by the inhabitants
of Constantinople for the relief of short-windedness and cough
in horses, remarks that no ancient writer appears to have made
mention of the horse-chestnut. Clusius (Rariorum plantarum
hist. i. p. 8, 1601) describes it as a vegetable curiosity, of
which in 1588 he had left in Vienna a living specimen, but of
which he had not yet seen either the flowers or recent fruit.
The dry fruit, he says, had frequently been brought from Con-
stantinople into Europe.

The tree grows rapidly; it flourishes best in a sandy, somewhat
moist loam, and attains a height of 50 to 60 or more ft., assuming
a pyramidal outline. Its boughs are strong and spreading.
The buds, conspicuous for their size, are protected by a coat of a
glutinous substance, which is impervious to water; in spring
this melts, and the bud-scales are then cast off. The leaves are
composed of seven radiating leaflets (long-wedge-shaped) ; when
young they are downy and drooping. From the early date of
its leafing year by year, a horse-chestnut in the Tuileries is known
as the " Marronnier du 20 mars." The flowers of the horse-
chestnut, which are white dashed with red and yellow, appear in
May, and sometimes, but quite exceptionally, again in autumn;
they form a handsome erect panicle, but comparatively few of
them afford mature fruit. The fruit is ripe in or shortly before
the first week in October, when it falls to the ground, and the
three-valved thorny capsule divides, disclosing the brown and at
first beautifully glossy seeds, the so-called nuts, having a resem-
blance to sweet chestnuts, and commonly three or else two in
.number. For propagation of the tree, the seeds may be sown
either when fresh, or, if preserved in sand or earth, in spring.
Drying by exposure to the air for a month has been found to
prevent their germination. Rooks are wont to remove the nuts

from the tree just before they fall, and to disperse them in various
directions. The tree is rarely planted in mixed plantations
where profit is an object; it interferes with its neighbours and
occupies too much room. It is generally introduced near man-
sion-houses for ornament and shade, and the celebrated avenues
at Richmond and Bushey Park in England are objects of great
beauty at the time of flowering.

The bark of the horse-chestnut contains a greenish oil, resin, a
yellow body, a tannin, C x H M On, existing likewise in the seeds
and various parts of the tree, and decomposable into phloroglucin
and aesciglyoxalic acid, C7H 6 O 3 , also aesctdetin hydrate, and the
crystalline fluorescent compound aesculin, of the formulaCaH 2 4O 1 t
(Rochleder and Schwarz), with which occurs a similar substance
fraxin, the paviin of Sir G. G. Stokes (Q. J. Chem. Soc. xi. 17,
1859; xii. 126, 1860), who suggests that its presence may perhaps
account for the discrepancies in the analyses of aesculin given by
different authors. From the seeds have been obtained starch
(about 14%), gum, mucilage, a non-drying oil, phosphoric acid,
salts of calcium, saponin, by boiling which with dilute hydro-
chloric or sulphuric acid aesculic acid is obtained, quercitrin,
present also in the fully developed leaves, aescigenin, CnHxOz,
and aesculetin, QHeOi, which is procurable also, but in small
quantity only, from the bark. Friedrich Rochleder has described
as constituent principles of the cotyledons aphrodaescin,
a bitter glucoside, argyraescin, C^^O^, aescinic acid,
and queraescitrin, CuHUeOa, found also in the leaves. To prepare
pure starch from the seeds, Flandin (Compt. rend, xxvii. 391,
1848; xxviii. 138, 1849) recommends kneading them, when
peeled and bruised, in an aqueous solution of j-J^ to ^ ff of their
weight of sodium carbonate. E. Staffel (Ann. d. Chem. u.
Pharm. Ixxvi., 1850, p. 379) after drying found, in spring and
autumn respectively, 10-9 and 3-38% of ash in the wood, 8-68
and 6- 57 in the bark, and 7-68 and 7-52 in the leaves of the horse-
chestnut. The ash of the unripe fruit contains 58-77, that of the
ripe kernel 61-74, and that of the green shell 75-91% of potash
(E. Wolff).

The wood of the horse-chestnut is soft, and serves only for
the making of water-pipes, for turner's work and common
carpentry, as a source of charcoal for gunpowder, and as fuel.
Newly cut it weighs 60 K>, and dry 35 Ib per cub. ft. approxi-
mately. The bark has been employed for dyeing yellow and for
tanning, and was formerly in popular repute as a febrifuge and
tonic. The powder of the dried nuts was at one time prescribed
as a sternutatory (to encourage sneezing) in the Edinburgh
Pharmacopoeia. It is stated to form with alum-water a size or
cement highly offensive to vermin, and with two parts of wheaten
flour the material for a strong bookbinder's paste. Infusion of
horse-chestnuts is found to expel worms from soil, and soon to
kill them if they are left in it. The nuts furthermore have been
applied to the manufacture of an oil for burning, cosmetic
preparations and starch, and in Switzerland, France and Ireland,
when rasped on ground, to the bleaching of flax, hemp, silk and
wool. In Geneva horse-chestnuts are largely consumed by
grazing stock, a single sheep receiving 2 ft. crushed morning and
evening. Given to cows in moderate quantity, they have been
found to enhance both the yield and flavour of milk. Deer
readily eat them, and, after a preliminary steeping in lime-water,
pigs also. For poultry they should be used boiled, and mixed
with other nourishment. The fallen leaves are relished by sheep
and deer, and afford a good litter for flocks and herds.

One variety of the horse-chestnut has variegated leaves, and
another double flowers. Darwin observed that A e. Pavia, the red
buckeye of North America, shows a special tendency, under
unfavourable conditions, to be double-blossomed. The seeds of
this species are used to stupefy fish. The scarlet-flowered horse-
chestnut, Ae. rubicunda, is a handsome tree, less in height and
having a rounder head than the common form; it is a native of
North America. Another species, possessing flowers with the
lower petals white with a red tinge, and the upper yellow and red
with a white border, and fruit unarmed, is Ae. indica, a native of
the western Himalayas. Among the North American species are
the foetid or Ohio buckeye, Ae. glabra, and Ae. flava, the sweet

CHETTLE CHEVALIER

buckeye. Ae. calif arnica, when full-grown and in flower, is a
beautiful tree, but its leaves often fall before midsummer.

(2) The Spanish or sweet chestnut, Castanea saliva (natural
order, Fagaceae), is a stately and magnificent tree, native of the
countries bordering on the Mediterranean, but also ripening its
fruit in sheltered situations as far north as Scotland. It lives
very long, and attains a large size, spreading its branches widely.
It has large glossy lanceolate leaves with a toothed margin. The
flowers, which appear in early summer, are in pendulous, slender
yellowish catkins, which bear a number of stamina te flowers with
a few pistillate flowers at the base. The staminate contain 8 to 20
stamens which produce an enormous amount of dusty yellow
pollen, some of which gets carried by wind to the protruding
stigmas of the pistillate flowers. The latter are borne three
together, invested by a cupule of four green bracts, which, as the
fruit matures, grow to form the tough green prickly envelope
surrounding the group of generally three nuts. The largest
known chestnut tree is the famous Castagno di cento cavalli, or the
chestnut of a hundred horses, on the slopes of Mount Etna, a tree
which, when measured about 1780 by Count Borch, was found to
have a circumference of 190 ft. The timber bears a striking
resemblance to that of the oak, which has been mistaken for
chestnut; but it may be distinguished by the numerous fine
medullary rays. Unlike oak, the wood is more valuable while
young than old. When not more than fifty years old it forms
durable posts for fences and gates; but at that age it often begins
to deteriorate, having ring-shakes and central hollows. In a
young state, when the stems are not^bove 2 in. in diameter at the
ground, the chestnut is found to make durable hoops for casks and
props for vines; and of a larger size it makes good hop-poles.

Chestnuts (the fruit of the tree) are extensively imported into
Great Britain, and are eaten roasted or boiled, and mashed or
otherwise as a vegetable. In a raw state they have a sweet taste,
but are difficult of digestion. The trees are very abundant in the
south of Europe, and chestnuts bulk largely in the food resources
of the poor in Spain, Italy, Switzerland and Germany. In Italy
the kernels are ground into meal, and used for thickening soups,
and even for bread-making. In North America the fruits of an
allied species, C. americana, are eaten both raw and cooked.

CHETTLE, HENRY (is64?-i6o7?), English dramatist and
miscellaneous writer, was the sen of Robert Chettle, a London
dyer. He was apprenticed in 1577 to a stationer, and in 1591
became a partner with William Hoskins and John Danter. In
1592 he published Robert Greene's Groatsiuorth of Wit. In the
preface to his Kind Herts Dreame (end of 1592) he found it
necessary to disavow any share in that pamphlet, and incidentally
he apologized to three persons (one of them commonly identified
with Shakespeare) who had been abused in it. Piers Plainnes
Seaven Veres Prentiship, the story of a fictitious apprenticeship in
Crete and Thrace, appeared in 1595. As early as 1598 Francis
Meres includes him in his Palladis Tamia as one of the " best for
comedy," and between that year and 1603 he wrote or
collaborated in some forty-nine pieces. He seems to have been
generally in debt, judging from numerous entries in Henslowe's
diary of advances for various purposes, on one occasion (i7th of
January 1599) to pay his expenses in the Marshalsea prison, on
another (7th of March 1603) to get his play out of pawn. Of
the thirteen plays usually attributed to Chettle's sole authorship
only one was printed. This was The Tragedy of Hoffmann: or a
Revenge for a Father (played 1602; printed 1631), a share in
which Mr Fleay assigns to Thomas Heywood. It has been
suggested that this piece was put forward as a rival to Shake-
speare's Hamlet. Among the plays in which Chettle had a share
is catalogued The Danish Tragedy, which was probably either
identical with Hoffmann or another version of the same story.
The Pleasant Comedie of Patient Grissill (1599), in which he
collaborated with Thomas Dekker and William Haughton, was
reprinted by the Shakespeare Society in 1841. It contains the
lyric " Art thou poor, yet hast thou golden slumbers," which is
probably Dekker's. In November 1599 Chettle receives ten
shillings for mending the first part of " Robin Hood," i.e. The
Downfall of Robert, Earl of Huntingdon, by Anthony Munday;

and in the second part, which followed soon after and was printed
in 1601, The Death of Robert, Earle of Huntingdon, he collaborated
with Munday. Both plays are printed in Dodsley's Select
Collection of Old English Plays (ed. W. C. Hazlitt, vol. viii.). In
1603 Chettle published England's Mourning Garment, in which are
included some verses alluding to the chief poets of the time. His
death took place before the appearance of Dekker!s Knight's
Conjurer in 1607, for he is there mentioned as a recent arrival in
limbo.

Hoffmann was edited by H. B(arrett) L(ennard) (1852) and by
Richard Ackermann (Bamberg, 1894).

CHEVALIER, ALBERT (1861- ), English comedian, began
a connexion with the stage while still a child. In 1877 he was
engaged as an actor under the Bancrofts in London, and for some
years played " legitimate " parts at the Court theatre and
elsewhere. In 1891, however, he began a successful music-hall
career as a singer of coster songs of his own invention, a new type
in which he had an immediate success, both in England and
America. He subsequently organized an entertainment of his
own, with sketches and songs, with which he went on tour, estab-
lishing a wide popularity as an original artist in his special line.

CHEVALIER, MICHEL (1806-1879), French economist, was
born at Limoges on the I3th of January 1806. In his early
manhood, while employed as an engineer, he became a convert to
the theories of Saint Simon; these he ardently advocated in the
Globe, the organ of the Saint Simonians, which he edited until his
arrest in 1832 on a charge of outraging public morality by its
publication. He was sentenced to a year's imprisonment, but was
released in six months through the intervention of Thiers, who
sent him on a special mission to the United States to study the
question of land and water transport. In 1836 he published, in
two volumes, the letters he wrote from America to the Journal
des debats. These attracted so much attention that he was sent
in the same year on an economic mission to England, which
resulted in his publication (in 1838) of Des inter ets materiels de la
France. The success of this made his position secure, and in 1840
he was appointed professor of political economy in the College de
France. He sat for a short time (1845-1846) as a member of the
Chamber of Deputies, but lost his seat owing to his enthusiastic
adoption of the principles of free trade. Under Napoleon III. he
was restored to the position of which the revolution of 1848 had
temporarily deprived him. In 1850 he became a member of the
Institute, and in the following year published an important work
in favour of free trade, under the title of Examen du systetne
commercial connu sous le nom de systcme protecteur. His chief
public triumph was the important part he played in bringing
about the conclusion of the commercial treaty between France
and Great Britain in 1860. Previously to this he had served, in
1855, upon the commission for organizing the Exhibition of 1855,
and his services there led to his forming one of the French jury of
awards in the London Exhibition of 1862. He was created a
member of the Senate in 1860, and continued for some years to
take an active part in its discussions. He retired from public life
in 1870, but was unceasingly industrious with his pen. He
became grand officer of the Legion of Honour in 1861, and during
the later years of his life received from many quarters public
recognition 6f his eminence as a political economist. He died at
his chateau near Montpellier (Herault) on the z8th of November
1879. Many of his works have been translated into English and
other languages. Besides those already mentioned the more
important are: C ours d'economie politique (1842-1850); Essaisde
politique industrielle (1843); De la baisse probable d'or (1859,
translated into English by Cobden, On the Probable Fall of the
Value of Gold, Manchester, 1859); L' Expedition du Mexique
(1862); Introduction aux rapports du jury international (1868).

CHEVALIER, ULYSSE (1841- ), French bibliographer,
was born at Rambouillet on the 24th of February 1841. He
published a great number of documents, relating to the history of
Dauphin6, e.g. the cartularies of the church and the town of Die
(1868), of the abbey of St Andr6 le-Bas at Vienne (1869), of the
abbey of Notre Dame at Bonnevaux in the diocese of Vienne
(1889), of the abbey of St Chaffre at Le Monestier (1884), the

CHEVAUX-DE-FRISE CHEVIOT HILLS

inventories and several collections of archives of the dauphins of
Viennais, and a Bibliotheque liturgique in six volumes (1893-1897),
the third and fourth volumes of which constitute the Reperlorium
hymnologicum, containing more than 20,000 articles. But his
principal work is the Repertoire des sources historiques du moyen
Age. The first part, Bio-bibliographie (1877-1886; and ed., 1905),
contains the names of all the historical personages alive between
the years i and 1500 who are mentioned in printed books,
together with the precise indication of all the places where they
are mentioned. The second part, Topo-biblio graphic (1894-
1903), contains not only the names of places mentioned in books
on the history of the middle ages, but, in a general way, every-
thing not included in the Bio-bibliographie. The Repertoire as a
whole contains an enormous mass of useful information, and is one
of the most important bibliographical monuments ever devoted to
the study of medieval history. Though a Catholic priest and
professor of history at the Catholic university of Lyons, the Abbe
(afterwards Canon) Chevalier knew how to maintain an inde-
pendent critical attitude even in religious questions. In the
controversy on the authenticity of the Holy Shroud (sudario) at
Turin, he worked in the true scientific spirit by tracing back the
history of that piece of stuff, which was undoubtedly used as a
shroud, but which was not produced before the I4th century and
is probably no older (See Le Saint Suaire de Lirey-ChambSry-
Turin et les defenseurs de son authenticite). Similarly, in Notre
Dame de Lorette; ftude critique sur I' authenticite de la Santa Casa
(1906), he dissipated by the aid of authentic documents the
legend which had embellished and falsified the primitive history
of that sanctuary.

CHEVAUX-DE-FRISE (French for " Friesland horses";
the Dutch Vriesse ruyters, " Frisian horsemen," and German
Spanische Reiler, " Spanish horsemen "), a military obstacle,
originating apparently in the Dutch War of Independence, and
used to close the breach of a fortress, streets, &c. It was formerly
often used in field operations as a defence against cavalry; hence
the name, as the Dutch were weak in the mounted arm and had
therefore to check the enemy's cavalry by an artificial obstacle.
Chevauxrde-frise consist of beams in which are fixed a number of
spears, sword-blades, &c., with the points projecting outwards on
all sides.

CHEVERUS, JEAN LOUIS ANNE MAGDELEINE LEFEBVRE
DE (1768-1836), French ecclesiastic, was born on the z8th of
January 1768, in Mayenne, France, where his father was general
civil judge and lieutenant of police. He studied at the college of
Mayenne, received the tonsure when twelve, became prior of
Torbechet while still little more than a child, thence derived
sufficient income for his education, entered the College of Louis le
Grand in 1781, and after completing his theological studies at the
Seminary of St Magloire, was ordained deacon in October 1790,
and priest by special dispensation on the i8th of December. He
was immediately made canon of the cathedral of Le Mans and
began to act as vicar to his uncle in Mayenne, who died in 1792.
Owing to the progress of the Revolution he emigrated in 1792 to
England, and thence in 1 796 to America, settling in Boston, Mass.
His interest had been aroused by Frangois Antoine Matignon, a
former professor at Orleans, now in charge under Bishop John
Carroll of all the Catholic churches and missions in New England.
Cheverus, although at first appointed to an Indian mission in
Maine, remained in Boston for nearly a year, and returned thither
after several months in the Penobscot and Passamaquoddy
missions and visits to scattered Catholic families along the way.
During the epidemic of yellow fever in 1798 he won great praise
and respect for his courage and charity; and his preaching was
listened to by many Protestants indeed the subscriptions for the
Church of the Holy Cross which he founded in 1803 were largely
from non-Catholics. In 1808 the papal brief was issued making
Boston a bishopric, suffragan to Baltimore, and Cheverus its
bishop. He was consecrated on All Saints' day in 1810, at St
Peter's, Baltimore, by Archbishop Carroll. On the death of the
latter his assistant bishop, Neale, urged the appointment of
Cheverus as assistant to himself; Cheverus refused and warmly
asserted his desire to remain in Boston ; but, much broken by the

death of Matignon in 1818 and with impaired health, he soon
found it necessary to leave the seat of his bishopric. In 1823,
Louis XVIII. having insisted on his return to France, Cheverus
became bishop of Montauban, where his tolerance captivated the
Protestant clergy and laymen of the city. He was made arch-
bishop of Bordeaux in 1826; and on the ist of February 1836, in
accordance with the wish of Louis Philippe, he was made a
cardinal. He died in Bordeaux on the igth of July 1836. To
Cheverus, more than to any other, is due the position that Boston
now holds in the Roman Catholic Church of America, as well as
the general growth of that church in New England. His character
was essentially lovable: the Jews of Bordeaux and Protestants
everywhere delighted to honour him.

See the rather extravagant biography by J. Huen-Dubourg, Vie
du cardinal de Cheverus (Bordeaux, 1838; English version by E.
Stewart, Boston, 1839).

CHEVET, the term employed in French architecture to
distinguish the apsidal end of a church, in which the apses or
chapels radiate round the choir aisle. The two earliest examples
(nth and i2th century) are found in the churches of St Hilaire,
Poitiers, and Notre Dame-du-Port, Clermont, where there are
four apses. A more usual number is five, and the central apse,
being of larger dimensions, becomes the Lady chapel. This was
the case in Westminster Abbey, where Henry III. introduced the
chevet into England; Henry VII. 's chapel is built on the site cf
the original Lady chapel, which must have been of exceptional
size, as it extended the whole length of the present structure. In
Solignac, Fonlevrault and Paray-le-Monial there are only three,
in these cases sufficiently distant one from the other to allow of a
window between. The usual number in all the great cathedrals
of the i3th century, as in Bourges, Chartres, Reims, Troyes,
Tours, Bayeux, Antwerp and Bruges, is five. In Beauvais,
Amiens and Cologne there are seven apsidal chapels, and in
Clairvaux nine radiating but rectangular chapels. In the I4th
and 1 5th centuries the central apse was increased in size and
dedicated to the Virgin Mary, as in St Ouen at Rouen.

CHEVIOT HILLS, a range forming about 35 m. of the border
between England and Scotland. The boundary generally
follows the line of greatest elevation, but as the slope is more
gradual southward and northward the larger part of the range is
in Northumberland, England, and the lesser in Roxburghshire,
Scotland. The axis runs from N.E. to S.W., with a northward
tendency at the eastern end, where the ridge culminates in the
Cheviot, 2676 ft. Its chief elevations from this point south-
westward fall abruptly to 2034 ft. in Windygate Hill, and then
more gradually to about 1600 ft. above the pass, followed by a
high road from Redesdale. Beyond this are Carter Fell (1815)
and Peel Fell (1964), after which two lines of lesser elevation
branch westward and southward to enclose Liddesdale. The
hills are finely grouped, of conical and high-arched forms, and
generally grass-covered. Their flanks are scored with deep
narrow glens in every direction, carrying the headwaters of the
Till, Coquet and North Tyne on the south, and tributaries of the
Tweed on the north. The range is famous for a valuable breed of
sheep, which find abundant pasture on jts smooth declivities.
In earlier days it was the scene of many episodes of border
warfare, and its name is inseparably associated with the ballad of
Chevy Chase. The main route into Scotland from England lies
along the low coastal belt east of the Till; the Till itself provided
another, and Redesdale a third. There are numerous ruins of
castles and " peel towers " or forts on the English side in this
district.

Geology. The rocks entering into the geological structure of the
Cheviots belong to the Silurian, Old Red Sandstone and Carbonifer-
ous systems. The oldest strata, which are of Upper Silurian age,
form inliers that have been exposed by the denudation of the
younger palaeozoic rocks. One of these which occurs high up on
the slopes of the Cheviots is drained by the Kale Water and the
river Coquet and is covered towards the north by the Old Red
Sandstone volcanic series and on the south by Carboniferous strata.
Another area is traversed by the Jed Water and the Edgerston
Burn and is surrounded by rocks of Old Red Sandstone age. The
strata consist of greywackes, flags and shales with seams and rone*
of graptolite shale which yield fossils sparingly.

CHEVREUL CHEYENNE

On the upturned and denuded edges of the Silurian strata a great
pile of contemporaneous volcanic rocks of Lower Old Red Sand-
stone age rests unconformably, which consists chiefly of lavas with
thin partings of tuff. A striking feature is the absence of coarse
sediments, thus indicating prolonged volcanic activity. They cover
an area of about 230 sq. m. in the eastern part of the Cheviots and
rise to a height of 2676 ft. above the sea. . The lavas comprise dark
pitchstone, resembling that at Kirk Yetholm, and pprphyritic and
amygdaloidal andesites and basalts. This volcanic platform is
pierced by a mass of granite about 20 sq. m. in extent, which forms
the highest peak in the Cheviot range. It has been described by
Dr Teall as an augite-biotite-granite having strong affinities with
the augite-bearing granitites of Laveline and Oberbriick in the
Vosges. Both the granite and the surrounding lavas are traversed
by dykes and sills of intermediate and acid types represented by
mica-porphyrites and quartz-felsites.

On their north-west margin the Lower Old Red volcanic rocks
are covered unconformably by the upper division of that system
composed of red sandstones and conglomerates, which, when followed
westwards, rest directly on the Silurian platform. Towards the
south and east the volcanic pile is overlaid by Carboniferous strata,
thus indicating a prolonged interval of denudation.

On the northern slopes of the western part of the Cheviots the
representatives of the Cementstone group of the Carboniferous
system come to the surface, where they consist of shales, clays,
mudstones, sandstones with cementstones and occasional bands of
marine limestone. These are followed in normal order by the Fell
Sandstone group, comprising a succession of sandstones with inter-
calations of red and green clays and impure cementstone bands.
They form the higher part of the Larriston Fells and are traceable
eastwards to Peel Fell, where there is evidence of successive land sur-
faces in the form of dirt beds. They are succeeded by the Lewis-
burn coal-bearing group, which represents the Scremerston coals.

CHEVREUL, MICHEL EUGENE (1786-1889), French chemist,
was born, on the 3ist of August 1786, at Angers, where his father
was a physician. At about the age of seventeen he went to Paris
and entered L. N. Vauquelin's chemical laboratory, afterwards
becoming his assistant at the natural history museum in the
Jardin des Plantes. In 1813 he was appointed professor of
chemistry at the Lycee Charlemagne, and subsequently under-
took the directorship of the Gobelins tapestry works, where he
carried out his researches on colour contrasts (De la loi du
contraste simultane des couleurs, 1839). In 1826 he became a
member of the Academy of Sciences, and in the same year was
elected a foreign member of the Royal Society of London, whose
Copley medal he was awarded in 1857. He succeeded his master,
Vauquelin, as professor of organic chemistry at the natural
history museum in 1830, and thirty-three years later assumed its
directorship also; this he relinquished in 1879, though he still
retained his professorship. In 1886 the completion of his
hundredth year was celebrated with public rejoicings; and after
his death, which occurred in Paris on the gth of April 1889, he was
honoured with a public funeral. In 1901 a statue was erected to
his memory in the museum with which he was connected for so
many years. His scientific work covered a wide range, but his
name is best known for the classical researches he carried out on
animal fats, published in 1823 (Recherches sur les corps gras
d'origine animate). These enabled him to elucidate the true
nature of soap; he was also able to discover the composition of
stearin and olein, and to isolate stearic and oleic acid's, the names
of which were invented by him. This work led to important
improvements in the processes of candle-manufacture. Chevreul
was a determined enemy of charlatanism in every form, and a
complete sceptic as to the " scientific " psychical research or
spiritualism which had begun in his time (see his De la baguette
divinatoire, et des tables tournantes, 1864).

CHEVRON (Fr. from chevre, a goat), in architecture, the beams
or rafters in the roofs of a building, meeting in an angle with a
fancied resemblance to the horns of a butting goat ; in heraldry
a bent bar on a shield, used also as a distinguishing badge of
rank on the sleeves of non-commissioned officers in most armies
and navies and by police and other organized bodies wearing
uniform, and as a mark of good conduct in the army and navy.
Chevron is also an architectural term for an inflected ornament,
called also " zig-zag," found largely in romanesque architecture
in France, England and Sicily. It is one of the most common
decorations found in the voussoirs of the Norman arch, and
was employed also on shafts, as in the cloisters of Monreale near

Palermo, those of St Paul outside Rome, and many churches in
Germany. Its earliest appearance was in the tomb of Agamemnon
at Mycenae, where the shafts flanking the entrance doorway
have nine decorative chevron bands; in this case there is no
doubt it was derived from the metal casing of the early wood
columns.

CHEVROTAIN, a name taken from the French to designate the
various representatives of the mammalian ungulate family
Tragulidae. These tiny animals, commonly known as mouse-
deer, are in no wise nearly related to the true deer, but constitute
by themselves a special section of artiodactyle ungulates known
as Tragulina, for the characteristics of which see ARTIODACTYLA.
The typical genus Tragulus, which is Asiatic, contains the smallest
representatives of the family, the animals having more of
the general aspects and habits of some rodents, such as the
agoutis, than of other ruminants. The longest-known species are
T. javanicus, T. napu, T. kanchil, T. stanleyanus and T. memmina ;
but a number of other forms, best regarded for the most part as
races, have been named. Of those mentioned, the first four are
from the Malay Peninsula or the islands of the Indo-Malay
Archipelago, the last from Ceylon and India. Kanchil and napu

African Water Chevrotain (Dorcatherium aquaticum).

(or napoh) are the Malay names of the species with those specific
titles. The second genus, Dorcatherium (or Hyomoschus), is
African, and distinguished chiefly by the feet being stouter and
shorter, the outer toes better developed, and the two middle
metacarpals not welded together. Its dental formula (as that of
Tragulus) is i.$, c. \, p.$, zj = 34. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, L. 6,
S. 5, Ca. 12-13. The only existing species, D. aquaticum (fig.), in
type is rather larger than any of the Asiatic chevrotains, which
it otherwise much resembles, but is said to frequent the banks of
streams, and have much the habits of pigs. It is of a rich brown
colour, with back and sides spotted and striped with white; and
it is evidently the survivor of an ancient form, as remains of a
species only differing in size (D. crassum) have been found in the
Miocene deposits of France. For long this species was sup-
posed to be restricted to West Africa, but it has recently been
obtained in East Central Africa, where it is represented by a
local race. (R. L.*)

CHEYENNE (Sioux for " of alien speech"), a tribe of North
American Indians of Algonquian stock. They formerly lived on
the Cheyenne river, North Dakota. Driven west by the Dakotas,
they were found by early explorers at the eastern base of the
Black Hills, South Dakota. Part of them later moved south
and allied themselves with the Arapahoes. Their whole history
has been one of war with their red and white neighbours. They
are a powerful athletic race, mentally superior to the average
American Indian. They are divided into eleven subdivisions and

CHEYENNE CHHINDWARA

formerly had a council of chiefs. They number some 3000,
and are divided into northern and southern Cheyennes; the
former being on a reservation in Montana, the latter in Oklahoma.
In 1878-79 a band of the former revolted, and some seventy-five
of them were killed.

See Handbook of American Indians (Washington, 1907); also
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN.

CHEYENNE, the chief city and capital of Wyoming, U.S.A.,
and county-seat of Laramie county, on Crow Creek, about 106 m.
N. of Denver. Pop. (1890) 11,690; (1900) 14,087, of whom 1691
were foreign-born; (1905) 13,656; (1910) 11,320. It is served by
the Union Pacific, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the
Colorado & Southern railways. It is situated near the southern
boundary of the state, on the high plains near the E. foot of the
Laramie range, at an altitude of 6050 ft.; the surrounding
country is given up to mining (lignite and iron), grazing and
dry-farming. Among the principal buildings are the capitol,
modelled after the National Capitol at Washington; the United
States government building, the Soldiers' and Sailors' Home, the
Union Pacific dep6t, the high school, the Carnegie library, St
Mary's cathedral (Roman Catholic), the Convent of the Holy
Child Jesus, the Masonic Temple and the Elks' clubhouse. The
city has two parks, and is connected by a boulevard with Fort
D. A. Russell, an important United States military post, 4 m.
north of the city, established in 1867 and named in honour of
Major-General. David Allen Russell (1820-1864) of tne Union
army, who was killed at Opequan, Virginia. The industrial
prosperity of Cheyenne is largely due to the extensive railway
shops of the Union Pacific situated here; but the city is also an
important cattle market and has stock-yards. In 1905 the value
of the city's factory products ($924,697) was almost one-fourth
the total value of the factory products of the state. Cheyenne,
settled in 1867, when the Union Pacific reached here, was named
from the Cheyenne Indians. It was chosen as the site for the
capital of the territory in 1869, and was incorporated in the
same year.

CHEYNE, THOMAS KELLY (1841- ), English divine and
Biblical critic, was born in London, and educated at Merchant
Taylors' School and Oxford. Subsequently he studied German
theological methods at Gottingen. He was ordained in 1864, and
held a fellowship at Balliol College, Oxford, 1868-1882. During
the earlier part of this period he stood alone in the university as
a teacher of the main conclusions of modern Old Testament
criticism. In 1881 he was presented to the rectory of Tendring,
in Essex, and in 1884 he was made a member of the Old Testa-
ment revision company. He resigned the living of Tendring in
1885 on his appointment to the Oriel professorship, which carried
with it a canonry at Rochester. In 1889 he delivered the
Bampton lectures at Oxford. In 1908 he resigned his professor-
ship. He consistently urged in his writings the necessity of a
broad and comprehensive study of the Scriptures in the light of
literary, historical and scientific considerations. His publications
include commentaries on the Prophets and Hagiographa, and
lectures and addresses on theological subjects. He was a joint
editor of the Encyclopaedia Biblica (London, 1899-1903), a work
embodying the more advanced conclusions of English biblical
criticism. In the introduction to his Origin of the Psalter (London,
1891) he gave an account of his development as a critical
scholar.

CHEZY, ANTOINE LEONARD DE (1773-1832), French
orientalist, was born at Neuilly on the isth of January 1773.
His father, Antoine de Chezy (1718-1798), was an engineer
who finally became director of the Ecole des Fonts et Chaussees.
The son was intended for his father's profession; but in 1799 he
obtained a post in the oriental department of the national library.
About 1803 he began the study of Sanskrit, though he possessed
neither grammar nor dictionary, and by great labour he obtained
sufficient knowledge of the language to be able to compose in it
verses said to possess great elegance. He was the first professor of
Sanskrit appointed in the College de France (1815), a chevalier of
the Legion of Honour, and a member of the Academic des
Inscriptions. He died in 1832. Among his works were Medjouin

et Leila (1807), from the Persian; Yadjanadatta Badha (1814)
and La Reconnaissance de Sacountala (1830), from the Sanskrit;
L'Anlhologie trotique d'Amrou (1831), published under the
pseudonym d'Apudy.

See the Memoires of the Academic des Inscriptions (new series,
vol. xii.), where there is a notice of Chezy by Silvestre de Sacy.

CHHATARPUR, a native state in the Bundelkhand agency of
Central India. Area, 1118 sq. m.; pop. (1001) 156,139; esti-
mated revenue, 16,000. The chief, whose hereditary title is
raja, is a Rajput of the Ponwar clan, whose ancestor dispossessed
the descendant of Chhatar Sal, the founder of Bundelkhand
independence, towards the end of the i8th century. The state
was guaranteed to Kunwar Suni Singh Ponwar in 1806. In 1854
it would have lapsed to the British government for want of
direct heirs, but was conferred on Jagat Raj as a special act of
grace. The town of CHHATARPUR, which is named after Chhatar
Sal, and contains his cenotaph, is 70 m. by road S.W. of Banda.
Pop. (1901) 10,029. There are manufactures of paper and coarse
cutlery, and a high school. The state also contains the British
cantonment of Nowgong.

CHHATTISGARH, a division of the Central Provinces of India,
comprising a British division (21,240 sq. m.) and two small
feudatory states, Raigarh (1486 sq. m.) and Sarangarh (540 sq.
m.). In 1905 the five Oriya states of Bamra, Rairakhol, Sonpur,
Patna and Kalahandi were transferred from the Central Pro-
vinces to Bengal. Chhattisgarh, or " the thirty-six forts," is a
low-lying plain, enclosed on every side by hills and forests,
while a rocky barrier shuts it off from the Nagpur plain on the
west. Two great rivers, the Nerbudda and Sone, take their rise at
the side of the Amarkantak hill in the north-west corner of the
division, the Nerbudda flowing nearly due west to the Bombay
coast, the Sone ultimately falling into the Ganges in Lower
Bengal. Protected on both sides by ranges of hills, the district
was, until late years, the least known portion of the most obscure
division of India, but recently it has been opened up by the
Bengal-Nagpur railway, and has developed into a great grain-
producing country. Its population is almost pure Hindu, except
in the two great tracts of hill and forest, where the aboriginal
tribes retired before the Aryan invasion. It remained com-
paratively unaffected either by the Oriya immigration on the
east, or by the later influx of Mahrattas on the west. For though
the Mahrattas conquered and governed the country for a period,
they did not take possession of the land. In 1901 the population
of the two remaining feudatory states was 125,281, Raigarh
having 86,543 an( l Sarangarh 38,738. Much of the soil is still
covered with forest, but it includes fertile rice land.

The British division of Chhattisgarh comprises the three
districts of Drug (created in 1906), Raipur and Bilaspur. In 1905
the district of Sambalpur, together with the five feudatory states,
was transferred to Bengal. In 1901 the population of the
reduced area was 2,642,983.

CHHINDWARA, a town and district of British India, in the
Nerbudda division of the Central Provinces. The site of the town
is 2 200 ft. above sea-level, and is surrounded by ranges of low
hills. The European station extends for nearly 2 m. and is well
wooded. It is considered very healthy, and forms a resort for
European visitors from Nagpur and Kampti during the hot
weather.

The area of the DISTRICT OF CHHINDWARA is 4631 sq. m. It
has two natural subdivisions the hill country above the slopes of
the Satpura mountains, called the Balaghat, and a tract of low
land to the south called the Zerghat. The high tableland of the
Balaghat lies for the most part upon the great basaltic formation
which stretches across the Satpuras as far east as Jubbulpore.
The country consists of a regular succession of hills and fertile
valleys, formed by the small ranges which cross its surface east and
west. The average height of the uplands is 2500 ft., but there
are many points of greater elevation. The appearance of the
Zerghat below the hills is generally open and undulating. The
country is intersected by several streams, of which the Kanhan is
the most considerable. Near the hills and along the streams are
strips and patches of jungle; the villages are usually surrounded

CHIABRERA CHIAPAS

117

with picturesque groves of tamarind, mango and other shade-
giving trees. In the hill-country the climate is temperate and
healthy. In the cold season ice is frequently seen in the small
tanks at an elevation of about 2000 ft. Until May the hot wind is
little felt, while during the rains the weather is cool and agreeable.
The average annual rainfall amounts to 36 in. Pop. (1901)
407,927. There are manufactures of cotton cloth and brass-
ware. Coal in this neighbourhood began to be worked after the
opening of a branch of the Bengal-Nagpur railway to Chhindwara
and the coalfields to the north in 1905.

Chhindwara formed part of the dominions of the ancient Gond
dynasty of Chhindwara and Nagpur, whose seat was at Deogarh
until, in the i8th century, it was removed by Chand Sultan', son of
Bakht Buland (founder of the short-lived greatness of the
dynasty, and of the city of Nagpur) to Nagpur (see GONDWANA
and NAGPUR).

CHIABRERA, GABRIELLO (1552-1637), Italian poet, some--
times called the Italian Pindar, was of patrician descent, and was
born at Savona, ?, little town in the domain of the Genoese
republic, twenty-eight years after the birth of Ronsard, with
whom he has far more in common than with the great Greek
whose echo he sought to make himself. As he has told in the
pleasant fragment of autobiography prefixed to his works, in
which, like Caesar, he speaks of himself in the third person, he
was a posthumous child; he went to Rome at the age of nine
years, under the care of his uncle Giovanni. There he read with
a private tutor, suffered severely from two fevers in succession,
and was sent at last, for the sake of society, to the Jesuits'
College, where he remained till his twentieth year, studying
philosophy, as he says, " piu per trattenimento che per appren-
dere," rather for occupation than for learning's sake. Losing
his uncle about this time, Chiabrera returned to Savona, " again
to see his own and be seen by them." In a little while, however,
he returned to Rome, and entered the household of a cardinal,
where he remained for several years, frequenting the society of
Paulus Manutius and of Sperone Speroni, the dramatist and
critic of Tasso, and attending the lectures and hearing the con-
versation of Mureto. His revenge of an insult offered him
obliged him to betake himself once more to Savona, where, to
amuse himself, he read poetry, and particularly Greek. The
poets of his choice were Pindar and Anacreon, and these he
studied till it grew to be his ambition to reproduce in his own
tongue their rhythms and structures, and so to enrich his country
with a new form of verse in his own words, " like his country-
man, Columbus, to find a new world or drown." His reputation
was made at once; but he seldom quitted Savona, though often
invited to do so, saving for journeys of pleasure, in which he
greatly delighted, and for occasional visits to the courts of princes
whither he was often summoned, for his verse's sake, and in his
capacity as a dramatist. At the ripe age of fifty he took to
himself a wife, one Lelia Pavese, by whom he had no children.
After a simple and blameless life, during which he produced
a vast quantity of verse epic, tragic, pastoral, lyrical and
satirical he died in 1637, at the patriarchal age of eighty-five.
An epitaph was written for him in elegant Latin by Urban VIII. ;
but on his tombstone are graven two quaint Italian hexameters
of his own, in which the gazer is warned from the poet's own
example not to prefer Parnassus to Calvary.

A maker of odes in all their elaborate pomp of strophe and
antistrophe, a master of new -and complex rhythms, a coiner
of ambitious words and composite epithets, an employer of
audacious transpositions and inversions, and the inventor of a
new system of poetic diction, it is not surprising that Chiabrera
should have been compared with Ronsard. Both were destined
to suffer eclipse as great and sudden as had been their glory.
Ronsard was succeeded by Malherbe and by P'rench literature,
properly so-called; Chiabrera was the last of the great Italians,
and after him literature languished till the second renaissance
under Manzoni. Chiabrera, however, was a man of merit, apart
from that of the mere innovator. Setting aside his epics and
dramas (one of the latter received the honours of translaticn at
the hands of Nicolas Chretien, a sort of scenic du Bartas), much

of his work remains yet readable and pleasant. His grand
Pindarics are dull, it is true, but some of his Canzonelte, like the
anacreontics of Ronsard, are exceedingly elegant and graceful.
His autobiographical sketch is also extremely interesting. The
simple old poet, with his adoration of Greek (when a thing
pleased him greatly he was wont to talk of it as " Greek Verse "),
his delight in journeys and sight-seeing, his dislike for literary
talk save with intimates and equals, his vanities and vengeances,
his pride in the memory of favours bestowed on him by popes
and princes, his " infmita maraviglia " over Virgil's versification
and metaphor, his fondness for masculine rhymes and blank
verse, his quiet Christianity, is a figure deserving perhaps of
more study than is likely to be bestowed on that " new world "
of art which it was his glory to fancy his own, by discovery and
by conquest.

The best editions of Chiabrera are those of Rome (1718, 3 vols.
8vo) ; of Venice (1731, 4 vols. 8vo) ; of Leghorn (1781, 5 vols. iamo) ;
and of Milan (1807, 3 vols. 8vo). These only contain his lyric work ;
all the rest he wrote has been long forgotten.

CHIANA (anc. Clanis), a river of Tuscany, which rises in the
Apennines S. of Arezzo, runs through the valley of Chiusi, and
after receiving the Paglia just below Orvieto, falls into the Tiber
after a course of 60 m. In Roman times its waters ran entirely
into the Tiber. It often caused considerable floods in the valley
of Clusium (Chiusi) which were noticeable even in Rome itself,
and in A.D. 15 it was proposed to divert part of its waters into
the Arnus, a project which was abandoned owing to the opposi-
tion of the Florentines (Tac. Ann. i. 76, 79). In the middle
ages the whole of its valley from Arezzo to Chiusi was an un-
inhabitable swamp; but at the end of the i8th century the
engineer Count Fossombroni took the matter in hand, and
moved the watershed some 25 m. farther south, so that its waters
now flow partly into the Arno and partly into the Tiber.

CHIAPAS, a Pacific coast state of southern Mexico on the
Guatemalan frontier, bounded by the states of Tabasco on the
N. and Vera Cruz and Oaxaca on the W. Pop. (1895) 318,730;
(1900) 360,799, a large proportion of which are Indians;
area, 27,222 sq. m. largely forested. The Sierra Madre crosses
the southern part of the state parallel with the coast, separating
the low, humid, forested districts on the frontier of Tabasco
from the hot, drier, coastal plain on the Pacific. The mountain
region includes a plateau of great fertility and temperate climate,
which is one of the best parts of Mexico and contains the larger
part of the population of the state. But isolation and lack of
transportation facilities have retarded its development. The
extension of the Pan-American railway across the state, from
San Geronimo, on the Tehuan tepee National line, to the Guate-
malan frontier, is calculated to improve the industrial and social
conditions of the people. The principal industries are agriculture,
which is very backward, stock-raising, timber-cutting, fruit-
farming and salt-making. Coffee-planting is a new industry
on the Pacific slope of the Sierra Madre at elevations of 2000 to
4000 ft., and has met with considerable success. Rubber
plantations have also been laid out, principally by American
companies, the Castilloa elastica doing well. The exports include
cattle, hides, coffee, rubber, fruit and salt. The mineral resources
include gold, silver, copper and petroleum, but no mines were in
operation in 1906. The capital, Tuxtla Gutierrez (pop. 9395
in 1900), is on the plateau, 3^ m. from the Rio Sabinas, and 138
m. N.E. of the Pacific port of Tonala. The former capital,
San Cristobal (pop. about 5000 in 1895), about 40 m. E. of
Tuxtla, is an interesting old town and the seat of the bishopric
of Chiapas, founded in 1525 and made famous through its
associations with Las Casas. Tapachula (pop. in 1895, 6775),
the capital of the department of Soconusco, 18 m. from the
Guatemalan frontier, is a rising commercial town of the new
coffee district. It is 24 m. inland from the small port of San
Benito, is 559 ft. above sea-level, and has a healthy climate.
Other prominent towns with their populations in 1895, are
Comitan, or Comitlan (9316), on the Rio Grijalva about 40 m.
S.E. of San Cristobal, and chiefly distinguished for its fine
church and convent dedicated .to San Domingo; Pichucalco

CHIAROSCURO CHICAGO

(8549), Tenejapa (7936), San Antonio (6715), Cintalape (6455),
La Concordia (6291), San Carlos (5977), and Ococingo (5667).

CHIAROSCURO (from the Jtal. chiaro, light or brightness, and
oscuro, darkness or shade), the disposition of light and shade
in a painting; the term is applied to an early method of printing
wood-engravings from several blocks, and also to a picture in
black and white, or brown and white only.

CHIAVARI, a town of Liguria, Italy, in the province of
Genoa, 24 m. S.E. by rail from the town of Genoa. Pop. (1901)
10,397 (town), 12,689 (commune). It is situated near the mouth
of the Entella, in the centre of a fertile plain surrounded by
mountains except on the S.W., where it comes down to the sea.
Its buildings are mostly modern, but it has a ruined castle of
1147. It has an active trade in agricultural products, and
manufactures lace, light wicker-seated bentwood chairs, silk, &c.

CHIAVENNA (anc. Clavenna), a town of Lombardy, Italy,
in the province of Sondrio, 17 m. by rail N. of Colico which lies
at the N. end of the lake of Como. Pop. (1901) town 3140,
commune 4732. It is well situated on the right bank of the
Mera. at the mouth of the Val Bregaglia, through which the road
to the Maloja Pass and the Engadine runs to the east. This
line was partly followed by a Roman road, which at Casaccia,
just below the last ascent to the Maloja Pass, diverged to the
N. by the Septimer Pass, joining the Julier route to Coire (anc.
Curia) at Stalla. The Spliigen route, which was also used by
the Romans, runs N. from Chiavenna to Coire: the modern
road was constructed by the Austrians in 1810-1821. Chiavenna
is crowned by a ruined castle, once an important strategic point,
and the seat of the counts who ruled the valley from the time
of the Goths till 1194, when the district was handed over to the
bishops of Coire. In the i4th century the Visconti, having
become masters of the Valtellina, bought the " county " (contado
or contea) of Chiavenna from the bishop of Coire; but it was
taken by the canton of the Grisons in 1525, and the castle
dismantled. In 1797 Chiavenna became part of the Cisalpine
republic, and thenceforward followed the fortunes of Lombardy.
The church of S. Lorenzo is baroque in style, but its baptistery
contains a font of 1206 with reliefs. Chiavenna has cotton
factories and breweries, and is a depot for the wine of the district.

CHIBOUQUE, or CHIBOUK (the Fr. form of the Turk, chibiik,
literally a stick), a long pipe, often ornamented with' precious
stones, smoked by the Turks.

CHIC (a French word, either a shortened form of chicane,
or derived from the Ger. Schick, tact or skill), a term properly
used, in French artistic slang, of a work of art possessing brilliant
but superficial technical ability, or of one executed without
reference to a model or study of nature. The use of the word
in French dates from the reign of Louis XIV. and then denoted
a lawyer who was master of " chicane." " Chic," in general use,
now connotes "smartness," in dress, speech, &c.

CHICACOLE, a town of British India in the Ganjam district
of Madras, situated on the right bank of the river Languliya,
here crossed by a bridge, 4 m. from the sea. Pop. (1901) 18,196.
Under Mahommedan rule it was the capital of one of theNorthern
Circars, and afterwards of a British district. Several old mosques
remain. The town was famous for its muslins, but the industry
is now decayed. The roadstead and lighthouse of Calingapatam
are about 16 m. to the north, and the East Coast railway has a
station 9 m. inland.

CHICAGO, a city, a port of entry and the county-seat of Cook
county, Illinois, U.S.A., the second city of the United States in
population, commerce and manufactures; pop. (1900) 1,698,575;
and (1910) 2,185,283. It is situated at the south-west corner
of Lake Michigan (lat. 41 50', long. 87 38' W.), about
913 m. distant by railway from New York, 912 m. from New
Orleans, 2265 m. from Los Angeles, and 2330 m. from Seattle.
The climate is very changeable and is much affected by the
lake; changes of more than thirty degrees in temperature
within 24 hours are not at all rare, and changes of twenty are
common. The city is the greatest railway centre of the United
States, and was for several decades practically the only commer-
cial outlet of the great agricultural region of the northern Missis-

sippi Valley. Trunk lines reach E. to Montreal, Boston, New
York, Philadelphia, Baltimore (the nearest point on the Atlantic
coast, 854 m.); S. to Charleston, Savannah, Florida, Mobile,
New Orleans, Port Arthur and Galveston; W. to the Pacific
at Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle and Vancouver, and to
most of these by a variety of routes. In 1905 about 14% of
the world's railway mileage centred in Chicago.

With its suburbs Chicago stretches along the shore of Lake
Michigan about 4o m. (the city proper 26.5), and the city in
1910 had a total area of 191.4 sq. m. 1 It spreads loosely and
irregularly backward from the lake over a shallow alluvial
basin, which is rimmed to the W. by a low moraine water-parting 2
that separates the drainage of the lake from thatof theMississippi
Valley. The city site has been built up out of the " Lake Chicago "
of glacial times, which exceeded in size Lake Michigan. Three
lakes Calumet, 3122 acres; Hyde; and part of Wolf with a
water-surface of some 4100 acres, lie within the municipal
limits. The original elevation of what is now the business
heart of the city was only about 7 ft. above the lake, but the
level was greatly raised in some places more than 10 ft. over
a large area, between 1855 and 1860. The West Side, especially
in the north-west near Humboldt Park, is much higher (extreme
75 ft.). A narrow inlet from the lake, the Chicago river, runs
W. from its shore about a mile, dividing then into a north and
a south branch, which run respectively to the N.W. and the S.W.,
thus cutting the city into three divisions known as the North,
the West and the South " Sides," which are united by three
car-tunnels beneath the river as well as by the bridges across it.*
The river no longer empties into Lake Michigan since the com-
pletion of the drainage canal. Its commercial importance is
very great: indeed it is probably the most important non-tidal
stream of its length in the world, or if it be regarded as a harbour,
one of the greatest; the tonnage of its yearly commerce far
exceeds that of the Suez Canal and almost equals the tonnage
of the foreign trade (the domestic excluded) of the Thames or
the Mersey. The increase in size of the newer freighters that
ply on the Great Lakes 4 has proved one serious difficulty, and
the bridges and the river tunnels, which hinder the deeper
cutting of the channel, are others. The improvement of the
outer harbour by the national government was begun in 1833.
Great breakwaters protect the river mouth from the silting shore
currents of the lake and afford secure shelter in an outer road-
stead from its storms, and there is a smaller inner-basin (about
450 acres, 16 ft. depth) as well. But the river itself which has
about 15 m. of navigable channel, in part lined wiih docks, is
the most important part of the harbour. Its channel has been
repeatedly deepened, and in recent years especially since 1896,
after its control as a navigable stream passed (1890) to the
federal government widened and straightened by the removal
of jutting building constructions along its shores. Grain elevators
of enormous size, coal yards, lumber yards and grimy warehouses
or factories crowd close upon it. The shipping facilities on the
river are not so good in some ways, however, as on the Calumet
in southeastern (or South) Chicago, whither there has been a
strong movement of manufactures and heavy commerce.

The plan of the city is in general " regular," i.e. rigidly rect-
angular, and the streets are in general wide. The evenness
of the plain has saved Chicago from most of the vast expense
incurred by some American cities (notably Boston and San
Francisco) in the extension or levelling of their sites and the
removal of obstructions unfavourable to their development.
The business district is concentrated in a small area of the South
Side, just below the main river and between the south branch
and the lake. A number of the railway terminals, almost all
the great wholesale and retail houses, the leading hotels and

1 In 1889 the total area (land and water) was increased from 43-8
to 169-9 so,- m. ; in 1890 the land area was 163-49 S( J- m -

2 About 15 ft. in elevation; hence the possibility of the drainage
canal.

1 Among the last are many swing and " jack-knife " bridges,
bascules, and a lift-bridge that can be lifted bodily 155 ft. above the
channel. Steam, compressed air and electricity are used as power.

4 By 1900 almost all -were being built of a length exceeding 400 ft.

CHICAGO

119

public buildings are crowded within an area of about 1-5 sq. m.
The congestion of the streets considerably lessened since the
freight-subways have reduced the amount of heavy trucking
is proportionately great, and their din and crush is characteristic
of the city. The residential districts, on the other hand, are
unevenly and loosely spread; many areas well within the city
are only sparsely settled. A belt of " bad lands " occupied
by factories, shanties, &c. partially surrounds the best business
district. The smoke resulting from the use of soft coal has given
a drab and dingy colour- tone to the buildings. The low and
even relief of the site and the long vistas of the streets do not
lend themselves to the picturesque; yet this quality may be
claimed for the high and broken skyline, varied colour, massive-
ness, bustle and impressive commercialism of the business
district. Chicago is generally credited with being the original
home of the steel-frame " sky-scraper," x though there are now
higher buildings elsewhere in America. The unstable soil of
sand, clay and boulders that underlies the city is unfavourable
to tall constructions, and necessitates extraordinary attention
to foundations. The bed-rock lies, on an average, 50 ft. below
the level of the lake (in places more than a hundred). To the
rock the foundations are often sunk in caissons, the buildings
resting on monster columns of concrete and steel. 2 In other cases
great " pads " of the same materials, resting or " floating " upon
the clay, sustain ar?d distribute the weight of the building.
The small extent of the business quarter adds to the effect of its
tall structures. The Auditorium (1889; cost, $37500,000), a huge
building containing a hotel and a theatre (5000 seats), is one of
the most massive commercial structures of the country. The
Masonic Temple (cost, $3,000,000) is the tallest in the city
(302 ft.). In 1909 there were some 475 structures ten or more
storeys high. Not a few are noteworthy, whether for size as
the Monadnock office building of 16 storeys, with some 6000
occupants, and the new Northwestern Railway station; or for
the luxury of their interior fijUings as the La Salle, Blackstone
and Sherman hotels; or for boldness and originality in the treat-
ment of the ' teel-frame type; or for association with the city's life
as the Fine Arts building, given over to varied purposes of
public amusement and artistic or intellectual improvement, or
the Railway Exchange (cased in tiles), the University Club, the
Chamber of Commerce and the Board of Trade; and many
others are handsome and dignified examples of architecture.
The Marquette building, consistently and handsomely decorated
with works of art, is one of the finest office-buildings in the
country. There are a number of enormous retail stores. The
largest, and one of the finest in the world, is that of Marshall
Field. The wholesale establishment cf the same firm is the
work of H. H. Richardson, considered one of his best, and one
of the most admirable examples among American commercial
buildings. The city hall and county court house (cost, $4, 500,000)
is an enormous double building in a free French Renaissance
style, with columned facades. The new Federal building
(finished in 1905; cost, $4,750,000) is a massive edifice (a low
rectangle surmounted by a higher inner cross and crowned with
a dome). The public library (1893-1897, $2, 125,000), constructed
of -dark granite and limestone, with rich interior decorations
of varied frescoes, mosaics, ornamental bronze and iron-work,
and mottoes, is one of the handsomest libraries of the country.
The Chicago Art Institute (1892-1893 ; Italian Renaissance), the
Chicago Orchestra building (1904), and the Commercial National
Bank, are also noteworthy. The finest residence streets are the
Lake Shore Drive of the North Side and the " boulevards "
broad parkways that connect the parks of the city of which
Michigan Avenue, Drexel and Grand are the finest. The city's

1 The highest value ever paid in Chicago for land actually sold, up
to 1901, was $250 per sq. ft. (1892); a few rental contracts have
been based upon an assumed higher value. A municipal ordinance
placing the extreme construction at 150 ft. was repealed in 1002.

'This is true of all the new large buildings. The "old post
office, completed in 1880 at a cost of $5,375,opo, was practically a
crumbling ruin within fifteen years ; its foundations were inadequate.
Years were spent in sinking the foundation of the new Federal
building that replaced the old.

environs are not of particular beauty, but there are bluffs on
the lake to the north, and woods to the south-west, and a fair
variety of pretty hill and plain; and though the Calumet and
Chicago rivers have been given over to commerce, the valley
of the Desplaines will be preserved in the park system. On the
South Side are the Union Stockyards, established in 1865, by far
the largest in the world. They cover about 500 acres, have
about 45 m. of feeding and watering troughs, and can accom-
modate at one time more than 400,000 hogs, cattle, sheep and
horses.

Public Works and Communications. Local transit is provided
for by the suburban service of the steam railways, e'.evated
electric roads, and a system of electric surface cars. Two great
public works demand notice: the water system and the drainage
canal. Water is pumped from Lake Michigan through several
tunnels connecting with " cribs " located from 2 to 5 m. from
shore. The " cribs " are heavy structures of timber and iron
loaded with stone and enclosing the in-take cylinders, which
join with the tunnels well below the bottom of the lake. The
first tunnel was completed in 1867. The capacity of the tunnels
was estimated in 1900 by two very competent authorities at
528 and 615 million gallons daily, respectively. The average
daily supply in 1909 was 475,000,000 gallons; there were then
16-6 m. of tunnels below the lake. The wastes of the city
street washings, building sewage, the offal of slaughter-houses,
and wastes of distilleries and rendering houses were originally
turned into the lake, but before 1870 it was discovered that the
range of impurity extended already a mile into the lake, half-way
to the water " crib," and it became evident that the lake could
not be indefinitely contaminated. The Illinois and Michigan
Canal, for which the right of way was granted in 1821 and which
was built in 1836-1841 and 1845-1848, and opened in 1848
(cost, $6, 557,681), was once thought to have solved the difficulty;
it is connected with the main (southern) branch of the Chicago
river, 5 m. from its mouth, with the Illinois river at La Salle,
the head of steamer navigation on the Illinois river, and is the
natural successor in the evolution of transportation of the old
Chicago portage, m. in length, between the Chicago river and
the headwaters of the Kankakee ; it was so deepened as to draw
water out from the lake, whose waters thus flowed toward the
Gulf of Mexico. It is about 96 m. long, 40-42 ft. wide, and
4-7 ft. deep, but proved inadequate for the disposal of sewage.
A solution of the problem was imperative by 1876, but almost
all the wastes of the city continued nevertheless to be poured into
the lake. In 1890 a sanitary district, including part of the city
and certain suburban areas to be affected, was organized, and
preparations made for building a greater canal that should do
effectively the work it was once thought the old canal could do.
The new drainage canal, one of the greatest sanitary works of
the world, constructed between 1892 and 1900 under the control
of the trustees of the Sanitary District of Chicago (cost up to
1 90ij $35,448,291), joins the south branch of the Chicago with the
Desplaines river, and so with the Illinois and Mississippi, and is
28-5 m. long, 3 of which ism. were cut through rock; it is 22 ft.
deep and has a minimum width of 164 ft. The canal, or sewer,
is flushed with water from Lake Michigan, and its waters are
pure within a flow of 150 m. 4 Its capacity, which was not at
first fully utilized, is 600,000 cub. ft. per minute, sufficient
entirely to renew the water of the Chicago river daily. A system
of intercepting sewers to withdraw drainage into the lake was
begun in 1898; and the construction of a canal to drain the
Calumet region was begun in 1910. The Illinois and Michigan
canal is used by small craft, and the new drainage canal also may
be used for shipping in view of the Federal government's im-
provements of the rivers connecting it with the Mississippi for
the construction of a ship-canal for large vessels. The canal
also made possible the development (begun in 1903) of enormous

* Total excavation, 42,397,904 cub. yds. ; of solid rock, 12,265.000.

4 It has been conclusively proved that the Illinois is purer than
the Mississippi at their junction. The undiluted sewage of the old
canal drove the fish from the river, but they have come back since
the opening of the new canal.

120

CHICAGO

hydraulic power for the use of the city. The Illinois and Michigan
Canal has been supplemented by the Illinois and Mississippi
Canal, commonly known as " the Hennepin," from its starting
at the great bend of the Illinois river ij m. above Hennepin,
not far below La Salle; the first appropriation for it was made
in 1890, and work was begun in 1892 and completed in October
1907. Its course from Hennepin is by the Bureau Creek valley
to the mouth of Queen river on the Rock river, thence by the
Rock river and a canal around its rapids at Milan to its mouth
at Rock Island on the Mississippi river. This barge canal is
80 ft. wide at water-line, 52 ft. wide at the bottom, and 7 ft. deep.
Its main feeder is the Rock river, dammed by a dam nearly
1500 ft. long between Sterling and Rock Falls, Illinois, where
the opening of the canal was celebrated on the 24th of October
1907.

Beginning with 1892 steam railways began the elevation
(or depression) of their main tracks, of which there were in 1904
some 838 m. within the city. Another great improvement was
begun in 1901 by a private telephone company. This is an
elaborate system of freight subways, more than 65 m. of which,
underlying the entire business district, had beenconstructedbefore
1909. It is the only subway system in the world that seeks to
clear the streets by the lessening of trucking, in place of devoting
itself to the transportation of passengers. Direct connexion is
made with the freight stations of all railways and the basements
of important business buildings, and coal, building materials,
ashes and garbage, railway luggage, heavy mail and other kinds
of heavy freight are expeditiously removed and delivered.
Telegraph and telephone wires are carried through the tunnel,
and can be readily repaired. The subway was opened for partial
operation in 1905.*

Parks. The park system may be said to have been begun in
1869, and in 1870 aggregated 1887 acres. Chicago then acquired
the name of " The Garden City," which still clings to her. But
many other cities have later passed her (until in 1904, though
the second largest of the country, she ranked only thirty-second
in her holdings of park area per capita among American cities
of 100,000 population). In 1908 the acreage of the municipal
parks was 3179 acres, and there were 61-4 m. of boulevards.
After 1900 another period of ambitious development began.
The improvement of old and the creation of new " internal "
parks, i.e. within the cordon of those older parks and boulevards
that once girdled the city but have been surrounded in its later
growth; the creation of a huge metropolitan ring similar to
that of Boston but vaster (35,000 acres) of lake bluffs, hills,
meadows, forests and river valley; and a great increase of
" neighbourhood parks " in the poor districts, are included in
the new undertakings. The neighbourhood park, usually
located near a school, is almost all-inclusive in its provision for
all comers, from babyhood to maturity, and is open all day.
There are sand gardens and wading ponds and swings and day
nurseries, gymnasiums, athletic fields, swimming pools and
baths, reading-rooms generally with branches of the city library
lunch counters, civic club rooms, frequent music, assembly
halls for theatricals, lectures, concerts, or meetings, penny savings
banks, and in the winter skating ponds. These social centres
have practically all been created since about 1895. There are
also municipal baths on the lake front and elsewhere. The older
parks include several of great size and beauty. Lincoln Park
(area 552 acres), on the lake shore of the North Side, has been
much enlarged by an addition reclaimed from the lake. It has
fine monuments, conservatories, the only zoological garden in
the city, and the collections of the Academy of Sciences. A
breakwater carriage drive connects with a boulevard to Fort
Sheridan (27 m.) up the lake. Jackson Park (542 acres), on the
lake shore of the South Side, was the main site of the World's

1 The cut was almost entirely through firm clay. It was estimated
(1905) that the total freight handled weekly in the business district
was nearly 500,000 tons, "and the subway was designed to handle
this amount when completed. The tunnels are 12-75X14 and
7-5X6 ft., all concrete. The cars are drawn by trolley wire loco-
motives on a track of 2 ft. gauge.

Columbian Exposition of 1893, and contains the Field Columbian
Museum, occupying the art building of the exposition. It is
joined with Washington Park (371 acres) by the Midway Plais-
ance, a wide boulevard, intended to be converted into a
magnificent sunken water-course connecting the lagoons of the
two parks with Lake Michigan. Along the Midway are the grey-
stone buildings of the University of Chicago, and of its
(Blaine) School of Education. On the West Side are three fine
parks Douglas, Garfield (with a fine conservatory), and Hum-
boldt, which has a remarkable rose garden (respectively 182,
187 and 206 acres), and in the extreme South Side several others,
including Calumet (66 acres), by the lake side, and Marquette
(322 acres). Jackson Boulevard, Western Avenue Boulevard
and Marshall Boulevard join the South and the West Park
systems. Neither New York nor Boston has preserved as has
Chicago the beauty of its water front. The shore of the North
Side is quite free, and beginning a short distance above the river
is skirted for almost 30 m. by the Lake Shore Drive, Lincoln
Park and the Sheridan Drive. The shore of the South Side
is occupied by railway tracks, but they have been sunk and the
shore otherwise improved. In addition to Calumet and Jackson
parks there was another just below the river, Lake Park, which
has since been included in Grant Park, mostly reclaimed from
the water. Here are the public library anjj the building of the
Art Institute (opened in 1893); the park had also been pro-
posed as the site of a new building for the Field Museum of
Natural History. The park and boulevards along the lake in
1905 stretched 10-78 m., within the city limits, or almost half
the total frontage. 2 The inner " boulevards " are broad parked
ways, 150 to 300 ft. wide, joining the parks; Chicago was the
first American city to adopt this system.

Art. Among the monuments erected in public places are a
Columbus by D. C. French and a bronze replica of French's
equestrian statue of Washington in Paris; statues of John A.
Logan and Abraham Lincoln by St Gaudens; monuments
commemorating the Haymarket riot and the Fort Dearborn
massacres; statues of General Grant, Stephen A. Douglas,
La Salle, Schiller, Humboldt, Beethoven and Linnaeus. There
is also a memorial to G. B. Armstrong (1822-1871), a citizen of
Chicago, who founded the railway mail service of the United
States. A city art commission approves all works of art before
they become the property of the city, and at the request of the
mayor acts in various ways for the city's aesthetic betterment.
The Architectural Club labours for the same end. A Municipal
Art League (organized in 1899) has done good work in arousing
civic pride; it has undertaken, among other things, campaigns
against bill-board advertisements, 3 and against the smoke
nuisance.

The Art Institute of Chicago contains valuable collections
of paintings, reproductions of bronzes and sculpture, architec-
tural casts, and other objects of art. Connected with it is the
largest and most comprehensive art school of the county
including newspaper illustration and a normal school for the
training of teachers of drawing in the public schools. The
institute was incorporated in 1879, though its beginnings go
back to 1866, while the school dates from 1878. The courses
in architecture are given with the co-operation of the Armour
Institute of Technology. There are also a number of notable
private art collections in the city. In 1894 the Chicago Public
School Art Society was founded to secure the placing of good
works of art in the public schools. Picture collections are alscr
exchanged among the neighbourhood-park homes.

Music in Chicago owes much to the German element of the
population. Especially noteworthy among musical organizations

2 The Illinois Central enters the business centre by tracks laid
along the lake shore. Certain rights as to reclaiming land were
granted it in 1852, but the railway extended its claims indefinitely
to whatever land it might reclaim. In 1883 began a great legal
struggle to determine the respective rights of the United States, the
state of Illinois, Chicago, and the Illinois Central in the reclaimed
lands and the submerged lands adjacent. The outcome was favour-
able to the city.

3 There were 50 m. of them in 1904.

CHICAGO

121

are the Apollo Musical Club (187.-) and The Theodore Thomas
orchestra, which has disputed with the Boston Orchestra the
claim to artistic primacy in the United States. Its leader from its
organization in 1891 until his death in 1905 was Theodore Thomas,
who had long been identified with summer orchestral concerts
in the city. In 1904 a fund was gathered by public subscription
to erect a handsome building and endow the orchestra.

The Field Museum of Natural History, established (1894)
largely by Marshall Field, is mainly devoted to anthropol-
ogy and natural history. The nucleus of its great collection
was formed by various exhibits of the Columbian Exposition
which were presented to it. Its collections of American ethnology,
of exceptional richness and value, are constantly augmented by
research expeditions. In addition to an original endowment
of $1,000,000, Mr Field bequeathed to the museum $8,000,000,
to be utilized in part for the new building which is being erected
in Jackson Park.

Libraries. At the head of the libraries of the city stands the
public library 1 (established 1872; opened 1874), supported by
taxation, which on the ist of June 1910 had 402,848
volumes, and in the year 1910 circulated 1,805,012 volumes.
In 1889 John Crerar (1827-1889), a wealthy manufacturer of
railroad supplies, left to the city for the endowment of a non-
circulating library funds which in 1907 were estimated to
amount to $3,400,000. The library was incorporated in 1894
and was opened in 1 897 ; in February 1 908 it had 2 1 6,000 volumes
and 60,000 pamphlets. It occupies a floor in the Marshall Field
Building on Wabash Avenue. Another reference library was
established (opened in 1887) with a bequest (1868) of Walter
L. Newberry. It has a rich endowment, and in February 1908
had 191,644 volumes and 43,644 pamphlets. By a plan of
co-operation each of these three libraries devotes itself primarily
to special fields: the John Crerar is best for the natural, physical
and social sciences; the Newberry is particularly strong in
history, music, medicine, rare books and fine editions; the
public library covers the whole range of general literature.
The library of the University of Chicago contained in 1908 some
450,000 titles. Among other collections are those of the Chicago
Historical Society (1856; about 150,000 titles in 1908), the
Athenaeum (1871); the Law Institute and Library (1857),
which in 1908 had about 46,500 volumes; the Art Institute,
the Field Museum of Natural History, the Academy of Sciences
(1857) and the libraries of various schools.

Universities and Colleges. There are three universities situated
wholly or in part in the city. The leading institution is the
University of Chicago (see CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF). The pro-
fessional department of North-Western University is in Chicago,
while its academic department is in the suburb of Evanston.
North-Western University was organized in 1851 and is under
Methodist Episcopal control. Its students in 1908 (exclusive
of pupils in " co-operating " theological schools) numbered
3850; the best equipped departments are those of dentistry,
medicine and pharmacy. There are two Roman Catholic col-
leges in Chicago: Loyola University (chartered in 1870), with a
department of law, called Lincoln College (1908), and a medical
department; and St. Stanislaus College (1870). The College of
Physicians and Surgeons is the medical department of the Uni-
versity of Illinois, at Champaign-Urbana. Theological schools
independent of the universities include the McCormick Theo-
logical Seminary (Presbyterian) ; the Chicago Theological Sem-
inary (Congregational, opened 1858, and including German,
Danish-Norwegian and Swedish Institutes) ; the Western Epis-
copal Theological Seminary; a German Lutheran theological sem-
inary, and an Evangelical Lutheran theological seminary. There
are a number of independent medical schools and schools of
dentistry and veterinary surgery. The Lewis Institute (bequest
1 877, opened 1896), designed to give a practical education to
boys and girls at a nominal cost, and the Armour Institute of

1 Thomas Hughes was a leader in gathering English gifts for such
a library immediately after the " great fire." A nucleus of 10,500
volumes 7000 from England and 3500 from other countries,
especially Germany was thus secured.

Technology, one of the best technical schools of the country,
provide technical education and are well endowed. The
Armour Institute was founded in 1892 by Philip D. Armour,
and was opened in 1 893 . It comprises the College of Engineering,
including, besides the usual departments, a department of
chemical engineering and a department of fire protection
engineering, a department of " commercial tests," and the
Armour Scientific Academy (preparatory). In 1907 the Institute
had 1869 students. The Chicago Academy of Science (1857) has
a handsome building and museum collections in Lincoln Paik.

The leading daily newspapers are the Record-Herald, Evening
Post, News (evening) and Journal (evening), all Independent;
the Inter-Ocean and Tribune, Republican; and the Evening
American and Examiner, both Democratic. There are several
journals in German, Bohemian, Polish, Swedish, No wegian and
Danish. Many trade papers are published in the city, which is
also a centre for much of the religious publishing of the Middle
West. Chicago's position in the labour world has made it the
home of several socialist and anarchistic periodicals.

Industry and Commerce. Chicago's situation at the head of
the most south-western of the Great Lakes has given it great
importance in trade and industry. The development of its
extraordinary railway facilities was a recognition of its supreme
advantages as the easiest outlet for the products of the Middle
West, on whose wealth its prosperity is founded. The growth
of its trade has been marvellous. The last years of the igth
century showed, however, an inevitable loss to Chicago in the
growth of Duluth, Kansas City and other rivals in strategic
situations. In particular, the struggle of the North and South
railway lines in the Mississippi Valley to divert to ports on the
Gulf of Mexico grain and other freight caused great losses to
Chicago. An enormous increase in the cereal trade of Phila-
delphia, Baltimore, Newport News and Norfolk was partly
due to the traffic eastward over lines S. of Chicago. The traffic
of the routes through Duluth and Canada does not, indeed,
represent in the main actual losses, for the traffic is largely a
new growth; but there has been nevertheless a considerable
drain to these routes from American territory once tributary
to Chicago. Altogether the competition of the Gulf roads and the
lines running S.W. from Duluth had largely excluded Chicago
by 1899 (according to her Board of Trade) from the grain trade
W. of the Missouri river, and in conjunction with southerly E.
and W. routes had made serious inroads upon trade E. of that
river. Its facilities for receiving and distributing remain never-
theless unequalled, and it still practically monopolizes the
traffic between the northern Atlantic seaboard and the West.
New York alone, among American cities, has a greater trade.
Chicago is the greatest railway centre, the greatest grain market,
the greatest live-stock market and meat-packing centre, and
the greatest lumbe- market of the world. The clearings of her
associated banks amounted to $13,781,843,612 in the year 1909.
The wholesale trade was estimated in 1875 at $293,900,000 and
in 1905 at $1,781,000,000. The average annual grain receipts
(including flour in wheat equivalent) in the five years 1900-1904
amounted to 265,500,000 bu. (12,902,310 in 1854; 72,369,194
in 1875), and the shipments to 209, 86z,966bu. The first shipment
of wheat was of 78 bu. in 1838. The grain elevators are among
the sights of Chicago. They are enormous storehouses into
which the grain is elevated from ships and cars, sorted into
grades and reloaded for shipment; all the work is done by
machinery. Their capacity in 1904 was 65,140,000 bu. ? In
the same quinquennial period, 1900-1904, the average yearly
receipts of lumber aggregated 1,807,066,000 ft., 3 and of shingles,
410,711 thousand; of cattle, 3,078.734; of hogs, 8,334,004; of
sheep, 3,338,291; of butter, 239,696,921 ft; the exports of
hides, 167,442,077 Ib; of dressed beef, 1,126,995,490 Ib; of

* In 1900-1904 the average freight rate per bushel of wheat to
New York was $0-04998 by the all-water; $0-10554 by the all-rail
route. In 1859 it cost $0-1575 to send a bushel of corn to Buffalo
by water; in 1890, $0-019.

' It has been above 1,000,000,000 ft. since 1870, and has in some
years risen to 2,000,000,000.

122

CHICAGO

lard, 410,688,319 Ib; of pork, 191,371 bbl.; of other hog
products, 690,503,394 Ib. The combined tonnage in and out
averaged 14,135,406 tons. 1 There is a large direct trade with
Europe, mainly in goods that come in bond by rail from Atlantic
ports. In 1007 the value of Chicago's imports was $27,058,662,
and of its exports, $5,643,302.

The value of manufactures (from establishments under the
"factory system") in 1900 was $797,879,141, 71-2% of all
those of Illinois, and in 1905 was $955,036,277, 67-7% of all
those of the state; in both these years Chicago was second only
to New York City. Wholesale slaughtering and meat-packing
(not including many by-products), valued at $256,527,949
(32-2% of the city's total) in 1900 and at $269,581,486 (28-2%
of the total) in 1905, are the most important of the city's
industries; in 1905 the product value in Chicago was 29-5%
of that for the slaughtering and meat-packing of the entire
United States. Other important manufactures are foundry and
machine shop products, $44,561,071 in 1900, and $51,774,695
in 1905; and other iron and steel products, $35,058,700 in 1900
and $27,074,307 in 1905; clothing ($58,093,572 in 1900, and
$64,913,481 in 1905); cars and other railway construction,
$28,369,956 in 1900 and $36,080,210 in 1905; malt liquors
($14,956,865 in 1900, and $16,983,421 in 1905), and furniture
($12,344,510 in 1900 and $17,488,257 in 1905). The Illinois
Steel Company has the largest rolling mills in the world. The
McCormick Harvesting Machine Company is the largest concern
in the world manufacturing agricultural implements. Pullman
in southern Chicago, in the sparsely settled outskirts of the city,
is a model little " labour town," planned and constructed with
regard for both appearances and conveniences by the Pullman
Palace Car Company, which has its works here. The town
consists mainly of workmen's cottages. Most of the population
are dependent upon the car works. The Pullman Company
owns and operates dining and sleeping cars on practically all the
railways of the country. In addition to its own cars it builds
ordinary passenger and freight cars on contract.

Meat-packing is the greatest local industry and is that for
which Chicago is. best known. In the enormous stock-yards
from two-thirds to four-fifths of the cattle and hogs received are
killed, and sent out in various forms of prepared meats and by-
products (lard, fertilizers, glue, butterine, soap, candles, &c). 2
This industry is remarkable for the extraordinary division of
labour in its processes. In the preparation of a bullock more than
thirty specialties are involved, and some twenty different rates of
pay. This system enabled the packing companies, until checked
by the development of labour unions, to save money not only by
paying low wages for .crude labour and high for skilled, but to
develop wonderful expertness in every line, and so " speed up "
the workmen to a remarkable pace. 3 No more interesting field
can be found for the study of the qualities of foreign races. The
introduction of the refrigerator railway car in the 'seventies
of the igth century, making possible the distant marketing of
dressed meats, enormously increased the business. The workmen
of the yards were organized in a national union of meat packers in
1897, and all the different classes of workmen have their separate
organizations, formed mainly between 1900 and 1902. The
number of women employed more than doubled in the decade
1891-1900, constituting probably about 9% of the total in the
latter year.

Administration. Chicago is governed under a general city-
charter law of Illinois of 1870, accepted by the city in 1875. In
November 1904 the people of Illinois adopted a constitutional
amendment authorizing the legislature of the state to provide a

1 This is for the entire Chicago customs district, including Wau-
kegan and Michigan City.

1 The number of hogs packed yearly averaged 7,255,245 in 1900-
1904; the cattle packed, 1,955,765; the sheep shipped (partly live),
616,476 (one-fifth those received).

'e.g. in the most skilled labour, the speed was increased 87-5%
from 1884-1894. In 1905 a gang of 230 men would dispose of 105
animals hourly; equivalent to 131 minutes for one man in taking
the animal from pen to refrigerator; the average wage was $0-21
per hour (highest 0-50) and the average cost per bullock, $0-46.

complete new system of local government for Chicago, but the old
system continued and is here described, the new charter, from
which so much had been hoped, being rejected by the voters of
the city by an overwhelming majority in September 1907. A
common council chosen by wards and renewed in half each year
controls the budget, police, liquor licences, city contracts and the
granting of franchises; it also confirms appointments made by
the mayor and by a vote of two-thirds may pass legislation over
his veto. The mayor, chosen for four years, is the executive
head of the city, and has large power of appointment and removal,
limited by a civil service law, under which he must submit
reasons for removals, while two-thirds of the council may prevent
them. On the other hand the mayor can veto separate items in
the council's budget. The administrative departments are
generally headed by single commissioners; but those of elections,
education and the public library are exceptions. The council
was once all important, but as early as the charter of 1851 it began
to lose power to the mayor, whose directive and executive powers
have steadily increased, beginning first in the financial depart-
ment. Administration was once performed entirely by boards
as in other American cities: every specific problem or demand for
municipal activity was met by an appeal to the state legislature
for special legislation and the creation of a board. The substitu-
tion of single commissioners began in 1876. The state constitu-
tion of 1870 forbade special legislation, prescribed a general city
charter law and forbade special amendatory acts for Chicago.
This stopped grave abuses, but because a large part of the state
has not been interested in Chicago's special needs and demands
for betterment it also saddled upon the city an organization
which in 1901 remained practically the same as in 1870, when
Chicago was an overgrown town of 300,000 inhabitants. Chicago
was the only large city of the state, and a charter generalized
from village experience was unsuitable for it. The parts of Cook
county outside the city have also been very jealous of forwarding
its reorganization, important features of which must be either
the complete absorption of the county or at least the reconstitu-
tion of the county government, 4 which the constitution left
unchanged, and which, with the city's growth, has caused clash
of interests and authority. Nor is this dual government though
the city has above nine-tenths of the population and pays nine-
tenths of the taxes of the county the only anomaly. Illinois
has had since 1848 a modified New England " township " local-
government system, and various townships have been absorbed
by Chicago, yet they all retained till after 1900 their political
structure and some of their functions. There are three park com-
missions, two appointed by the governor and one by circuit court
judges, created for different parts of the old city, differently
constituted and all independent of the city; their jurisdiction
was not enlarged as the city grew, so large portions remained free
of charges for parks and boulevards. A special park commission
now supplements them and lessens this anomaly though increasing
administrative diversity. A sanitary and drainage district, not
larger than the city area but quite different from it, was created
in 1886 (present form 1890) to carry through the drainage canal.
The school board has been nominally separate from and almost
independent of the city government in power since 1857. The
courts of law are courts of the state of Illinois, but a certain
number of justices of the peace are designated by the mayor to
act as police magistrates. The initiative and referendum in local
matters has been made possible under a state law, and has
been several times exercised in important questions.. Financial
arrangements have been loose and inefficient. Independent
taxing power has been lavishly granted. State, county, city,
three park boards, the school board, the public library board, the
drainage board, and as late as 1903 ten townships, 5 exercised
this sovereign right within the municipal area. Tax assessment

* Cook county is Republican in politics generally, the rural dis-
tricts being so strongly so as often to overbalance the normal Demo-
cratic plurality in Chicago. Thus another ground of jealousy is
found in the distribution of county offices.

' An amendment of 1004 provided that the legislature should
enact the consolidation of the townships with the city in matters of
taxation, but no further steps had been taken to the end of 1907.

CHICAGO

123

valuations have been excessively irregular (e.g. the " equalized "
value for 1875 was $55,000,000 greater than that for 1892), and
apparently very low. The average assessment valuation for the
years from 1904 to 1908 was $438,729,897 (403-28 millions in 1904,
and 477-19 millions in 1908), and in 1907 the highest taxing rate
was 8%. The bonded debt in 1908 was $25,157,400, about half
of it old ($11,362,726 in 1870; 4-5 millions contracted to aid
the World's Fair of 1893). In the early years following 1900 the
city paid more than half of its income on police; this expenditure,
per capita of population, was not high (in 1901 Boston $5-03,
New York $3-21, Chicago $2-19), and the results were not
exactly efficient. The difficulty is that the city is poor and can
pay only for strict necessities. Its poverty is due mainly to state
laws. The taxation limit on property is i % on the cash value,
thus compelling special dependence upon all sorts of indirect
taxes; the debt limit is 5% on the assessed valuation. Since
1900 relief has been given by state law in some matters, such as
for the park system. The water system has been operated by the
city since 1851, and has been financially very successful from the
beginning: rates are far lower than in the other great cities of the
country, and a handsome net revenue accrues to the treasury. 1
A municipal electric-lighting plant (1887), which was paid for
gradually out of the general tax levy and was not built by the
sale of bonds, gave excellent results in the city service. The city,
like the state, has power to regulate the price of gas sold by
private companies. The elevation of the railway tracks within
the city was begun in 1892; at the close of 1908 the railway
companies had accepted ordinances of the City Council for the
elevation of 192-77 m. of main tracks and 947-91 m. of all tracks,
and the construction of 724 subways, at an estimated cost of
$65,000,000; at that time the railway companies had completed
the elevation of 133-83 m. of main tracks and 776 m. of all
tracks, and had constructed 567 subways, at a total expense of
$52,500,000. The system of intercepting sewers begun in 1898 to
complete the service of the drainage canal has been constructed
with the profits of the water system.

In addition to the movement for a new charter to remove the
anomalies and ease the difficulties already referred to, two great
problems have been in the forefront in recent years: the lessening
of municipal corruption and the control of local transit agencies.

The traction question may be said to have begun in 1865,
in which year, and again in 1883, public opinion was bitterly
aroused against an attempt of the traction companies to secure
a ninety-nine year extension of franchises. Following 1883 all
lines were consolidated and enormously over-capitalized (in
1005 about $150,000,000 of stocks and bonds on a 6% basis,
two-thirds of which rested only on the franchise). In 1895-1897
bold attempts to secure a 5o-year extension of franchises were
defeated by Governor John P. Altgeld (1847-1902), by the
formation of a Municipal Voters' League, and by a representative
committee of 100 sent from Chicago to attend the legislature
at Springfield. The transit service of the city had for years been
antiquated and inadequate. At the mayor's elections in 1897,
1899, 1901 and 1903 the victory lay with the opponents of the
companies, and in 1905 the successful party stood for immediate
municipal acquisition of all roads. Meanwhile, under the state
referendum act, the city in 1902 voted overwhelmingly for
municipal ownership and operation (142,826 to 27,990); the
legislature in 1903 by the Mueller law gave the city the requisite
powers; the people accepted the law, again declared for muni-
cipal ownership, and for temporary compulsion of adequate
service, and against granting any franchise to any company,
by four additional votes similarly conclusive. At last, after
tedious negotiations, a definite agreement was reached in 1906
assuring an early acquisition of all roads by the city. The
issue of bonds for municipal railways was, however, declared
unconstitutional that year; and at the municipal elections of
1907 there was a complete reversal of policy; a large majority
voted this time against municipal ownership in favour of
leaving the working of the street railways in private hands,
and strengthening the powers of municipal control.

1 The net revenue per million gallons in 1890-1899 was $35-04.

The active campaign for the improvement of municipal service
and politics may be said to have begun in 1896. A civil service
system was inaugurated in 1895. The salaries of the councilmen
were raised with good effect. Numerous reform associations
were started to rouse public opinion, such as the Citizens' Associa-
tion of Chicago, organized in 1874, the Civic Federation (1894),
the Municipal Voters' League (1896), the Legislative Voters'
League (1901), the Municipal Lecture Association (1002), the
Referendum League of Illinois (1901), the Civil Service Reform
Association of Chicago, the Civil Service Reform Association of
Illinois (1902), the Merchants' Club, the City Club (1903), the
Law and Order League (1904), Society of Social Hygiene (1906),
and many of the women's clubs took an active part. They stood
for the real enforcement of the laws, sanitation, pure food, public
health, the improvement of the schools and the widening of their
social influence, and (here especially the women's clubs) aesthetic,
social and moral progress. The Merchants' Club reformed the
city's book-keeping, and secured the establishment (1899)
of the first state pawnbrokers' society. The Civic Federation
demonstrated (1896) that it could clean the central streets for
slightly over half what the city was paying (the city has since
saved the difference) ; it originated the movement for vacation
schools and other educational advances, and started the Com-
mittee of One Hundred (1897), from which sprang various other
reform clubs. The Municipal Voters' League investigated and
published the records of candidates for the city council, and
recommended their election or defeat as the case may be. More-
over, a " Municipal Museum " was organized in 1905, mainly
supported by private aid, but in part by the board of education,
in order to collect and make educational use of materials illustrat-
ing municipal administration and conditions, physical and social.

Education atid Charily. The school board is appointed by
the mayor. Since 1904 a merit system has been applied in the
advancement of teachers; civil service rules cover the rest of
the employees. Kindergartens were maintained without legal
sanction in connexion with the public schools for several years,
and for more than twenty-five years as private schools, before
their legal establishment as a part of the system in 1899. Free
evening schools, very practical in their courses, are utilized
mainly by foreigners. Vacation schools were begun in 1896.
So far as possible the school buildings are kept open for school,
lectures and entertainments, serving thus as wholesome social
centres; and a more adequate use is made of the large invest-
ment (in 1908 about $44,500,000) which they represent. In all
the public schools manual training, household arts and economy,
and commercial studies are a regular part of the curriculum.
A department of scientific pedagogy and child study (1900)
seeks to secure a development of the school system in harmony
with the results of scientific study of children (the combination
of hand and brain training, the use of audito-visual methods,
an elastic curriculum during the adolescent period, &c.). The
expenditure for all purposes by the city in 1903 for every dollar
expended for schools was only $1-713; a ratio paralleled in only
a few cities of the country.

Hospitals, infirmaries, dispensaries, asylums, shelters and
homes for the defective, destitute, orphaned, aged, erring,
friendless and incurably diseased; various relief societies,
and associations that sift the good from the bad among the
mendicant, the economically inefficient, and the viciously
pauper, represent the charity work of the city. Among public
institutions are the Cook County hospital (situated in the
" Medical District " of the West Side, where various hospitals
and schools are gathered near together), asylum and poor house.
Since 1883 a Lincoln Park Sanitarium has been maintained for
infants and small children during warm weather. Two legal-aid
societies, the Chicago Bureau of Justice (1888) and the Protective
Agency for Women and Children, collect small wage claims and
otherwise aid the poor or helpless. The most important charit-
able societies of the city are the United Charities of Chicago
(1909), the United Hebrew Charities (1857), and the Associated
Jewish Charities (1900). The first is the union of the Relief
and Aid Society (1857) and the Bureau of Charities (1894),

124

CHICAGO

and tries to prevent overlapping of efforts and to weed out fraud.
Following the gradual development of New York state laws on
behalf of children was enacted the Illinois Juvenile Court Law,
which came into force on the ist of July 1899 and was largely
the result of Chicago's interest in juvenile reform. Much
philanthropic work centres in the West Side with its hetero-
geneous population. A famous institution is Hull House, a social
settlement of women, which aims to be a social, charitable, and
educational neighbourhood centre. It was established in 1889
by Miss Jane Addams, who became the head-worker, and Miss
Ellen Gates Starr. It includes an art building, a free kinder-
garten, a fine gymnasium, a creche, and a diet kitchen; and
supports classes, lectures and concerts. It has had a very great
influence throughout the United States. The Armour mission
(1886) for the poor is organized with similar breadth of scope.

Population. Of the total population in 1900 not less than
34-6% were foreign-born; the number of persons either born
abroad, or born in the United States of foreign parentage (i.e.
father or both parents foreign), was 77-4% of the population,
and in the total number of males of voting age the foreign-born
predominated (s,V4%). Of the latter category 68-2% were
already citizens by naturalization. 3-9% of the inhabitants
of ten years of age or upward were illiterate (unable to write),
while the percentage of foreign-born whites was 8-2% (93-9%
of illiterate males of voting age). Germans, Irish, Poles, Swedes
and Bohemians made up respectively 29-1, 12-6, 8-6, 8-3 and
6-2% of the foreign-born population. It was estimated in 1903
by a very competent authority that above 500,000 persons
spoke German, 12 5,000 Polish, ioo,oooSwedish,9o,oooBohemian,
50,000 Norwegian, 50,000 Yiddish, 35,000 Dutch, 25,000 Italian,
20,000 Danish, 17,000 French and 12,000 Irish (Celtic), and
that each of fourteen foreign languages was spoken by more than
10,000 people : " Newspapers appear regularly in 10 languages, and
church-services may be heard in about 20 languages. Chicago
is the second largest Bohemian city of the world, the third
Swedish, the fourth Norwegian, the fifth Polish, the fifth German
(New York being the fourth) . In all there are some 40 languages
spoken by ... over one million " persons. 1 The death-rate
of Chicago is the lowest of the great cities of the country.
Births are but slightly in excess of deaths, so that the growth
of the city is almost wholly from immigration. The death-rate
is the lowest of the great cities of the country (16-2 in 1900;
New York, 20-4; Boston, 20-1, &c.).

The growth of Chicago has been remarkable even for American
cities. Any resident of four-score years living in 1000 had seen
it grow from a settlement of fourteen houses, a frontier military
post among the Indians, to a great metropolis, fifth in size among
the cities of the world. In 1828 what is now the business centre
was fenced in as a pasture; in 1831 the Chicago mail was
deposited in a dry-goods box; the tax-levy of 1834 was $48-90,
and a well that constituted the city water-works was sunk at
a cost of $95.50; in 1843 hogs were barred from the town
streets. Such facts impress upon one, as nothing else can, the
marvellously rapid growth of the city. In 1830 with a population
of less than 100, in 1840 with 4479, the increase by percentages in
succeeding decades was as follows: 507-3, 264-6, 173-6, 68-3,
118-6 and 54-4; an increase equivalent to 8-6% annually,
compounded. Such a continuous " boom " no other American
city has ever known.

History. The river Chicago (an Indian name of uncertain
meaning, but possibly from Ojibwa she-kag-ong, " wild onion
place ") was visited by Joliet and Marquette in 1673, anc ^ later
by La Salle and others. It became a portage route of some
importance, used by the French in passing to the lower Illinois
country. In 1804 the United States established here Fort
Dearborn. In 1812, during the Indian War of Tecumseh, the
garrison and settlers, who had abandoned the fort and were re-
treating toward safety, were attacked and overpowered by the
savages at a point now well within the city. The fort was re-
established and fitfully occupied until its final abandonment

1 Prof. C. D. Buck in Decennial Publications of the University of
Chicago (1903, vol. 6).

in 1837. When Cook county was organized in 1831, Chicago,
then a tiny village, became the seat of justice. It became a
town in 1833 an d a city in 1837. By that time Chicago wa&
confident of its future. The federal government had begun the
improvement of the harbour, and the state had started the
Illinois and Michigan canal. There was a federal land-office also,
and the land speculator and town promoter had opened a chapter
of history more picturesque, albeit sordid, than in any of the
old French days. The giant growth of the lake trade had drawn
attention before railway connexion was secure with the East in
1852, making progress even more rapid thereafter. During the
Civil War a large prison-camp for Confederate prisoners, Camp
Douglas, was maintained at Chicago. In 1870 the city had
306,605 inhabitants and was already a commercial centre of
immense importance.

In 1871 it suffered a terrible calamity. On the 8th of October
a fire broke out near the lumber district on the West Side.
Two-thirds of the city's buildings were wood, and the summer
had been excessively dry, while to make conditions worse a
high and veering wind fanned the flames. The conflagration
leaped the river to the South and finally to the North Side,
burned over an area of 3$ sq. m., destroyed 17,450 buildings
and property valued at $i96,ooo,ooo, 2 and rendered almost
100,000 people homeless; 250 lost their lives. The flames
actually travelled 2\ m. in an air-line within 65 hours.
Thousands of persons, fleeing before the flames and fire-brands,
sought refuge on the shore and even in the waters of the lake.
Robbery, pillage, extortion, orgies and crime added to the
general horror. In the South Side the fire was checked on the
9th by the use of gunpowder; in the North (where the water-
works were early destroyed) it had extended almost to the
prairie wheijrainfall finally ended its ravages, after about twenty-
seven hours of destruction. With the exception of the San
Francisco fire of 1906 this was the greatest fire of modern times.
A vast system of relief was organized and received generous aid
from all parts of the world. The money contributions from the
United States and abroad were $4,996,782; of this foreign
countries contributed nearly $1,000,000 (England half of this).
These funds, which were over and above gifts of food, clothing
and supplies, were made to last till the close of 1876. Out of
them temporary homes were provided for nearly 40,000 people;
barracks and better houses were erected, workmen were supplied
with tools, and women with sewing-machines; the sick were
cared for and the dead buried; and the poorer classes of Chicago
were probably never so comfortable as during the first two or
three years after the fire. The rebuilding of the city was accom-
plished with wonderful rapidity. Work was begun before the
cinders were cold. The business district was largely rebuilt
within a year, and within three there were hardly scars of the
calamity. Wood was barred from a large area (and subsequently
from the entire city), and a new Chicago of brick and stone,
larger, finer and wealthier, had taken the place of the old.
Business and population showed no set-back in their progress.
The solidity and permanence of this prosperity were confirmed
during the financial panic of 1873, when Chicago banks alone,
among those of the large cities of the country, continued steadily
to pay out current funds.

In its later history certain special factors stand out, apart
from continued commercial progress.

Chicago has been a storm centre of labour troubles, some of
them of a specially spectacular character. There were great
strikes in the packing industry in 1886, 1894 and 1904. But
more noteworthy are the railway strike of 1894 and the unsuccess-
ful teamsters' strike of 1905. The former began in the works
of the Pullman Car Company, and its leader was Eugene Victor
Debs (b. 1855). When the contentions of the Pullman employees
were taken up by the American Railway Union the strike
immediately extended to tremendous proportions. Union men

2 There was an insurance of $88,634,122 on the losses, of which
about a half was recovered. F. L. Olmsted estimated that one-third
of the roof surface and one-half the cubic contents of the city's
buildings were destroyed.

CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF

throughout the country refused to handle Pullman cars, and
since Pullman cars are almost invariably attached to mail
trains the transportation of the United States mail was thus ob-
structed. Chicago, as the greatest railwaycentre of the country
and the home of the strike, was naturally the seat of the most
serious complications. There was much rioting and destruction
of property, and the railway service was completely disorganized.
President Cleveland, on the ground of preventing obstruction of
the mail service, and of . protecting other federal interests,
ordered a small number of federal troop* to Chicago. Those
interests were, he contended, menaced by " domestic violence "
evidently beyond the control of the state power. Governor
Altgeld denied the inability of the state to deal with the diffi-
culty, and entered a strong protest against Federal interference;
but he himself did nothing to put down the disorder. Federal
troops entered the state, and almost immediately the strike
collapsed. The high officials of the Railway Union, for ignoring
a court injunction restraining them from interfering with the
movement of the mails, were imprisoned for long terms for
contempt of court.

Out of a strike in the McCormick works in 1886 there sprang
another famous incident in Chicago's history. The " inter-
national " anarchists of Chicago had been organized in "groups "
about two years earlier, and were very active. They were ad-
vocating a " general strike " for an eight-hour day, and the tense
excitement among the labourers of the city, owing to the
McCormick strike, induced unusually ultra utterances. There
was a riot at the McCormick works on the 3rd of May, in which
several men were killed by the police. An anarchist meeting
was called for the next day at the Haymarket, a square in
Randolph Street, and when the authorities judged that the
speeches were too revolutionary to be allowed to continue, the
police undertook to disperse the meeting. A bomb was thrown,
and many policemen were injured, seven fatally. No person
could be proved to have thrown the bomb, or to have been directly
implicated in its throwing; but on the ground that they were
morally conspirators and accomplices in the killing, because they
had repeatedly and publicly advocated such acts against the
servants of government, seven anarchists were condemned to
death. An application to the United States Supreme Court
for a writ of error was unanimously refused. 1

The four-hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America
was commemorated by a World's Columbian Exposition held
at Chicago. The site was in Jackson Park and the adjoining
Midway, and included 686 acres, of which 188 were covered by
buildings. On the 2ist of October 1892 corresponding to the
1 2th of October 1492, o.S. the grounds were formally dedicated,
and on the following ist of May opened to the public, continuing
open for six months. The number of paid admissions was
21,500,000; of total admissions 27,539,521. The buildings,
planned by a commission of architects among whom John W.
Root and Daniel H. Burnham of Chicago were responsible for
the general scheme formed a collection of remarkable beauty,
to which the grounds, planned by F. L. Olmsted, intersected
by lagoons and bordered by the lake, lent an appropriate setting.
The entire cost of the fair is variously estimated at from 33 to
43 million dollars, according to the inclusiveness of the estimate;
the local cost may be put at $28,151,169. Of this Chicago gave
about 105 millions, in addition to a preparatory house-cleafcing
that cost 3^ millions; and finally a very small dividend was
paid to stockholders. The whole undertaking, carried through
with remarkable enterprise, was an artistic and educational
triumph of the first order.

Owing to its position Chicago has long been a favourite con-

1 Four were hanged, I committed suicide, 2 had their death
sentence commuted to life-imprisonment, the eighth was sentenced

to imprisonment for 15 years. 981 men were panelled in selecting
the jury. Governor J. P. Altgeld in 1893 pardoned the three in
prison on the ground that the jury was " packed " and consequently
incompetent, that no evidence connected the prisoners with the
crime, and that the presiding judge was prejudiced. See an article
by Judge J. E. Gary, who presided at the trial, in the Century
Magazine (April 1893).

125

vention city. Lincoln (1860), Grant (1868), Garfield (1880),
Cleveland (1884 and 1892), Harrison (1888), Roosevelt (1004),
and Taft (1008) were all nominated here for president; and in
addition not a few candidates who were unsuccessful. A national
peace jubilee was held here in 1898.

AUTHORITIES. See the annual reports of city officials, board of
trade, park commissions, sanitary board, &c. ; A. T. Andreas,
history of Chicago (Chicago, 3 vols., 1884-1886); R. Blanchard,
discovery and Conquest of the North- West with the History of Chicago
'Chicago, 2 vols., 1898-1903) ; J. Kirkland, Story of Chicago (Chicago,
1892) ; issues of the Fergus Historical Series (1876, ff.) ; T. J. Riley,
A Study of the Higher Life of Chicago (Chicago University, doctoral
dissertation, 1905) ; S. E. Sparling, Municipal History and Present
Organization of the City of Chicago (University of Wisconsin, doctoral
dissertation, Madison, 1898). Periodical literature contains a vast
amount of information on Chicago's progress and conditions that is
elsewhere unobtainable; exact references may be obtained in
Poole's Index to Periodical Literature.

CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OP, one of the great educational
institutions of the United States, established under Baptist
auspices in the city of Chicago, and opened in 1892.* Though
the president and two-thirds of the trustees are always Baptists,
the university is non-sectarian except as regards its divinity
school. An immense ambition and the extraordinary organizing
ability shown by its first president, William R. Harper, deter-
mined and characterized the remarkable growth of the univer-
sity's first decade of activity. The grounds include about 140
acres. Of these about 60 acres given in part by Marshall
Field and laid out by Frederick Law Olmsted border the
Midway Plaisance, connecting Washington and Jackson parks.
On these grounds the main part of the university stands. The '
buildings are mostly of grey limestone, in Gothic style, and
grouped in quadrangles. The Mitchell tower is a shortened
reproduction of Magdalen tower, Oxford, and the University
Commons, Hutchinson Hall, is a duplicate of Christ Church hall,
Oxford. Dormitories accommodate about a fifth of the students.
The quadrangles include clubs, dining halls, dormitories, gym-
nasiums, assembly halls, recitation halls, laboratories and
libraries. In the first college year, 1892-1893, there were 698
students; in that of 1007-1908 there were 5038,' of whom 2186
were women. There are faculties of arts, literature, science,
divinity, 4 medicine (organized in 1901), law (1902), education,
and commerce and administration. The astronomical depart-
ment, the Yerkes Observatory, is located on William's Bay,
Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, about 65 m. from Chicago. It has the
largest refracting telescope in the world (clear aperture 40 in.,
focal length about 61 ft.). The Chicago Institute, founded and
endowed by Mrs Anita McCormick Elaine as an independent
normal school, became a part of the university in 1901. The
school of education, as a whole, brings under university influence
hundreds of children from kindergarten age upwards to young
manhood and womanhood, apart from the university classes
proper. Chicago was the second university of the country .
to give its pedagogical department such scope in the union
of theory and practice. The nucleus of the library (450,000
volumes in 1908) was purchased in Berlin soon after the univer-
sity's organization, in one great collection of 175,000 volumes.
Scholarly research has been fostered in every possible way, and
the university press has been active in the publication of various
departmental series and the following periodicals: Biblical
World, American Journal of Theology, American Journal of
Semitic Languages and Literatures, American Journal of Sociology,
Journal of Political Economy, Modern Philology, Classical
Philology, Classical Journal, Journal of Geology, Astrophysical
Journal, Botanical Gazette, Elementary School Teacher and
School Review. The courses in the College of Commerce and

2 A small Baptist college of the same name established in 1855
on land given by S. A. Douglas went out of existence in 1886.

* If, however, the total is reckoned on the basis of nine months,
of residence the figure for 1907-1908 would be 3202.

4 The Divinity School has a graduate department and three under-
graduate departments, doing work in English, in Danish and Nor-
wegian, and in Swedish. Allied with the Divinity School of the
University is the " Disciples' Divinity House " (1894), a theological
school of the Disciples of Christ.

126

CHICANE CHICHELEY

Administration link the university closely with practical life.
In extension work the university has been active from the
beginning, instruction being given not only by lectures but by
correspondence (a novel and unique feature among American
universities); in the decade 1892-1902, 1715 persons were
prepared by the latter method for matriculation in the university
(n-6% of the total number of matriculants in the decade).
Extension lectures were given in twenty-two states. At Chicago
the work of the university is continuous throughout the year:
the " summer quarter " is not as in other American schools a
supplement to the teaching year, but an integral part; and it
attracts the teachers of the middle western states and of the
south. In the work of the first two years, known together as
the Junior College, men and women are in the main given separate
instruction; but in the Senior College years unrestricted co-
education prevails. Students are mainly controlled by self-
government in small groups (" the house system "). Relations
with " affiliated " (private) colleges and academies and " co-
operating " (public) high-schools also present interesting features.

The value of the property of the university in 1908 was about
$25,578,000. Up to the 3oth of June 1908 it had received from
gifts actually paid $29,651,849, of which $22,712,631 were given
by John D. Rockefeller. 1 The value of buildings in 1008 was
$4,508,202, of grounds $4,406,191, and of productive funds
$14,186,235. Upon the death of President Harper, Harry Pratt
Judson (b. 1849), then head professor of political science and
dean of the faculties of arts, became acting president, and on
the zoth of January 1907 he was elected president.

See the Decennial Publications of the University (since 1903), es-
pecially vol. i. for details of history and administration.

CHICANE, the pettifogging subterfuge and delay of sharp
law-practitioners, also any deliberate attempt to gain unfair
advantage by petty tricks. A more common English form of
the word is " chicanery." " Chicane " is technically used also
as a term in the game of bridge for the points a player may score
if he holds no trumps. The word is French, derived either from
chaugan, Persian for the stick used in the game of " polo," still
played on foot and called chicane in Languedoc (the military use
of Meaner, to take advantage of slight variations in ground,
suits this derivation), or from chic, meaning little or petty, from
the Spanish ckico, small, which appears in the phrase "chic d
chic," little by little.

CHICHELEY, HENRY (1364-1443), English archbishop,
founder of All Souls College, Oxford, was born at Higham Ferrers,
Northamptonshire, in 1363 or 1364. Chicheley told the pope in
1443, in asking leave to retire from the archbishopric, that he
was in his eightieth year. He was the third and youngest son
of Thomas Chicheley, who appears in 1368 in still extant town
records of Higham Ferrers as a suitor in the mayor's court, and
in 1381-1382, and again in 1384-1385, was mayor: in fact, for a
dozen years he and Henry Barton, school master of Higham
Ferrers grammar school, and one Richard Brabazon, filled the
mayoralty in turns. His occupation does not appear; but his
eldest son, William, is on the earliest extant list (1373) of the
Grocers' Company, London. On the 9th of June 1405 Chicheley
was admitted, in succession to his father, to a burgage in Higham
Ferrers. His mother, Agnes Pincheon, is said to have been of
gentle birth. There is therefore no foundation in fact for the
silly story (copied into the Diet. Nat. Biog. from a local historian,

'The words "founded by John D. Rockefeller" follow the title
of the university on all its letterheads and official documents.
Mr Rockefeller would not allow his name to be a part of the title,
nor has he permitted the designation of any building by his name.
President Harper was selected by him to organize the university,
and it was his will that the president and two-thirds of the trustees
should be " always " Baptists. President Harper more than once
stated most categorically that contrary to prevalent beliefs no donor
of funds to the university " has ever (1902) by a single word or act
indicated his dissatisfaction with the instruction given to students
in the university, or with the public expression of opinion made by
any officer of the university ; and certainly so far as the public
press reveals, no other university of the country has had so many
professors who have in various lines, including economics, expressed
radical views in public.

J. Cole, Wellingborough, 1838) that Henry Chicheley was picked
up by William of Wykeham when he was a poor ploughboy
" eating his scanty meal off his mother's lap," whatever that
means. The story was unknown to Arthur Duck, fellow of All
Souls, who wrote Chicheley's life in 1617. It is only the usual
attempt, as in the cases of Whittington, Wolsey and Gresham,
to exaggerate the rise of a successful man. The first recorded
appearance of Henry Chicheley himself is at New College, Oxford,
as Checheley, eighth among the undergraduate fellows, in July
1387, in the earliest extant hall-book, which contains weekly
lists of those dining in Hall. It is clear from Chicheley's position
in the list, with eleven fellows and eight scholars, or probationer-
fellows, below him, that this entry does not mark his first appear-
ance in the college, which had been going on since 1375 at least,
and was chartered in 1379. He must have come from Winchester
College in one of the earliest batches of scholars from that college,
the sole feeder of New College, not from St John Baptist College,
Winchester, as guessed by Dr William Hunt in the Diet. Nat.
Biog. (and repeated in Mr Grant Robertson's History of All
Soids College) to cover the mistaken supposition that St Mary's
College was not founded till 1393. St Mary's College was in
fact formally founded in 1382, and the school had been going on
since 1373 (A. F. Leach, History of Winchester College), while no
such college as St John's College at Winchester ever existed.

Chicheley appears in the Hall-books of New College up to the
year 1392/93, when he was a B.A. and was absent for ten weeks
from about the 6th of December to the 6th of March, presumably
for the purpose of his ordination as a sub-deacon, which was
performed by the bishop of Deny, acting as suffragan to the
bishop of London. He was then already beneficed, receiving a
royal ratification of his estate as parson of Llanvarchell in the
diocese of St Asaph on the 2oth of March 1391/92 (Co/. Pat.
Rolls) . In the Hall-book, marked 1393/94, but really for 1394/95,
Chicheley's name does not appear. He had then left Oxford
and gone up to London to practise as an advocate in the prin-
cipal ecclesiastical court, the court of arches. His rise was
rapid. Already on the 8th of February 1395/96 he was on a
commission with several knights and clerks to hear an appeal
in a case of John Mollon, Esquire v. John Shawe, citizen of London,
from Sir John Cheyne.kt., sitting for the constable of England in
a court of chivalry. Like other ecclesiastical lawyers and civil
servants of the day, he was paid with ecclesiastical preferments."
On the i3th of April 1396 he obtained ratification of the parson-
age of St Stephen's, Walbrook, presented on the 3oth of March
by the abbot of Colchester, no doubt through his brother Robert,
who restored the church and increased its endowment. In 1397
he was made archdeacon of Dorset by Richard Mitford, bishop
of Salisbury, but litigation was still going on about it in the papal
court till the 27th of June 1399, when the pope extinguished the
suit, imposing perpetual silence on Nicholas Bubwith, master of
the rolls, his opponent. In the first year of Henry IV. Chicheley
was parson of Sherston, Wiltshire, and prebendary of Nantgwyly
in the college of Abergwilly, North Wales; on the 23rd of Feb-
ruary 1401/2, now called doctor of laws, he was pardoned for
bringing in, and allowed to use, a bull of the pope " providing "
him to the chancellorship of Salisbury cathedral, and canon-
ries in the nuns' churches of Shaftesbury and Wilton in that
diocese; and on the 9th of January 1402/3 he was archdeacon
of Salisbury. This year his brother Robert was senior sheriff of
London. On the 7th of May 1404, Pope Boniface IX. provided
him to a prebend at Lincoln, notwithstanding he already held
prebends at Salisbury, Lichfield, St Martin's-le-Grand and
Abergwyly, and the living of Brington. On the 9th of January
1405 he found time to attend a court at Higham Ferrers and be
admitted to a burgage there. In July 1405 Chicheley began a
diplomatic career by a mission to the new Roman pope Innocent
VII., who was professing his desire to end the schism in the
papacy by resignation, if his French rival at Avignon would do
likewise. Next year, on the 5th of October 1406, he was sent
with Sir John Cheyne to Paris to arrange a lasting peace and
the marriage of Prince Henry with the French princess Marie,
which was frustrated by her becoming a nun at Poissy next year.

CHICHELEY

127

In 1406 renewed efforts were made to stop the schism, and
Chicheley was one of the envoys sent to the new pope Gregory
XII. Here he utilized his opportunities. On the 3 ist of August
1407 Guy Mone (he is always so spelt and not Mohun, and was
probably from one of the Hampshire Meons; there was a John
Mone of Havant admitted a Winchester scholar in 1397), bishop
of St David's, died, and on the I2th of October 1407 Chicheley
was by the pope provided to the bishopric of St David's. Another
bull the same day gave him the right to hold all his benefices
with the bishopric.

At Siena in July 1408 he and Sir John Cheyne, as English
envoys, were received by Gregory XII. with special honour,
and Bishop Repingdon of Lincoln, ex-Wycliffite, was one of the
new batch of cardinals created on the i8th of September 1408,
most of Gregory's cardinals having deserted him. These,
together with Benedict's revolting cardinals, summoned a general
council at Pisa. In November 1408 Chicheley was back at
Westminster, when Henry IV. received the cardinal archbishop
of Bordeaux and determined to support the cardinals at Pisa
against both popes. In January 1409 Chicheley was named with
Bishop Hallum of Salisbury and the prior of Canterbury to
represent the Southern Convocation at the council, which opened
on the 2$th of March 1409, arriving on the 24th of April.
Obedience was withdrawn from both the existing popes, and
on the 26th of June a new pope elected instead of them.
Chicheley and the other envoys were received on their return
as saviours of the world; though the result was summed up by
a contemporary as trischism instead of schism, and the Church
as giving three husbands instead of two. Chicheley now became
the subject of a leading case, the court of king's bench deciding,
after arguments reheard in three successive terms, that he could
not hold his previous benefices with the bishopric, and that, spite
of the maxim Papa poles! omnia, a papal bull could not supersede
the law of the land ( Year-book ii. H. iv. 37, 59, 79). Accordingly
he had to resign livings and canonries wholesale (April 28, 1410).
As, however, he had obtained a bull (August 20, 1409) enabling
him to appoint his successors to the vacated preferments,
including his nephew William, though still an undergraduate
and not in orders, to the chancellorship of Salisbury, and a
prebend at Lichfield, he did not go empty away. In May 1410
he went again on an embassy to France; on the nth of
September 1411 he headed a mission to discuss Henry V.'s
marriage with a daughter of the duke of Burgundy; and he was
again there in November. In the interval Chicheley found time
to visit his diocese for the first time and be enthroned at St
David's on the nth of May 1411. He was with the English
force under the earl of Arundel which accompanied the duke of
Burgundy to Paris in October 1411 and there defeated the
Armagnacs, an exploit which revealed to England the weakness
of the French. On the 3oth of November 1411 Chicheley, with
two other bishops and three earls and the prince of Wales, knelt
to the king to receive public thanks for their administration.
That he was in high favour with Henry V. is shown by his being
sent with the earl of Warwick to France in July 1413 to conclude
peace. Immediately after the death of archbishop Arundel he
was nominated by the king to the archbishopric, elected on the
4th of March, translated by papal bull on the 28th of April, and
received the pall without going to Rome for it on the 24th
of July.

These dates are important as they help to save Chicheley from
the charge, versified by Shakespeare (Henry V. act i. sc. 2) .
from Hall's Chronicle, of having tempted Henry V. into the
conquest of France for the sake of diverting parliament from
the disendowment of the Church. There is no contemporary
authority for the charge ,which seems to appear first in Redman's
rhetorical history of Henry V., written in 1540 with an eye
to the political situation at that time. As a matter of fact, the
parliament at Leicester, in which the speeches were supposed
to have been made, began on the 3oth of April 1414 before
Chicheley was archbishop. The rolls of parliament show that he
was not present in the parliament at all. Moreover parliament
was so far from pressing disendowment that on the petition of

the Commons it passed a savage act against the heresies " com-
monly called Lollardry " which " aimed at the destruction of
the king and all temporal estates," making Lollards felons and
ordering every justice of the peace to hunt down their schools,
conventicles, congregations and confederacies.

In his capacity of archbishop, Chicheley remained what he
had always been chiefly, the lawyer and diplomatist. He was
present at the siege of Rouen, and the king committed to him
personally the negotiations for the surrender of the city in
January 1419 and for the marriage of Katherine. He crowned
Katherine at Westminster (2oth. February 1421), and on the 6th
of December baptized her child Henry VI. He was of course a
persecutor of heretics. No one could have attained or kept the
position of archbishop at the time without being so. So he
presided at the trial of John Claydon, Skinner and citizen of
London, who after five years' imprisonment at various times
had made public abjuration before the late archbishop, Arundel,
but now was found in possession of a book in English called
The Lanterne of Light, which contained the heinous heresy that
the principal cause of the persecution of Christians was the
illegal retention by priests of the goods of this world, and that
archbishops and bishops were the special seats of antichrist.
As a relapsed heretic, he was " left to the secular arm " by
Chicheley. On the ist of July 1416 Chicheley directed a half-
yearly inquisition by archdeacons to hunt out heretics. On the
1 2th of February 1420 proceedings were begun before him
against William Taylor, priest, who had been for fourteen years
excommunicated for heresy, and was now degraded and burnt
for saying that prayers ought not to be addressed to saints,
but only to God. A striking contrast was exhibited In October
1424, when a Stamford friar, John Russell, who had preached
that any religious potest concumbere cum muliere and not mortally
sin, was sentenced only to retract his doctrine. Further persecu-
tions of a whole batch of Lollards took place in 1428. The records
of convocation in Chicheley's time are a curious mixture of
persecutions for heresy, which largely consisted in attacks on
clerical endowments, with negotiations with the ministers of the
crown for the object of cutting down to the lowest level the
clerical contributions to the public revenues in respect of their
endowments. Chicheley was tenacious of the privileges of his
see, and this involved him in a constant struggle with Henry
Beaufort, bishop of Winchester. In 1418, while Henry V.
was alive, he successfully protested against Beaufort's being
made a cardinal and legate a latere to supersede the legatine
jurisdiction of Canterbury. But during the regency, after Henry
VI. 's accession, Beaufort was successful, and in 1426 became
cardinal and legate. This brought Chicheley into collision with
Martin V. The struggle between them has been represented
as one of a patriotic archbishop resisting the encroachments of
the papacy on the Church of England. In point of fact it was
almost wholly personal, and was rather an incident in the
rivalry between the duke of Gloucester and his half-brother,
Cardinal Beaufort, than one involving any principle. Chicheley,
by appointing a jubilee to be held at Canterbury in 1420, " after
the manner of the Jubilee ordained by the Popes," threatened
to divert the profits from pilgrims from Rome to Canterbury.
A ferocious letter from the pope to the papal nuncios, on the igth
of March 1423, denounced the proceeding as calculated " to en-
snare simple souls and extort from them a profane reward,
thereby setting up themselves against the apostolic see and the
Roman pontiff, to whom alone so great a faculty has been granted
by God " (Col. Pap. Reg. vii. 12). Chicheley also incurred the
papal wrath by opposing the system of papal provision which
diverted patronage from English to Italian hands, but the
immediate occasion was to prevent the introduction of the bulls
making Beaufort a cardinal. Chicheley had been careful enough
to obtain " Papal provisions " for himself, his pluralities, his
bishopric and archbishopric.

But, after all, it is not as archbishop or statesman, persecutor,
papalist or antipapalist that Chicheley is remembered, but
for his educational foundations. He endowed a hutch, i.e. chest or
loan-fund for poor scholars at New College, and another for the

128

CHICHEN-ITZA CHICHESTER OF BELFAST

university of Oxford at large. He founded no less than three
colleges, two at Oxford, one at Higham Ferrers, while there is
reason to believe that he suggested and inspired the foundation
of Eton and of King's College. His first college at Oxford, in
perishing, gave birth to St John's College, which now holds its
site. This was St Bernard's College, founded by Chicheley
under licence in mortmain in 1437 for Cistercian monks, on the
model of Gloucester Hall and Durham College for the southern
and northern Benedictines. Nothing more than a site and
building was required by way of endowment, as the young
monks, who were sent there to study under a provisor, were
supported by the houses of the order to which they belonged.
The site was five acres, and the building is described in the
letters patent " as a fitting and noble college mansion in honour
of the most glorious Virgin Mary and St Bernard in Northgates
Street outside the Northgate of Oxford." It was suppressed
with the Cistercian abbeys in 1539, and granted on the nth of
December 1546 to Christ Church, Oxford, who sold it to Sir
Thomas Pope in 1553 for St John's College.

The college at Higham Ferrers was a much earlier design.
On the 2nd of May 1422 Henry V., in right of the duchy of
Lancaster, " hearing that Chicheley inflamed by the pious
fervour of devotion intended to enlarge divine service and other
works of piety at Higham Ferrers, in consideration of his fruitful
services, often crossing the seas, yielding to no toils, dangers or
expenses . . . especially in the conclusion of the present final
peace with our dearest father the king of France," granted for
300 marks (200) licence to found, on three acres at Higham
Ferrers, a perpetual college of eight chaplains and four clerks,
of whom one was to teach grammar and the other song . . . and
six choristers to pray for himself and wife and for Henry IV.
and his wife Mary . . . and to acquire the alien priory of
Merseye in Essex late belonging to St Ouen's, Rouen," as endow-
ment. A papal bull having also been obtained, on the 28th of
August 1425, the archbishop, in the course of a visitation of
Lincoln diocese, executed his letters patent founding the college,
dedicating it to the Virgin, St Thomas a Becket and St Edward
the Confessor, and handed over the buildings to its members, the
vicar of Higham Ferrers being made the first master or warden.
He further endowed it in 1434 with lands in Bedfordshire and
Huntingdonshire, and his brothers, William and Robert, gave
some houses in London in 1427 and 1438. The foundation was
closely modelled on Winchester College, with its warden and
fellows, its grammar and song schoolmasters, but a step in
advance was made by the masters being made fellows and so
members of the governing body. Attached was also a bede or
almshouse for twelve poor men. Both school and almshouse had
existed before, and this was merely an additional endowment.
The whole endowment was in 1535 worth some 200 a year, about
a fifth of that of Winchester College. Unfortunately, All Souls
being a later foundation, the college at Higham Ferrers was not
affiliated to it, and so fell with other colleges not part of the
universities. On the i8th of July 1542 it was surrendered to
Henry VIII., and its possessions granted to Robert Dacres on
condition of maintaining the grammar school and paying the
master 10 a year, the same salary as the headmasters of Win-
chester and Eton, and maintaining the almshouse. Both still
exist, but the school has been deprived of its house, and the
Fitzwilliam family, who now own the lands, still continue to pay
only 10 a year.

All Souls College was considerably later. The patent for it,
dated 20th of May 1438, is for a warden and 20 scholars, to be
called " the Warden and College of the souls of all the faithful
departed," to study and pray " for the soul of King Henry VI.
and the souls of Henry V., Thomas, duke of Clarence, and all
the dukes, earls, barons, knights, squires and other nobles and
subjects of our father who during the time and in the service
of our father and ourselves ended their lives in the wars of the
kingdom of France, and for the souls of all the faithful departed."
For this, the king granted Berford's Hall, formerly Charleston's
Inn, which Chicheley's trustees had granted to him so as to
obtain a royal grant and indefeasible title. Richard Andrews,

the king's secretary, like Chicheley himself a scholar of Win-
chester and fellow of New College, was named as first warden.
A papal bull for the college was obtained on the 2ist of June
1439; and further patents for endowments from the nth of
May 1441 to the 28th of January 1443, when a general confirma-
tion charter was obtained, for which 1000 (30,000 at least of
our money) was paid. It is commonly represented that the
endowment was wholly derived from alien priories bought by
Chicheley from the crown. In truth, not so large a proportion
of the endowment of All Souls was derived from this source as
was that of New College. The only alien priories granted were
Abberbury in Oxfordshire, Wedon Pinkney in Northampton-
shire, Romney in Kent, and St Clare and Llangenith in Wales,
all very small affairs, single manors and rectories, and these
did not form a quarter of the whole endowment. The rest,
particularly the manor of Edgware, which made the fortune of
the college, was bought from private owners. Early in 1443 the
college was opened by Chicheley with four bishops in state.
The statutes, not drawn up until the 2nd of April 1443, raised
the number of the college to forty. Like the college buildings,
they are almost an exact copy of those of New College, mutatis
mutandis. The college is sometimes described as being different
from other colleges in being merely a large chantry to pray for
the souls of the dead warriors. But it was no more a chantry
than the other colleges, all of which, like the monasteries and
collegiate churches, were to pray for their founders' and other
specified souls. Indeed, All Souls was more of a lay foundation
than its model. For while at New College only twenty out of
seventy fellows were to study law instead of arts, philosophy and
theology, at All Souls College sixteen were to be " jurists "
and only twenty-four " artists "; and while at New College
there were ten chaplains and three clerks necessarily, at All
Souls the number was not defined but left optional; so that
there are now only one chaplain and four bible clerks.

Ten days after he sealed the statutes, on the I2th of April
1443, Chicheley died and was buried in Canterbury cathedral
on the north side of the choir, under a fine effigy of himself
erected in his lifetime. There is what looks like an excellent
contemporary portrait in one of the windows of All Souls College,
which is figured in the Victoria County History for Hampshire,
ii. 262. (A. F. L.)

CHICHEN-ITZA, or CHICKEN, an ancient ruined city of
Yucatan, Mexico, situated 22 m. W. of Valladolid. The name
is derived from that of the Itza, a tribe of the great Mayan
stock, which formerly inhabited the city, and chicken, having
reference probably to two wells or pools which doubtless origin-
ally supplied the inhabitants with water and are still in existence.
The history of the city is unknown, though it is regarded as prob-
able that it preserved its independence long after the Spaniards
had taken possession of the rest of the district. The area covered
by the ruins is approximately i sq. m., and other remains are
found in the neighbouring forest. (See CENTRAL AMERICA:
Archaeology.)

CHICHESTER OF BELFAST, ARTHUR CHICHESTER,
BARON (1563-1625), lord-deputy of Ireland, second son of Sir
John Chichester of Raleigh, Devonshire, by Gertrude, daughter
of Sir William Courtenay of Powderham, was born at Raleigh
in May 1563, and was educated at Exeter College, Oxford.
He commanded a ship against the Spanish Armada in 1588, and
is said to have served under Drake in his expedition of 1595.
Having seen further service abroad, he was sent to Ireland at
the end of 1598, and was appointed by the earl of Essex to the
governorship of Carrickfergus. When Essex returned to England,
Chichester rendered valuable service under Mountjoy in the
war against the rebellious earl of Tyrone, and in 1601 Mountjoy
recommended him to Cecil in terms of the highest praise as the
fittest person to be entrusted with the government of Ulster.
On the isth of October 1604 Chichester was appointed lord-
deputy of Ireland He announced his policy in a proclamation
wherein he abolished the semi-feudal rights of the native Irish
chieftains, substituting for them fixed dues, while their tenants
were to become dependent " wholly and immediately upon his

CHICHESTER

129

majesty." Tyrone and other Irish clan chieftains resented this
summary interference with their ancient social organization,
and their resistance was strengthened by the ill-advised measures
against the Roman Catholics which Chichester was compelled
to take by the orders of the English ministers. He himself was
moderate and enlightened in his views on this matter, and it
was through his influence that the harshness of the anti-Catholic
policy was relaxed in 1607. Meantime his difficulties with the
Irish tribal leaders remained unsolved. But in 1607, by " the
flight of the Earls " (see O'NEILL), he was relieved of the presence
of the two formidable Ulster chieftains, the earls of Tyrone and
Tyrconnell. Chichesler's policy for dealing with the situation
thus created was to divide the lands of the fugitive earls among
Irishmen of standing and character; but the plantation of
Ulster as actually carried out was much less favourable and
just to the native population than the lord-deputy desired.
In 1613 Chichester was raised to the peerage as Baron Chichester
of Belfast, and in the following year he went to England to give
an account of the state of Ireland. On his return to Ireland he
again attempted to moderate the persecuting policy against
the Irish Catholics which he was instructed to enforce; and
although he was to some extent successful, it was probably
owing to his opposition to this policy that he was recalled in
November 1614. The king, however, told him " You may rest
assured that you do leave that place with our very good grace
and acceptation of your services "; and he was given the post
of lord-treasurer of Ireland. After living in retirement for some
years, Chichester was employed abroad in 1622; in the following
year he became a member of the privy council. He died on the
ipth of February 1625 and was buried at Carrickfergus.

Lord Chichester married Lettice, daughter of Sir John Perrot
and widow of Walter Vaughan of Golden Grove. He had no
children, and his title became extinct at his death. The heir
to his estates was his brother Sir Edward Chichester (d. 1648),
governor of Carrickfergus, who in 1625 was created Baron
Chichester of Belfast and Viscount Chichester of Carrickfergus.
This nobleman's eldest son Arthur(i6oo-i67s),who distinguished
himself as Colonel Chichester in the suppression of the rebellion
of 1641, was created earl of Donegall in 1647, and was succeeded
in his titles by his nephew, whose great-grandson, Arthur, sth
earl of Donegall, was created Baron Fisherwick in the peerage
of Great Britain (the other family titles being in the peerage of
Ireland) in 1790, and earl of Belfast and marquess of Donegall
in the peerage of Ireland in 1791. The present marquess of
Donegall is his descendant.

See S. R. Gardiner in Diet. Nat. Biog. and History of England,
1603-1642 (London, 1883); Fynes Moryson, History of Ireland,
1599-1603 (Dublin, 1735). (R. J. M.)

CHICHESTER, a city and municipal borough in the Chichester
parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 69 m. S.S.W. from
London by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop.
(1001) 12,224. It lies in a plain at the foot of a spur of the South
Downs, a mile from the head of Chichester Harbour, an inlet
of the English Channel. The cathedral church of the Holy
Trinity. was founded towards the close of the nth century, after
the see had been removed to Chichester from Selsey in 1075.
The first church was consecrated in 1108, but fires in 1114 and
1187 caused building to continue steadily until the close of the
i3th century. Bishop Ralph Luffa (1091-1123) was the first
great builder, and was followed by Seffiid II. (1180-1204).
Norman work appears in the nave (arcade and triforium), choir
(arcade) and elsewhere; but there is much very beautiful
Early English work, the choir above the arcade and the eastern
part being especially fine. The nave is remarkable in having
double aisles on each side, the outer pair being of the i3th century.
The church is also unique among English cathedrals in the
possession of a detached campanile, a massive and beautiful
Perpendicular structure with the top storey octagonal. The
principal modern restorations are the upper part of the north-
west tower, which copies the Early English work of that on the
south-west; and the fine central tower and spire, 'which had
been erected at different periods in the I4th century, but col-

n.3

lapsed, doing little damage to the fabric, in 1861. Under the
direction of Sir Gilbert Scott and others they were reconstructed
with scrupulous care in preserving the original plan. The Lady
chapel at the east end is in the main early Decorated, but greatly
restored; the library is a fine late Norman vaulted room; the
cloisters are Perpendicular and well restored; and the bishop's
palace retains an Early English chapel. The cathedral is 393 ft.
long within, 131 ft. across the transepts, and oo ft. across the
nave with its double aisles. The height of the spire is 277 ft.

At the junction of the four main streets of the town stands
the market cross, an exquisite octagonal structure in ornate
Perpendicular style, built by Bishop Story, c. 1500, perhaps the
finest of its kind in the United Kingdom. The hospital of St
Mary was founded in the izth century, but the existing buildings
are in a style transitional from Early English to Decorated.
Its use as an almshouse is maintained. Other ancient buildings
are the churches of St Olave, in the construction of which Roman
materials were used; and of St Andrew, where is the tomb of
the poet William Collins, whose memorial with others by the
sculptor Flaxman is in the cathedral; the Guildhall, formerly
a Grey Friars' chapel, of the i3th century; the Canon Gate
leading into the cathedral close; and the Vicars College. The
city retains a great part of its ancient walls, which have a circuit
of about a mile and a half, and, at least in part, follow the line
of Roman fortifications. The principal modern buildings,
besides churches and chapels, are the council house, corn
exchange, market house, and museum of the Chichester Literary
Society. The grammar school was founded in 1497 by Bishop
Story. There is a large cattle market, and the town has -a con-
siderable agricultural trade, with breweries and tanneries. A
canal connects with Chichester Harbour. The diocese includes
the whole county of Sussex except a few parishes, with very
small portions of Kent and Surrey. The municipal borough is
under a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. Area,
1538 acres.

The Romano-British town on this site was perhaps Regnum
or Regni. Many inscriptions, pottery, coins, &c., have been
found, and part of the medieval walls contain a Roman cave.
An interesting inscription from this site is preserved at Goodwood.
Situated on one Roman road in direct connexion with London
and another leading from east to west, Chichester (Cissaceasler,
Cicestre) remained of considerable importance under the South
Saxon kings. In 967 King Edgar established a mint here.
Though Domesday Book speaks of one hundred and forty-two
burgages in Chichester and a charter of Henry I. mentions the
borough, the earliest extant charter is that granted by Stephen,
confirming to the burgesses their customs and rights of the
borough and gild merchant as they had them in the time of his
grandfather. This was confirmed by Henry II. Under Henry
III. the fee farm rent was 38: ios., but this was reduced by a
charter of 10 Edward II. to 36, the customs of wool, hides and
skins being reserved to the king. Edward III. directed that
the Sussex county court should be held at Chichester, and this
was confirmed in the following year. Confirmations of the
previous charters were also granted by Edward III., Richard 13.,
Henry VI., Edward IV., and Henry VII., who gave the mayor
and citizens cognizance of all kinds of pleas of assize touching
lands and hereditaments of freehold tenure. A court leet, court
of record and bailiffs' court of liberties still exist. The charters
were also confirmed by Henry VIII., Edward VI., Philip and
Mary, and Elizabeth. In 1604 the city was incorporated under
a mayor and aldermen. Since 1295, when it first returned a
member, Chichester has been regularly represented in parliament.
Throughout the middle ages Chichester was a place of great
commercial importance, Edward III. establishing a wool staple
here in 1348. Fairs were granted by Henry I. and Henry VII.
Fuller mentions the Wednesday market as being famous for
corn, while Camden speaks of that on Saturday as the greatest
for fish in the county. The markets and a fair on the zoth of
October are still held.

See Victoria County History, Sussex; Alexander Hay, History o)
Chichester (Chichester, 1804).

130

CHICKAMAUGA CREEK CHICKEN-POX

CHICKAMAUGA CREEK, a small tributary of the Tennessee
river, which it joins near Chattanooga, Tennessee, U.S.A. It
gives its name to the great battle of Chickamauga in the American
Civil War, fought on the ip-aoth of September 1863, between
the Federal army of the Cumberland under Major-General
W. S. Rosecrans and the Confederate army under General
Braxton Bragg. For the general operations of Rosecrans' army
in 1 863 see AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. A successful war of manoeuvre
had brought the army of the Cumberland from Murfreesboro
to Decherd, Tenn., and Bragg's army lay on the Tennessee at
and above Chattanooga. Rosecrans was expected by the enemy
t.o manoeuvre so as to gain touch with the Union forces in the
upper Tennessee valley, but he formed an entirely different plan
of operations. One part of the army demonstrated in front of
Chattanooga, and the main body secretly crossed the river about
Stevenson and Bridgeport (September 4th). The country was
mountainous, the roads few and poor, and the Federals had to
take full supplies of food, forage and ammunition with them,
but Rosecrans was an able commander, his troops were in good
hands, and he accepted the risks involved. These were intensified
by the want of good maps, and, in the event, at one moment the
army was placed in a position of great danger. A corps under A.
McD. McCook moved south-eastward across the ridges to Alpine,
another under Thomas marched via Trenton on McLemore's

tmtiy Wallur I

Cove. The presence of Federal masses in Lookout Valley caused
Bragg to abandon Chattanooga at once, and the object of the
manoeuvre was thus accomplished; but owing to the want of
good maps the Union army was at the same time exposed to
great danger. The head of Thomas's column was engaged at
Dug Gap, on the nth, against the flank guard of Bragg's army,
and at the time McCook was far away to the south, and Critten-
den's corps, which had occupied Chattanooga on the pth, was
also at a distance. Thomas was isolated, but Rosecrans, like
every other commander under whom he served, placed un-
bounded confidence in his tenacity, and if Bragg was wrong in
neglecting to attack him on the i4th, subsequent events went far
to disarm criticism. By the i8th of September Rosecrans had
at last collected his army on Chickamauga Creek covering Chat-
tanooga. But Bragg had now received heavy reinforcements,
and lay, concentrated for battle, on the other side of the Creek.
The terrain of the battle of Chickamauga (iQth-2oth of
September) had little influence on its course. Both armies lay
in the plain, the two lines roughly parallel. Bragg's intention
was to force his attack home on Rosecrans' left wing, thus cutting
him off from Chattanooga and throwing him back into the
mountain country whence he had come. On the igth a serious
action took place between the Confederate right and Rosecrans'
left under Thomas. On the 2oth the real battle began. The
Confederates, in accordance with Bragg's plans, pressed hard
upon Thomas, to whom Rosecrans sent reinforcements. One
of the divisions detached from the centre for this purpose was
by inadvertence taken out of the first line, and before the gap

could be filled the Confederate central attack, led by Longstreet
and Hood, the fighting generals of Lee's army, and carried out by
veteran troops from the Virginian battlefields, cut the Federal
army in two. McCook's army corps, isolated on the Federal
right, was speedily routed, and the centre shared its fate. Rose-
crans himself was swept off the field in the rout of half of his
army. But Thomas was unshaken. He re-formed the left wing
in a semicircle, and aided by a few fresh brigades from Rossville,
resisted for six hours the efforts of the whole Confederate army.
Rosecrans in the meantime was rallying the fugitives far to the
rear near Chattanooga itself. The fury of Bragg's assault spent
itself uselessly on the heroic divisions under Thomas, who
remained on the field till night and then withdrew in good order
to Rossville. Here he remained on the 2ist, imposing respect
upon the victors. On the zand Rosecrans had re-established
order, and Thomas fell back quietly to Chattanooga, whither
Bragg slowly pursued. For the subsequent events of the campaign
see CHATTANOOGA. The losses in the battle bear witness to a
severity in the fighting unusual even in the American Civil War.
Of 70,000 Confederates engaged at least 18,000 were killed and
wounded, and the Federals lost 16,000 out of about 57,000.
The battlefield has been converted into a national park, and was
used during the Spanish American War (1898) as a place of
mobilization for the U.S. volunteers.

CHICKASAWS, a tribe of North American Indians of Musk-
hogean stock, now settled in the western part of Oklahoma.
Their former range was northern Mississippi and portions of
Tennessee. According to their own tradition and the evidence
of philology, they are closely connected with the Creeks and
Choctaws; and they believe that they emigrated with these
tribes from the west, crossed the Mississippi, and settled in the
district that now forms the north-east part of the state of that
name. Here they were visited by De Soto in 1540. From the
first they were hostile to the French colonists. With the English,
on the other hand, their relations were more satisfactory. In
1786 they made a treaty with the United States; and in 1793
they assisted the whites in their operations against the Creeks.
In the early years of the igih century part of their territory
was ceded for certain annuities, and a portion of the tribe
migrated to Arkansas; and in 1832-1834, the remainder,
amounting to about 3600, surrendered to the United States the
6,442,400 acres of which they were still possessed, and entered
into a treaty with the Choctaws for incorporation with that tribe.
In 1855, however, they effected a separation of this union, with
which they had soon grown dissatisfied, and by payment to
the Choctaws of $150,000 obtained a complete right to their
present territory. In the Civil War they joined the Confederates
and suffered in consequence; but their rights were restored by
the treaty of 1865. In 1866 they surrendered 7,000,000 acres;
and in 1873 they adopted their former slaves. They had an
independent government consisting of a governor, a senate,
and a house of representatives; but tribal government virtually
ceased in 1906. TheChickasawsof pure or mixed blood numbered
4826 in 1900, and with the fully admitted " citizens," i.e. the
freed slaves and adopted whites, the whole nation amounted to
some 10,000.

See Handbook of American Indians (Washington, 1907).

CHICKASHA, a city and the county-seat of Grady county,
Oklahoma, U. S. A., near the Washita river, about 45 m. S. S. W.
of Oklahoma city. Pop. (1900) 3209; (1907) 7862, including
1043 negroes; (1910) 10,320. Chickasha is served by the St Louis
& San Francisco, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific and the
Oklahoma Central railways. It is the trade centre of a very
fertile section of the Washita Valley, whose principal products
are Indian corn, cotton, fruits and vegetables and live-stock.
The city has various manufactures, including flour, cotton-seed
oil, lumber, furniture and farm implements. Chickasha was
founded in 1892 and was chartered as a city in 1899.

CHICKEN-POX (Syn. varicella, a Low Latin diminutive of
variola), a specific contagious disease characterized by an
eruption of vesicles in the skin. The disease usually occurs in
epidemics, and is one of childhood, the patients being generally

CHICLANA CHICORY

between two and six years old. The incubation period is from
ten to fifteen days; there are practically no prodromal symptoms,
the only indication being a slight amount of fever for some
twenty-four hours, after which the eruption makes its appearance.
A number of raised red papules appear on the trunk, either on
the back or chest; in from twelve to twenty-four hours these
develop into tense vesicles filled with a clear fluid, which in
another thirty-six hours or so becomes opalescent. During the
fourth day these vesicles dry and shrivel up, and the scabs fall
off, leaving as a rule no scar. Fresh spots appear during the first
three days, so that at the end of that time they can be seen
in all stages of growth and decay. The eruption is most marked
on the chest, but it also occurs on the face and limbs, and on the
mucous membrane of the mouth and palate. The temperature
begins to fall after the appearance of the rash, but a certain slight
amount may persist after the disappearance of all symptoms.
It rarely rises above 102 F. The disease runs a very favourable
course in the majority of cases, and after effects are rare. One
attack does not confer immunity, and hi numerous cases one
individual has had three attacks. The diet should be light,
and the patient should be prevented from scratching the spots,
which would lead to ulceration and scarring. After the first
few days there is no necessity to confine the patient to bed.
In the large majority of cases, it is easy to distinguish the disease
from smallpox, but in certain patients it is very difficult. The
chief points in the differential diagnosis are as follows, (i) In
chicken-pox the rash is distributed chiefly on the trunk, and
less on the limbs. (2) Some of the vesicles are oval, whereas in
smallpox they are always hemispherical. They are also more
superficial, and have not at the outset the hard shotty feeling
of the more virulent disease. (3) The vesicles attain their full
growth within twelve to twenty-four hours. (4) The pustules
are usually monocular. (5) There is no prodromal period.

CHICLANA, or CHICLANA DE LA FRONTERA, a town of southern
Spain, in the province of Cadiz, 12 m. by rail S.E. of Cadiz.
Pop. (1900) 10,868. Chidana occupies a fertile valley, watered
by the river Lirio, and sheltered, on the north and south, by
low hills covered with vines and plantations. It faces the gulf
of Cadiz, 3 m. W., and, from its mild climate and pleasant
surroundings, is the favourite summer residence of the richer
Cadiz merchants; its hot mineral springs also attract many
visitors. In the neighbourhood are the Roman ruins of Chiclana
la Vieja, the town of Medina Sidonia (q.v.), and, about 5 m. S.,
the battlefield of Barrosa, where the British under Sir Thomas
Graham (Lord Lynedoch) defeated the French under Marshal
Victor, on the sth of March 1811.

CHICOPEE, a city of Hampden county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
situated on the E. side of the Connecticut river, at the mouth
of the Chicopee river, immediately N. of Springfield. Pop.
(1890) 14,050; (1900) 19,167, of whom 8139 were foreign-born;
(1910, census) 25,401. Chicopee is served by the Boston &
Maine railway. The city, which has an area of about 25
sq. m., contains five villages, Chicopee Center, Chicopee Falls,
Willimansett, Fairview and Aldenville. Chicopee Falls lies on
both sides of the Chicopee river, which falls some 70 ft. in less
than 3 m. and furnishes valuable power for manufactories. The
most important products are cotton goods (two large factories
having, together, about 200,000 spindles), fire-arms (especially
the Stevens rifles), tools, rubber and elastic goods, sporting
goods, swords, automobiles and agricultural implements. Here,
too, is a bronze statuary foundry, in which some of the finest
monuments, bronze doors, &c., in the country have been cast,
including the doors of the Capitol at Washington. The bronze
casting industry here was founded by Nathan Peabody Ames
(1803-1847), who was first a sword-maker and in 1836 began
the manufacture of cannon and church bells. The total value
of the city's factory product in 1905 was $7,715,653, an increase
of 43-2% in five years. There is a public library. The muni-
cipality owns and operates the water-works system and the
electric lighting plant. Chicopee was settled about 1638, was
set off from Springfield as an independent township in 1848,
and was chartered as a city in 1890. Chicopee Falls was the

home of Edward Bellamy. The name of the city is an Indian
word meaning " cedar-tree " or " birch-bark place."

CHICORY. The chicory or succory plant, Cichorium Inly bus
(natural order, Compositae), in its wild state is a native of Great
Britain, occurring most frequently in dry chalky soils, and by
road-sides. It has a long fleshy tap-root, a rigid branching hairy
stem rising to a height of 2 or 3 ft. the leaves around the base
being lobed and toothed, not unlike those of the dandelion.
The flower heads are of a bright blue colour, few in number, and
measure nearly an inch and a half across. Chicory is cultivated
much more extensively on the continent of Europe in Holland,
Belgium, France and Germany than in Great Britain; and
as a cultivated plant it has three distinct applications. Its roots
roasted and ground are used as a substitute for, adulterant of,
or addition to coffee; both roots and leaves are employed as
salads; and the plant is grown as a fodder or herbage crop
which is greedily consumed by cattle. In Great Britain it is
chiefly in its first capacity, in connexion with coffee, that chicory
is employed. A large proportion of the chicory root used for
this purpose is obtained from Belgium and other neighbouring
continental countries; but a considerable quantity is cultivated
in England, chiefly in Yorkshire. For the preparation of chicory
the older stout white roots are selected, and after washing they
are sliced up into small pieces and kiln-dried. In this condition
the material is sold to the chicory roaster, by whom it is roasted
till it assumes a deep brown colour; afterwards when ground
it is in external characteristics very like coffee, but is destitute
of its pleasing aromatic odour. Neither does the roasted chicory
possess any trace of the alkaloid caffeine which giVes their
peculiar virtues to coffee and tea. The fact, however, that for
over a hundred years it has been successfully used as a sub-
stitute for or recognized addition to coffee, while in the meantime
innumerable other substances have been tried for the same pur-
pose and abandoned, indicates that it is agreeable and harmless.
It gives the coffee additional colour, bitterness and body. It is at
least in very extensive and general use; and in Belgium especi-
ally its infusion is largely drunk as an independent beverage.

The blanched leaves are much esteemed by the French as a
winter salad known by the name of Barbe de capucin. When
intended for winter use, chicory is sown in May or June, commonly
in drills, and the plants are thinned out to 4 in. apart. If at
first the leaves grow very strong, they are cut off, perhaps in
the middle of August, about an inch from the ground, so as to
promote the production of new leaves, and check the formation
of flower-stems. About the beginning of October the plants
are raised from the border, and all the large leaves cut off; the
roots are also shortened, and they are then planted pretty closely
together in boxes filled with rich light mould, and watered when
needful. When frost comes on, the boxes are protected by any
kind of litter and haulm. As the salad is wanted, they are re-
moved into some place having a moderately increased tempera-
ture, and where there is no light. Each box affords two crops
of blanched leaves, and these are reckoned fit for cutting when
about 6 in. long. Another mode of obtaining the young leaves
of this plant in winter is to sow seeds in a bed of light rich mould,
or in boxes in a heat of from 55 to 60, giving a gentle watering
as required. The leaves will be fit to be cut in a fortnight after
sowing, and the plants will afford a second crop.

In Belgium a variety of chicory called Witloef is much pre-
ferred as a salad to the French Barbe de capucin. The seeds
are sown and the plants thinned out like those of the ordinary
sort. They are eventually planted hi light soil, in succession,
from the end of October to February, at the bottom of trenches
a foot or more in depth, and covered over with from * to 3 ft.
of hot stable manure. In a month or six weeks, according to
the heat applied, the heads are fit for use and should be cut
before they reach the manure. The plants might easily be forced
in frames on a mild hot-bed, or in a mushroom-house, in the same
way as sea-kale. In Belgium the fresh roots are boiled and eaten
with butter, and throughout the Continent the roots are stored
for use as salads during winter.

See also ENDIVE (Cichorium endivia).

132

CHIDAMBARAM CHI-FU

CHIDAMBARAM, or CHEDUMBRUM, a town of British India,
in the South Arcot district of Madras, 7 m. from the coast and
151 m. S. of Madras by rail. Pop. (1901) 19,909. The pagodas
at Chidambaram are the oldest in the south of India, and portions
of them are gems of art. Here is supposed to have been the
northern frontier of the ancient Chola kingdom, the successive
capitals of which were Uriyur on the Cauvery, Combaconum
and Tanjore. The principal temple is sacred to Siva, and is
said to have been rebuilt or enlarged by a leper emperor, who
came south on a pilgrimage and was cured by bathing in the
temple tank; upwards of 60,000 pilgrims visit the temple every
December. It contains a " hall of a thousand pillars," one of
numerous such halls in India, the exact number of pillars in
this case being 984; each is a block of solid granite, and the
roof of the principal temple is of copper-gilt. Three hundred
of the highest-caste Brahmins live with their families within
the temple enclosure.

CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput), the head or upper
part of anything, and so, in heraldry, the upper part of the
escutcheon, occupying one-third of the whole. When applied
to a leading personage, a head man or one having the highest
authority, the term chief or chieftain (Med. Lat. capitanus,
O. Fr. chevetaine) is principally confined to the leader of a clan or
tribe. The phrase " in chief " (Med. Lat. in capite) is used in
feudal law of the tenant who holds his fief direct from the lord
paramount (see FEUDALISM).

CHIEMSEE, also called BAYRISCHES MEER, the largest lake in
Bavaria, lying on a high plateau 1600 ft. above the sea, between
the rivers Inn (to which it drains through the Alz) and Salzach.
With a length of 6 and a breadth of 9 m., it has an area of about
33 sq. m., and contains three islands, Herrenworth, Frauenworth
and Krautinsel. The first, which has a circumference of 6j m.
and is beautifully wooded, is remarkable for the romantic castle
which Louis II. of Bavaria erected here. It was the seat of a
bishop from 1215 to 1805, and until 1803 contained a Benedictine
monastery. The shores of the lake are flat on the north and south
sides, but its other banks are flanked by undulating hills, which
command beautiful and extensive views. The waters are clear
and it is well stocked with trout and carp; but the fishing rights
are strictly preserved. Steamers ply on the lake, and the railway
from Rosenheim to Salzburg skirts the southern shores.

CHIENG MAI, the capital of the Lao state of the same name
and of the provincial division of Siam called Bayap, situated in
99 o' E., 18 46' N. The town, enclosed by massive but decaying
walls, lies on the right bank of the river Me Ping, one of the
branches of the Me Nam, in a plain 800 ft. above sea-level,
surrounded by high, wooded mountains. It has streets intersect-
ing at right angles, and an enceinte within which is the palace
of the Chao, or hereditary chief. The east and west banks of the
river are connected by a fine teak bridge. The American Presby-
terian Mission, established here in 1867, has a large number of
converts and has done much good educational work. Chieng
Mai, which the Burmese have corrupted into Zimme, by which
name it is known to many Europeans, has long been an important
trade centre, resorted to by Chinese merchants from the north
and east, and by Burmese, Shans and Siamese from the west and
south. It is, moreover, the centre of the teak trade of Siam, in
which many Burmese and several Chinese and European firms
are engaged. The total value of the import and export trade
of the Bayap division amounts to about 2,500,000 a year. The
Siamese high commissioner of Bayap division has his head-
quarters in Chieng Mai, and though the hereditary chief continues
as the nominal ruler, as is also the case in the other Lao states
of Nan, Pre, Lampun, Napawn Lampang and Tern, which make
up the division, the government is entirely in the hands of that
official and his staff. The government forest department,
founded in 1896, has done good work in the division, and the
conservator of forests has his headquarters in Chieng Mai.
The headquarters of an army division are also situated here.
A British consul resides at Chieng Mai, where, in addition to the
ordinary law courts, there is an international court having
jurisdiction in all cases in which British subjects are parties.

The population, about 20,000, consists mainly of Laos,with many
Shans, a few Burmese, Chinese and Siamese and some fifty
Europeans. Hill tribes (Ka) inhabit the neighbouring mountains
in large numbers.

Chieng Mai was formerly the capital of a united Lao kingdom,
which, at one time independent, afterwards subject to Burma
and then to Siam, and later broken up into a number of states, has
finally become a provincial division of Siam. In 1902 a rising
of discontented Shans took place in Bayap which at one time
seemed serious, several towns being attacked and Chieng Mai
itself threatened. The disturbance was quelled and the malcon-
tents eventually hunted out, but not without losses which in-
cluded the commissioner of Pre and a European officer of
gendarmerie.

CHIERI, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the
province of Turin, 13 m. S.E. by rail and 8 m. by road from the
town of Turin. Pop. (1901) 11,929 (town), 13,803 (commune).
Its Gothic cathedral, founded in 1037 and reconstructed in 1405,
is the largest in Piedmont, and has a i3th century octagonal
baptistery. Chieri was subject to the bishop of Turin in the gth
and loth centuries, it became independent in the nth century.
In 1347 it submitted voluntarily to Count Amedeus VI. of Savoy
to save itself from the marquis of Monferrato, and finally came
under the dominion of Savoy in the i6th century. In 1785 it
was made into a principality of the duke of Aosta. It was an
early centre of trade and manufacture; and hi the middle of
the isth century produced about 100,000 pieces of cotton
goods per annum.

See L. Cibrario, Delle storie di Chieri (Turin, 1855),

CHIETI, a city of the Abruzzi, Italy, the capital of the province
of Chieti, and the seat of an archbishop, 140 m. E.N.E. of Rome
by rail, and 9 m. W. of Castellammare Adriatico. Pop. (1901)
26,368. It is situated at a height of 1083 ft. above sea-level,
3 m. from the railway station, from which it is reached by an
electric tramway. It commands a splendid view of the Apennines
on every side except the east, where the Adriatic is seen. It is
an active modern town, upon the site of the ancient Teate
Marrucinorum (<?..), with woollen and cotton manufactories
and other smaller industries. The origin of the see of Chieti dates
from the 4th century, S. Justinus being the first bishop. The
cathedral has been spoilt by restoration, and the decoration of
the exterior is incomplete; the Gothic campanile of 1335 is,
however, fine. The cathedral possesses two illuminated missals.
Close by is the town hall, which contains a small picture gallery,
in which, in 1905, was held an important exhibition of ancient
Abruzzese art. The de Laurentiis family possesses a private
collection of some importance. To the north of Chieti is the
octagonal church of S. Maria del Tricaglio, erected hi 1317, which
is said (without reason) to stand upon the site of a temple of
Diana. The order of the Theatines, founded in 1524, takes its
name from the city. Under the Lombards Chieti formed part
of the duchy of Benevento; it was destroyed by Pippin in 801,
but was soon rebuilt and became the seat of a count. The
Normans made it the capital of the Abruzzi.

CHI-FU, CHEFOO, or YEN-T'AI (as it is called by the natives),
a seaport of northern China, on the southern coast of the Gulf
of Chih-li, in the province of Shan-tung, near the mouth of the
Yi-ho, about 30 m. E. of the city of Teng-chow-fu. It was
formerly quite a small place, and had only the rank of an un-
walled village; but it was chosen as the port of Teng-chow, opened
to foreign trade in 1858 by the treaty of Tientsin, and it is now
the residence of a Tao-t'ai, or intendant of circuit, the centre of
a gradually increasing commerce, and the seat of a British
consulate, a Chinese custom-house, and a considerable foreign
settlement. The native town is yearly extending, and though
most of the inhabitants are small shop-keepers and coolies of the
lowest class, the houses are for the most part well and solidly
built of stone. The foreign settlement occupies a position
between the native town and the sea, which neither affords a
convenient access for shipping nor allows space for any great
extension of area. Its growth, however, has hitherto been
steady and rapid. Various streets have been laid out, a large

CHIGI-ALBANI CHIHUAHUA

133

MJJ-

hotel erected for the reception of the visitors who resort to the
place as a sanatorium in summer, and the religious wants of the
community are supplied by a Roman Catholic and a Protestant
church. Though the harbour is deep and extensive, and possessed
of excellent anchorage, large vessels have to be moored at a
considerable distance from the shore. Chi-fu has continued to
show fair progress as a place of trade, but the total volume is
inconsiderable, having regard to the area it supplies. In 1880
the total exports and imports were valued at 2,724,000, in
1899 they amounted to 4,228,000, and in 1904 to 4,909,908.
In 1895 there entered the port 905 vessels representing a tonnage

835,248 tons, while in 1905 the number of vessels had risen to
2, representing a tonnage of 1,492,514 tons. The imports
mainly woollen and cotton goods, iron and opium, and the
exports include bean cake, bean oil, peas, raw silk, straw-braid,
jiuts, a coarse kind of vermicelli, vegetables and dried fruits.

immunication with the interior is only by roads, which are
extremely defective, and nearly all the traffic is by pack animals.
From its healthy situation and tLe convenience of its anchorage,
Chi-fu has become a favourite rendezvous for the fleets of the
European powers in Chinese waters, and consequently it has
at times been an important coaling station. It lies in close
imity to Korea, Port Arthur and Wei-hai-Wei, and it
,red to some extent in the excitement to which the military

d naval operations in these quarters gave rise. The Chi-fu
mention was signed here in 1876 by Sir Thomas Wade and

i-Hung-Chang.

CHIGI-ALBANI, the name of a Roman princely family of
iienese extraction descended from the counts of Ardenghesca.
The earliest authentic mention of them is in the i3th century,
and they first became famous in the person of Agostino Chigi
(d. 1520), an immensely rich banker who built the palace and
gardens afterwards known as the Farnesina, decorated by
Raphael, and was noted for the splendour of his entertainments;
Pope Julius II. made him practically his finance minister and
gave him the privilege cf quartering his own (Delia Rovere)
arms with those of the Chigi. Fabio Chigi, on being made pope
(Alexander VII.) in 1655, conferred the Roman patriciate on his
family, and created his nephew Agostino prince of Farnese and
duke of Ariccia, and the emperor Leopold I. created the latter
Reichsftirst (prince of the Holy Roman Empire) in 1659. In
1712 the family received the dignity of hereditary marshals of
the Church and guardians of the conclaves, which gave them a
very great importance on the death of every pope. On the
marriage in 1735 of another Agostino Chigi (1710-1769) with
Giulia Albani, heiress of the Albani, a Venetian patrician family,
said to be of Albanian origin, her name was added to that of Chigi.
family owns large estates at Siena.

See A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, vol. iii. (Berlin,
i) ; Almanack de Gotha.

CHIGWELL, a parish and residential district in the Epping
parliamentary division of Essex, England; with stations
(Chigwell Lane and Chigwell) on two branches of the Great
Eastern railway, 12 m. N.E. from London. Pop. (1901) 2508.
The old village church of St Mary, principally Perpendicular,
has a Norman south door. The village lies in a branch of the
Roding valley, fragments of Hainault Forest lying to the south
and east, bordering the village of Chigwell Row. The village of
Chigwell appears in the Domesday survey. The pleasant scenery
of the neighbourhood, which attracts large numbers both of
itors and of residents from London, is described in Dickens's
ivel, Barnaby Rudge, and the King's Head Inn, Dickens's
Maypole," still stands. The old grammar school, founded by
iuel Harsnett, archbishop of York (d. 1631), whose fine
l brass is in St Mary's church, has become one of the
,or modern institutions of the English public school type,
illiam Penn attended school at Chigwell from his home at
'anstead.

CHIH-LI ("Direct Rule"), the metropolitan province of
" ina, in which is situated Peking, the capital of the empire,
contains eleven prefectural cities, and occupies an area of
,950 sq. m. The population is 29,400,000, the vast majority

of whom are resident in the plain country. This province forms
part of the great delta plain of China proper, 20,000 sq. m. of
which are within the provincial boundaries; the remainder of
the territory consists of the mountain ranges which define its
northern and western frontier. The plain of Chih-li is formed
principally by detritus deposited by the Pei-ho and its tributary
the Hun-ho (" muddy river "), otherwise known as the Yung-
ting-ko, and other streams having their sources in mountains of
Shan-si and other ranges. It is bounded E. by the Gulf of
Chih-li and Shan-tung, and S. by Shan-tung and Ho-nan. The
proportion of Mahommedans among the population is very
large. In Peking there are said to be as many as 20,000 Mahom-
medan families, and in Pao-ting Fu, the capital of the province,
there are about 1000 followers of the prophet. The extremes of
heat and cold in Chih-li are very marked. During the months of
December, January and February the rivers are frozen up, and
even the Gulf of Chih-li is fringed with a broad border of ice.
There are four rivers of some importance in the province: the
Pei-ho, with the-Hun-ho, which rises in the mountains in Mongolia
and, flowing to the west of Peking, forms a junction with the
Pei-ho at Tientsin; the Shang-si-ho, which rises in the mountains
on the north of the province of Shan-si, and takes a south-easterly
course as far as the neighbourhood of Ki Chow, from which point
it trends north-east and eventually joines the Hun-ho some ism.
above Tientsin; the Pu-to-ho, which rises in Shan-si, and after
running a parallel course to Shang-si-ho on the south, empties
itself in the same way into the Hun-ho; and the Lan-ho, which
rises in Mongolia, enters the province on the north-east after
passing to the west of Jehol, passes the city of Yung-'p'ing Fu
in its course (which is south-easterly) through Chih-li, and from
thence winds its way to the north-eastern boundary of the Gulf
of Chih-li. The province contains three lakes of considerable
size. The largest is the Ta-lu-tsze Hu, which lies in 37 40' N.
and 115 20' E.; the second in importance is one which is
situated to the east of Pao-ting Fu; and the third is the Tu-
lu-tsze Hu, which lies east by north of Shun-te Fu. Four high
roads radiate from Peking, one leading to Urga by way of
Siian-hwa Fu, which passes through the Great Wall at Chang-kiu
K'ow; another, which enters Mongolia through the Ku-pei K'ow
to the north-east, and after continuing that course as far as
Fung-ning turns in a north-westerly direction to Dolonnor; a
third striking due east by way of T'ung-chow and Yung-p'ing Fu
to Shan-hai Kwan, the point where the Great Wall terminates
on the coast; and a fourth which trends in a south-westerly-
direction to Pao-ting Fu and on to T'ai-yuen Fu in Shan-si.
The mountain ranges to the north of the province abound with
coal, notably at Chai-tang, T'ai-gan-shan, Miao-gan-ling, and
Fu-tao in the Si-shan or Western Hills. " At Chai-tang," wrote
Baron von Richthofen, " I was surprised to walk over a regular
succession of coal-bearing strata, the thickness of which, estimat-
ing it step by step as I proceeded gradually from the lowest to
the highest strata, exceeds 7000 ft." The coal here is anthracite,
as is also that at T'ai-gan-shan, where are found beds of greater
value than any in the neighbourhood of Peking. In Suan-hwa
Fu coal is also found, but not in such quantities as in the places
above named. Iron and silver also exist in small quantities in
different parts of the province, and hot and warm springs are
very common at the foot of the hills along the northern and
western edges of the province. The principal agricultural pro-
ducts are wheat, kao-liang, oats, millet, maize, pulse and
potatoes. Fruits and vegetables are also grown in large
quantities. Of the former the chief kinds are pears, apples,
plums, apricots, peaches, persimmons and melons. Tientsin is
the Treaty Port of the province.

CHIHUAHUA, a northern frontier state of Mexico, bounded
N. and N.E. by the United States (New Mexico and Texas),
E. by Coahuila, S. by Durango, and W. by Sinaloa and Sonora.
Pop. (1895) 260,008; (1900) 327,784. Area, 87,802 sq. m.
The surface of the state is in great part an elevated plateau,
sloping gently toward the Rio Grande. The western side, how-
ever, is much broken by the Sierra Madre and its spurs, which
form elevated valleys of great fertility. An arid sandy plain

134

CHIHUAHUA CHILD, SIR F.

extending from the Rio Grande inland for 300 to 350 m. is quite
destitute of vegetation where irrigation is not used. There is
little rainfall in this region and the climate is hot and dry. The
more elevated plateaus and valleys have the heavier rainfall,
but the average for the state is barely 39 in.; an impermeable
clay substratum prevents its absorption by the soil, and the
bare surface carries it off in torrents. The great Bolson de
Mapimf depression, in the S.E. part of the state, was once
considered to be an unreclaimable desert, but experiments with
irrigation have shown its soil to be highly fertile, and the con-
version of the narrow valleys of the sierras on the west into
irrigation reservoirs promises to reclaim a considerable part of
its area. The only river of consequence is the Conchos, which
flows north and north-east into the Rio Grande across the whole
length of the state. In the north there are several small streams
flowing northward into lakes. Agriculture has made little
progress in Chihuahua, and the scarcity of water will always
be a serious obstacle to its development outside the districts
where irrigation is practicable. The climate and soil are favour-
able to the production of wheat, Indian corn, beans, indigo,
cotton and grapes, from which wine and brandy are made.
The principal grape-producing district is in the vicinity of
Ciudad Juarez. Stock-raising is an important industry in the
mountainous districts of the west, where there is excellent
pasturage for the greate.r part of the year. The principal in-
dustry of the state, however, is mining its mineral resources
including gold, silver, copper, mercury, lead and coal. The
silver mines of Chihuahua are among the richest in Mexico, and
include the famous mining districts of Batopilas, Chihuahuilla,
Cosihuiriachic, Jesus Maria, Parral, and Santa Eulalia or
Chihuahua el Viejo. There are more than one hundred of these
mines, and the total annual yield at the end of the igth century
was estimated at $4,500,000. The state is traversed from
north to south by the Mexican Central railway, and there are
short branches to some of the mining districts.

Chihuahua originally formed part of the province of Nueva
Viscaya, with Durango as the capital. In 1777 the northern
provinces, known as the Provincias Internas, were separated
from the viceroyalty, and in 1786 the provinces were reorganized
as intendencias, but Chihuahua was not separated from Durango
until 1823. An effort was made to overthrow Spanish authority
in 1810, but its leader Hidalgo and two of his lieutenants were
captured and executed, after which the province remained
passive until the end of the struggle. The people of the state
have been active partizans in most of the revolutionary outbreaks
in Mexico, and in the war of 1862-66 Chihuahua was loyal to
Juarez. The principal towns are the capital Chihuahua, El
Parral, 120 m. S.S.E. of the state capital, in a rich mining district
(pop. 14,748 in 1900), Ciudad Juarez and Jimenez, 120 m. S.E.
of Chihuahua (pop. 5881 in 1900).

CHIHUAHUA, a city of Mexico, capital of the above state,
on the Chihuahua river, about 1000 m. N.W. of Mexico City
and 225 m. S. by E. of El Paso. Pop. (1895) 18,279; (1900)
30,405. The city stands in a beautiful valley opening northward
and hemmed in on all other sides by spurs of the Sierra Madre.
It is 4635 ft. above sea-level, and its climate is mild and healthy.
The city is laid out regularly, with broad streets, and a handsome
plaza with a monument to Hidalgo and his companions of the
revolution of 1810, who were executed here. The most note-
worthy of its public buildings is the fine old parish church of
San Francisco, begun in 1717 and completed in 1789, one of the
best specimens of 18th-century architecture in Mexico. It was
built, it is said, with the proceeds of a small tax on the output of
the Santa Eulalia mine. Other prominent buildings are the
government palace, the Porfirio Diaz hospital, the old Jesuit
College (now occupied by a modern institution of the same
character), the mint, and an aqueduct built in the i8th century.
Chihuahua is a station on the Mexican Central railway, and has
tramways and telephones. Mining is the principal occupation
of the surrounding district, the famous Santa Eulalia or Chihuahua
el Viejo mines being about 12 m. from the city. Next in im-
portance is agriculture, especially fruit-growing. Manufacturing

is making good progress, especially the weaving of cotton fabrics
by modern methods. The manufacture of cotton and woollen
goods are old industries in Chihuahua, but the introduction of
American skill and capital toward the end of the igih century
placed them on an entirely new footing. The manufacture
of gunpowder for mining operations is another old industry.

Chihuahua was founded between 1703 and 1705 as a mining
town, and was made a villa in 1715 with the title San Felipe el
Real de Chihuahua. Because of the rich mines in its vicinity
it soon became one of the most prosperous towns in northern
Mexico, although the state was constantly raided by hostile
Indians. In 1763 it had a population of nearly 5000. The war
of independence was followed by a period of decline, owing to
political disorder and revolution, which lasted until the presidency
of General Porfirio Diaz. In the war between Mexico and the
United States, Chihuahua was captured on the ist of March
1847, by Colonel A. W. Doniphan, and again on the 7th of March
by General Price. In 1864 President Juarez made the city his
provisional capital for a short time.

CHILAS, a hill village in the North-West Frontier Province
of India. It is dominated by a fort on the left bank of the
Indus, about 50 m. below Bunji, 4100 ft. above sea-level. It
was occupied by a British force early in 1893, when a determined
attack was made on the place by the Kohistanis from the Indus
valley districts to the south-west, aided by contingents from
Darel and Tangir west of Gilgit and north of the Indus. Its
importance consists in its position with reference to the Kashmir-
Gilgit route via Astor, which it flanks. It is now connected with
Bunji by a metalled road. Chilas is also important from its
command of a much shorter and more direct route to Gilgit
from the Punjab frontier than that of Kashmir and the Burzil
pass. By the Kashmir route Gilgit is 400 m. from the rail-head
at Rawalpindi. The Kagan route would bring it 100 m. nearer,
but the unsettled condition of the country through which the
road passes has been a bar to its general use.

CHILBLAINS (or KIBE; Erythema pernio), a mild form of
frostbite, affecting the fingers or toes and other parts, and causing
a painful inflammatory swelling, with redness and itching of
the affected part. The chief points to be noticed in its aetiology
are (i) that the lesions occur in the extremities of the circulation,
and (2) that they are usually started by rapid changes from
heat to cold or vice versa. The treatment is both general and
local. In the general treatment, if a history of blanching fingers
(fingers or hands going " dead ") can be obtained, the chilblains
may be regarded as mild cases of Raynaud's disease, and these
improve markedly under a course of nitrites. Cardiac tonics are
often helpful, especially in those cases where there is some
attendant lesion of the heart. But the majority of cases improve
wonderfully on a good course of a calcium salt, e.g. calcium
lactate or chloride; fifteen grains three times a day will answer
in most cases. The patient should wash in soft tepid water, and
avoid extremes of heat and cold. In the local treatment, two
drugs are of great value in the early congestive stage ichthyol
and formalin. Ichthyol, 10 to 20% in lanoline spread on linen
and worn at night, often dispels an attack at the beginning.
Formalin is equally efficacious, but requires more skill in its use.
It can be used as an ointment, 10 to 50% for delicate skins, stronger
for coarser skins. It should be replaced occasionally by lanoline.
If the stage of ulceration has been reached, a paste made from
the following prescription, spread thickly on linen and frequently
changed, soon cures: Hydrarg. ammoniat. gr. v., ichthyol
1Ux, pulveris zinci oxidi 3i v . vaseline 5ss.

CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713), English banker, was a
Wiltshire man, who, having been apprenticed to a goldsmith,
became himself a London goldsmith in 1664. In 1671 he married
Elizabeth (d. 1720), daughter of another goldsmith named
William Wheeler (d. 1663), and with his wife's stepfather,
Robert Blanchard (d. 1681), took over about the same time the
business of goldsmiths hitherto carried on by the Wheelers.
This was the beginning of Child's Bank. Child soon gave up
the business of a goldsmith and confined himself to that of a
banker. He inherited some wealth and was very successful in

CHILD, F. J. CHILD, L. M.

135

business; he was jeweller to the king, and lent considerable
sums of money to the government. Being a freeman of the city
of London, Child was elected a member of the court of common
council in 1681; in 1689 he became an alderman, and in the
same year a knight. He served as sheriff of London in 1691
and as lord mayor in 1699. His parliamentary career began
about this time. In 1698 he was chosen member of parliament
for Devizes and in 1702 for the city of London, and was again
returned for Devizes in 1705 and 1710. He died on the 4th of
October 1713, and was buried in Fulham churchyard. Sir
Francis, who was a benefactor to Christ's hospital, bought
Osterley Park, near Isleworth, now the residence of his descendant
the earl of Jersey.

Child had twelve sons. One, Sir Robert, an alderman, died
1721. Another, Sir Francis (c. 1684-1740), was lord mayor
London in 1732, and a director of the East India Company.
He was chosen member of parliament for the city of London in
1722, and was member for Middlesex from 1727 until his death.
After the death of the younger Sir Francis at Fulham on the
of April 1740 the banking business passed to his brother
;uel, and the bank is still owned by his descendants, the
incipal proprietor being the earl of Jersey. Child's Bank was
first conducted at the Marygold, next Temple Bar in Fleet
:t, London; and the present bank occupies the site formerly
r ered by the Marygold and the adjacent Devil tavern.
CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896), American scholar and
lucationist, was born in Boston on the ist of February 1825.
He graduated at Harvard in 1846, taking the highest rank in his
class in all subjects; was tutor in mathematics in 1846-1848;
and in 1848 was transferred to a tutorship in history, political
economy and English. After two years of study in Europe, in
1851 he succeeded Edward T. Channing as Boylston professor
of rhetoric, oratory and elocution. Child studied the English
drama (having edited Four Old Plays in 1848) and Germanic
philology, the latter at Berlin and Gottingen during a leave of
absence, 1849-1853; and he took general editorial supervision
of a large collection of the British poets, published in Boston in
1853 and following years. He edited Spenser (5 vols., Boston,
1855), and at one time planned an edition of Chaucer, but con-
tented himself with a treatise, in the Memoirs of the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences for 1863, entitled " Observations
on the Language of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales," which did
much to establish Chaucerian grammar, pronunciation and
scansion as now generally understood. His largest undertaking,
however, grew out of an original collection, in his British Poets
series, of English and Scottish Ballads, selected and edited by
himself, in eight small volumes (Boston, 1857-1858). Thence-
forward the leisure of his life much increased by his transfer,
in 1876, to the new professorship of English was devoted to
the comparative study of British vernacular ballads. He ac-
cumulated, in the university library, one of the largest folklore
collections in existence, studied manuscript rather than printed
sources, and carried his investigations into the ballads of all
other tongues, meanwhile giving a sedulous but conservative
hearing to popular versions still surviving. At last his final
collection was published as The English and Scottish Popular
'ads, at first in ten parts (1882-1898), and then in five quarto
.umes, which remain the authoritative treasury of their
ibject. Professor Child worked and overworked to the last,
in Boston on the nth of September 1896, having com-
ted his task save for a general introduction and bibliography,
sympathetic biographical sketch was prefixed to the work by

pupil and successor George L. Kittredge.
CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690), governor of Bombay, and in fact
not in name the first governor-general of the British settlements
India, was born in London. He was sent as a little boy to his
;cle, the chief of the factory at Rajapur; and in 1682 was
inted chief of the East India Company's affairs at Surat
id Bombay, while at the same time his brother, Sir Josiah
!d (q.v.), was governor of the company at home. The two
thers showed themselves strong men and guided the affairs
of the company through the period of struggle between the

Moguls and Mahrattas. They have been credited by history
with the change from unarmed to armed trade on the part of the
company; but as a matter of fact both of them were loth to
quarrel with the Mogul. War broke out with Aurangzeb in 1689,
but in the following year Child had to sue for peace, one of the
conditions being that he should be expelled from India. He
escaped this expulsion by his death in 1690.

CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (1630-1699), English merchant,
economist and governor of the East India Company, was born in
London in 1630, the second son of Richard Child, a London
merchant of old family. After serving his apprenticeship in
the business, to which he succeeded, he started on his own account
at Portsmouth, as victualler to the navy under the Common-
wealth, when about twenty-five. He amassed a comfortable
fortune, and became a considerable stock-holder in the East India
Company, his interest in India being accentuated by the fact
that his brother John (q.v.) was making his career there. He
was returned to parliament in 1659 for Petersfield; and in later
years sat for Dartmouth (1673-1678) and for Ludlow (1685-
1687). He was made a baronet in 1678. His advocacy, both by
speech and by pen, under the pseudonym of Philopatris, of the
East India Company's claims to political power, as well as to
the right of restricting competition with its trade, brought him
to the notice of the shareholders, and he became a director in
1677, and, subsequently, deputy-governor and governor. In
this latter capacity he was for a considerable time virtually the
sole ruler of the company, and directed its policy as if it were his
own private business. He and his brother have been credited
with the change from unarmed to armed traffic; but the actual
renunciation of the Roe doctrine of unarmed traffic by the
company was resolved upon in January 1686, under Governor
Sir Joseph Ash, when Child was temporarily out of office. He
died on the 22nd of June 1699. Child made several important
contributions to the literature of economics; especially Brief
Observations concerning Trade and the Interest of Money (1668),
and A New Discourse of Trade (1668 and 1690). He was a
moderate in those days of the " mercantile system," and has
sometimes been regarded as a sort of pioneer in the development
of the free-trade doctrines of the i8th century. He made various
proposals for improving British trade by following Dutch ex-
ample, and advocated a low rate of interest as the " causa causans
of all the other causes of the riches of the Dutch people." This
low rate of interest he thought should be created and maintained
by public authority. Child, whilst adhering to the doctrine of
the balance of trade, observed that a people cannot always sell
to foreigners without ever buying from them, and denied that
the export of the precious metals was necessarily detrimental.
He had the mercantilist partiality for a numerous population,
and became prominent with a new scheme for the relief and
employment of the poor; it is noteworthy also that he advocated
the reservation by the mother country of the sole right of trade
with her colonies. Sir Josiah Child's eldest son, Richard, was
created Viscount Castlemain in 1718 and earl of Tylney in 1731.

~" See also Macaulay, History of England, vol. iv. ; R. Grant, Sketch
of the History of the East India Company (1813); D. Macpherson,
Annals of Commerce (1805); B. Willson, Ledger and Sword (1903).

(T.A.f.)

CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880), American author, was
born at Medford, Massachusetts, on the nth of February 1802.
She was educated at an academy in her native town and by her
brother Convers Francis (1795-1863), a Unitarian minister and
from 1842 to 1863 Parkman professor in the Harvard Divinity
School. Her first stories, Hobomok (1824) and The Rebels (1825),
were popular successes. She was a schoolmistress until 1828,
when she married David Lee Child (1794-1874), a brilliant but
erratic Boston lawyer and journalist. From 1826 to 1834 she
edited The Juvenile Miscellany, the first children's monthly
periodical in the United States. About 1831 both she and her
husband began to identify themselves with the anti-slavery
cause, and in 1833 she published An Appeal for that Class of
Americans called Africans, a stirring portrayal of the evils of
slavery, and an argument for immediate abolition, which had

136

CHILD

a powerful influence in winning recruits to the anti-slavery cause.
Henceforth her time was largely devoted to the anti-slavery
cause. From 1840 to 1844, assisted by her husband, she edited
the A nti-Slavery Standard in New York City. After the Civil War
she wrote much in behalf of the freedmen and of Indian rights.
She died at Wayland, Massachusetts, on the zoth of October
1880. In addition to the books above mentioned, she wrote many
pamphlets and short stories and The (American) Frugal House-
wife (1829), one of the earliest American books on domestic
economy, The Mother's Book (1831), a pioneer cook-book
republished in England and Germany, The Girls' Own Book
(1831), History of Women (2 vols., 1832), Good Wives (1833),
The Anti-Slavery Catechism (1836), PhUothea (1836), a romance
of the age of Pericles, perhaps her best book, Letters from New
York (2 vols., 1843-1845), Fact and Fiction (1847), The Power
of Kindness (1851), Isaac T. Hopper: a True Life (1853), 1 he
Progress of Religious Ideas through Successive Ages (3 vols., 1855),
Autumnal Leaves (1857), Looking Toward Sunset (1864), The
Freedman's Book (1865), A Romance of the Republic (1867),
and Aspirations of the World (1878).

See The Letters of Lydia Maria Child, with a Biographical Intro-
duction by J. G. Whittier (Boston, 1883) ; and a chapter in T. W.
Higginson's Contemporaries (Boston, 1899).

CHILD, the common term for the offspring of human beings,
generally below the age of puberty; the term is the correlative
of " parent, ' ' and applies to either sex, though some early dialecti-
cal uses point to a certain restriction to a girl. The word is
derived from the A.S. cild, an old Teutonic word found in English
only, in other Teutonic languages kind and its variants being used,
usually derived from the Indo-European root ken, seen in Gr.
ybm, Lat. genus, and Eng. " kin "; cild has been held to be a
modification of the same root, but the true root is kilth, seen
in Goth. kUthei, womb, an origin which appears in the expressions
"child-birth," "to be with child," and the like; the plural
in A.S. was cild, and later cildru, which in northern M.E. became
childre or childer, a form dialectically extant, and in southern
English childeren or children (with the plural termination -en,
as in " brethren "). There are several particular uses of " child "
in the English version of the Bible, as of a ycung man in the
" Song of the three holy children," of descendants or members
of a race, as in " children of Abraham," and also to express
origin, giving a description of character, as " children of dark-
ness." During the I3th and I4th centuries " child " was used,
in a sense almost amounting to a title of dignity, of a young man
of noble birth, probably preparing for knighthood. In the
York Mysteries of about 1440 (quoted in the New English
Dictionary) occurs "be he churl or child," obviously referring
to gentle birth, cf. William Bellenden's translation (1553) of
Livy (ii. 124) " than was in Rome ane nobill childe . . . namit
Caius Mucius." The spelling " childe " is frequent in modern
usage to indicate its archaic meaning. Familiar instances are
in the line of an old ballad quoted in King Lear, " childe Roland
to the dark tower came," and in Byron's Childe Harold. With
this use may be compared the Spanish and Portuguese Infante
and Infanta, and the early French use of Valet (?..)

Child-study. The physical, psychological and educational
development of children, from birth till adulthood, has provided
material in recent years for what has come to be regarded as
almost a distinct part of comparative anthropological or socio-
logical science, and the literature of adolescence (q.v.) and of
" child-study " in its various
aspects has attained consider-
able proportions. In England
the British Child Study
Association was founded in
1894, its official organ being
the Paidologist, while similar
work is done by the Childhood
Society, and, to a certain
extent, by the Parents'
National Educational Union
(which issues the Parents'

Review). In America, where specially valuable work has
been done, several universities have encouraged the study
(notably Chicago, while under the auspices of Professor John
Dewey); and Professor G. Stanley Hall's initiative has
led to elaborate inquiries, the principal periodical for the move-
ment being the Pedagogical Seminary. The impetus to this
study of the child's mind and capacities was given by the classic
work of educationists like J. A. Comenius, J. H. Pestalozzi, and
F. W. A. Froebel, but more recent writers have carried it
much further, notably W. T. Preyer (The Mind of the Child, 1881),
whose psychological studies stamp him as one of the chief
pioneers in new methods of investigation. Other authorities of
first-rate importance (their chief works only being given here)
are J. Sully (Studies of Childhood, 1896), Earl Barnes (Studies in
Education, 1896, 1902), J. M. Baldwin (Mental Development in the
Child and the Race, 1895), Sigismund (Kind und Welt, 1897),
A. F. Chamberlain (TheChild, 1900), G.Stanley Hall (Adolescence,
1904; he had from 1882 been the leader in America of such
investigations), H. Holman and R. Langdon Down (Practical
Child Stu/Iy, 1899), E. A. Kirkpa trick (Fundamentals of Child-
study, 1903), and Prof. Tracy of Toronto (Psychology of Childhood,
5th ed., 1901); while among a number of contributions worth
particular attention may be mentioned W. B. Drummond's
excellent summary, Introduction to Child Study (1907), which deals
succinctly with methods and results; Irving King's Psychology
of Child Development (1906, useful for its bibliography); Prof.
David R.' Major's First Steps in Mental Growth (1906); and
Miss M. Shinn's Notes on the Development of a Child (1893) and
Mrs Louise E. Hogan's Study of a Child (1898), which are note-
worthy among individual and methodical accounts of what
children will do. In such books as those cited a great deal of
important material has been collected and analysed, and a
number of conclusions suggested which bear both on psychology
and the science of education; but it must be borne in mind,
as regards a great deal of the voluminous literature of the subject,
that it is often more pertinent to general psychology and
hygiene than to any special conclusions as to the essential nature
of a child whatever " a child " generically may be as the special
object of a special science. The child, after all, is in a transition
stage to an adult, and there is often a tendency in modern " child
students " to'interpret the phenomena exhibited by a particular
child with a parti pris, or to exaggerate child-study which is
really interesting as providing the knowledge of growth towards
full human equipment as though it involved the discovery of
some distinct form of animal, of separate value on its own account.
Growth. Into the psychical characteristics and development
of the child and all the interesting educational problems involved
it is impossible to enter here, and reference must be made to the
works cited above. But a knowledge of the more important
features of normal physical development has a constant import-
ance. Some of these, as matters of comparative physiology or
pathology, are dealt with in other articles in this work. One of
these chief matters of interest is weight and height, and this is
naturally affected by race, nutrition and environment. But
while the standard in different countries somewhat differs, the
British average for healthy children may here be followed.
At birth the average weight of a baby is a little over 7 Ib and the
length about 20 in. The following are the averages for weight
and height, taking the age in years of the child at the last
birthday:

Height, in inches.

Age.

Girls .
Boys .

28-7
29

32-5
32-5

38
38

4'5
41

42-8
44

44-5
46

46-6
47

48-7
49

5i
51-8

53-1
53-5

55-6
55

57-7
57

59-8
59'3

60-9
62

Weight, in pounds.

Age.

Girls . .
Boys .

19-8
20-5

25-5

26-5

30
31-2

34
35

39-2
41-2

41-7
44.4

47-5
49-7

52-1
54-9

55-5
60-4

62
67-5

68
72

76-4
76-7

87-2
82-6

96-7
92

102-7
106

CHILDEBERT CHILDERS, H. C. E.

137

See also CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO; CHILDREN'S COURTS;
CHILDREN'S GAMES; INFANT; &c.

CHILDEBERT, the name of three Prankish kings.

CHILDEBERT I. (d. 558) was one of the four sons of Clovis.
In the partition of his father's realm in 511 he received as his
share the town of Paris, and the country to the north as far as
the river Somme, and to the west as far as the English Channel,
with the Armorican peninsula. In 524, after the murder of
Chlodomer's children, Childebert annexed the cities of Chartres
and Orleans. He took part in the various expeditions against
the kingdom of Burgundy, and in 534 received as his share
of the spoils of that kingdom the towns of Macon, Geneva and
Lyons. When Vitiges, the king of the Ostrogoths, ceded Provence
to the Franks in 535, the possession of Aries and Marseilles was
guaranteed to Childebert by his brothers. Childebert also made
a series of expeditions against the Visigoths of Spain; in 542 he
took possession of Pampeluna with the help of his brother
Clotaire I., and besieged Saragossa, but was forced to retreat.
From this expedition he brought back to Paris a precious relic,
the tunic of St Vincent, in honour of which he built at the gates
of Paris the famous monastery of St Vincent, known later as St
Germain-des-Pres. He died without issue in 558, and was
buried in the abbey he had founded, where his tomb has been
discovered.

See " Nouveaux documents sur le tombeau de Childebert 4 Saint -
Germain-des-Pres," in the Bulletin de la Societt des Antiguaires
(1887).

CHILDEBERT II. (570-595), king of Austrasia, was a son of
Sigebert. When his father was assassinated in 575, Childebert
was taken from Paris by Gundobald, one of his faithful leudes,
to Metz, where he was recognized as sovereign. He was then
only five years old, and during his long minority the power
was disputed between his mother Brunhilda and the nobles.
Chilperic, king at Paris, and King Gontran of Burgundy, sought
alliance with Childebert, who was adopted by both in turn.
But after the assassination of Chilperic in 584, and the dangers
occasioned to the Prankish monarchy by the expedition of
Gundobald in 585, Childebert threw himself unreservedly into
the arms of Gontran. By the pact of Andelot in 587 Childebert
was recognized as Gontran's heir, and with his uncle's help he
quelled the revolts of the nobles and succeeded in seizing the
castle of Woewre. Many attempts were made on his life by
Fredegond, who was anxious to secure Gontran's inheritance
for her son Clotaire II. On the death of Gontran in 592 Childe-
bert annexed the kingdom of Burgundy, and even contemplated
seizing Clotaire's estates and becoming sole king of the Franks.
He died, however, in 595. Childebert II. had bad relations with
the Byzantine empire, and fought in 585 in the name of the
emperor Maurice against the Lombards in Italy.

CHILDEBERT III. was one of the last and feeblest of the
Merovingians. A son of King Theuderich III., he succeeded
his brother Clovis III. in 695, and reigned until 711.

See B. Krusch, " Zur Chronologic der merowingischen Konige,"
in Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, xxii. 451-490. (C. PF.)

CHILDERIC, the name of three Prankish kings.

CHILDERIC I. (c. 437-481), king of the Salian Franks, succeeded
his father Merwich (Merwing) as king about 457. With his tribe
he was established around the town of Tournai, on lands which
he had received as a foederatus of the Romans, and for some time
he kept the peace with his allies. About 463, in conjunction
with the Roman general Egidius, he fought against the Visigoths,
who hoped to extend their dominion along the banks of the Loire;
after the death of Egidius he assisted Count Paul in attempting
to check an invasion of the Saxons. Paul having perished in the
struggle, Childeric delivered Angers from some Saxons, followed
them to the islands at the mouth of the Loire, and massacred
them there. He also stopped a band of the Alamanni who
wished to invade Italy. These are all the facts known about him.
The stories of his expulsion by the Franks; of his stay of eight
years in Thuringia with King Basin and his wife Basine; of his
return when a faithful servant advised him that he could safely
do so by sending to him half of a piece of gold which he had broken

with him; and of the arrival at Tournai of Queen Basine, whom
he married, are entirely legendary. After the fall of the Western
Empire in 476 there is no doubt that Childeric regarded himself
as freed from his engagements towards Rome. He died in 481
and was buried at Tournai, leaving a son Clovis (?..), afterwards
king of the Franks. His tomb was discovered? in 1653, when
numerous precious objects, arms, jewels, coins and a ring with a
figure of the king, were found.

CHILDERIC II. (c. 653-673), king of Austrasia, was a son of
the Frankish king Clovis II., and in 660, although a child, was
proclaimed king of Austrasia, while his brother, Clotaire III.,
ruled over the rest of the dominions of Clovis. After the death
of Clotaire in 670 he became ruler of the three Frankish kingdoms,
Austrasia, Neustria and Burgundy, but soon quarrelled with
some supporters in Neustria, and was assassinated whilst
hunting. He was buried at St Germain near Paris.

CHILDERIC III. (d. c. 751), king of the Franks, was the last king
of the Merovingian dynasty. The throne had been vacant for
seven years when the mayors of the palace, Carloman and Pippin
the Short, decided in 743 to recognize Childeric as king. We
cannot say whose son he was, or what bonds bound him to the
Merovingian family. He took no part in public business, which
was directed, as before, by the mayors of the palace, When in
747 Carloman retired into a monastery, Pippin resolved to take
the royal crown for himself; taking the decisive step in 751
after having received the celebrated answer of Pope Zacharias
that it were better to name king him who possessed the power
than him who possessed it not. Childeric was dethroned and
placed in the monastery of St Omer; his son, Theuderich, was
imprisoned at Saint-Wandrille.

See W. Junghans Die Gischichte der frdnkischen Konige Childerich
und Clodovech (Gottingen, 1857) ; J. J. Chiflet, Anastasis Childerici I.
Francorum regis (Antwerp, 1655); J. B. D. Cochet, Le Tombeau de
Childeric I, roi des Francs (Paris, 1859); and E. Lavisse. Histuire
de France, tome ii. (Paris, 1903).

CHILDERS, HUGH CULLING EARDLEY (1827-1896), British
statesman, was born in London on the 25th of June 1827. On
leaving Cambridge he went out to Australia (1850), and became
a member of the government of Victoria, but in 1857 returned
to England as agent-general of the colony. Entering parliament
in 1860 as Liberal member for Pontefract (a seat that he con-
tinued to hold till 1885), he became civil lord of the admiralty in
1864, and in 1865 financial secretary to the treasury. Childers
occupied a succession of prominent posts in the various Gladstone
ministries. He was first lord of the admiralty from 1868 to 187 1 ,
and as such inaugurated a policy of retrenchment. Ill-health
compelled his resignation of office in 1871, but next year he
returned to the ministry as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster.
From 1880 to 1882 he was secretary for war, a post he accepted
somewhat unwillingly; and in that position he had to bear the
responsibility for the reforms which were introduced into the
war office under the parsimonious conditions which were then
part of the Liberal creed. During his term of office the Egyptian
War occurred, in which Childers acted with creditable energy;
and also the Boer War, in which he and bis colleagues showed to
less advantage. From 1882 to 1885 he was chancellor of the
exchequer, and the beer and spirit duty in his budget of the latter
year was the occasion of the government's fall. Defeated at
the general election at Pontefract, he was returned as a Home
Ruler (one of the few Liberals who adopted this policy before
Mr Gladstone's conversion) in 1886 for South Edinburgh, and
was home secretary in the ministry of 1886. When the first
Home Rule bill was introduced he demurred privately to its
financial clauses, and their withdrawal was largely due to his
threat of resignation. He retired from parliament in 1892, and
died on the 2gth of January 1896, his last piece of work being
the drafting of a report for the royal commission on Irish financial
relations, of which he was chairman. Childers was a capable and
industrious administrator of the old Liberal school, and he did his
best, in the political conditions then prevailing, to improve the
naval and military administration while he was at the admiralty
and war office. His own bent was towards finance, but no

138

CHILDERS, R. C. CHILDREN, LAW FOR

striking reform is associated with his name. His most ambitious
effort was his attempt to effect a conversion of consols in 1884,
but the scheme proved a failure, though it paved the way for the
subsequent conversion in 1888.

The Life (1901) of Mr Chifders, by his son, throws some interesting
side-lights on fte inner history of more than one Gladstonian
cabinet.

CHILDERS, ROBERT CAESAR (1838-1876), English Oriental
scholar, son of the Rev. Charles Childers, English chaplain at
Nice, was born in 1838. In 1860 he received an appointment in
the civil service of Ceylon, which he retained until 1864, when
he was compelled to return to England owing to ill-health. He
had studied Pali during his residence in Ceylon, under Yatra-
mullc Unnansfe, a learned Buddhist for whom he cherished
a life-long respect, and he had gained an insight into the Sinhalese
character and ways of thought. In 1869 he published the first
Pali text ever printed in England, and began to prepare a Pali
dictionary, the first volume of which was published in 1872, and
the second and concluding volume in 1875. In the following
year it was awarded the Volney prize by the Institute of France,
as being the most important philological work of the year. He
was a frequent contributor to the Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society, in which he published the Mahd-parinibbdna Sutta,
the Pali text giving the account of the last days of Buddha's
life. In 1872 he was appointed sub-librarian at the India Office,
and in the following year he became the first professor of Pali
and Buddhist literature at University College, London. He died
in London on the 2jth of July 1876.

CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO. English law has always
in theory given to children the same remedies as to adults for
ill-usage, whether by their parents or by others, and has never
recognized the patria potestas as known to the earlier Roman
law; and while powers of discipline and chastisement have been
regarded as necessarily incident to paternal authority, the father
is civilly liable to his children for wrongs done to them. The only
points in which infancy created a defect in civil status were that
infants were subject to the restraints on complete freedom of
action involved in their being in the legal custody of the father,
and that it was and is lawful for parents, guardians, employers
and teachers to inflict corporal punishment proportioned in
amount and severity to the nature of the fault committed and
the age and mental capacity of the child punished. But the
court of chancery, in delegated exercise of the authority of the
sovereign as parens patriae, always asserted the right to take
from parents, and if necessary itself to assume the wardship of
children where parental rights were abused or serious cruelty
was inflicted, the power being vested in the High Court of
Justice. Abuse of the power of correction was regarded as
giving a cause of action or prosecution for assault; and if
attended by fatal results rendered the parent liable to indictment
for murder or manslaughter.

The conception of what constitutes cruelty to children un-
doubtedly changed considerably with the relaxation of the
accepted standard of severity in domestic or scholastic discipline
and with the growth of new ideas as to the duties of parents to
children, which in their latest developments tend enormously
to enlarge the parental duties without any corresponding increase
of filial obligations.

Starting from the earlier conception, which limited ill-treat-
ment legally punishable to actual threats or blows, the common
law came to recognize criminal liability in cases where persons,
bound under duty or contract to supply necessaries to a child,
unable by reason of its tender years to provide for itself, wilfully
neglected to supply them, and thereby caused the death of the
child or injury to its health, although no actual assault had been
committed. Questions have from time to time arisen as to what
could be regarded as necessary within this rule; and quite apart
from legislation, popular opinion has influenced courts of justice
in requiring more from parents and employers than used to be
required. But parliament has also intervened to punish
abandonment or exposure of infants of under two years, whereby
their lives are endangered, or their health has been or is likely

to be permanently injured (Offences against the Person Act of
1861, s. 27), and the neglect or ill-treatment of apprentices or
servants (same act, s. 26, and Conspiracy and Protection of
Property Act 1875, s. 6). By the Poor Law Amendment Act
1868, parents were rendered summarily punishable who wilfully
neglected to provide adequate food, clothing, medical aid or
lodging for their children under fourteen years of age in their
custody, whereby the health of the child was or was likely to be
seriously injured. This enactment (now superseded by later
legislation) made no express exception in favour of parents who
had not sufficient means to do their duty without resort to the
poor law, and was construed as imposing criminal liability on
parents whose peculiar religious tenets caused them advisedly
to refrain from calling in a doctor to a sick child.

The chief progress in the direction of adequate protection for
children prior to 1889 lay less in positive legal enactment on the
subject than in the institution of an effective system of police,
whereby it became possible to discover and repress cruelty
punishable under the ordinary law. It is quite inaccurate to
say that children had very few rights in England, or that animals
were better protected. But before the constitution of the present
police force, and in the absence of any proper system of public
prosecution, it is undeniable that numberless cases of neglect
and ill-treatment went unpunished and were treated as nobody's
business, because there was no person ready to undertake in
the public interest the protection of the children of cruel or
negligent parents. In 1889 a statute was passed with the special
object of preventing cruelty to children. This act was superseded
in 1894 by a more stringent act, which was repealed by the
Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act 1904, in its turn superseded
for the most part by the Children Act 1908, which introduced
many new provisions in the law relating to children and specific-
ally deals with the offence of " cruelty " to them. This offence
can only be committed by a person over sixteen in respect of a
child under sixteen of whom he has " custody," " charge " or
" care." The act presumes that a child is in the custody of its
parents, step-parents, or a person cohabiting with its parent,
or of its guardians or persons liable by law to maintain it; that
it is in the charge of a person to whom the parent has committed
such charge (e.g. a schoolmaster), and that it is in the care of a
person who has actual possession or control of it. Cruelty is
defined as consisting in assault, ill-treatment (falling short of
actual assault), neglect, abandonment or exposure of the child
in a manner likely to cause unnecessary suffering or injury to
health, including injury to or loss of sight, hearing or limb, or
any orgap of the body or any mental derangement; and the
act or omission must be wilful, i.e. deliberate and intentional,
and not merely accidental or inadvertent. The offence may be
punished either summarily or on indictment, and the offender
may be sent to penal servitude if it is shown that he was directly
or indirectly interested in any sum of money payable on the
death of the child, e.g. by having taken out a policy permitted
under the Friendly Societies Acts. A parent or other person
legally liable to maintain a child or young person will be deemed
to have " neglected " him by failure to provide adequate food,
clothing, medical aid, or lodging, or if in the event of inability
to provide such food, &c., by failure to take steps to procure the
same under acts relating to the relief of the poor.

These statutes overlap the common law and the statutes
already mentioned. Their real efficacy lies in the main in the
provisions which facilitate the taking of evidence of young
children, in permitting poor law authorities to prosecute at the
expense of the rates, and in permitting a constable on arresting
the offender to take the child away from the accused, and the
court of trial on conviction to transfer the custody of the child
from the offender to some fit and willing person, including any
society or body corporate established for the reception of poor
children or for the prevention of cruelty to children. The pro-
visions of the acts as to procedure and custody extend not only
to the offence of cruelty but also to all offences involving bodily
injury to a child under sixteen, such as abandonment, assault,
kidnapping and illegally engaging a child in a dangerous public

CHILDREN, LAW FOR

139

performance. The act of 1908 also makes an endeavour to
check the heavy mortality of infants through "overlaying," *
enacting that where it is proved that the death of an infant
under three years of age was caused by suffocation whilst the
infant was in bed with some other person over the age of sixteen,
and that that person was at the time of going to bed under the
influence of drink, that other person shall be deemed to have
neglected the child in manner likely to cause injury to its
health, as mentioned above. The acts have been utilized with
great zeal and on the whole with much discretion by various
philanthropic societies, whose members make it their business
to discover the ill-treated and neglected children of all classes
in society, and particularly by the Society for the Prevention
of Cruelty to Children, which is incorporated under royal charter
of the 28th of May 1895, f r the purposes inter alia of preventing
the public and private wrongs of children, and the corruption
of their morals and of taking action to enforce the laws for
their protection.

The act of 1908 enacted more stringent provisions against
baby-farming (<?..). The Infant Life Protection Act of 1897
did not apply where only one child was taken, but now by the
act of 1908, where a person undertakes for reward the nursing
and maintenance of one or more infants under the age of seven
years apart from their parents or having no parents, he must
give notice in writing to the local authority within forty-eight
hours from the reception of the child. If an infant is already
in the care of a person without reward and he undertakes to
continue the nursing for reward, such undertaking is a reception
of the child. The notice to the local authority must state the
name, sex, date and place of birth of the infant, the name and
address of the person receiving the infant and of the person from
whom the infant was received. Notice must also be given of
any change of address of the person having the care of the infant,
or of the death of the infant, or of its removal to the care of some
other person, whose name and address must also be given. It
is the duty of local authorities to provide for the carrying-out
in their districts of that portion of the act which refers to nursing
and maintenance of infants, to appoint infants' protection
visitors, to fix the number of infants which any person may
retain for nursing, to remove infants improperly kept, &c.
Relatives or legal guardians of an infant who undertake its
nursing and maintenance, hospitals, convalescent homes, or
institutions, established for the protection and care of infants,
and conducted in good faith for religious and charitable purposes,
as well as boarding schools at which efficient elementary education
is given, are exempt from the provisions of the act.

The acts of 1904 and 1908 deal with many other offences in
relation to children and young persons. The act of 1904 intro-
duced restrictions on the employment of children which lie on
the border land between cruelty and the regulation of child
labour. It prohibits custodians of children from taking them,
or letting them be, in the street or in public-houses to sing,
play, perform or sell between 9 P.M. and 6 A.M. These pro-
visions apply to boys under fourteen and girls under sixteen.
There are further prohibitions (i) on allowing children under
eleven to sing, play, perform or be exhibited for profit, or offer
anything for sale in public-houses or places of public amuse-
ment at any hour without a licence from a justice, which is
granted only as to children over ten and under stringent condi-
tions; (2) on allowing children under sixteen to be trained as

1 There has been some doubt as to whether it is more correct to
say a person " overlays " or " overlies " a child, and the question
came up in committee on the bill. According to Sir J. A. H. Murray
(see Letter in The Times, izth of May 1908) to lie," an intransitive
verb, becomes transitive when combined with a preposition, e.g.
a nurse lies over a child or overlies a child; " to lay " is the causal
derivative of " to lie," and is followed by two objects, e.g. to lay the
table with a cloth, or to lay a cloth on the table; similarly, to over-
lay a surface with varnish, or to overlay a child with a blanket, or
with the nurse's or mother's body. . The instrument can be left un-
expressed, and a person can be said to overlay a child, i.e. with
her own body, a pillow, &c. Thus, while " overlie " covers the case
where the woman herself lies over the child, " overlay " is the more
general word.

acrobats, contortionists, or circus performers, or for any dangerous
performance; and the Children's Dangerous Performances Act
1879, as amended in 1897, makes it an offence to employ a male
young person under sixteen and a female under eighteen in a
dangerous public performance.

The act of 1908 renders liable to a fine not exceeding 25, or
alternatively, or in addition thereto, imprisonment with or with-
out hard labour for any term not exceeding three months, any
custodian, &c., of any child or young person who allows him to
be in any street, premises or place for the purpose of begging
or receiving alms, or of inducing the giving of alms, whether
or not there is a pretence of singing, playing, performing or
offering anything for sale. An important departure in the act
of 1908 was the attempt to prevent the exposure of children
to the risk of burning. Any custodian, &c., of a child under
seven who allows that child to be in a room containing an open
grate not sufficiently protected to guard against the risk of
burning or scalding is liable on summary conviction to a fine
not exceeding 10. Provision is made against allowing children
between the ages of four and sixteen to be in brothels; it is also
made a misdemeanour if any custodian, &c., of a girl under
sixteen causes or encourages her seduction or prostitution, and
any person having the custody of a young girl may be bound
over to exercise proper care if it is shown to the satisfaction of a
court of summary jurisdiction, on the complaint of any person,
that she is exposed to such risk.

The act of 1008, following legislation in many parts of the
United States and in some of the British colonies, places a penalty
on selling tobacco to any person apparently under the age of
sixteen, whether for his own use or not. It empow'ers constables
and park keepers to seize tobacco in the possession of any
person apparently under sixteen found smoking in any street
or public place, as well as to search them; it also empowers
a court of summary jurisdiction to prevent automatic machines
for the sale of tobacco being used by young persons. The act
also contains useful provisions empowering the clearing of a
court whilst a child or young person is giving evidence in certain
cases (e.g. of decency or morality), and the forbidding children
(other than infants in arms) being present in court during the
trial of other persons; it places a penalty on pawnbrokers taking
an article in pawn from children under fourteen; and on vagrants
for preventing children above the age of five receiving education.
It puts a penalty on giving intoxicating liquor to any child
under the age of five, except upon the orders of a duly qualified
medical practitioner, or in case of sickness, or other urgent
cause; also upon any holder of the licence of any licensed
premises who allows a child to be at any time in the bar of the
licensed premises, or upon any person who causes or attempts
to cause a child to be in the bar of licensed premises other than
railway refreshment rooms or premises used for any purpose
to which the holding of a licence is merely auxiliary, or where
the child is there simply for the purpose of passing through to
some other part of the premises. It makes provision for the
safety of children at entertainments, and consolidates the law
relating to reformatory and industrial schools, and to juvenile
offenders (see JUVENILE OFFENDERS).

In the act of 1908, " child " is defined as a person under the
age of fourteen years, and " young person " as a person who is
fourteen years and upwards and under the age of sixteen years.
The act applies to Scotland and Ireland. In the application of
the act to Ireland exception is made relative to the exclusion
of children from bars of licensed premises, in the case of a child
being on licensed premises where a substantial part of the business
carried on is a drapery, grocery, hardware or other business
wholly unconnected with the sale of intoxicating liquor, and the
child is there for the purpose of purchasing goods other than
intoxicating liquor.

British Possessions. Legislation much on the lines of the acts
of 1880-1908 has been passed in many British possessions, e.g.
Tasmania (1895, 1906), Queensland (1896, 1005), Jamaica
(1896), South Australia (1899, 1904), New South Wales (1892
and 1900), New Zealand (1906), Mauritius (1906), Victoria

140

CHILDRENITE CHILDREN'S COURTS

(1905, 1906). In South Australia a State Children's Department
has been created to care for and manage the property and persons
of destitute and neglected children, and the officials of the
council may act in cases of cruelty to children; the legislation
of Victoria and Queensland is based on that of South Australia.
See also CHILDREN'S COURTS, EDUCATION and LABOUR LEGIS-
LATION. (W. F. C.;T. A. I.)

CHILDRENITE, a rare mineral species; a hydrous basic
aluminium iron phosphate, orthorhombic in crystallization.
The ferrous oxide is in part replaced by manganous oxide and
lime, and in the closely allied and isomorphous species eosphorite
manganese predominates over iron. The general formula for
the two species is Al(Fe, Mn)(OH) 2 PO 4 +H 2 0. Childrenite
is found only as small brilliant crystals of a yellowish-brown
colour, somewhat resembling chalybite in general appearance.
They are usually pyramidal in habit, often having the form of
double six-sided pyramids with the triangular faces deeply
striated parallel to their shorter edges. Hardness 4-5-5;
specific gravity 3-18-3-24. The mineral, named after the
zoologist and mineralogist J. G. Children (1777-1852), secretary
of the Royal Society, was detected in 1823 on specimens obtained
some years previously during the cutting of a canal near Tavi-
stock in Devonshire. It has also been found in a few copper
mines in Cornwall and Devonshire.

Eosphorite occurs as crystals of prismatic habit with angles
very nearly the same as those of childrenite. Unlike childrenite,
it has a distinct cleavage in one direction, and often occurs in
compact masses as well as in crystals. The colour is sometimes
yellowish-white, but usually rose-pink, and on this account the
mineral was named from i7&xr<6pos, dawn-bearer. Hardness 5;
specific gravity 3-n-3-i45. It was discovered in 1878 in a
pegmatite-vein at Branchville, Connecticut, where it is associated
with other rare manganese phosphates. (L. J. S.)

CHILDREN'S COURTS, or JUVENILE COURTS, a special
system of tribunals for dealing with juvenile offenders, first
suggested in the United States. The germ of such institutions
was planted in Massachusetts in 1869, when a plan was introduced
at Boston of hearing charges against children separately, and
apart from the ordinary business of the lesser tribunals. No
great progress was made in the development of the idea in Massa-
chusetts, as the legal authorities were not fully convinced of
the utility or need for a separate court so long as the children
were kept strictly apart from adults, and this could be assured
by a separate session. But the system of " probation," by
which children were handed over to the kindly care and guardian-
ship of an appointed officer, and thus escaped legal repression,
was created about the same time in Boston and produced
excellent results. The probation officer is present at the judge's
side when he decides a case, and is given charge of the offender,
whom he takes by the hand, either at his parent's residence or
at school, and continually supervises, having power if necessary
to bring him again before the judge. The example of Massa-
chusetts in due course influenced other countries, and especially
the British colony of South Australia, where a State Children's
Department was created at Adelaide in 1895, and three years
later a juvenile court was opened there for the trial of persons
under eighteen and was conducted with great success, though
the system of probation officers was not introduced. A juvenile
court was also established at Toronto (Canada) on the South
Australian model.

The movement when once fully appreciated went ahead very
rapidly. In the United States Illinois was the first state to call
a distinct children's court into existence, and Judge Richard
Tuthill was the pioneer at Chicago, where the court was estab-
lished in 1899. Many states followed suit, including New York,
Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Wisconsin, Kansas, Colorado,
Indiana and others, till the number rose to nineteen in 1906.
In New York, where juvenile probation is supervised by the
Society for the Protection of Children, there is a separate
children's court with rooms attached, where the children for
detention wait till they are brought in for trial. Brooklyn has
also a children's court. In Pennsylvania, where the juvenile

court was at first opposed as unconstitutional, the difficulty
was met by first bringing the child before the magistrate in the
police court, a course which (though followed by his transferring
the case to the special court) perpetuated the very evils the chil-
dren's court was intended to avoid; the work of probation was,
however, most effectively carried out, chiefly by female officers.
The Chicago Juvenile Court sits twice weekly under an especially
appointed judge, and policemen act as probation officers to some
extent. The court of Indianapolis, however, gained the reputa-
tion of being the most complete and perfect in the United States.
It works with a large and highly efficient band of volunteer
probation officers under a chief. The juvenile court of Denver,
Colorado, attained remarkable results under Judge B. Lindsey,
whose magnetic personality, wonderful comprehension of boy
nature, and extraordinary influence over them achieved great
results. The court meets once a fortnight, when fresh cases are
tried and boys already on probation report themselves, often
to the number of two hundred at a time. The latter appear
before the judge in batches, each hands in his school report in a
sealed letter, and according to its purport receives praise or
blame, or he may be committed to the Detention House. An
efficient court was also constituted at Baltimore, Maryland, with
a judge especially chosen to preside, probation being for fixed
periods, varying from three months to three years, and children
being brought back to the court for parole or discharge, or, if
necessary, committal to the house of one of the philanthropic
societies. In Washington, D.C., the system of having no
distinct court or judge, but holding a separate session, was
followed, and it was found that numbers of children came to the
court for help and guidance, looking upon the judge for the time
being as their friend and counsellor. Probation in this instance
offered peculiar difficulties on account of the colour question,
two-thirds of the children having negro blood and a white boy
being always preferred for a vacant situation. Throughout,
the action of juvenile courts in the United States has been to
bring each individual into " human touch " with kindly helpful
workers striving to lead the young idea aright and train it to
follow the straight path. It was the result always of the effort
of private persons and not due to government initiative, indeed
the advocates and champions of the system only established it
by overcoming strong opposition from the authorities.

Progress in the same direction has been made in England.
The home office had recommended London police magistrates
to keep children's cases separate from those of adults; the
same practice or something analogous obtained in many county
boroughs, such as Bath, Birmingham, Bristol, Bolton, Bradford,
Hull, Manchester, Walsall, Halifax and others, and the Children
Act 1908 definitely established children's courts. This act
enacted that courts of summary jurisdiction when hearing charges,
&c., against children or young persons should, unless the child
or young person is charged jointly with an adult, sit in a different
building or room from that in which the ordinary sittings of the
court are held, or on different days or at different times. Further-
more, provision must be made for preventing persons apparently
under the age of sixteen years whilst being conveyed to or from
court, or whilst waiting before or after their attendance in court,
from associating with adults, unless such adults are charged
jointly with them. The act prohibits any persons other than
members and officers of the court, the parties to the case, their
solicitors, counsel and other persons directly concerned in the
case, from being present in a juvenile court, except by leave
of the court. Bona-fide press representatives are also excepted.
The main object of the whole system is to keep the child, the
embryotic offender who has probably erred from ignorance or
the pressure of circumstances or misfortune, altogether free
from the taint or contagion that attaches to criminal proceedings.
The moral atmosphere of a legal tribunal is injurious to the
youthful mind, and children who appear before a bench, whether
as accused or as witness, gain a contemptuous familiarity with
legal processes.

The most beneficial action of the children's court comes from
its association with the system of personal guardianship and

CHILDREN'S GAMES CHILDS

141

close supervision exercised by the probation officers, official
and voluntary. Where the intervention of the newly consti-
tuted tribunal can not only save the child from evil association
when first arrested, but can rescue him without condemnation
and committal to prison, its functions may be relied upon to
diminish crime by cutting it off at the source. Much depends
upon the quality and temperament of the presiding authority.
Where a judge with special aptitude can be appointed, firm,
sympathetic, tactful and able to gain the confidence of those
brought before him, he may do great good, by dealing with each
individual and not merely with his offence, realizing that the
court does not exist to condemn but to strengthen and give a
fresh chance. Where the children's court is only a branch of the
existing jurisdiction worked by the regular magistrate or
judge fulfilling his ordinary functions and not specially chosen,
the beneficial results are not so noticeable. (A. G.)

CHILDREN'S GAMES. The study of traditional games has in
recent years become an important branch of folklore research in
England, and has contributed not a little towards elucidating
many unrecorded facts in early history. These games may
be broadly divided into two kinds dramatic games, and games
of skill and chance. These differ materially in their object.
Games of skill and chance are played for the purpose of
winning property from a less fortunate player. The dramatic
games consist of non-singing and singing games; they are divided
between boys' games and girls' games. Boys' games are mostly
of a contest character, girls' of a more domestic type. The boys'
dramatic games have preserved some interesting beliefs and
customs, but the tendency in these games, such as " prisoner's
base," has been to drop the words and tune and to preserve only
that part (action) which tends best for exercise and use in school
playgrounds. The girls' singing-games have not developed on
these lines, and have therefore not lost so much of their early
characteristics. The singing games consist of words, tune and
action. The words, in verse, express ideas contained in customs
not now in vogue, and they may be traced back to events taking
place between men and women and between people of different
villages. The tunes are simple, and the same tune is frequently
used for different games. The actions are illustrative of the ideas
to be expressed. The players represent various objects animals,
villages and people. The singing game is therefore not a game
in the usual sense of the word. There is no element of
" gambling " or playing " to win " in it no one is richer or
poorer for it; it also requires a number of children to play
together. It is really a " play," and has survived because
it has handed down some instances of custom and belief which
were deeply rooted and which made a strong appeal to the
imagination of our ancestors. The singing games represent in
dramatic form the survival of those ceremonial dances common
to people in early stages of development. These dances celebrated
events which served to bind the people together and to give them
a common interest in matters affecting their welfare. They were
dramatic in character, singing and action forming a part of them,
and their performers were connected by ties of place or kindred.
They are probably survivals of what we might call folk drama.
In these times it was held imperative to perform religious
ceremonies periodically; at sowing and harvesting to ensure
good crops; in the care of cattle and on occasions of marriage,
birth and death. These were matters affecting the welfare of
the whole community. Events were celebrated with dance,
song and feasting, and no event was too trivial to be unconnected
with some belief which rendered ceremony necessary.

At first these ceremonial dances had deep religious feeling for
their basis, but in process of time they became purely secular
and were performed at certain seasons only, because it was the
custom to do so. They then became recognized as beautiful
or pleasing things in the life of the people, and so continued,
altering somewhat in ideas but retaining their old dramatic
forms. They were danced by old and young at festivals and
holidays, these being held about the same time of year as
that at which the previous religious ceremonies had been
held.

Singing games are danced principally in one of two methods,
" line " and " circle." These represent two of the early forms
of dramatic action. The " line " form (two lines of players
standing opposite each other having a space of ground between
them, advancing and retiring in turn) represents two different
and opposing parties engaged in a struggle or contest. This
method is used in all cases where contest is involved. The
" circle " form, on the other hand, where all players join hands,
represents those occasions when all the people of one place were
engaged in celebrating events in which all were interested. Thus
games celebrating sowing and harvest, and those associated with
love and marriage, are played in this form. Both these methods
allow of development. The circle varies from examples where
all perform the same actions and say the same words to that
where two or more players have principal parts, the others
only singing or acting in dumb show, to examples where the
singing has disappeared. The form or method of play and the
actions constitute the oldest remaining parts of the game (the
words being subject to alterations and loss through ignorance of
their meaning), and it is to this form or method, the actions
and the accompaniment of song, that they owe their survival,
appealing as they do to the strong dramatic instinct of children
and of uncultured folk.

It will be convenient to give a few instances of the best-known
singing games. In " line " form, a fighting game is " We are the
Rovers." The words tell us of two opposing parties fighting
for their land; both sides alternately deride one another and end
by fighting until one side is victorious. Two other " line "
games, " Nuts in May " and " Here come three dukes a-riding,"
are also games of contest, but not for territory. These show an
early custom of obtaining wives. They represent marriage by
capture, and are played in " line " form because of the element
of contest contained in the custom. Another form, the " arch,"
is also used to indicate contest.

Circle games, on the contrary, show such customs as harvest
and marriage, with love and courting, and a ceremony and
sanction by assembled friends. " Oats and beans and barley "
and " Sally Water " are typical of this form. The large majority
of circle games deal with love or marriage and domestic life.
The customs surviving in these games deal with tribal life and
take us back to " foundation sacrifice," " well worship," " sacred-
ness of fire," besides marriage and funeral customs.

Details may be found in the periodical publications of the Folk-
lore Society, and particularly in the following works: A. B.
Gomme's Traditional Games of Great Britain (2 vols., Nutt, 1894
1898); Gomme's Children's Singing Games (Nutt, 1904); Ecken-
stein's Comparative Studies in Nursery Rhymes (Duckworth, 1906) ;
Maclagan, Games of Argyllshire, Folk-lore Society (1900); Newell's
Games of American Children (Harper Bros., New York, 1884). In
Mrs Gomme's Traditional Games, several versions of each game,
together with a short account of the suggested origin and of the
custom or belief indicated, are given for each game. In vol. ii. (pp.
458-531) a memoir of the history of games is given, and the customs
and beliefs which originated them, reviewing the whole subject from
the anthropological point of view, and showing the place which
games occupy among the evidences of early man. In Miss Ecken-
stein's comparative study of nursery rhymes suggested origins are
given for many of these, and an attempt made to localize certain of
the customs and events. In several of the publications of the Folk-
lore Society local collections of games are given, all of which may
be studied with advantage. Stubbes and other early writers give
many instances of boys' games in their days, many of which still
exist. Tylor and other writers on anthropology, in dealing with
savage custom, confirm the views here expressed. For nursery
rhymes see Halliwell, Nursery Rhymes (1845), and Chamberss
Popular Rhymes (first printed 1841, reprinted in 1870). The recently
collected Morris Dances by Mr Cecil Sharp should also be
consulted. One of the morris dances, bean-setting, evidently dealing
with planting or harvest, is danced in circle form, while others
indicating fighting or rivalry are danced in line form, each line danc-
ing in circle before crossing over to the opposite side, and thus
conforming to the laws already shown to exist in the more ordinary
game. (A. B. G.*)

CHILDS, GEORGE WILLIAM (1829-1894), American publisher,
was born in Baltimore, Maryland, on the I2th of May 1829.
He was educated in the public schools, and after a brief term of
service in the navy, he became in 1843 a clerk in a book-shop at
Philadelphia. There, in 1847, he established an independent

142

CHILE

book-shop, and two years later organized the publishing house of
Childs & Peterson. In 1864, with Anthony J. Drexel, he pur-
chased the Public Ledger, at that time a little known newspaper;
he completely changed its policy and methods, and made it
one of the most influential journals in the country. He died at
Philadelphia on the 3rd of February 1894. Childs was widely
known for his public spirit and philanthropy. In addition to
numerous private benefactions in educational and charitable
fields, he erected memorial windows to William Cowper and
George Herbert in Westminster Abbey (1877), and to Milton in
St Margaret's, Westminster (1888), a monument to Leigh Hunt
at Kensal Green, a Shakespeare memorial fountain at Stratford-
on-Avon (1887), and monuments to Edgar Allan Poe and to
Richard A. Proctor. He gave Woodland Cemetery to the
Typographical Society of Philadelphia for a printers' burial-
ground, and with Anthony J. Drexel founded in 1892 a home for
Union printers at Colorado Springs, Colorado.

His Recollections were published at Philadelphia in 1890.

CHILE, or CHILI (derived, it is said, from the Quichua ckiri,
cold, or tchUi, snow), a republic of South America, occupying the
narrow western slope of the continent between Peru and its
southern extremity. (For map see ARGENTINA.) It extends
from the northern boundary of the province of Tacna, about
17 25' S., to Cape Horn at the extreme southern point of the
Fuegian archipelago in 55 58' 40* S. ( with an extreme meridian
length of 2661 m., and with a coast line considerably exceeding
that figure owing to a westward curve of about 3! and an
eastward trend south of 50 S. of nearly 8. Its mainland width
ranges from about 46 to 228 m., and its area, including the
islands of the southern coast, is officially computed to be 307,774
sq. m., though the Gotha computation (1904) places it at 293,062
sq. m. Chile is thus a ribbon-like strip of territory between the
Andes and the Pacific, comparatively regular north of the 42nd
parallel, but with an extremely ragged outline south of that line.
It is bounded N. by Peru, E. by Bolivia and Argentina, S. and W.
by the Pacific. Its eastern boundary lines are described under
ARGENTINA and BOLIVIA. The war of 1870-81 with Peru and
Bolivia gave to Chile 73,993 sq. m. of territory, or one-fourth
her total area. By subsequent agreements the Bolivian depart-
ment of the Literal, or Atacama, and the Peruvian department
of Tarapaca, were formally ceded to Chile, and the northern
frontier was removed to the river Camarones, which enters the
Pacific at 19 12' S. Under the treaty of Ancon (2oth October
1883) Chile was to retain possession of the provinces of Tacna
and Arica belonging to the Peruvian department of Moquegua
for a period of ten years, and then submit " to popular vote
whether those territories are to belong to Chile or Peru." At the
expiration of the period (1893) Chile evaded compliance with the
agreement, and under various pretexts retained forcible posses-
sion of the territory. This arbitrary retention of Tacna and
Arica, which became the province of Tacna under Chilean
administration, removed the frontier still farther north, to the
river Sama, which separates that province from the remaining
part of the Peruvian department of Moquegua. Starting from
the mouth of that river, in 17 57' S., the disputed boundary
follows its course in an irregular N.E. direction to its source in
the Alto do Toledo range, thence S. and E. along the water
parting to the Bolivian boundary line in the Cordillera Silillica.

Physiography. For purposes of general topographical description
Chile may be divided into three regions: the desert region of the
north, the central agricultural region between the provinces of
Coquimbo and Llanquihue, and the heavily-forested rainy region
south of lat. 41 S. The desert region is an elevated arid plateau
descending gradually from the Andes towards the coast, where it
breaks down abruptly from elevations of 800 to 1500 ft. From the
sea this plateau escarpment has the appearance of a range of flat
topped hills closely following the coast line. The surface is made
up of extensive plains covered with sand and deposits of alkaline
salts, broken by ranges of barren hills having the appearance of spurs
from the Andes, and by irregular lateral ranges in the vicinity of
the main cordillera enclosing elevated saline plateaus. This region
is rainless, barren and inhospitable, absolutely destitute of vege-
tation except in some small river valleys where irrigation is possible,
and on the slopes of some of the snow-covered peaks where the
water from the melting snows nourishes a scanty and coarse vege-

tation before it disappears in the thirsty sands. It is very rich in
mineral and saline deposits, however. The eastern parts of this
region lie within the higher ranges of the Andes and include a large
district awarded to Chile in 1899 (see ARGENTINA and ATACAMA).
This arid, bleak area is apparently a continuation southward of the

?reat Bolivian altaplanicte, and is known as the Puna de Atacama.
ts average elevation is estimated at 11,000 to 12,000 ft. A line
of volcanoes crosses it from north to south, and extensive lava beds
cover a considerable part of its surface. Large shallow saline lakes
are also characteristic features of this region. From 28 S. the spurs
from the cordillera toward the coast are more sharply denned and
enclose deeper valleys, where the cultivation of the soil becomes
possible, at first through irrigation and then with the aid of light
periodical rains. The slopes of the Andes are precipitous, the
general surface is rough, and in the north the higher ground and
coast are still barren. Beginning with the province of Aconcagua
the coast elevations crystallize into a range of mountains, the
Cordillera Maritima, which follows the shore line south to the
province of Llanquihue, and is continued still farther south by the
mountain range of Chilo and the islands of the western coast, which
are the peaks of a submerged mountain chain. Lying between this
coast range and the Andes is a broad valley, or plain, extending from
the Aconcagua river south to the Gulf of Ancud, a distance slightly
over 620 m. with an average width of about 60 m. It is sometimes
called the " Vale of Chile," and is the richest and most thickly-
populated part of the republic. It is a highly fertile region, is well
watered by numerous streams from the Andes, has a moderate rain-
fall, and forms an agricultural and grazing region of great pro-
ductiveness. It slopes toward the south, and its lower levels are
filled with lakes andwith depressions where lakes formerly existed.
It is an alluvial plain for the greater part, but contains some sandy
tracts, as in 5}uble and Arauco; in the north very little natural
forest is found except in the valleys and on the slopes of the enclosing
mountain ranges, but in the south, where the rainfall is heavier, the
plain is well covered with forest. South of 41 S. the country is
mountainous, heavily-forested and inhospitable. There are only
a few scattered settlements within its borders, and a few nomadic
tribes of savages eke out a miserable existence on the coast. The
deeply-indented coast line is filled with islands which preserve
the general outline of the continent southward to the Fuegian
archipelago, the outside groups forming a continuation of the Cor-
dillera Maritima. The heavy and continuous rainfall throughout
this region, especially in the latitude of Chiloe, gives rise to a large
number of rivers and lakes. Farther south this excessive precipi-
tation is in the form of snow in the Cordilleras, forming glaciers at
a comparatively low level which in places discharge into the inlets
and bays of the sea. The extreme southern part of this region
extends eastward to the Atlantic entrance to the Straits of Magellan,
and includes the greater part of the large island of Tierra del Fuego
with all the islands lying south and west of it. There are some com-
paratively level stretches of country immediately north of the
Straits, partly forested and partly grassy plains, where sheep farming
has been established with some degree of success, but the greater
part of this extreme southern territory is mountainous, cold, wet
and inhospitable. The perpetual snow-line here descends to 3500
to 4000 ft. above sea-level, and the forest growth does not rise above
an altitude of 1000 to 1500 ft.

It has been officially estimated that the arable lands of Chile
comprise about twenty-five millions of acres (slightly over 39,000
sq. m.), or very nearly one-eighth of its total area.
The desert regions of the north include comparatively "
large areas of plains and gently sloping surfaces, traversed by
ranges of barren hills. The remainder of the republic, probably
more than three-fifths of its surface, is extremely mountainous.
The western slopes of the Andes, with its spurs and lateral ranges,
cover a broad zone on the eastern side of the republic, and the
Cordillera Maritima covers another broad zone on its western side
from about lat. 33 to the southern extremity of Chiloe, or below
lat. 43. This maritime range is traversed by several river valleys,
some of which, like the Bio-Bio, are broad and have so gentle a slope
as to be navigable. The Andes, however, present an unbroken
barrier on the east, except at a few points in the south where the
general elevation is not over 5000 to 6000 ft., and where some of the
Chilean rivers, as the Palena and Las Heras, have their sources on its
eastern side. From the 52nd to about the 3ist parallel this great
mountain system, known locally as the Cordillera de los Andes,
apparently consists of a single chain, though in reality it includes
short lateral ranges at several points; continuing northward several
parallel ranges appear on the Argentine side and one on the Chilean
side which are ultimately merged in the great Bolivian plateau.
The Chilean lateral range, which extends from the 2gth to the I9th
parallels, traverses an elevated desert region and possesses several
noteworthy peaks, among which are Cerro Bolson, 16,017 ft., and
Cerro Dona Ines, 16,706 ft. It is broken to some extent in crossing
the province of Antofagasta, the southern division being known
as the Sierra de Huatacondo. At the southern frontier of Bolivia
the main chain, which has served as the boundary line betw_een
Argentina and Chile, divides into two great ranges, the principal
one continuing almost due north along the eastern side of the great
Bolivian alta-planicie, and the other forming its western rim, where

GEOGRAPHY]

CHILE

it is known as the Cordillera Silillica, and then following the trend
of the coast north-westward into Peru becomes the Cordillera
Occidental. The western slopes of the Andes are precipitous, with
short spurs enclosing deep valleys. The whole system is volcanic,
and a considerable number of volcanoes are still intermittently
active, noticeably in central and southern Chile. The culminating
point of the Chilean Andes is Aconcagua, which rises to a height of
23,097 ft.

In southern Chile the coast is highly mountainous, but the relation
of these elevations to the Andes has not been clearly determined.
The highest of these apparently detached groups are Mt. Maca (lat.
45 S.), 9711 ft., and Mt. Arenales (about 47 S. lat.), 11,286 ft.
Cathedral Peak on Wellington Island rises to a height of 3838 ft.
and the highest point on Taytao peninsula to 3937 ft. The coast
range of central Chile has no noteworthy elevations, the culminating
point in the province of Santiago being 7316 ft. Between central
Chile and the northern desert region there is a highly mountainous
district where distinct ranges or elongated spurs cross the republic
from the Andes to the coast, forming transverse valleys of great
beauty and fertility. The most famous of these is the " Vale of
Quillota " between Valparaiso and Santiago. The Chilean Andes
between Tacna and Valdivia are crossed by 24 passes, the majority
of them at elevations exceeding 10,000 ft. The best-known of these
is the Uspallata pass between Santiago and the Argentine city of
Mendoza, 12,870 ft. above sea-level. The passes of central and
southern Chile are used only in the summer season, but those of
northern Chile are open throughout the whole year.

The volcanic origin of the Andes and their comparatively recent
elevation still subject Chile, in common with other parts of the
western coast region, to frequent volcanic and seismic disturbances.
In some instances since European occupation, violent earthquake
shocks have resulted in considerable elevations of certain parts of
the coast. After the great earthquake of 1835 Captain Robert
FitzRoy (1805-1865) of H.M.S. " Beagle " found putrid mussel-
shells still adhering to the rocks 10 ft. above high water on the island
of Santa Maria, 30 m. from Concepcion, and Charles Darwin declares,
in describing that disaster, that " there can be no doubt that the land
round the bay of Concepcion was upraised two or three feet." These
upheavals, however, are not always permanent, the upraised land
sometimes settling back to its former position. This happened on the
island of Santa Maria after 1835. The existence of sea-shells at ele-
vations of 350 to 1300 ft. in otnei; parts of the republic shows that
these forces, supplemented by a gradual uplifting of the coast, have
been in operation through long periods of time and that the greater
part of central and southern Chile has been raised from the sea in
this way. These earthquake shocks have two distinct character-
istics, a slight vibration, sometimes almost imperceptible, called a
temblor, generally occurring at frequent intervals, and a violent
horizontal or rotary vibration, or motion, also repeated at frequent
intervals, called a terremoto, which is caused by a fracture or displace-
ment of the earth's strata at some particular point, and often results
in considerable damage. When the earthquake occurs on the coast,
or beneath the sea in its vicinity, tidal waves are sometimes formed,
which cause even greater damage than the earthquake itself. Arica
has been three times destroyed by tidal waves, and other small
towns of the north Chilean coast have suffered similar disasters.
Coquimbo was swept by a tidal wave in 1849, and Concepci6n and
Talcahuano were similarly destroyed in 1835. The great earth-
quake which partially destroyed Valparaiso in 1906, however, was
not followed by a tidal wave. These violent shocks are usually
limited to comparatively small districts, though the vibrations may
be felt at long distances from the centre of disturbance. In this
respect Chile may be divided into at least four great earthquake
areas, two in the desert region, the third enclosing Valparaiso, and
the fourth extending from Concepcion to Chiloe. A study of Chilean
earthquake phenomena, however, would probably lead to a division
of southern Chile into two or more distinct earthquake areas.

The coast of Chile is fringed with an extraordinary number of
islands extending from Chiloe S. to Cape Horn, the grouping of which
.. shows that they are in part the summits of a submerged
mountain chain, a continuation southward of the Cor-
dillera Maritima. Three groups of these islands, called the Chiloe,
Guaytecas and Chonos archipelagoes, lie N. of the Taytao peninsula
(lat. 45 50' to 46 55' S.), and with the mainland to the E. form the
province of Chiloe. The largest of these is the island of Chiloe, which
is inhabited. Some of the smaller islands of these groups are also in-
habited, though the excessive rainfall of these latitudes and the
violent westerly storms render them highly unfavourable for human
occupation. Some of the smallest islands are barren rocks, but the
majority of them are covered with forests. These archipelagoes are
separated from the mainland in the north by the gulfs of Chacao
(or Ancud) and Corcovado, 30 to 35 m. wide, which appear to be a
submerged part of the great central valley of Chile, and farther south
by the narrower Moraleda channel, which terminates southward
in a confusing network of passages between the mainland and the
islands of the Chonos group. One of the narrow parts of the Chilean
mainland is to be found opposite the upper islands of this group,
where the accidental juxtaposition of Magdalena island, which in-
dents the continent over half a degree at this point, and the basin
of Lake Fontana, which gives the Argentine boundary a sharp

wedge-shaped projection westward, narrows the distance between
the two to about 26 m. The Taytao peninsula, incorrectly called
the Tres Monies on some maps, is a westward projection of the
mainland, with which it is connected by the narrow isthmus of Ofqui,
over which the natives and early missionaries were accustomea to
carry their boats between the Moraleda Channel and Gulf of Penas.
A short ship canal here would give an uninterrupted and protected
inside passage from Chacao Channel all the way to the Straits of
Magellan, a distance of over 760 m. A southern incurving pro-
jection of the outer shore-line of this peninsula is known as Tres
Montes peninsula, the most southern point of which is a cape of the
same name. _ Below the Taytao peninsula is the broad open Gulf
of Penas, which carries the coast-line eastward fully 100 m. and is
noticeably free from islands. The northern entrance to Messier
Channel is through this gulf. Messier, Pitt, Sarmiento and Smyth's
Channels, which form a comparatively safe and remarkably pictur-
esque inside route for small steamers, about 338 m. in length,
separate another series of archipelagoes from the mainland. These
channels are in _ places_ narrow ana tortuous. Among the islands
which thickly fringe this part of the coast, the largest are Azopardo
(lying within Baker Inlet), Prince Henry, Campana, Little
Wellington, Great Wellington and Mornington (of the Wellington
archipelago), Madre de Dios, Duke of Yorjc, Chatham, Hanover,
Cambridge, Contreras, Rennell and the Queen Adelaide group of
small barren rocks and islands lying immediately north of the
Pacific entrance to the Straits_of Magellan. The large number of
English names on this coast is due to the fact that the earliest
detailed survey of this region was made by English naval officers;
the charts prepared from their surveys are still in use and form the
basis of all subsequent maps. None of these islands is inhabited,
although some of them are of large size, the largest (Great Welling-
ton) being about 100 m. long. It has likewise been determined, since
the boundary dispute with Argentina called attention to these ter-
ritories and led to their careful exploration at the points in dispute,
that Skyring Water, in lat. 53 S., opens westward into the Gulf
of Xaultegua, which transforms Ponsonby Land and Cordoba (or
Croker) peninsula into an island, to which the name of Riesco has
been given. The existence of such a channel was considered probable
when these inland waters were first explored in 1829 by Captain
FitzRoy, but it was not discovered and surveyed until three-quarters
of a century had elapsed. Belonging to the Fuegian group south
of the Straits of Magellan are Desolation, Santa Ines, Clarence,
Dawson, Londonderry, Hoste, Navarin and Wpllaston islands, with
innumerable smaller islands and rocks fringing their shores and
filling the channels between them. Admirable descriptions of this
inhospitable region, the farthest south of the inhabited parts of
the globe, may be found in the Narrative of the Surveying Voyages
of His Majesty's Ships "Adventure" and "Beagle" between the years
1826 and 1836 (3 vols., 1839).

The western and larger part of Tierra del Fuego (q.v.) belongs to
Chile. About 63 m. S.W. of Cape Horn, in lat. 56* 25' S., is the
Diego Ramirez group of small, rocky islands, the most southern
possession of the republic. Its westernmost possessions are Sala-y-
Gomez and Easter islands, the former in about 27 S., 105 W., and
the latter, the easternmost inhabited Polynesian island, jn 27 6' S.,
109" 17' W. Much nearer the Chilean coast (396 m.), lying between
the 33rd and 34th parallels, are the three islands of the Juan Fer-
nandez group, and rising apparently from the same submerged
plateau about 500 m. farther north of the latter are the rocky islets
of San Ambrosio and San Felix, all belonging to Chile. North of
Chiloe there are few islands in close proximity to the coast. The
more important of these are La Mocha, off the southern coast of
Arauco, in lat. 38 20' S., which is 8 m. long and rises to an elevation
of 1240 ft. above the sea; Santa Maria, 30 m. south-west of Con-
cepcion, which partially encloses the Bay of Arauco and is well
cultivated ; and Quinquina, lying off the port of Talcahuano in the
entrance to Concepcion bay. There are a few barren islands on the
desert coast, the largest of which are between Coquimbo and Caldera.
Since the removal of their guano deposits they have become practi-
cally worthless, except where they serve to shelter anchorages.

The coast of northern and central Chile is singularly deficient in
good harbours. Those of the desert region are only slight inden-
tations in a remarkably uniform coast-line, sheltered on Harl)a
one side by a point of land, or small island. The landings
are generally dangerous because of the surf, and the anchorages are
unsafe from storms on the unprotected side. Among the most
frequented of these are Valparaiso, Coquimbo, Caldera, fquique and
Arica. There are some small harbours for coasting vessels of light
draught along the coast of central Chile, usually at the partially
obstructed mouths of the larger rivers, as San Antonio near the
mouth of the Maipo, Constituci6n at the mouth of the Maule, and
Llico on the outlet of Lake Vichuquen, but there is no harbour of
importance until Concepci6n (or Talcahuano) Bay is reached.
There are three harbours on this bay, El Tome, Penco and Talca-
huano (?..), the last being the largest and best-protected port on
the inhabited part of the Chilean coast. Immediately south of this
bay is the large Bay of Arauco, into which the Bio-Bio river dis-
charges, and on which, sheltered by the island of Santa Maria, are
the ports of Coronel and Lota. The next important harbour is that
of El Corral, at the mouth of the Valdivia river and 15 m. below

144

CHILE

[GEOGRAPHY

the city of Valdivia. The Bay of San Carlos on the northern coast
of Chiloe, which opens upon the narrow Chacao channel, has the port
of Ancud, or San Carlos, and is rated an excellent harbour for
vessels of light and medium draught. Inside the island of Chilod
the large gulfs of Chacao (or Ancud) and Corcovado are well pro-
tected from the severe westerly storms of these latitudes, but they
are little used because the approach through the Chacao channel is
tortuousand only 2 to 3 m. wide, and the two gulfs, though over 30 m.
wide and 150 m. long, are beset with small rocky islands. At the
north end of the first is the Reloncavi, a large and nearly landlocked
bay, on which stands Puerto Montt, the southern terminus of the
Chilean central railway. The large Gulf of Peftas, south of Taytao
peninsula, is open to the westerly storms of the Pacific, but it affords
entrance to several natural harbours. Among these are the Gulfs
of Tres Monies and San Estevan, and Tarn Bay at the entrance to
Messier Channel. The next 300 m. of the Chilean coast contain
numerous bays and inlets affording safe harbours, but the mainland
and islands are uninhabited and the climate inhospitable. Behind
Rennell Island in lat. 52 S., however, is a succession of navigable
estuaries which penetrate inland nearly to the Argentine frontier.
The central part of this group of estuaries is called Worsley Sound,
and the last and farthest inland of its arms is Last Hope Inlet
(Ultima Esperanza), on which is situated the Chilean agricultural
colony of Puerto Consuelo. The Straits of Magellan, about 360 m. in
length, lie wholly within Chilean territory. Midway of them is situ-
ated Punta Arenas, the most southern town and port of the republic.
Except in the extreme south the hydrography of Chile is of the
simplest description, all the larger rivers having their sources in the
. Andes and flowing westward to the Pacific. Their courses

are necessarily short, and only a few have navigable
channels, the aggregate length of which is only 705 m. Nearly all
rivers in the desert region are lost in the sands long before reaching
the coast. Their waterless channels are interesting, however, as evi-
dence of a time when climatological conditions on this coast were
different. The principal rivers of this region are Sama (which forms
the provisional boundary line with Peru), Tacna, Camarones, Loa,
Copiapo, Huasco, Elqui, Limari and Choapa. The Loa is the
largest, having its sources on the slopes of the Cordillera south of
the Minho volcano, between 21 and 21 30' S. lat., and flowing
south on an elevated plateau to Chiuchiu, and thence west and
north in a great curve to Quillaga, whence its dry channel turns
westward again and reaches the Pacific in lat. 21 28' S., a few miles
south of the small port of Huanillos. Its total length is estimated at
250 m. The upper courses of the river are at a considerable elevation
above the sea and receive a large volume of water from the Cor-
dilleras. The water of its upper course and tributaries is sweet,
and is conducted across the desert in pipes to some of the coast towns,
but in its lower course, as in all the rivers of this region, it becomes
brackish. The Copiap6, which once discharged into the sea, is now
practically exhausted in irrigating a small fertile valley in which
stands the city of that name. The Copiapo and Huasco have com-
paratively short courses, but they receive a considerable volume of
water from the higher sierras. The latter is also used to irrigate a
small, cultivated valley. The rivers of the province of Coquimboy-
the Elqui or Coquimbo, Limari and Choapa exist under less arid
conditions, and like those of the province of Aconcagua the Ligua
and Aconcagua are used to irrigate a much larger area of culti-
vated territory. The central agricultural provinces are traversed by
several important rivers, all of them rising on the western slopes of
the snow-clad Andes and breaking through the jower coast range
to the Pacific after being extensively used to irrigate the great
central valley of Chile; These are the Maipo (Maypo or Maipu),
Rapel, Mataquito, Maule, Itata, Bio-Bio, Imperial, Tolten, Valdivia
or Calle-Calle, Bueno and Maullin. With the exception of the first
three, these rivers have short navigable channels, but they are open
only to vessels of light draught because of sand-bars at their mouths.
The largest is the Bio-Bio, which has a total length of 220 m., 100 of
which are navigable. These rivers have been, of great service in the
agricultural development of this part of Chile, affording means of
transportation where railways and highways were entirely jacking.
Some of the larger tributaries of these rivers, whose economic value
has been equally great, are the Mapocho, which flows through
Santiago and enters the Maipo from the north; the turbulent
Cachapoal, which joins the Rapel from the north; the Claro, which
waters an extensive part of the province of Talca and enters the
Maule from the north; the Ruble, which rises in the higher Andes
north of the peaks of Chilian and flows entirely across the province
of Nuble to join the Itata on its western frontier; the Laja, which
rises in a lake of the same name near the Argentine frontier in about
lat. 35 30' S. and flows almost due west to the Bio-Bio; and the
Cautin, which rises in the north-east corner of Cautin and after a
tortuous course westward nearly across that province forms the
principal confluent of the Imperial. The unsettled southern regions
of Chuoe (mainland) and Magallanes are traversed by a number of
important rivers which have been only partially explored. They
have their sources in the Andes, some of them on the eastern side
of the line of highest summits. The Puelo has its origin in a lake of
the same name in Argentine territory, and flows north-west through
the Cordilleras into an estuary (Reloncavi Inlet) of the Gulf of
Reloncavi at the northern end of the Gulf of Chacao. Its lower

course is impeded in such a manner as to form three small lakes,
called Superior, Inferior and Taguatagua. A large northern tribu-
tary of the Puclo, the Manso, has its sources in Lake Mascardi and
other lakes and streams south-east of the Cerro Trpnador, also in
Argentina, and flows south-west through the Cordilleras to unite
with the Puelo a few miles west of the 72nd meridian. The Relon-
cavi Inlet also receives the outflow of Lake Todos los Santos through
a short tortuous stream called the Petrohue. The Comau Inlet and
river form the boundary line between the provinces of Llanquihue
and Chilo, and traverse a densely wooded country in a north-
westerly direction from the Andes to the north-eastern shore of the
Gulf of Chacao. Continuing southward, the Yelcho is the next
important river to traverse this region. It drains a large area of
Argentineterritory, whereit is called the RioFetaleufuorFetalauquen,
its principal source being a large lake of the same name. It flows
south-west through the Andes, and then north-west through Lake
Yelcho to the Gulf of Corcovado. The Argentine colony of the i6th
of October, settled principally by Welshmen from Chubut, is located
on some of the upper tributaries of this river, in about lat. 43" S.
The Palena is another river of the same character, having its source
in a large frontier lake called General Paz and flowing for some
distance through Argentine territory before crossing into Chile.
It receives one large tributary from the south, the Rio Pico, and
enters an estuary of the Gulf of Corcovado a little north of the 441(1
parallel. The Frias is wholly a Chilean river, draining an extensive
Andean region between the 44th and 45th parallels and discharging
into the Puyuguapi channel, which separates Magdalena island
from the mainland. The Aisen also has its source in Argentine
territory near the 4&th parallel, and drains a mountainous region as
far north as the 45th parallel, receiving numerous tributaries, and
discharging a large volume of water into the Moraleda channel in
about lat. 45 20 S. The lower course of this river is essentially an
inlet, and is navigable for a short distance. The next large river is
the Las Heras, or Baker, through which the waters of Lakes Buenos
Aires and Pueyrredon, or Cocnrane, find their way to the Pacific.
Both of these large lakes are crossed by the boundary line. The
Las Heras discharges into Martinez Inlet, the northern part of a large
estuary called Baker or Calen Inlet which penetrates the mainland
about 75 m. and opens into Tarn Bay at the south-east corner of the
Gulf of Pefias. Azopardo (or Merino Jarpa) island lies wholly within
this great estuary, while at its mouth lies a group of smaller islands,
called Baker Islands, which separate it from Messier Channel. The
course of the Las Heras from Lake Buenos Aires is south and south-
west, the short range of mountains in which are found the Cerros
San Valentin and Arenales forcing it southward for an outlet.
Baker Inlet also receives the waters of stilj another large Argentine-
Chilean lake, San Martin, whose far-reaching fjord-like arms extend
from lat. 49 10' to 48 20' S. ; its north-west arm drains into the
Tcro, or La Pascua, river. Lake San Martin lies in a crooked deeply
cut passage through the Andes, and the divide between its southern
extremity (Laguna Tar) and Lake Viedma, which discharges through
the Santa Cruz river into the Atlantic, is so slight as to warrant the
hypothesis that this was once a strait between the two oceans.
After a short north-westerly course the Tore discharges into Baker
Inlet in lat. 48 15' S., long. 73 24' W. South of the Toro there are
no large rivers on this coast, but the narrow fjords penetrate deeply
into the mountains and bring away the drainage of their snow-capped,
storm-swept elevations. A peculiar network of fjords and connecting
channels terminating inland in a peculiarly shaped body of water
with long, widely branching arms, called Worsley Sound, Obstruction
Sound and Last Hope Inlet, covers an extensive area between the
5 ist and 53rd parallels, and extends nearjy to the Argentine frontier.
It has the characteristics of a tidewater river and drains an extensive
region. The sources of the Argentine river Coile are to be found
among the lakes and streams of this same region, within Chilean
territory. A noteworthy peculiarity of southern Chile, from the
Taytao peninsula (about 46 50' S. lat.) to Tierra del Fuego, is the
large number of glaciers formed on the western and southern slopes
of the Cordilleras and other high elevations, which discharge direct
into these deeply cut estuaries. Some of the larger lakes of the
Andes have glaciers discharging into them. The formation of these
icy streams at comparatively low levels, with their discharge direct
into tidewater estuaries, is a phenomenon not to be found elsewhere
in the same latitudes.

The lakes of Chile are numerous and important, but they are
found chiefly in the southern half of the republic. In the north the
only lakes are large lagoons, or morasses, on the upper , .
saline plateaus between the 23rd and 28th parallels.
They are fed from the melting snows and periodical storms of the
higher Andes, and most of them are completely dry part of the year.
Their waters are saturated with saline compounds, which in some
cases have considerable commercial value. In central Chile above
the Bio-Bio river the lakes are small and have no special geographical
interest, with the exception perhaps of the Laguna del Maule, in
36 7' S., and Laguna de la Laja, in 37 20' .which lie in the Andes
near the Argentine frontier and are sources of the two rivers of the
same names. Below the Bio-Bio river there is a line of large pictur-
esque lakes extending from the province of Cautin, south through
that of Llanquihue, corresponding in character and position to the
dry lacustrine depressions extending northward in the same valley.

GEOLOGY: CLIMATE]

CHILE

They lie on the eastern side near the Cordilleras, and serve the
purpose of great reservoirs for the excessive precipitation of rain
and snow on their western slopes. With one exception they all drain
westward into the Pacific through short and partly navigable rivers,
and some of the lakes are also utilized for steamship navigation.
These lakes are Villarica on the southern frontier of Cautin, Rinihue
and Ranco in Valdivia, and Puyehue, Rupanco, Llanquihue and
Todos los Santos in Llanquihue. The largest of the number are Lakes
Ranco and Llanquihue, the former with an estimated area of 200
sq. m. and the latter of 300 so. m. Lake Todos los Santos is situated
well within the Andean foothills north-east of Puerto Montt and at an
elevation of 509 ft., considerably above that of the other lakes,
Lake Ranco being 230 ft. above sea-level. The great Andean lakes of
General Paz (near the 44th parallel), Buenos Aires (in lat. 46 30' S.),
Pueyrredon, or Cochrane (47 15' S.) and San Martin (49 S.), lie
partly within Chilean territory. _In the extreme south are Lagoa
Blanca, a large fresh-water lake in lat. 52 30' S., and two large
inland salt-water sounds, or lagoons, called Otway Water and
Skyring Water, connected by FitzRoy Passage.

Geology. Chile may be divided longitudinally into two regions
which differ from each other in their geological structure. Along
the coast lies a belt of granite and schist overlaid unconformably
by Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits; inland the mountains are
formed chiefly of folded Mesozoic beds, together with volcanic rocks
of later date. The great ^longitudinal valley of Chile runs approxi-
mately, but only approximately, along the boundary between the
two zones. Towards the north the coastal zone disappears beneath
the sea and the Andean zone reaches to the shore. The ancient
rocks which form the most characteristic feature of the former do
indeed occur upon the coast of Peru, but in the north of Chile they
are found only in isolated masses standing close to the shore or, as at
Meiillones, projecting into the sea. South of Antofagasta the old
rocks form a nearly continuous band along the coast, extending as
far as Cape Horn and Staten Island, and occupying the greater part
of the islands of southern Chile. Lithologically they are crystalline
schists, together with granite, diorite, gabbro and other igneous rocks.
They are known to be pre- Jurassic, but whether they are Palaeozoic
or Archaean is uncertain. They are strongly folded and are overlaid
unconformably by Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits. In the north
both the Cretaceous and Tertiary beds of this zone are limited in
extent, but towards the south Mesozoic beds, which are at least in part
Cretaceous, form a band of considerable width. The Tertiary beds
include both marine and terrestrial deposits, and appear to be chiefly
of Miocene and Pliocene age. The whole of'the north part of Tierra
del Fuego is occupied by plateaus of horizontal Tertiary strata.

The Chilean Andes correspond with the Western Cordillera of
Bolivia and Peru, and consist almost entirely of Jurassic and Cre-
taceous beds, together with the products of the Tertiary eruptions.
The Mesozoic beds are thrown into a series of parallel folds which run
in the direction of the chain and which are generally free from any
complications such as overthrusting or overfolding. The Cretaceous
beds form a synclinal upon the eastern side of the chain (and, in
general, beyond the Chilean boundary), while the Jurassic beds are
thrown into a number of folds which form the axis and the western
flank. Through the Mesozoic beds are intruded granitic and other
igneous rocks of Tertiary age, and upon the folded Mesozoic founda-
tion rise the volcanic cones of Tertiary and later date. The Trias
is known only at La Ternera near Copiapo, where coal-seams with
Rhaetic plants have been found ; but thfe rest of the Mesozoic series,
from the Lias to the Upper Cretaceous, appears to be represented
without a break of more than local importance. The deposits are
marine, consisting mainly of sandstone and limestone, together with
tuffs and conglomerates of porphyry and porphyrite. These porphy-
ritic rocks form a characteristic feature of the southern Andes,
and were at one time supposed to be metamorphic; but they are
certainly volcanic, and as they contain marine fossils they must have
been laid down beneath the sea. They are not confined to any one
horizon, but occur irregularly throughout the Jurassic and occasion-
ally also amongst the Cretaceous strata. They form, in fact, a special
facies which may frequently be traced laterally into the more normal
marine deposit of the same age. The fauna of the Mesozoic beds
is very rich, and includes forms which are found in northern Europe,
others which occur in central Europe, and others again which are
characteristic of the Mediterranean region. It lends no support to
Neumayr's theory of climatic zones. A large part of the chain is
covered by the products of the great volcanoes which still form the
highest summits of the Chilean and Argentine Andes. The rocks are
Kparites, dacites, hornblende and pyroxene andesites. The recent
lavas of the still active volcanoes of the south are olivine-bearing
hypersthene-andesite and basalt. 1

Climate. The climate of Chile varies widely, from the tropical

1 See A. Pissis, " Sur la constitution geologique de la chaine
des Andes entre le i6 e et le 55" degre de latitude sud," Ann.
des mines, ser. 7, vol. iii. (Mem.), 1873, pp. 402-426, pis. ix., x. ;

Burckhardt, " Profils geolpgiques transversaux de la Cordillere
argentino-chilienne. Stratigraphie et tectonique," AnoJ.es Mus.

heat and extreme arid conditions of the northern coast to the low
temperatures and extreme humidity of western Tierra del Fuego
and the southern coast. The high altitudes of the Andean region
also introduce vertical zones of temperature, modified to some extent
by the rainless plateaus of the north, and by the excessive rainfall
of the south. In general terms it may be said that the extremes of
temperature are not so great as in corresponding latitudes of the
northern hemisphere, because of the greater expanse of water in
comparison with the land areas, the summers being cooler and the
winters warmer. The cold antarctic, or Humboldt, current sweeps
northward along the coast and greatly modifies the heat of the arid,
tropical plateaus. The climate of northern and central Chile is
profoundly affected by the high mountain barrier on xhe eastern
frontier and by the broad treeless pampas of Argentina, which raise
the easterly moisture-laden winds from the Atlantic to so high an
elevation that they sweep across Chile without leaving a drop of
rain. At very rare intervals light rains fall in the desert regions
north of Coquimbo, but these are brought by the prevailing coast
winds. With this exception these regions are the most arid on the
face of the globe, highly heated by a tropical sun during the day
and chilled at night by the proximity of snow-covered heights and a
cold ocean current. Going south the temperature slowly falls and the
rainfall gradually increases, the year being divided into a short
rainy season and a long, dry, cloudless season. At Copiapo, in

S-, 1755 ft- above the sea, the mean temperature is 54 and the
annual rainfall i6J in., though the latter varies considerably.
The number of rainy days in the year averages about 21. At Talca,
in 35 36' S. and 334 ft. above sea-level, the mean annual temperature
is nearly one degree above that of Santiago, but the rainfall has
increased to 19-7 in. The long dry season of this region makes ir-
rigation necessary, and vegetation has something ofa subtropical
appearance, palms growing naturally as far south as 37. The
climate is healthy and agreeable, though the death-rate among the
common people is abnormally high on account of personal habits and
unsanitary surroundings. In southern Chile the blimate undergoes
a radical change the prevailing winds becoming westerly, causing a
long rainy season with a phenomenal rainfall. The plains as well
as the western slopes of the Andes are covered with forest, the rivers
become torrents, and the sky is covered with heavy clouds a great
part of the year. At Valdivia, in 39 49' S. and near the sea-level,
the mean annual temperature is 52-9 and the annual rainfall 108
to 115 in., with about 150 rainy days in the year. These meteoro-
logical conditions are still more accentuated at Ancud, at the north
end of the island of Chiloe, in 41 46' S., where the mean annual
temperature is 50-7 and the annual rainfall 134 in. The equable
character of the climate at this point is shown by the limited range
between its summer and winter temperatures, the mean for January
being 56-5 and the mean for July 45-9. The almost continual
cloudiness is undoubtedly a principal cause, not only of the low
summer temperatures, but also of the comparatively high winter
temperatures. Frosts are infrequent, and snow does not lie long.
The climate is considered to be healthful notwithstanding the
excessive humidity. The 6op m. of coast from the Chonos Archi-
pelago south to the Fuegian islands have a climate closely approxi-
mating that of the latter. It is wet and stormy all the year through,
though the rainfall is much less than that of Ancud and Valdivia.
The line of perpetual snow, which is 6000 ft. above sea-level between
lat. 41 and 43, descends to 3500 (to 4000) ft. in Tierra del Fuego,
affording another indication of the low maximum temperatures ruling
during the summer. At the extreme south, where Chilean territory
extends across to the Atlantic entrance to the Straits of Magellan,
a new climatic influence is encountered in the warm equatorial
current flowing down the east coast of South America, which eives
to eastern Tierra del Fuego a higher temperature than that of the
western shore. The Andes, although much broken in these latitudes,
also exert a modifying influence on these eastern districts, sheltering
them from the cold westerly storms and giving them a drier climate.
This accounts for the surprising meteorological data obtained from
Punta Arenas, in 53 10' S., where the mean annual temperature is
43-2 and the annual rainfall only 22-5 in. Other observations reduce
this annual precipitation to less than 1 6 in. According to observations
made by the Swedish Antarctic Expedition (1901-1903), at Orange
Bay, Hoste Island, in lat. 55 31' S., long. 68* 05' W., which is more
exposed to the westerly storms, the mean temperature for 1 1 months
was 41-98 and the total precipitation (rain and snow) 53-1 in.
The mean maximum temperature was 49-24, and the mean minimum
35-83. The observations showed 284 days with rain or snow, of
which 70 were with snow.

Flora. The indigenous flora of Chile is less extensive and less
interesting than those of Argentina and Brazil, but contains many
peculiar genera and species. A classification of this flora necessitates

La Plata, 1900, and " Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Jura- und Kreide-
formation der Cordillere," Palaeontographica, vol. 1. (1903-1904),
pp. 1-144, P' S - i.-xyi. ; see also a series of papers on South American
geology by G. Steinmann and his collaborators in Neues Jakrb. far
Min. Beil.-band viii. et seq.

146

CHILE

[FLORA AND FAUNA

its division into at least three general zones the desert provinces
of the north, central Chile, and the humid regions of the south.
The first is an arid desert absolutely barren along part of the coast,
between Tacna and Copiap6, but with a coarse scanty vegetation
near the Cordilleras along watercourses and on the slopes where
moisture from the melting snows above percolates through the sand.
In the valleys of the Copiap6 and Huasco rivers a meagre vegetation
is to be found near their channels, apart from what is produced by
irrigation, but the surface of the plateau and the dry river channels
below the sierras are completely barren. Continuing southward
into the province of Coquimbo a gradual change in the arid conditions
may be observed. The higher summits of the Cordilleras afford a
larger and more continuous supply of water, and so dependent are
the people in the cultivated river valleys on this source of water
supply that they watch for snowstorms in the Cordilleras as an
indication of what the coming season is to be. The arborescent
growth near the mountains is larger and more vigorous, in which are
to be found the " algarrobo " (Prosopis siliquastrum) and " chanar "
(Gourliea chtiensis), but the only shrub to be found on the coast is a
species of Skytanthus. Near the sierras where irrigation is possible,
fruit-growing is so successful, especially the grape and fig, that the
product is considered the best in Chile. In regard to the indigenous
flora of this region John Ball 1 says: "The species which grow here
are the more or less modified representatives of plants which at
some former period existed under very different conditions of life."
Proceeding southward cacti become common, first a dwarfed species,
and then a larger columnar form (Cereus quisco). The streams are
fringed with willows; fruit trees and alfalfa fields fill the irrigated
valleys, and the lower mountain slopes are better covered with a
thorny arborescent growth. The divides between the streams,
however, continue barren as far south as the transverse ranges of
mountains across the province of Aconcagua.

To some degree the flora of central Chile is of a transition character
between the northern and southern zones. It is much more than
this, however, for it has a large number of genera and species peculiarly
its own. A large majority of the 198 genera peculiar to the South
American temperate regions belong exclusively to central Chile.
This zone extends from about the 3Oth to the 36th parallel, perhaps
a little farther south to include some characteristic types. The
evergreens largely predominate here as well as in the extreme south,
and on the open, sunburnt plains the vegetation takes on a sub-
tropical aspect. One of the most characteristic trees of this zone is
the peumo (Cryptocarya peumus), whose dense evergreen foliage is
everywhere conspicuous. The quillay (Quillaja saponaria) is another
characteristic evergreen tree of this region, whose bark possesses
saponaceous properties. In earlier times the coquito palm (Jubaea
spectabilis) was to be found throughout this part of Chile, but it has
been almost completely destroyed for its saccharine sap, from which
a treacle was made. One of the most striking forest trees is the
pehuen or Chilean pine (Araucaria imbricata), which often grows
to a height of lop ft. and is prized by the natives for its fruit. Three
indigenous species of the beech the roble (Fagus obligua), coyhue
(F. Dombeyi), and rauli (F. procera) are widely diffused and highly
prized for their wood, especially the first, which is misleadingly called
roUe (oak). Most of the woods used in construction and manu-
factures are found between the Bio-Bio river and the Taytao
peninsula, among which are the alerce (Fitzroya patagonica), cipres
or Chiloe cypress (Libocedrus tetragona), the Chilean cypress (L.
Chilensis), hngue (Per sea lingue), laurel (Laurus aromatica), ayella.no
(Guevina avellana), lunia (Myrtus luma), espino (Acacia cavenia) and
many others. Several exotic species have been introduced into this
part of Chile, some of which have thriven even better than in their
native habitats* Among these are the oak, elm, beech (F. sylvatica),
walnut, chestnut, poplar, willow and eucalyptus. Through the
central zone_ the plains are open and there are forests on the mountain
slopes, but in the southern zone there are no plains, with the excep-
tion of small areas near the Straits of Magellan, and the forests are
universal. In the variety, size and density of their growth these
forests remind one of the tropics. They are made up, in great part,
of the evergreen beech (Fagus betuloides), the deciduous antarctic
beech (F. antarctica) , 2 and Winter's bark (Drimys Winteri), inter-
mingled with a dense undergrowth composed of a great variety of
shrubs and plants, among which are Maytenus magellanica, Arbutus
rigida, Myrtus memmolaria, two or three species of Berberis, wild
currant (Ribes antarctica), a trailing blackberry, tree ferns, reed-like
grasses and innumerable parasites. On the eastern side of the
Cordillera, in the extreme south, the climate is drier and open,
and grassy plains are found, but on the western side the dripping
forests extend from an altitude of 1000 to 1500 ft. down to the level
of the sea. A peculiar vegetable product of this inclement region
is a small globular fungus growing on the bark of the beech, which
is a staple article of food among the Fuegians probably the only
instance where a fungus is the bread of a people.

It is generally conceded that the potato originated in southern
Chile, as it is found growing wild in Chiloe and neighbouring islands
and on the adjacent mainland. The strawberry is also indigenous
to these latitudes on both sides of the Andes, and Chile is credited

1 Notes of a Naturalist in South America, p. 134.
1 Also classified as Nothofagus (Mirb.).

with a species from which the cultivated strawberry derives some of
its best qualities. Maize and quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) were
known in Chile before the arrival of Europeans, but it is not
certain that they are indigenous. Species of the bean and pepper
plant are also indigenous, and the former is said to have been
cultivated by the natives. Among the many economic plants
which have been introduced into Chile and have become important
additions to her resources, the more prominent are wheat, barley,
hemp and alfalfa (Medicago saliva), together with the staple European
fruits, such as the apple, pear, peach, nectarine, grape, fig, olive
and orange. The date-palm has also been introduced into the
southern provinces of the desert region. Among the marine pro-
ductions on the southern coast, a species of kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera,
merits special mention because of its extraordinary length, its habit
of clinging to the rocks in strong currents and turbulent seas, and
its being a shelter for innumerable species of marine animals. Captain
FitzRoy found it growing from a depth of 270 ft.

Fauna. The fauna of Chile is comparatively poor, both in species
and individuals. A great part of the northern deserts is as barren
of animal life as of vegetation, and the dense humid forests of the
south shelter surprisingly few species. There are no large mammals
in all this extensive region except the Cetacea and a species of the
Phocidae of southern waters. Neither are there any dangerous
species of Carnivora, which are represented by the timid puma
(Felis concolor), three species of wildcats, three of the fox, two of
Conepatus, a weasel, sea-otter and six species of seal. The rodents
are the most numerously represented order, which includes the coypu
or nutria (Myopotamus coypus), the chinchilla (Chinchilla laniger),
the tucc-tuco (Ctenomys brasiliensis), a rabbit, and 12 species of
mice in all some 12 genera and 25 species. The coypu, sometimes
called the South American beaver, inhabits the river;banks, and is
highly prized for its fur. It is also found along the river-courses
of Argentina. The ruminants are represented by a few species only
the guanaco (Auchenia huanaco), vicuna (A. vicugna), huemul (Cervus
chilensis), which appears on the Chilean escutcheon, and the pudu
deer, a small and not very numerous species. There are two species
of the Edentata, Dasypus and Pichiciego, the latter very rare, and
one of the opossums. European animals, such as horses, cattle,
sheep, swine and goats, have been introduced into the country and
do well. Sheep-raising has also been inaugurated with some degree
of success in the vicinity of the Straits of Magellan. The avifauna,
with the exception of waterfowl, is also limited to comparatively
few species. Birds of prey are represented by the condor, vulture,
two species of the carrion-hawk (Polyborus), and owl. The Chilean
slopes of the Andes appear to be a favourite haunt of the condor,
where neighbouring stock-raisers suffer severe losses at times from
its attacks. The Insessores are represented by a number of species.
Parrots are found as far south as Tierra del Fuego, where Darwin
saw them feeding on seeds of the Winter's bark. Humming-birds
have a similar range on this coast, one species (Mettisuga Kingii)
being quite numerous as far south as Tierra del Fuego. A character-
istic_genus is that of Pteroptochus, of which there are three or four
species each characterized by some conspicuous peculiarity. These
are P. megapodius, called El Turco by the natives, which is noticeable
for its ungainly appearance and awkward gait; the P. albicoUis,
which inhabits barren hillsides and is called tapacollo from the manner
of carrying its tail turned far forward over its back ; the P. rubecula,
of Chiloe, a small timid denizen of the gloomy forest, called the
cheucau or chuca, whose two or three notes are believed by the
superstitious natives to be auguries of impending success or disaster ;
and an allied species (Hylactes Tarnii, King) called the guid-guid or
barking bird, whose cry is a close imitation ot the yelp of a small dog.
The southern coast and its inland waters are frequented by several
species of petrel, among which are the Procellaria gigantea, whose
strength and rapacity led the Spaniards to call it quebranta huesos
(breakbones), the Puffinus cinereus, which inhabits the inland
channels in large flocks, and an allied species (Puffinuria Berardii)
which inhabits the inland sounds and resembles the auk in some
particulars of habit and appearance. There are numerous species
in these sheltered channels, inlets and sounds of geese, ducks, swans,
cormorants, ibises, bitterns, red-beaks, curlew, snipe, plover and
moorhens. Conspicuous among these are the great white swan
(Cygnus anatoides), the black-necked swan (Anser nigricollis), the
antarctic goose (Anas antarctica) and the " race-horse ' or " steamer
duck " (Micropterus brachypterus).

The marine fauna is less known than the others, but it is rich in
species and highly interesting in its varied forms and characteristics.
The northern coast has no sheltered waters of any considerable
extent, and the shore slopes abruptly to a great depth, which gives
it a marine life of no special importance. In the shoal waters about
Juan Fernandez are found a species of codfish (possibly Gadus
macrocephalus), differing in some particulars from the Newfoundland
cod, and a large crayfish, both of which are caught for the Valparaiso
market. The sheltered waters of the broken southern coast, however,
are rich in fish and molluscs, especially in mussels, limpets and
barnacles, which are the principal food resource of the nomadic
Indian tribes of those regions. A large species of barnacle, Balanus
psittacus, is found in great abundance from Concepcion to Puerto
Montt, and is not only eaten by the natives, by whom it is called
pica, but is also esteemed a great delicacy in the markets of Valparaiso

CHILE

POPULATION]

and Santiago. Oysters of excellent flavour are found in the sheltered
waters of Chiloe. The Cetacea, which frequent these southern
waters, are represented by four species two dolphins and the sperm
and right whale and the Phocidae by six species, one of which
(Phoca lupina) differs but little from the common seal. Another
species (Macrorhinus leoninus), popularly known as the sea-elephant,
isprovided with short tusks and a short trunk and sometimes grows
to a length of 20 ft. Still another species, the sea-lion (Otana jubata) ,
furnishes the natives of Tierra del Fuego with an acceptable article
of food, but like the Phoca lupina it is becoming scarce.

Of Reptilia Chile is singularly free, there being recorded only eleven
species five saurians, four ophidians, one Frog and one toad
but a more thorough survey of the uninhabited territories of the
south may increase this list. There are no alligators in the streams,
and the tropical north has very few lizards. There are no poisonous
snakes in the country, and, in a region so filled with lakes and rivers
as the rainy south, only two species of batrachians. The insect life
of these strangely associated regions is likewise greatly restricted by
adverse climatic conditions, a considerable part of the northern
desert being absolutely barren of animal and vegetable life, while the
climateof Tierra delFuegoand the southern coast is highly unfavour-
able to terrestrial animal life, for which reason comparatively few
species are to be found. Writing of a journey inland from Iquique,
Charles Darwin says (Journal of Researches, &c., p. 444) : " Excepting
the Vultur aura, ... I saw neither bird, quadruped, reptile, nor
insect." Of his entomological collection in Tierra del Fuego, which
was not large, the majority were of Alpine species. Moreover, he
did not find a single species common to that island and Patagonia.
These conditions subsist with but few modifications, if any, from the
Straits northward to the d2nd parallel, the extreme humidity,
abnormal rainfall and dark skies being unfavourable to the develop-
ment of insect life, while the Andes interpose an impassable barrier
to migration from the countries of the eastern coast. The only
venomous species to be found in central Chile is that of a spider
which frequents the wheat fields in harvest time.

Population. The population of Chile is largely concentrated
in the twelve agricultural provinces between and including
Coquimbo and Concepci6n, though the next six provinces to the
south, of more recent general settlement, have received some
foreign immigrants, and are rapidly growing. In the desert
provinces the population is limited to the mining communities,
and to the ports and supply stations maintained for their support
and for the transport, smelting and export of their produce.
The province of Atacama has, in addition to its mining popula-
tion, a considerable number of agriculturists located in a few
irrigated river valleys, which class is largely increased in the
adjoining province of Coquimbo. The more northern provinces,
however, maintain their populations without the support of such
small cultivated areas. In the southern territories unfavourable
conditions of a widely different character prevail, and the
population is restricted to a few small settlements and some
nomadic tribes of Indians. Here, however, there are localities
where settlements could be maintained by ordinary means and
the population could be greatly increased. Since the census
of 1895 the population of Punta Arenas has been largely increased
by the discovery of gold in the vicinity. The twelve provinces
first mentioned, which include the celebrated " Vale of Chile,"
comprise only 17% of the area of the republic, but the census
of 1895 showed that 72% of the total population was con-
centrated within their borders. The four desert provinces north
of Coquimbo had only 8% of the total, and the seven provinces
and one territory south of Conception had 20%. According
to the census of 1895 the total population was 2,712,145, to
which the census officials added 10% to cover omissions. This
shows an increase slightly over 7 % for the preceding decennial
period, the population having been returned as 2,527,320 in 1885.
The census returns of 1875 and 1866 gave respectively 2,068,447
and 2,084,943, showing an actual decrease in population.
During these years Chile held the anomalous position of a country
spending large sums annually to secure immigrants while at the
same time her own labouring classes were emigrating by
thousands to the neighbouring republics to improve their
condition. Writing in 1879, a correspondent of The Times 1
stated that this emigration then averaged 8000 a year, and in
bad times had reached as many as 30,000 in one year. The
condition of the Chilean labourer has been much improved since
then, however, and Chile no longer suffers so serious a loss ol
1 A. Gallenga, South America (London, 1880), p. 181.

wpulation. In 1895, the foreigners included in the Chilean
copulation numbered 72,812, of which 42,105 were European,
29,687 American, and 1020 Asiatic, &c. According to nation-
ality there were 8269 Spanish, 7809 French, 7587 Italian, 7049
German, 6241 British, 1570 Swiss, 1490 Austro-Hungarian,
13,695 Peruvian, 7531 Argentine, 6654 Bolivian, 701 American
[U.S.), 797 Chinese. According to residence, 1471,792 were
nhabitants of rural districts, and 1,240,353 of towns. The
registration of births, marriages and deaths is compulsory since
the ist of January 1885, but the provisions of the law are
frequently eluded. Notwithstanding the healthiness of the
climate, the death-rate is high, especially in the large cities,
[n Santiago and Valparaiso the death-rate sometimes rises to
42 and 60 per 1000, and infant mortality is very high, being
73 % of the births in some of the provincial towns. This
unfavourable state of affairs is due to the poverty, ignorance
and insanitary habits of the lower classes. The government has
made repeated efforts to secure immigrants from Europe, but
the lands set apart for immigrant settlers are in the forested
provinces south of the Bio-Bio, where the labour and hardships
involved in establishing a home are great, and the protection
of the law against bandits and criminal assaults is weak. The
Germans have indeed settled in many parts of these southern
provinces since 1845, and by keeping together have succeeded
in building up several important towns and a large number of
prosperous agricultural communities. One German authority
(Huber) estimates the number of Germans in two of these pro-
vinces at 5000. The arrivals, however, have been on the whole
discouragingly small, the total for the years 1901-1005 being
only 14,000.

Although Chileans claim a comparatively small admixture
with the native races, it is estimated that the whites and Creoles
of white extraction do not exceed 30 to 40% of the population,
while the mestizos form fully 60%. This estimate is unquestion-
ably conservative, for there has been no large influx of European
blood to counterbalance the race mixtures of earlier times.
The estimated number of Indians living within the boundaries
of Chile is about 50,000, which presumably includes the nomadic
tribes of the Fuegian archipelago, whose number probably
does not reach 5000. The semi-independent Araucanians,
whose territory is slowly being occupied by the whites, are
concentrated in the eastern forests of Bio-Bio, Malleco and
Cautin, all that remains to them of the Araucania which they
so bravely and successfully defended for more than three
centuries. Their number does not much exceed 40,000, which
is being steadily reduced by drunkenness and epidemic diseases.
A small part of these Indians live in settled communities and
include some very successful stock-raisers, but the greater part
live apart from civilization. There are also some remnants of
tribes in the province of Chiloe, which inhabit the island of that
name, the Chonos and Guaytecas archipelagoes and the adjacent
mainland, who have the reputation of being good boatmen and
fishermen; and there are remnants of a people called Changes,
on the desert coast, and traces of Calchaqui blood in the
neighbouring Andean foothills.

There is a wide difference in every respect between the upper
or ruling class and the common people. The former includes
the landed proprietors, professional men and a part of those
engaged in commercial and industrial pursuits. These educated
classes form only a small minority of the population. Many of
them, especially the landed proprietors, are descendants of the
original Spanish settlers and are celebrated for their politeness
and hospitality. The political control of the republic was secured
to them by the constitution of 1833. The common people were
kept in ignorance and practically in a state of hopeless servitude.
They were allowed to occupy small leaseholds on the large estates
on condition of performing a certain amount of work for the
landlord. Every avenue toward the betterment of their con-
dition was practically closed. The condition of the itinerant
labourers (peons) was still worse, the wages paid them being
hardly sufficient to keep them from starvation. The Chilean
peon, however, comes from a hardy stock, and has borne all

148

CHILE

[ POPULATION

these hardships with a fortitude and patience which go far to
counterbalance his faults. Recent reforms in education, &c.,
together with the growth of manufacturing industries, are
slowly leading to improvements in the material condition of
the common people.

The political organization of the country has not been favour-
able to the development of artistic or scientific tastes, though
Chile has produced political leaders, statesmen and polemical
writers in abundance. Historical
literature has been enriched by
the works of Diego Barros Arana,
Benjamin Vicuna Mackenna, Miguel
Luis Amunategui, Carlos Walker
Martinez, and others. One of the
earliest native histories of Chile
was that of Abb6 J. Ignacio
Molina, an English translation of
which has long been a recognized
authority; it is full of errors,
however, and should be studied
only in connexion with modern
standard works. Among these must
be included Claude Gay's monu-
mental work, Historia General de
Chile, and Sir C. R. Markham's
admirable studies on special parts
of the subject. In science, nearly all the important work has
been done by foreigners, among whom are Charles Darwin,
Claude Gay, Eduard Poppig, Rudolph A. Philippi and Hans
Steffen, who deserves special mention -for his excellent geo-
graphical work in the southern Andes.

Divisions and Towns. Chile contains 23 provinces and one terri-
tory, which are subdivided into 75 departments, 855 subdelegations
and 3068 districts. The territory north of the Bio-Bio was origin-
ally divided into 13 provinces, besides which the Spaniards held
Chiloe, Juan Fernandez and Valdivia, the latter being merely a
military outpost. During the years which have elapsed since the
War of Independence the territory south of the Bio-Bio has been
effectively occupied and divided into six provinces, Chiloe and the
neighbouring islands and mainland to the east became a province,
and four provinces in the northern deserts were acquired from
Bolivia and Peru. In addition to this, Chile claimed Patagonia and
the adjacent islands, and has finally secured not only the forested

strip of territory west of the Andes, but also a large piece of the
Patagonian mainland, south of lat. 52 S., the larger part of Tierra
del Fuego, and all the western islands. This extensive region,
comprising an area of 71,127 sq. m. ( has been provisionally organized
as the territory of Magallanes. For a list of provinces, their areas,
reduced from official returns, their populations, and the names and
populations of their capitals, see the bottom of this page.

In addition to the provincial capitals there are few towns of im-
portance. Among these may be mentioned :

Population.

1895-

Est. 1902.

1895.

Est. 1902.

Arica

2-853

2824

Parral . . .

8,586

10,219

Pisagua ....

3.635

4720

Constituci6n

6,400

6,453

Taltal . . .' .

5,834

6574

San Carlos .

7.051

6,579

Tocopilla ....

3-383

4752

Coronel .

4-575

5-959

Vallenar ....

5-05 2

5199

Lota ....

9.797

Coquimbo.

7,322

8165

Talcahuano .

10,431

"3-499

Ovalle ....

5,565

5772

El Tome . .

3-977

6,189

Los Andes (Santa

Rosa) ....

5.504

6854

Arauco .

3.008

3.334

Quillota . . .

9,621

9876

Canete .

2,000

2,552

Vina del Mar

10,651

Mulchen

4,268

4.332

Melipilla

4,286

5023

Traiguen

5.732

7,099

Rengo

6,463

7232

Victoria .

6,989

10,002

Vichuquen

826

3714

La Uni6n

2,830

3.908

Molina . . . .

3.609

3222

Osorno .

4,667

5,888

Castro(Chiloe) .

1.035

2,166

Provinces.

Area.

Population.
Census 1895.

Capitals.

Population.

Census 1895.

Est. 1902.

Tacna

9,251

24,160

Tacna

9,418

11,504

Tarapaca ....

18,131

89,751

Iquique .

33,031

42.788

Antofagasta .

46,611

44,085

Antofagasta .

I3-530

16,084

Atacama ....

30,729

59,713

Copiapo .

9,301

8,991

Coquimbo.

13,461

160,898

La Serena

15,712

19.536

Aconcagua

5,487

113,165

San Felipe .

".313

1 1, 660

Valparaiso

1-953

220,756

Valparaiso .

122,447

142,282

Santiago ....

5-665

415,636

Santiago .

256,403

332,059

O'Higgins

2,342

85,277

Rancagua

6,665

7.J33

Colchagua

3-856

157,566

San Fernando .

7,447

8,164

Curico ....

2,978

103,242

Curico

12,669

14.340

Talca

3.840

128,961

Talca

33.232

42,766

Linires ....

3.942

101,858

Linares .

7.331

7.256

Maule

2,475

H9,79i

Cauquenes .

8,574

9.895

Ruble

3.407

152,935

Chilian . . .

28,738

36,382

Concepci6n .

3,252

188,190

Conception .

39,837

49.351

Arauco ....

2,458

59,237

Lebu . . .

2,784

3.178

Bio-Bio ....

5.246

88,749

Los Angeles .

7,868

7,777

Malleco ....

2,973

98,032

Angol

7,056

7,638

Cautin

5.832

78,221

Temuco .

7,078

9,699

Valdivia ....

8,649

60,687

Valdivia

8,060

9,704

Llanquihue

45,515

78,315

Puerto Montt .

3.480

4,140

Chiloe

8,593

77,750

Ancud

3.182

3.787

Magallanes (Ter.)

71,127

5,170

Punta Arenas .

3.227

8,327

Total, official

307.774

2,712,145

Total according to

Gotha computation

293,062

With 10% added for

omissions .

2,983.359

Official estimate for

1902 ....

3.173.783

The population is not concentrated in large cities, but is well dis-
tributed through the cultivated parts of the country. The large
number of small towns, important as ports, market towns, or manu-
facturing centres, is a natural result. Many of the foregoing towns
are only villages in size, but their importance is not to be measured
in this way. Arica is one of the oldest ports on the coast, and has
long been a favoured port for Bolivian trade because the passes
through the Cordilleras at that point are not so difficult. Moreover,
the railway from Arica to La Paz will still further add to its import-
ance, though it may not greatly increase its population. Another
illustration is that of Vichuquen, province of Curic6, situated on a
tide-water lake on the coast, which is the centre of a large salt-
making industry. Still another instance is that of Castro, the oldest
settlement and former capital of Chiloe, which after a century of
decay is increasing again through the efforts to develop the industries
of that island.

Communications. Railway construction in Chile dates from 1850,
when work was begun on a short line between Copiapo and the port
of Caldera, in the Atacama desert region. Since then lines have

been built by private companies from
the coast at several points to inland
mining centres. One of these, run-
ning from Antofagasta to the Caracoles
district, was afterwards extended to
Oruro, Bolivia, and has become a
commercial route of international
importance, with a total length of
574 m., 224 of which are in Chile.
It should be remembered that many
of these railway enterprises of the
desert region originated at a time when
the territory belonged to Bolivia and
Peru. The first railway to be con-
structed in central Chile was the
government line from Valparaiso to
Santiago, 115 m. in length, which
was opened to traffic in 1863. About
the same time the government began
the construction of a longitudinal
trunk line running southward from
Santiago midway between the Andes
and the Coast range, and connecting
with all the provincial capitals and
prominent ports. This is the only
railway " system " it is possible for
Chile to have. The civil war of 1891
called attention to the need of a similar
inland route through the northern
provinces. A branch of the Valparaiso
and Santiago line runs to Los Andes,
and its extension across the Andes
connects with the Argentine lines
from Buenos Aires to Mendoza and
the Chilean frontier all sections
together forming a transcontinental
route about 850 m. in length. The
Transandine section of this route
crosses the Cordillera through the

INDUSTRY]

CHILE

149

Uspallata pass. A further Transandine scheme provides for a line
through the Pino Hachado pass (38 30' to 39 S.), and the Argentine
Great Southern Company obtained a concession in 1909 to extend its
Neuquen line to the frontier of Chile. The railways of the republic
had a total mileage at the end of 1906 of 2950 m., of which 1495 m.
were owned by the state, and 1455 m. belonged to private companies.
The private lines are located in the northern provinces and are for
the most part built and maintained for the transportation of mining
products and supplies.

In addition to her railway lines Chile has about 21,000 m. of public
roads of all descriptions, 135 m. of tramways, and 705 m. of navigable
river channels, besides a very considerable mileage of lake and coast
navigation. Telegraphic communication between all the important
towns of the republic, initiated in 1855 with a line between Santiago
and Valparaiso, is maintained by the state, which in 190^ owned
9306 m. of line in a total of 1 1 ,080 m. Cable communication with
Europe by way of Buenos Aires was opened in 1875, and is now
maintained by means of two underground cables across the Andes,
32 m. in length. A West Coast cable also connects with Europe and
North American states by way of Panama. There were 15,853 m.
of telephone wires in the republic in 1906, all the principal cities
having an admirable service. Modern postal facilities date from
1853. The Chilean post-office is administered by a director-general
at Santiago, and has a high degree of efficiency and liberality, com-
pared with those of other South American states. The postal rates
are low, and newspapers and other periodical publications circulate
free, as a means of popular instruction. The postal revenues for

1904 amounted to 2,775,730 pesos and the expenditures to 2,407,753
pesos. Chile is a member of the International Postal Union, and has
arrangements with the principal commercial nations for the exchange
of postal money values.

The sea has been the only means of communication with distant
parts of the country, and must continue to be the chief transporta-
tion route. There are said to be 56 ports on the Chilean coast,
of which only 12 are prominent in foreign trade. Many of the so-
called ports are only landing-places on an open coast, others are on
shallow bays and obstructed river-mouths, and some are little-known
harbours among the channels and islands of the south. The pro-
sperity of Chile is intimately connected with her ocean-going trade,
and no elaborate system of national railway lines and domestic
manufactures can ever change this relationship. These conditions
should have developed a large merchant marine, but the Chileans
are not traders and are sailors only in a military sense. In 1905 their
ocean-going merchant marine consisted of only 148 vessels, of which
54 were steamers of 42,873 tons net, and 94 were sailing vessels of
39,346 tons. Nineteen of the 54 steamers belonged to a subsidized
national line whose West Coast service once extended to San Fran-
cisco, California, and a large part of the others belongs to a Lota
coal-mining and copper-smelting company which employs them in
carrying coal to the northern ports and bringing back metallic ores
for smelting. The navigable rivers and inland lakes employ a number
of small steamers. The foreign commerce of the republic is carried
chiefly by foreign vessels, and the coasting trade is also open to them.
Three or four foreign companies maintain a regular steamship ser-
vice to Valparaiso and other Chilean ports. The shipping entries
at all Chilean ports during the year 1904, both national and
foreign, numbered 11,756, aggregating 17,723,138 tons, and the clear-
ances 1 1,689, aggregating 17,370,763 tons. Very nearly one-half this
tonnage was British, a little over 18% German, and about 29%
Chilean.

Commerce. In the aggregate, the commerce of Chile is large and
important ; in proportion to population it is exceeded among South
American states only by Argentina, Uruguay and the Guianas.
Unlike those states, it depends in great part on mining and its allied
occupations. The values of imports and exports (including bullion,
specie and re-exports) in pesos of i8d. during the five years 1901-

1905 were as follows:

Imports. Exports.

Year. pesos. pesos.

1901 .... 139,300,766 171,844,976

1902 .... 132,428,204 185,879,965

1903 .... 149,081,524 210,442,144

1904 .... 164,874,928 232,493,598

1905 .... 188,596,418 265,209,192

The principal imports comprise live animals, fish, coffee, mate
(Ilex paraguayensis) , tea, sugar, wood and its manufactures, struc-
tural iron and steel, hardware and machinery, railway and telegraph
supplies, lime and cement, glass and earthenware, cotton, woollen
and silk manufactures, coal," petroleum, paints, &c. Import duties
are imposed at the rates of 60, 35, 15, 5 and 25%, and certain
classes of merchandise are admitted free. The higher rates are
designed chiefly to protect national industries, while wines, liquors,
cigars and tobacco are admitted at the lowest rate. The 25% rate
covers all articles not mentioned in the schedules, which number 2260
items. The duty free list includes raw cotton, certain descriptions
of live animals, agricultural machinery and implements, metal wire,
fire engines, structural iron and steel, and machinery in general.
The tariff is nominally ad valorem, but as the rates are imposed on
fixed official valuations it is essentially specific. The duties on

imports in 1905 amounted to 91,321,860 pesos, and in 1906 to
IO 3>57>556 pesos. The principal exports are gold, silver, copper
(bars, regulus and ores), cobalt and' its ores, lead and its ore,
vanadium ores, manganese, coal, nitrate of soda, borate of lime,
iodine, sulphur, wheat and guano. Nitrate of soda forms from 70
to_75% of the exports, and the royalty received from it is the
principal source of national revenue, yielding about 4,000,000 per
annum. In 1904 mineral products made up fully seven-eighths of
the exports, while agricultural and pastoral products did not quite
reach one-eighth.

Agriculture. According to the census returns about one-half the
population of Chile lives in rural districts, and is engaged nominally
in agricultural pursuits. What may be called central Chile is
singularly well adapted to agriculture. The northern part of this
region has a sub-tropical climate, light rainfall and a long, dry
summer, but with irrigation it produces a great variety of products.
Alfalfa, or lucerne (Medicago saliva), is grown extensively for ship-
ment to the mining towns of the desert provinces. There were no
less than 108,384 acres devoted to it in 1904, a considerable part of
which was in the irrigated river valleys of Coquimbo and Aconcagua.
Considerable attention is also given to fruit cultivation in these sub-
tropical provinces, where the orange, lemon, fig, melon, pineapple
and banana are produced with much success. Some districts,
especially in Coquimbo, have gained a high reputation for the excel-
lence of their preserved fruits. The vine is cultivated all the way
from Atacama and Coquimbo, where excellent raisins are produced,
south to Concepci6n, where some of the best wines of Chile are
manufactured. In 10x14 there were 93,370 acres devoted to grape
production in_this region, the product for that year being 30,184,704
gallons of wine and 212,366 gallons of brandy. The universal
beverage of the people chicha is made from Indian corn.
Although wheat is produced in the northern part of this region, it
is grown with greater success in the south, where the rainfall is
heavier and the average temperature is lower. There were 1 ,044,025
acres devoted to this cereal in 1903, which produced 17,910,614
bushels, or an average of 17 bushels (of 60 lb) to the acre. In 1904
the production was increased to 19,999,324 bushels, but in 1905 it
fell off to 15,771,477 bushels. At one time Chile supplied Argentina
and the entire West Coast as far north as California with wheat, but
Argentina and California have become wheat producers and ex-
porters, and Chile has been driven from all her old consuming
markets. Great Britain is now her best customer, and Brazil takes
a small quantity for milling mixtures. Chile has been badly handi-
capped by her crude methods of cultivation, but these are passing
away and modern methods are taking their place. Formerly wheat
was grown chiefly in the region of long rainless summers, and the
ripened grain was thrown upon uncovered earth floors and threshed
by horses driven about over the straw, but this antiquated process
was not suited to the climate and enterprise of the more southern
provinces, and the modern threshing-machine has been introduced.
Barley is largely produced, chiefly for home consumption. Maize
(Indian corn)_is grown in every part of Chile except the rainy south
where the grain cannot ripen, and is a principal article of food. The
green maize furnishes two popular national dishes, choclos and
humitas, which are eaten by both rich and poor. Potatoes also are
widely cultivated, but the humid regions of the south, particularly
from Valdivia to Chiloe, produce the greatest quantity. The total
annual production exceeds three million bushels. The kidney bean
(Phaseolus vulgaris) is another staple product in every part of the
country, and is perhaps the most popular article of food among all
classes of Chileans. Peas are largely cultivated south of the Maule.
Walnuts have become another important product and are exported,
the average annual produce being 48,000 to 50,000 bushels. The
olive was introduced from Spain in colonial times and is widely
distributed through the north central provinces, but its economic
importance is not great. Of the European fruits introduced into
the southern provinces, the apple has been the most successful.
It grows with little care and yields even better than in its original
home. The peach, apricot, plum, quince and cherry are also culti-
vated with success. Wild strawberries are found on both sides of
the Andes; the cultivated varieties are unsurpassed, especially
those of the province of Concepci6n.

The pastoral industries of Chile have been developed chiefly for
the home_ market. The climate is admirably suited to cattle-raising,
as the winters are mild and pasture is to be found throughout the
whole year, but the proximity of the Argentine pampas is fatal to
its profitable development. The government has been trying to
promote cattle-breeding by levying duties (as high as 1 6 pesos a
head) on cattle imported from Argentina, but with no great success.
The importation, which formerly numbered about l4O,oooper annum,
still numbers not far from 100,000 head. There are some districts
in central Chile where cattje-raising is the principal occupation, but
the long dry summers limit the pasturage on the open plains and
prevent the development which perhaps would otherwise result.
As in Argentina, beef is generally dried in the sun to make charqui
(jerked beef), in which form it is exported to the desert provinces.
Horse and mule breeding are carried on to a limited extent, and
since the opening of the far South more attention has been given to
sheep. Goats and swine are raised in small numbers on the large
estates, but in Chiloe swine-raising is one of the chief occupations

CHILE

[GOVERNMENT

of the people. Some attention has been given to the production of
butter and cheese, but the industry has attained no great importance.
A new industry which has made noteworthy progress, however, is
that of bee-keeping, which is greatly favoured by the mild climate
and the long season and abundance of flowers.

Manufactures. The manufacturing interests of Chile have become
influential enough to force a high tariff policy upon the country.
They have been restricted principally to articles of necessity food
preparations, beverages, textiles and wearing apparel, leather and
leatherwork, woodwork, pottery, chemicals, ironware, &c. In earlier
days, when Chile had less competition in the production of wheat,
flour mills were to be found everywhere in the wheat-producing
provinces, and flour was one of the leading exports. Conception,
Talca, and other provincial capitals developed important milling
industries, which were extended to all the chief towns of the newer
provinces south of the Bio-Bio. There are over 500 large flour mills
in Chile, the greater part of which are equipped with modern roller-
process machinery. The development of the coal deposits in the
provinces of Concepcion and Arauco has made possible other in-
dustries besides those of smelting mineral ores, and numerous small
manufacturing establishments have resulted, especially in Santiago,
Valparaiso, Copiap6 and other places where no permanent water
power exists. Tanning leather is an important industry, especially
in the south, some of the Chilean trees, notably the algarrobilla
(Balsamocarpon brevifolium) and lingue (Per sea lingue), being rich in
tannin. To provide a market for the leather produced, factories
have been established for the manufacture of boots and shoes, harness
and saddles, and under the protection of a high tariff are doing well.
Brewing and distilling have made noteworthy progress, the domestic
consumption of their products being very large. The breweries are
generally worked by Germans and are situated chiefly in the south,
though there are large establishments in Santiago and Valparaiso.
Small quantities of their products are exported. Furniture and
carriage factories, cooperages, and other manufactories of wood are
numerous and generally prosperous. There are likewise a large
number of factories for canning and preserving fruits and vegetables.
Foundries and machine shops have been established, especially for
the manufacture of railway material. The sugar beet has been
added to the productions of Chile, and with it the manufacture on
a small scale of beet sugar. There is one large refinery at Vina del
Mar, however, which imports raw cane sugar from Peru for refining;.
The manufacture of textiles is carried on at Santiago and El Tome,
and numerous small factories are devoted to clothing of various
descriptions. The great mining industries have led to a noteworthy
development in the production of chemicals, and a considerable
number of factories are engaged in the production of pharmaceutical
preparations, perfumeries, soaps, candles, &c.

Mining. The most important of all the national industries,
however, is that of mining. In 1903 there were 11,746 registered
mines, on which mining dues were paid, the aggregate produce being
valued at 178,768,170 pesos. These mines gave employment to
46,592 labourers, of whom 24,445 were employed by the nitrate
companies, 13,710 in various metalliferous mines, 6437 in coal
mines, and 2000 in other mines. Gold is found in nearly all the
provinces from Antofagasta to Concepcion, and in Llanquihue,
Chiloe and Magallanes territory, but the output is not large. There
are a great many placer washings, among which are some extensive
deposits near the Straits of Magellan. Silver is found principally
on the elevated slopes and plateaus of the Andes in the desert
provinces of the north. The second most important mining industry
in Chile, however, is that of copper, which is found in the provinces of
Antofagasta, Atacama, Coquimbo, Aconcagua, Valparaiso, Santiago,
O'Higgms, Colchagua, Curico and Talca, but the richest deposits
are in the three desert provinces. Chile was once the largest pro-
ducer of copper in the world, her production in 1860-1864 being
rated at 60 to 67 % of the total. Low prices afterwards caused a
large shrinkage in the output, but she is still classed among the
principal producers. Iron mining has never been developed in Chile,
although extensive deposits are said to exist. Manganese ores are
mined in Atacama and Coquimbo, and their export is large. The
other metals reported in the official returns are lead, cobalt and
vanadium, of which only small quantities are produced. Bolivian
tin is exported from Chilean ports. Among the non-metallic minerals
are nitrate of soda, borate of lime, coal, salt and sulphur, together
with various products derived from these minerals, such as iodine,
sulphuric acid, &c. Guano is classed among the mineral products
and still figures as an export, though the richest Chilean deposits
were exhausted long before the war with Peru. Of non-metallic
products nitrate of soda is by far the most important. Extensive
deposits of the salt (called caliche in its crude, impure state) in the
provinces of Tacna, Tarapaca, Antofagasta and Atacama owe their
existence to the rainless character of the climate. Those of the first-
named province have been discovered since the war between Chile
and Peru, and have greatly extended the prospective life of the in-
dustry. The nitrate fields, which lie between 50 and 100 m. from
the coast and at elevations exceeding 2000 ft. above sea-level, have
been officially estimated at 89,177 hectares (344 sq. m.) and to con-
tain 2316 millions of metric quintals (254,760,000 short tons). The
first export of nitrates was in 1830, and in 1884 it reached an aggre-
gate of 550,000 tons, and in 1905 of 1,603,140 tons. The latter

Unit.

Quantity.

Value pesos
(of i8d.).

Gold

grammes

1 .424, 62 S

I.74 UK

VJ.OI2 ^82

I 284 "?o8

Copper
Lead
Cobalt ore ....
Lead and Vanadium ores
Manganese ore .
Coal

kilogrs.
tons

29-923,132
70,984
284,990
2,OOO
I7,IIO,OOO
827,112

21,438,397
9,097
99.695

682,400

8.2 SO. 72O

Nitrates
Iodine

metric
quintals
kilogrs.

14-449-200
157,444

140,102,012
1,687.^27

Borates

16,878,91 1

2,-j6^ 048

Salt

metric

Sulphur

quintals
kilogrs.

162,635

^,440,642

324,270

777 cje

Sulphuric acid . . .
Guano

Various

metric
quintals
kiloers.

1,600,000

in.335
200

176,000

267,466
800

figure is apparently about the production agreed upon between the
Chilean government and the nitrate companies to prevent over-
production and a resulting decline in price. Nearly all the oficinas,
or working plants, are owned and operated by British companies,
and the railways of this desolate region are generally owned by the
same companies and form a part of the working plant. Borate of
lime also furnishes another important export, though a less valuable
one than nitrate of soda. Extensive deposits of borax and common
salt have been found in the same region, which with several other
products of these saline deposits, such as iodine, add considerably
to its exports. The coal deposits of Chile are found chiefly in the
provinces of Concepci6n and Arauco, the principal mines being on
the coast of the Bay of Arauco at Cpronel and Lota. Coal is found
also in Valdivia, on the island of Chiloe, and in the vicinity of Punta
Arenas on the Straits of Magellan. Sulphur is found in the volcanic
regions of the north, but the principal mines are in the provinces
of Talca.

The relative magnitude and value of these mineral products may
be seen in the following abstract from the official returns of 1903 :

Government. Chile is a centralized republic, whose govern-
ment is administered under the provisions of the constitution
of 1833 and the amendments of the gth of August 1888, the nth
of August 1890, the zoth of August 1890, the 22nd of December
1891, and the 7th of July 1892. According to this constitution
the sovereignty resides in the nation, but suffrage is restricted
to married citizens over twenty-one and unmarried citizens over
twenty-five years of age, not in domestic service, who can read
and write, and who are the owners of real estate, or who have
capital invested in business or industry, or who receive salaries
or incomes proportionate in value to such real estate as invest-
ment; and as 75% of the population is classed as illiterate, and
a great majority of the labouring classes is landless, badly paid,
and miserably poor, it is apparent that political sovereignty
in Chile is the well-guarded possession of a small minority. The
dominant element in this minority is the rich landholding interest,
and the constitution and the laws of the first half-century were
framed for the special protection of that interest.

The supreme powers of government are vested in three distinct
branches legislative, executive and judicial. The legislative
power is exercised by a national congress, which consists of two
chambers a senate of 32 members, and a chamber of deputies
of 94 members. The membership of the lower house is in the
proportion of one deputy for each 30,000 of the departmental
population, and each fraction over 15,000; and the senate is
entitled to one-third the membership of the chamber. The
senators are elected by provinces and by a direct cumulative vote,
and hold office for six years, one-half of the senate being renewed
every three years. The deputies are elected by departments and
by a direct cumulative vote, and hold office for three years.
Both senators and deputies must have reached the age of thirty-
six, must have a specified income, and are required to serve
without salary. A permanent committee of 14 members repre-
sents the two chambers during the congressional recess and
exercises certain supervisory and advisory powers in the ad-
ministration of public affairs. Congress convenes each year on
the ist of June and sits until the ist of September, but the
president may prorogue an ordinary session for a period of 50

ADMINISTRATION]

CHILE

days, and with the consent of the council of state may convene it
in extraordinary session. Congress has the privilege of giving
or withholding its confidence in the acts of the government.

The executive is a president who is elected for a term of five
years and is ineligible for the next succeeding term. He is chosen
by electors, who are elected by departments in the manner
prescribed for deputies and in the proportion of three electors for
each deputy. These elections are held on the 25th of June in
the last year of a presidential term, the electors cast their votes on
the 25th of July, and the counting takes place in a joint session
of the two chambers of congress on the 3Oth of August, congress
in joint session having the power to complete the election when
no candidate has been duly chosen by the electors. The formal
installation of the president takes place on the i8th of September,
the anniversary of the declaration of national independence.
In addition to the prerogatives commonly invested in his office,
the president is authorized to supervise the judiciary, to nominate
candidates for the higher ecclesiastical offices, to intervene in
the enforcement of ecclesiastical decrees, papal bulls, &c., to
exercise supervisory police powers, and to appoint the intendants
of provinces and the governors of departments, who in turn
appoint the sub-delegates and inspectors of subordinate political
divisions. The president, who is paid 2250 per annum, must
be native-born, not less than thirty years of age, and eligible
for election to the lower house. He is assisted and advised by a
cabinet of six ministers whose departments are : interior, foreign
affairs, worship and colonization, justice and public instruction,
war and marine, finance, industry and public works. In case
of a vacancy in the presidential office, the minister of interior
becomes the " vice-president of the republic " and discharges
the duties of the executive office until a successor can be legally
elected. A council of state of 12 members, consisting of the
president, 6 members appointed by congress and 5 by the
president, has advisory functions, and its approval is required
in many executive acts and appointments.

The provinces are administered by inlendentes, and the depart-
ments by gobernadores, both appointees of the national executive.
The sub-delegacies are governed by sub-delegados appointed by
the governors, and the districts by inspectores appointed by the
sub-delegates. Directly and indirectly, therefore, the administra-
tion of all these political divisions is in the hands of the president,
who, in like manner, makes and controls the appointments of
all judicial functionaries, subject, however, to receiving recom-
mendations of candidates from the courts and to submitting
appointments to the approval of the council of state. This gives
the national executive absolute control of all administrative
matters in every part of the republic. The police force also
is a national organization under the immediate control of
the minister of interior, and the public prosecutor in every
department is a representative of the national government.
There is no legislative body in any of these political divisions, nor
any administrative official directly representing the people, with
this exception: under the law of the 22nd of December 1891,
municipalities, or communes,are created and invested with certain
specified powers of local government affecting local police services,
sanitation, local improvements, primary instruction, industrial
and business regulations, &c.; they are authorized to borrow
money for sanitary improvements, road-making, education,
&c., and to impose certain specified taxes for their support;
these municipalities elect their own alcaldes, or mayors, and
municipal councils, the latter having legislative powers within
the limits of the law mentioned.

Justice. The judicial power consists of a Supreme Court of Justice
of seven members located in the national capital, which exercises
supervisory and disciplinary authority over all the law courts of the
republic ; six courts of appeal, in Tacna, Serena, Valparaiso, Santiago,
Talca and Concepci6n ; tribunals of first instance in the department
capitals; and minor courts, or justices of the peace, in the sub-
delegacies and districts. The jury system does not exist in Chile,
and juries are unknown except in cases where the freedom of the
press has been abused. All trials, therefore, are heard by one or
more judges, and appeals may be taken from a lower to a higher
court. The government is represented in each department by a
public prosecutor. The police officials, who are under the direct

control of the minister of interior, also exercise some degree of judicial
authority. This force is essentially military in its organization, and
consisted in 1901 of 500 officers, 934 non-commissioned officers and
5400 police soldiers. Small forces of local policemen are supported
by various municipalities. The judges of the higher courts are ap-
pointed by the national executive, and those of the minor tribunals
by the federal official governing the political division in which they
are located.

Army. For military purposes the republic is divided into five
districts, the northern desert provinces forming ths first, the central
provinces as far south as the Bio-Bio the second and third, and the
southern provinces and territory the fourth and fifth. Large sums
of money have been expended in arms, equipment, guns and
fortifications. The army is organized on the German model and has
been trained by European officers who have been employed both
for the school and regiment. Though the president and minister of
war are the nominal heads of the army, its immediate direction is
concentrated in a general staff comprising six service departments,
at the head of which is a chief of staff. After the triumph of the
revolutionists in the civil war of 1891, the army was reorganized
under the direction of Colonel Emil Korner, an accomplished German
officer, who subsequently served as chief of the general staff. In
1904 the permanent force consisted of 12 battalions of infantry,
6 regiments of cavalry, 4 regiments of mountain artillery, I regiment
of horse artillery, 2 regiments of coast artillery, and 5 companies of
engineers aggregating 915 officers and 4757 men. To this nucleus
were added 6160 recruits, the contingent for that year of young men
twenty-one years of age compelled to serve with the colours. Under
the law of the 5th of September 1900, military service is obligatory
for all citizens between eighteen and forty-five years, all young men
of twenty-one years being required to serve a certain period with the
regular force. After this period they are transferred to the 1st
reserve for 9 years, and then to the 2nd reserve. The military rifle
adopted for all three branches of the service is the Mauser, 1895
model, of 7 mm. calibre, and the batteries are provided with Krupp
guns of 7 and 7-5 cm. calibre. Mijitary instruction is given in a well-
organized military school at Santiago, a war academy and a school
of military engineering.

Navy. The Chilean navy is essentially British in organization
and methods, and all its best fighting ships were built in British
yards. In 1906 the effective fighting force consisted of I battle-
ship, 2 belted cruisers, 4 protected cruisers, 3 torpedo gunboats, 6
destroyers and 8 modern torpedo boats. In addition to these there
are several inferior armed vessels of various kinds which bring the
total up to 40, not including transports and other auxiliaries. The
administration of the navy, under the president and minister of war
and marine, is confided to a general naval staff, called the " Direccion
jeneral de la Armada," with headquarters at Valparaiso. Its duties
also include the military protection of the_ ports, the hydrographic
survey of the coast, and the lighthouse service. The personnel com-
prises about 465 officers, including those of the staff, and 4000 petty
officers and men. There is a military port at Talcahuano, in Con-
ception Bay, strongly fortified, and provided with arsenal and repair
shops, a large dry dock and a patent slip. The naval school, which
occupies one of the noteworthy edifices of Valparaiso, is attended
by 90 cadets and is noted for the thoroughness of its instruction.

Education. Under the old conservative regime very little was
done for the public school outside the larger towns. As a large pro-
portion of the labouring classes lived in the small towns and rural
communities, they received comparatively little attention. The
increasing influence of more liberal ideas greatly improved the
situation with reference to popular education, and the government
now makes vigorous efforts to bring its public school system within
the reach of all. The constitution provides that free instruction
must be provided for the people. School attendance is not com-
pulsory, however, and the gain upon illiteracy (75 %) appears to be
very slow. The government also gives primary instruction to recruits
when serving with the colours, which, with the increasing employ-
ment of the people in the towns, helps to stimulate a desire for
education among the lower classes. Education in Chile is very
largely under the control of the national government, the minister
of justice and public instruction being charged with the direction of
all public schools from the university down to the smallest and most
remote primary school. The system includes the University of
Chile and National Institute at Santiago, lyceums or high schools in
all the provincial capitals and larger towns, normal schools at central
points for the training of public school teachers, professional and
industrial schools, military schools and primary schools. I nstruction
in all these is free, and under certain conditions text-books are
supplied. In the normal schools, where the pupils are trained_to
enter the public service as primary teachers, not only is the tuition
free, but also books, board, lodging and everything needed in their
school work. The national university at Santiago comprises faculties
of theology, law and political science, medicine and pharmacy,
natural sciences and mathematics, and philosophy. _ The range of
studies is wide, and the attendance large. The National Institute
at Santiago is the principal high school of the secondary grade in
Chile. There were 30 of these high schools for males and 12 for
females in 1903, with an aggregate of 1 1 ,504 matriculated students.
The normal schools for males are located at Santiago, Chilian and

152

CHILE

[FINANCE

Valdivia ; and for females at La Serena, Santiago and Concepci6n.
The mining schools at Copiap6, La Serena and Santiago had an
aggregate attendance of 180 students in 1903, and the commercial
schools at Iquique and Santiago an attendance of 21$. The more
important agricultural schools are located at Santiago, Chilian,
Concepci6n and Ancud, the Quinta Normal de Agriculture in the
national capital having a large attendance. The School of Mechanic
Arts and Trades (Escuela de Aries y Oficios) of Santiago has a high
reputation for the practical character of its instruction, in which
it is admirably seconded bya normal handicraft school (Sloyd system)
and a night school of industrial drawing in the same city, and pro-
fessional schools for girls in Santiago and Valparaiso, where the
pupils are taught millinery, dress-making, knitting, embroidery
and fancy needlework. The government also maintains schools for
the blind and for the deaf and dumb. The public primary schools
numbered 1961 in 1903, with 3608 teachers, 166,928 pupils enrolled,
and an average attendance of 108,582. The cost of maintaining
these schools was 4,146,574 pesos, or an average of 2 : 17 : 3 per
pupil in attendance. In addition to the public schools there are a
Roman Catholic university at Santiago, which includes law and civil
engineering among its regular courses of study; numerous private
schools and seminaries of the secondary grade, v/ith a total of 11,184
students of both sexes in 1903 ; and 506 private primary schools, with
an attendance of 29,684. The private schools usually conform to
the official requirements in regard to studies and examinations,
which facilitates subsequent admission to the university and the
obtainment of degrees; probably they do better work than the
public schools, especially in the German settlements of the southern
provinces. A Consejo de Instrucci6n Publica (council of public
instruction) of 14 members exercises a general supervision over the
higher and secondary schools. There are schools of music and fine
arts in Santiago. The national library at Santiago, with 116,300
volumes in 1906, and the national observatory, are both efficiently
administered. At the beginning cf the 2Oth century there were 41
public libraries in the republic, including public school collections,
with an aggregate of 240,000 volumes.

Charities. According to the returns of 1903 there were 88 hos-
pitals in the republic, which reported 79,051 admissions duting the
year, and had 6215 patients under treatment at its close; 628,536
patients received gratuitous medical assistance at the public dis-
pensaries during the year; there were 24 foundling hospitals with
5570 children ; and there were 3092 persons in the various hospicios
or asylums, and 1478 in the imbecile asylums.

Religion. The Roman Catholic religion is declared by the con-
stitution to be the religion of the state, and the inaugural oath of
the president pledges him to protect it. A considerable part of its
income is derived from a subsidy included in the annual budget,
which makes it a charge upon the national treasury like any other
public service. The secular supervision of this service is entrusted
to a member of the president's cabinet, known as the minister of
worship and colonization. The executive and legislative powers
intervene in the appointments to the higher offices of the Church.
The greater part of the population remains loyal to the established
faith. The law of 1865 gives the privilege ot religious worship to
other faiths, and the laws of 1883 made civil marriage and the civil
registry of births, deaths and marriages obligatory, and secularized
the cemeteries. Under the reform of 1865 full religious freedom
is practically accorded, and it is provided that the services of religious
organizations other than the Roman Catholic may be held in private
residences or in edifices owned by private individuals or corporations.
Of the 72,812 foreigners residing in Chile in 1895, about 16,000 were
described as Protestants. Notwithstanding the opposition of some
political elements to the Church, the Chileans themselves may all be
classed as Roman Catholics. The ecclesiastical organization includes
one archbishop, who resides at Santiago, three bishops residing at
La Serena, Concepcion and Ancud, and two vicars residing in Anto-
fagasta and Tarapaca. These benefices are filled by appointments
from lists of three prepared by the council of state and sent to Rome
by the president, and in the case of an archbishop or bishop the
appointment must also receive the appioval of the Senate. The
Chilean clergy are drawn very largelyfrom the higher classes.and their
social standing is much better than in many South American states.
The Church also possesses much property of its own, and is therefore
able to maintain itself on a comparatively small subsidy from the
public treasury, which was 985,910 pesos (73,943) in 1902. The
Church maintains seminaries in all cathedral towns, and these also
receive a subsidy from the government.

Finance. For a long time Chile was considered one of the poorest
states of Spanish America, but the acquisition of the rich mineral-
producing provinces of the north, together with the development
of new silver and copper mines in Atacama and Coquimbo, largely
increased her revenues and enabled her to develop other important
resources. During the decade 1831-1840 the annual revenues
averaged about 2,100,000 pesos (of <l8d.), which in the decade 1861-
1870 had increased to an average of only 8,200,000 pesos and this
during a period of considerable agricultural activity on account of
wheat exports to California and Australia. After 1870 the revenues
increased more rapidly owing to the development of new mining
industries, the receipts in 1879 amounting to 15,300,000 pesos, and
in 1882 to 28,900,000 pesos. The revenues from the captured

Receipts, pesos.

Expenditures, pesos.

Gold.

Paper.

Gold.

Paper.

1899

1900
1901
1902

1903

83,051,604
89,869,178
74,665,061
105,072,832
108,503,565

45-239-970
46,515,102
35-394.434
33,434,346
32,490,145

31,732,797
30,564,821
39,808,517
45,093-278'
12,508,075

76,749-793
82,143,742
91,087,171
89,170,087'
84,721,437

Peruvian nitrate fields then became an important part of the national
income, which ten years later (1902) reached an aggregate of
138,507,178 pesos (of i8d.), of which 105,072,832 pesos were in gold.
In 1906 the receipts from all sources were estimated at 149,100,000
pesos, of which 62,200,000 pesos gold were credited to the tax on
nitrate, 39,800,000 pesos gold -to import duties, and 23,500,000 pesos
currency to railway receipts. During these years of fiscal prosperity
the country suffered much from financial crises caused by industrial
stagnation, an excessive and depreciated paper currency and
political disorder. To ensure an income that would meet its foreign
engagements, the government collected the nitrate and iodine taxes
and import duties in gold. As a considerable part of the expenditures
were in gold, the practice was adopted of keeping the gold and currency
accounts separate. In 1895 a conversion law was passed in which
the sterling value of the peso was reduced to I8d., at which rate the
outstanding paper should be redeemed. A conversion fund was also
created, and, although the government afterwards authorized two
more large issues, the beneficial effects of this law were so pronounced
that the customs regulations were modified in 1907 to permit the pay-
ment of import duties in paper. The national revenue isderived chiefly
from the nitrate taxes, customs duties, alcohol tax, and from railway,
postal and telegraph receipts. There is no land tax, and licence or
business taxes are levied by the municipalities for local purposes.
The national expenditures are chiefly for the interest and amortiza-
tion charges on the public debt, official salaries, military expenses
in connexion with the army and navy, public works (including railway
construction, port improvements, water and sewage works), the
administration of the state railways, telegraph lines and post office,
church subsidies, public instruction and foreign representation.

The ordinary and extraordinary receipts and expenditures for the
five years 1899-1903, in gold and currency, in pesos of i8d., were as
follows :

For 1906 the expenditures were fixed at 149,000,000 pesos, and the
revenues were estimated to produce 149,100,000 pesos, which in-
cluded 62,200,000 pesos gold from nitrate taxes, 39,800,000 pesos
gold and 200,000 pesos paper from import duties, 23,500,000 pesos
paper from the state railways, 2,500,000 pesos paper from postal
and telegraph receipts, and 15,000,000 pesos gold from loans. How
the revenues are expended is shown in the estimates for 1907, in
which the total expenditures were estimated at 134,830,532 pesos
paper and 58,796,780 pesos gold, the principal appropriations being

16.192.780 pesos paper and 99, 733 gold for the war department,

10.460.781 paper and 6,315,731 gold for the marine department,
40,934,273 paper and 16,984,671 gold for railways, and 6,324,817
paper for public works. In addition to these the budget of 1906
provided for gold expenditures in 1907 of 7,000,000 pesos on sanitary
works and 8,000,000 pesos on the Arica-La Paz railway. The custom
of dividing receipts and expenditures into ordinary and extra-
ordinary, of treating the receipts from loans as revenue, of adding six
months to the fiscal year for closing up accounts, and of dividing
receipts and expenditures into separate gold and currency accounts,
leads to much confusion and complication in the returns, and is the
cause of unavoidable discrepancies and contradictions.

In May 1906 the external debt of the republic aggregated
21,700,000, including the loans of 1905 and 1906, amounting to
5,700,000, for sanitary works and railway construction. At the
same time the internal debt was 107,000,000 pesos (8,025,000),
which increases the funded indebtedness to 29,725,000. Like
Brazil, Chile has been careful to preserve her foreign credit, and
though an average indebtedness of about 10 per capita may seem
large for a nation with so much absolute poverty among its people,
the government is finding no difficulty in negotiating new loans, the
mineral resources of the country and the conservative instincts of
the people being considered satisfactory guarantees. According to
official returns, the real-estate valuations in 1903-1904 aggregated
1,777,217,704 pesos, of which 1,020,609,215 pesos were in urban
and 754,608,489 pesos in rural property. Of the total returned,
1,775,217,704 is described as taxable, and 262,626,576 pesos as non-
taxable. The large and steadily increasing receipts from import
duties, amounting to 91,321,860 pesos in 1905, and 103,507,556 pesos
in 1906, appears to indicate an encouraging state of prosperity in
the country, although an average of 34$ pesos a year (nearly
2 : I2s.), in addition to the increased prices paid for home manu-
factures, seems to be a very heavy indirect tax upon so poor a
people.

Currency. The monetary circulation in Chile consists almost
wholly of paper currency, nominally based on a gold standard of

1 The expenditures of 1902 are also given as 25,882,702 pesos gold,
and 108,844,693 pesos currency.

HISTORY]

CHILE

153

i8d. per peso. The conversion law of 1805 made the currency con-
vertible at this rate, although the gold peso was rated at 480%
previous to that date; but the financial crisis of 1898 caused the sus-
pension of specie payments, and a forced issue of additional paper
led to a further postponement of conversion and the prompt with-
drawal of specie from circulation. The paper circulation consists
of national and bank issues. The former owes its existence very
largely to the war with Peru, the civil war of 1891, and the financial
troubles of 1898. On the 1st of January 1890 the national issues
stood at 22,487,916 pesos, and the bank issues at 16,679,790 pesos,
making a total of 39,167,706 pesos currency in circulation. This
total was largely increased by President Balmaceda in 1891. On
the 3ist of July 1898 the conversion of paper notes, under the law
of ist June 1895, was suspended, and the government issued
27,989,929 pesos to the banks of issue, which was described as a loan
at 2 %, and raised their outstanding circulation to 40,723,089 pesos,
and at the same time issued on its own account 17,693,890 pesos and
assumed responsibility for 1,193,641 pesos which had been illegally
put into circulation before 1896. This gave an aggregate registered
circulation of 86,045,166 pesos in 1898. In 1904 another issue of
30,000,000 pesos was authorized and the date of conversion was
still further postponed, and in 1907 a more general act provided that
the maximum paper circulation should not exceed 150,000,000 pesos
of the value of i8d. per peso, and that new issues should be made
only through the issue department and against deposits of gold,
which deposits would be returned to depositors on the presentation
of the currency issued. The redemption of this issue was guaran-
teed by a conversion fund of 100,000,000 pesos, and by an authoriza-
tion to issue a loan of 50,000,000 pesos to redeem the balance, if
necessary. The conversion fund under the act of 1895 stood at
77,282,257 pesos (5,796,170) on the 3ist of May 1907. There ate
23 joint-stock banks of issue, with an aggregate registered capital
of 40,689,665 pesos (3,051 ,724). Their circulating notes are secured
by deposits in the national treasury of gold, government notes and
other approved securities. There is no state bank, though the Bank
of Chile, with its numerous agencies and its paid-up capital of
20,000,000 pesos, may be said to fill the place of such an institution.
Besides these, there are four non-issue banks, two foreign banks and
their agencies, and three mortgage banks, with agencies at the
important provincial centres, which loan money on real-estate
security and issue interest bearing hypothecary notes to bearer.
There are 8 savings banks in the republic, whose aggregate deposits
on the 3ist of December 1906 were 14,799,728 pesos.

The monetary unit, the jpld peso, does not form a part of the
actual coinage. The gold coins authorized by this law are the condor
of 20 pesos, the media condor, or doblon, of 10 pesos, and the escudo of
5 pesos. The silver coins are the peso of 100 centavos and its
fractional parts of 20, 10 and 5 centavos. The bronze coins are of
2\, 2, I, and J ccntavos.

The metric system of weights and measures is the legal standard
in Chile, but the old Spanish standards are still widely used, especially
in handling mining and farm produce. Nitrate of soda is estimated
in Chilean quintals (101-41 Ib) in the field, and metric quintals
(220-46 ft) at the port of shipment. In silver and copper mining
the marc (8 oz.) is commonly used in describing the richness of the
ores. Farm produce is generally sold by the arroba or fanega; the
vara is used in lineal measurement, and the cuadra is used by country
people in land measurement. (A. J. L.)

HISTORY.

Chile was the recognized name of the country from the
beginning of its known history. The land was originally in-
habited by tribes of Indians, who, though not mere savages,
were far below the level of civilization distinguishing the races
of Mexico and Peru. When the country first became known
to the Spaniards in the i6th century the northern tribes were
found to be more civilized and much more submissive than
those of the south. The difference was no doubt due to the
invasion and conquest of northern Chile in the isth century by
Yupanqui, Inca of Peru, grandfather of Atahualpa,
ru ' er ^ P eru at the ti me f its conquest by Pizarro.
The dominion of the Incas in Chile was probably
bounded by the Rapel river (lat. 34 10' S.), and, though their
control of the country was slight, the Peruvian influence led to
the introduction of a higher civilization, and, by weakening the
power of the tribes, paved the way for the invasion of the
Spaniards. Beyond the limits of the Inca conquest the Indians
of Chile were distinguished by fierce independence of character
and by their warlike qualities. Rude and ignorant as they were,
they possessed a rough military organization; each community
was led by its ulmen (chief), and in war the tribes fought together
under an elected leader (toqui). The name of the Araucanians,
the most powerful of the tribes, came to be applied to the whole
confederation of Indians living south of the Bio-bio river.

conquest.

The first Spanish invasion of Chile took place in 1535, when
Diego de Almagro, the companion and rival of Pizarro in the
conquest of Peru, marched into Chile in search of gold.
Disappointed in his quest, and meeting with obstinate y/ v "ton*.
resistance from the southern tribes, he returned to
Peru with his whole force in 1538. In 1540 Pizarro sent Pedro
de Valdivia to make a regular conquest and settlement of Chile.
Valdivia founded Santiago, the present capital of Chile, in
February 1541, and proceeded to build the towns of La Serena,
Concepci6n, Villarica, Imperial, Valdivia and Angol, in order
to secure his hold on the country. But the Indians fought
desperately for their independence, and in 1553 a general rising
of the tribes ended in the defeat and death of Valdivia and in
the destruction of most of his settlements. This was the
beginning of nearly a century of continuous warfare. As there
was no gold in the country the number of settlers was small,
the loose tribal organization of the natives made it impossible
to inflict a vital defeat on them, and the mountainous and
thickly wooded country lent itself admirably to a warfare of
surprises and ambuscades. General after general and army
after army were despatched from Spain and Peru; Chile was
given a government independent of the viceroy of Lima; attack
after attack was made on the Indians, their lands were laid
waste, and the struggle was conducted with merciless ferocity:
all in vain. Settlements and forts were never free from assault
and were taken and retaken: if one Indian aimy was destroyed
another took its place, if one toqui was killed another was chosen;
when defeated, the Indians retired to their forests, marshes and
hills, recruited their forces, and fell on the pursuing Spaniards.
In 1612 an attempt was made by a Jesuit missionary to negotiate
a peace, but not till 1640 was the desperate struggle ended by
the treaty of Quillin, which left the Indians all the land south
of the Bio-bio river. Up to 1800 the peace was broken by three
wars, in 1655, in 1723 and in 1766, the last ended by a treaty
which actually gave the Araucanians the right to have a minister
at Santiago.

It was this constant warfare with the Indians and the necessity
for hard continuous work, owing to the lack of precious metals
in Chile, that no doubt helped to produce in the settlers .the
strength and hardihood of character that distinguishes the
Chileans among South American races. But not unnaturally
the material condition of the country was the reverse of
prosperous. The expenditure far exceeded the revenue. The
Indian warfare occupied nearly the whole attention of the
governors and much of the time of the settlers. By the Spanish
colonial system the development of manufactures was prohibited
and the trade of the colony was limited not only to
Spain but to the one port of Cadiz. Till the i8th
century ships were not allowed to sail round Cape
Horn, so that the Chileans had to trade indirectly through Peru
and the Argentine. Agriculture was the one resource of the
colony, and wheat was grown for export to Peru, but the land
was concentrated in the hands of a few big landowners, and the
cultivation of the vine and olive was forbidden. At the end of
the 1 7th century Santiago was a town of poor one-storeyed houses
and had only 8000 inhabitants; the other towns, Valparaiso,
Conception, La Serena, were only large villages. Books were
not allowed to be imported, and education was limited to such
as was given here and there by priests and monks. The Indians
within the limits of the Spanish colony were treated like slaves,
and horribly mutilated to prevent their escape; but at the
same time a gradual fusion of races was taking place, and the
Chilean peasant (peon) of to-day is as much of Indian as of
Spanish descent. The Araucanians, however, continued to
preserve their independence; they jealously resented the intro-
duction of Spanish influence, and the missionary efforts of the
Jesuits met with little success.

During the i8th century the condition of the colony was
improved in many ways. The Bourbon kings of Spain were
more liberal in their colonial policy. Merchant-ships were
allowed to sail direct to Chile, trade with France was sometimes
permitted, and a large batch of hardy emigrants was sent out

Colonial

fystem.

154

CHILE

[HISTORY

from the Biscay provinces of Spain. Freed from the preoccupa-
tion of the Indian wars, the governors gave more attention to
the general welfare of the country: a university was started
in Santiago in 1747, many towns were built about the same
time, agriculture and industries were promoted and a coasting
trade grew up. In 1778 Charles III. threw open all the ports of
Spain to the colonies and allowed freedom of trade with France.
But in general the administration of the colony was burdensome,
oppressive and inefficient. The people had no voice in the
government. Ruling with the help of the Royal Audience, the
governor was absolute master of the country, and regulated
the smallest details of life. Such time as the officials could spare
from the main object of enriching themselves by extortion and
corruption was given up to endless official and religious ceremonies
and to petty disputes of etiquette and precedence. All the high
posts and offices were filled by men sent from Spain, with the
result that bitter jealousy reigned between them and the native-
born colonists (criollos). The criollos as a rule filled the posts
in the municipalities (cabildos) , disposed of by sale, so that
when the revolution broke out the cabildos naturally became
the centres of the movement. As in all Spanish colonies, so in
Chile, the Church played a large part in the public life. Chile
was divided into the two bishoprics of Santiago and Concepci6n,
and the Church managed to accumulate most of the wealth of
the country. At the same time the monks and Jesuits did
useful work in teaching industrial and agricultural arts, and in
giving the people a certain degree of education; but the influence
of the Church was used to bolster up the traditional narrow
colonial system, and the constant quarrels between the clergy
and the secular powers often threw the country into confusion.
At the opening of the ipth century Chile was a colony whose
resources had hardly been touched, with a population of about
500,000 persons, of Spanish and mixed Spanish and Indian
blood: a people endowed with the vigour of character bred by
a mountainous country and a bracing climate and by a hard
struggle for existence, but ignorant through lack of education,
shut out by a narrow-minded commercial system from knowledge
of the outside world, and destitute of the character-training
that free institutions afford.

The national independence of Chile dates from the second
decade of the ipth century. The revolt of England's North
American colonies, and the events of the French
Revolution naturally suggested the idea of a struggle
for independence to the Spanish colonists, and the
deposition of Ferdinand VII. by Napoleon, and the
ensuing disorganizationof Spain, supplied thedesired opportunity.
In 1809 risings took place in Venezuela, in Ecuador, in Upper
Peru and in the Argentine; the revolutionary fever spread
to Chile, and on the i8th of September 1810 the cabildo of
Santiago secured the resignation of the governor and vested his
powers in an elected Junta (board) of seven members. This
event was the beginning of the independence of Chile. But it
was some time before independence was fully attained. The
mass of the people were ignorant, intercourse between them was
slight, and there was a strong section attached to the old regime.
The party determined on independence was at first small, and
compelled to conceal its aims till the ground had been prepared
for open decisive action. Further, there were divisions between
the patriots of Santiago and those of Concepci6n, and bitter
jealousies between the leaders, the chief of whom were Juan
Martinez de Rozas, Jose Miguel Carrera and Bernardo O'Higgins.
Owing to the apathy of the people and the enmities existing
among the leaders, the Spanish forces, sent by the viceroy of
Peru to crush the revolutionary movement, succeeded after two
years' indecisive fighting in completely defeating the patriots
at Rancagua in 1814. For three years the Spaniards maintained
their hold on Chile, ruling the country with tyrannical harshness,
but in the spring of 181 7 a patriot force which had been organized
at Mendoza in the Argentine by Jose de San Martin, an Argentine
officer, and by O'Higgins, crossed the Andes and overwhelmed
the royalists at the battle of Chacabuco. O'Higgins was named
director-general of Chile, while San Martin, realizing that the

independence of each colony depended on the Spanish being
expelled from the whole of South America, set about prepar-
ing an invasion of Peru. The viceroy of Lima made one more
effort to uphold the power of Spain in Chile, but the army he
despatched under Mariano Osorio, the victor of Rancagua, was
decisively defeated at the river Maipo on the 3rd of April 1818.
By this battle the independence of Chile, formally proclaimed by
O'Higgins in the previous February, was finally secured.

The next few years witnessed the expulsion of the royalists
from the south of Chile, the equipment of a small fleet, placed
under the command of Manuel Blanco Encalada and
Lord Cochrane (earl of Dundonald), and the invasion
of Peru by San Martin with the help of the fleet,
ending in the proclamation of Peruvian independence in 1821;
though the Spanish power was not finally broken until Bolivar's
victory at Ayacucho in 1824. Relieved from all fear of Spanish
attacks from the north, the new republic of Chile entered upon
a period of internal confusion and dissension bordering upon
anarchy. As soon as the necessity for establishing a stable
government arose the lack of training in self-government among
the Chileans became painfully obvious. O'Higgins as director-
general, rightly perhaps, considered that firm orderly government
was more important than the concession of liberal institutions,
but his administration roused strong hostility, and in 1823 he was
compelled to resign. From that date up to 1830 there were no
less than ten governments, while three different constitutions
were proclaimed. The nation was divided into small mutually
hostile parties; there were ecclesiastical troubles owing to the
hostility of the Church to the new republic; there were Indian
risings in the south and royalist revolts in the island of Chiloe;
the expenditure exceeded the revenue, and the employment
of the old Spanish financial expedients naturally increased the
general discontent. Up to 1830 the Liberal party, which favoured
a free democratic regime, held the upper hand, but in that year
the Conservatives, backed by a military rising led by General
Joaquin Prieto, placed themselves in power after a sanguinary
battle at Lircay . Prieto was elected president in 1 83 1 , and a new
constitution was drafted' and promulgated in 1833, which, with
some modifications, remains the constitution of Chile at the
present time. This constitution invested the executive with
almost dictatorial powers, and the Conservatives entered upon
a long term of office.

The aim of the Conservative policy was to secure above all a
strong administration; power was concentrated in the hands
of a small circle; public liberties were restricted and all opposi-
tion crushed by force. Inaugurated under General Prieto's
administration (1831-1841) by his able minister Diego Portales,
this policy was continued by his successors General Manuel
Bulnes (1841-1851) and Manuel Montt (1851-1861), each of
whom like Prieto was elected to a double term of office. In
spite of the discontent of the Liberals, the Conservative ascend-
ancy secured a long period of firm stable government, which was
essential to put an end to the confusion in public life and to give
time for the people to awake to a fuller realization of the duties
and responsibilities of national independence. The internal
peace of the country was only disturbed three times, by Liberal
risings in 1835, in 1851 and in 1859, all of which were crushed, but
not without severe fighting. In 1836 Chile also became involved
in a war with a confederation of Peru and Bolivia, which ended in
the victory of Chile and the dissolution of the confederation.

While refusing to allow the people any share in, or control
over, the government, the Conservative leaders devoted them-
selves to improving the condition of the people and of the
country, and under their firm rule Chile advanced rapidly in
prosperity. The government established a department for
education, a training college for teachers, and numerous schools
and libraries; literary magazines were started and a school of
art and an academy of music founded. By the consolidation
of the foreign debt, by the regular payment of interest, by the
establishment of several banks, and by the negotiation of
commercial treaties, the financial position of the country was
improved. Internal development was promoted by the working

HISTORY]

CHILE

155

of the silver mines of Copiapo and the coal mines of Lota, by
the building of railways and erection of telegraphs, and by the
colonization of the rich Valdivia province with German settlers.
The Straits of Magellan were occupied; under an American
engineer, William Wheelwright, a line of steamers was started on
the coast, and, by a wise measure allowing merchandise to be
landed free of duty for re-exportation, Valparaiso became a
busy port and trading centre; while the demand for food-stuffs
in California and Australia, following upon the rush for gold,
gave a strong impetus to agriculture. A code of law was drawn
up and promulgated, and the ecclesiastical system was organized
under an archbishop appointed by the pope. To Montt, as
minister under Bulnes and afterwards as president, must be
given the main credit for the far-seeing policy which laid the
foundations of the prosperity of Chile; and though the adminis-
tration was in many ways harsh and narrow, firm government,
rather than liberty that would have tended to anarchy, was
essential for the success of the young republic.

After 1861, however, a. Liberal reaction set in, aided by
divisions in the Conservative party arising mainly over church
questions. Monti's successors, Jos6 Joaquin Perez (1861-1871),
Fedcrico Errazuriz (1871-1876) and Anibal Pinto (1876-1881),
abandoned the repressive policy of their predecessors, invited
the co-operation of the Liberals, and allowed discontent to vent
itself freely in popular agitation. Some democratic changes
were made in the constitution, notably a law forbidding the
re-election of a president, and the gradual and peaceful transition
to a Liberal policy was a proof of the progress which the nation
had made in political training. Outside the movement for con-
stitutional reform, the most important internal question was the
successful Liberal attack on the privileged position and narrow
views of the Church, which led to the birth of a strong ultra-
montane party among the clergy. The government continued to
be animated by a progressive spirit: schools, railways, telegraphs
were rapidly extended; a steamship mail service to Europe
was subsidized, and the stability of the government enabled it
to raise new foreign loans in order to extinguish the old high
interest-bearing loans and to meet the expenses of public works.
In 1877 a financial crisis occurred, met by the emission of paper
money, but the depression was only temporary, and the country
soon rallied from the effects.

During this period there was desultory fighting with the
Indians; there was a long boundary dispute with the Argentine,
settled in 1880; and in 1865 Chilean sympathy with Peru in a
quarrel with Spain led to a foolish war with Spain. The blockade
of their ports and the bombardment of Valparaiso by a Spanish
squadron impressed the Chileans with the necessity of possessing
an adequate fleet to defend their long coast-line; and it was
under President Errazuriz that the ships were obtained and the
officers trained that did such good service in the great war with
Peru. With a population of over two millions, a rapidly increas-
ing revenue, ruled by a government that was firm and progressive
and that enjoyed the confidence of all classes, Chile was well
equipped for the struggle with Peru that began in 1879.

The war of 1870-82 between Chile and Peru is the subject
of a separate article (see CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR). By the
beginning of 1881 the war had reached a stage when
<& S -,r tne ^ na l stru 8S' e was close at hand. On the i3th of
with Peru. January of that year the Chilean forces under command
of General Baquedano attacked the entrenched
positions of the Peruvians at daybreak in the vicinity of Chorillos,
a village some few miles from Lima, and forming the outer line
of defence for the capital. After a stubborn fight the day ended
in victory for the attacking forces; but the losses on both sides
were great, and on the following day negotiations for peace were
attempted by the representatives of the foreign powers in Lima,
the object being to avoid, if possible, any further bloodshed.
This attempt to end the conflict proved, however, abortive,
and on the i$th of January at 2 P.M. hostilities recommenced in
the neighbourhood of Miraflores. After severe fighting for some
four hours the Chileans again proved victorious, and drove the
Peruvians from the second line of defence back upon the city of

Lima. Lima was now at the mercy of the Chileans, and on the
1 7th of January a division of 4000 men of all arms, under the
command of General Cornelio Saavedra, was sent forward to
occupy the Peruvian capital and restore order within the town
limits. A portion of the Chilean forces was shortly afterwards
withdrawn from Peru, and the army of occupation remaining
in the conquered country was in charge of Admiral Patricio
Lynch, an officer who had been specially promoted for dis-
tinguished services during the war. President Anibal Pinto of
Chile now set about to find means to conclude a treaty of peace
with Peru, but his efforts in this direction were frustrated by
the armed resistance offered in the country districts to the
Chilean authorities by the remainder of the Peruvian forces
under command of General Caceres. So matters continued
the Chileans administering on the seaboard and in the principal
towns, the Peruvians maintaining a guerilla warfare in the
mountainous districts of the interior. In September 1881 the
term of office of president Pinto expired, and he was succeeded
in the post of chief executive of Chile by President Domingo
Santa Maria. Ex-President Pinto died three years later in
Valparaiso, leaving a memory respected and admired by all
political parties in his country. The name of Pinto will always
occupy a prominent place in the annals of Chilean history,
not only because the war with Peru took place during his term
of office, but also on account of the fact that it was largely due
to the intelligent direction of all details by the president during
the struggle that the Chilean arms proved so absolutely successful
by land and sea.

Senor Domingo Santa Maria, who now acceded to the presi-
dency of Chile, was a Liberal in politics, and -had previously
held various important posts under the government.
Under the rule of President Montt he had been an
active member of the opposition and involved in
various revolutionary conspiracies; for his participa-
tion in these plots he was at one time exiled from the country,
but returned and received official employment under President
Perez. The principal task confronting President Santa Maria
on assuming the presidency was to negotiate a treaty of peace
with Peru and provide for the evacuation of the Chilean army
of occupation. The presence of the Peruvian general Ciceres
and his forces in the interior of Peru prevented for some two
years the formation of any Peruvian national administration
in Lima with which the Chilean authorities could deal. In
August of 1883 the Peruvians were defeated by the forces
commanded by Admiral Lynch, and a government was then
organized under the leadership of General Iglesias. A provisional
treaty of peace was then drawn up and signed by General Iglesias
and the Chilean representative, and this was finally ratified by
the Chilean and Peruvian congresses respectively in April 1884.
By the terms of this treaty Peru ceded to Chile unconditionally
the province of Tarapaca, and the provinces of Tacna and Arica
were placed under Chilean authority for the term of ten years,
the inhabitants having then to decide by a general vote whether
they remained a part of Chile or elected to belong once more to
Peru. In the event of the decision being favourable to Peru a sum
of 10,000,000 dollars was to be paid by Peru to Chile. On the
ratification of this treaty the Chilean forces were immediately
withdrawn from Lima and other points of occupation in Peruvian
territory. The government of Bolivia also attempted to negotiate
a treaty of peace with Chile in 1884, and for this purpose sent
representatives to Santiago. No satisfactory terms, however,
could be arranged, and the negotiations ended in only an armistice
being agreed to, by which Chile remained in occupation of the
Bolivian seaboard pending a definite settlement at some future
period.

The administration of President Santa Maria met with violent
opposition from the Conservatives, who included the Clerical
party in their ranks, and also from a certain section of the Liberals.
The dislike of the Conservatives to President Santa Maria was
occasioned by his introduction of the law of civil marriage, the
civil registration of births and deaths, and the freeing of the
cemeteries. Hitherto no marriage was legal unless celebrated

I 5 6

CHILE

[HISTORY

according to the rites of the Roman Catholic religion, and all
registers of births and deaths were kept by the parish priests.
Civil employees were now appointed under the new laws to attend
to this work. Formerly the cemeteries were entirely under the
control of the Church, and, with the exception of a few places
specially created for the purpose, were reserved solely for the
burial of Roman Catholics. Under the new regime these
cemeteries were made common to the dead of all religions.
Under President Perez, in 1865, a clause in the law of constitution
had been introduced permitting the exercise of all creeds of
religion, and this was now put into practice, all restrictions
being removed. On several occasions, notably in 1882 and 1885,
President Santa Maria used his influence in the elections of
senators and deputies to congress for the purpose of creating
a substantial majority in his favour. He was induced to take
this course in consequence of the violent opposition raised in
the chambers by the liberal policy he pursued in connexion
with Church matters. This intervention caused great irritation
amongst the Conservatives and dissentient Liberals, and the
political situation on more than one occasion became so strained
as to bring the country to the verge of armed revolution. No
outbreak, however, took place, and in 1886 the five years of office
for which President Santa Maria had been elected came to an
end, and another Liberal, Senor Jos6 Manuel Balmaceda, then
succeeded to power.

The election of Balmaceda was bitterly opposed by the
Conservatives and dissentient Liberals, but was finally success-
fully carried by the official influence exercised by
So/mate a pj-ggj,]^ Santa Maria. On assuming office President
president. Balmaceda endeavoured to bring'about a reconciliation
of all sections of the Liberal party in congress and so
form a solid majority to support the administration, and to this
end he nominated as ministers representatives of the different
political groups. Six months later the cabinet was reorganized,
and two most bitter opponents to the recent election of President
Balmaceda were accorded portfolios. Believing that he had
now secured the support of the majority in congress on behalf
of any measures he decided to put forward, the new president
initiated a policy of heavy expenditure on public works, the
building of schools, and the strengthening of the naval and
military forces of the republic. Contracts were given out to the
value of 6,000,000 for the construction of railways in the
southern districts; some 10,000,000 dollars were expended in
the erection of- schools and colleges; three cruisers and two
sea-going torpedo boats were added to the squadron; the
construction of the naval port at Talcahuano was actively pushed
forward; new armament was purchased for the infantry and
artillery branches of the army, and heavy guns were acquired
for the purpose of permanently and strongly fortifying the
neighbourhoods of Valparaiso, Talcahuano and Iquique. In
itself this policy was not unreasonable, and in many ways
extremely beneficial for the country. Unfortunately corruption
crept into the expenditure of the large sums necessary to carry
out this programme. Contracts were given by favour and not
by merit, and the progress made in the construction of the new
public works was far from satisfactory. The opposition in
congress to President Balmaceda began to increase rapidly
towards the close of 1887, and further gained ground in 1888.
In order to ensure a majority favourable to his views, the
president threw the whole weight of his official influence into
the elections for senators and deputies in 1888; but many of
the members returned to the chambers through this official
influence joined the opposition shortly after taking their seats.
In 1889 congress became distinctly hostile to the administration
of President Balmaceda, and the political situation became grave,
and at times threatened to involve the country in civil war.
According to usage and custom in Chile, a ministry does not
remain in office unless supported by a majority in the chambers.
Balmaceda now found himself in the impossible position of being
unable to appoint any ministry that could control a majority
in the senate and chamber of deputies and at the same time be
in accordance with his own views of the administration of public

affairs. At this juncture the president assumed that the con-
stitution gave him the power of nominating and maintaining
in office any ministers he might consider fitting persons for the
purpose, and that congress had no right of interference in the
matter. The chambers were now only waiting for a suitable
opportunity to assert their authority. In 1890 it was stated
that President Balmaceda had determined to nominate and
cause to be elected as his successor at the expiration of his term
of office in 1891 one of his own personal friends. This question
of the election of another president brought matters to a head,
and congress refused to vote supplies to carry on the government.
To avoid trouble Balmaceda entered into a compromise with
congress, and agreed to nominate a ministry to their liking on
condition that the supplies for 1890 were voted. This cabinet,
however, was of short duration, and resigned when the ministers
understood the full amount of friction between the president
and congress. Balmaceda then nominated a ministry not in
accord with the views of congress under Senor Claudio Vicuna,
whom it was no secret that Balmaceda intended to be his
successor in the presidential chair, and, to prevent any expression
of opinion upon his conduct in the matter, he refrained from
summoning an extraordinary session of the legislature for the
discussion of the estimates of revenue and expenditure for 1891.
When the ist of January 1891 arrived, the president published
a decree in the Diario Oficial to the effect that the budget of
1890 would be considered the official budget for 1891. This act
was illegal and beyond the attributes of the executive
power. As a protest against the action of President //,g9/. '
Balmaceda, the vice-president of the senate, Senor
Waldo Silva, and the president of the chamber of deputies,
Senor Ramon Barros Luco, issued a proclamation appointing
Captain Jorje Montt in command of the squadron, and stating
that the navy could not recognize the authority of Balmaceda
so long as he did not administer public affairs in accordance
with the constitutional law of Chile. The majority of the
members of the chambers sided with this movement, and on the
7th of January Sefiores Waldo Silva, Barros Luco and a number
of senators and deputies embarked on board the Chilean warship
" Blanco Encalada," accompanied by the " Esmeralda " and
" O'Higgins " and other vessels, sailing out of Valparaiso harbour
and proceeding northwards to Tarapaca to organize armed
resistance against the president (see CHILEAN CIVIL WAR). It
was not alone this action of Balmaceda in connexion with
congress that brought about the revolution. He had alienated
the sympathy of the aristocratic classes of Chile by his personal
vanity and ambition. The oligarchy composed of the great
landowners have always been an important factor in the political
life of the republic; when President Balmaceda found that he
was not a persona grata to this circle he determined to endeavour
to govern without their support, and to bring into the adminis-
tration a set of men who had no traditions and with whom his
personality would be all-powerful. The Clerical influence was
also thrown against him in consequence of his radical ideas in
respect of Church matters.

Immediately on the outbreak of the revolution President
Balmaceda published a decree declaring Montt and his com-
panions to be traitors, and without delay organized an army of
some 40,000 men for the suppression of the insurrectionary
movement. While both sides were preparing for extremities,
Balmaceda administered the government under dictatorial
powers with a congress of his own nomination. In June 1891
he ordered the presidential election to be held, and Senor Claudio
Vicuna was duly declared chosen as president of the republic for
the term commencing in September 1891. The resources of
Balmaceda were running short on account of the heavy military
expenses, and he determined to dispose of the reserve of silver
bullion accumulated in the vaults of the Casa de Moneda in
accordance with the terms of the law for the conversion of the
note issue. The silver was conveyed abroad in a British man-
of-war, and disposed of partly for the purchase of a fast steamer
to be fitted as an auxiliary cruiser and partly in payment for
other kinds of war material.

HISTORY]

CHILE

157

The organization of the revolutionary forces went on slowly.
Much difficulty was experienced in obtaining the necessary arms
and ammunition. A supply of rifles was bought in the United
States, and embarked on board the " Itata," a Chilean vessel
in the service of the rebels. The United States authorities
refused to allow this steamer to leave San Diego, and a guard
was stationed on the ship. The " Itata," however, slipped away
and made for the Chilean coast, carrying with her the repre-
sentatives of the United States. A fast cruiser was immediately
sent in pursuit, but only succeeded in overhauling the rebel ship
after she was at her destination. The " Itata " was then forced
to return to San Diego without landing her cargo for the insur-
gents. The necessary arms and ammunition were arranged for
in Europe; they were shipped in a British vessel, and transferred
to a Chilean steamer at Fortune Bay, in Tierra del Fuego, close
to the Straits of Magellan and the Falkland Islands, and thence
carried to Iquique, where they were safely disembarked early in
July 1891. A force of 10,000 men was now raised by the junta
of the revolution, and preparations were rapidly pushed forward
for a move to the south with the object of attacking Valparaiso
and Santiago. Early in April a portion of the revolutionary
squadron, comprising the " Blanco Encalada " and other ships,
was sent to the southward for reconnoitring purposes and put
into the port of Caldera. During the night of the 23rd of April,
and whilst the " Blanco Encalada " was lying quietly at anchor,
a torpedo boat called the " Almirante Lynch," belonging to the
Balmaceda faction, steamed into the bay of Caldera and dis-
charged a torpedo at the rebel ship. The " Blanco Encalada "
sank in a few minutes and 300 of her crew perished.

In the middle of August 1891 the rebel forces were embarked
at Iquique (where a provisional government under Captain
Jorje Montt had been set up), numbering in all about 9000 men,
and sailed fcr the south. On the 2oth of August the congressist
army was disembarked at Quinteros, about 20 m. north of
Valparaiso, and marched to Concon, where the Balmacedists
were entrenched. A severe fight ensued, in which the troops
of President Balmaceda were defeated with heavy loss. This
reverse roused the worst passions of the president, and he ordered
the arrest and imprisonment of all persons suspected of sympathy
with the revolutionary cause. The population generally were,
however, distinctly antagonistic to Balmaceda; and this feeling
had become accentuated since the lyth of August 1891, on
which date he had ordered the execution of a number of youths
belonging to the military college at San Lorenzo on a charge of
seditious practices. The shooting of these boys created a feeling
of horror throughout the country, and a sensation of uncertainty
as to what measures of severity might not be practised in the
future if Balmaceda won the day. After the victory at Concon
the insurgent army, under command of General Campos, marched
in a southerly direction towards Vina del Mar, and thence to
Placilla, where the final struggle in the conflict took place.
Balmaceda's generals Barbosa and Alcerrica had here massed
their troops in a strong position. The battle, on the 28th of
August, resulted in victory for the rebels. Both the Balmacedist
generals were killed and Valparaiso was at once occupied.
Defeat and Tnree days later the victorious insurgents entered
suicide of Santiago and assumed the government of the republic.
Baima- After the battle of Placilla it was clear to President
ced * Balmaceda that he could no longer hope to find a

sufficient strength amongst his adherents to maintain himself in
power, and in view of the rapid approach of the rebel army he
abandoned his official duties to seek an asylum in the Argentine
legation. The president remained concealed in this retreat until
the 1 8th of September. On the evening of that date, when the
term for which he had been elected president of the republic
terminated, he committed suicide by shooting himself. The
excuse for this act, put forward in letters written shortly before
his end, was that he did not believe the conquerors would give
him an impartial trial. The death of Balmaceda finished all
cause of contention in Chile, and was the closing act of the most
severe and bloodiest struggle that country had ever witnessed.
In the various engagements throughout the conflict more than

10,000 lives were lost, and the joint expenditure of the two
governments on military preparations and the purchase of war
material exceeded 10,000,000 sterling.

An unfortunate occurrence soon after the close of the revolution
brought strained relations for a short period between the govern-
ments of the United States and Chile. A number of men of the
U.S.S. "Baltimore" having been given liberty on shore, an
argument arose between some of them and a group of Chilean
sailors in a drinking den in Valparaiso. Words led to blows.
The Americans were badly handled, one of their number being
killed and others severely hurt. The United States government
characterized the affair as an outrage, demanding an indemnity
as satisfaction. The Chilean authorities demurred at this
attitude, and attempted to argue the matter. James G. Elaine,
then secretary of state, refused peremptorily to listen to any
explanations. In the end Chile paid an indemnity of $75,000
as asked, but the affair left bad feeling in its train.

The close of the revolution against Balmaceda left the govern-
ment of Chile in the hands of the junta under whose guidance
the military and naval operations had been organized.
Admiral Jorje Montt had been the head of this
revolutionary committee, and he acted as president
of the provisional government when the administration
of the country changed hands after the victory of the Congres-
sional party. An election was now immediately ordered for the
choice of a president of the republic and for representatives in
the senate and chamber of deputies. Admiral Montt, as head
of the executive power, stanchly refused to allow official influence
to be brought to bear in any way in the presidential campaign.
The great majority of the voters, however, required no pressure
to decide who was in their opinion the man most fitted to ad-
minister the affairs of the republic. For the first time in the
history of Chile a perfectly free election was held, and Admiral
Montt was duly chosen by a nearly unanimous vote to be chief
magistrate for the constitutional term of five years. The senate
and chamber of deputies were formally constituted in due course,
and the government of the republic resumed normal conditions
of existence. The new president showed admirable tact in dealing
with the difficult problem he was called upon to face. Party
feeling still ran high between the partisans of the two sides of the
recent conflict. Admiral Montt took the view that it was politic
and just to let bygones be bygones, and he acted conscientiously
by this principle in all administrative measures in connexion
with the supporters of the late President Balmaceda. Early in
1892 an amnesty was granted to the officers of the Balmaceda
regime, and they were freely permitted to return to Chile without
any attempt being made to molest them. The first political act
of national importance of the new government was the grant
of control to the municipalities, which hitherto had possessed
little power to direct local affairs, and were not even permitted
to dispose of the municipal revenues to any important amount
without first obtaining the consent of the central government.
Almost absolute power was now given these corporations to
manage their own concerns, and the organization of the police
was placed in their hands; at a later period, however, it was
found necessary to modify this latter condition.

President Montt next turned his attention towards the
question of how best to repair the damage occasioned to the
country by eight months of civil warfare. The plan of public
works authorized in 1887 was reconsidered, and the construction
of portions of the various undertakings recommenced. The
army and navy were reorganized. Additional instructors were
brought from Germany, and all arms of the military service
were placed on a thoroughly efficient footing in matters of drill
and discipline. Several new and powerful cruisers were added
to the navy, and the internal economy of this branch of the
national defence was thoroughly inspected and many defects
were remedied. President Montt then took in hand the question
of a reform of the currency, the abolition of inconvertible paper
money, and the re-establishment of a gold basis as the monetary
standard of the republic. This reform of the currency became
the keynote of the president's policy during the remainder of

i 5 8

CHILE

[HISTORY

his term of office. Great opposition was raised by the repre-
sentatives of the debtor class in congress to the suppression of the
inconvertible paper money, but in the end President Montt
carried the day, and on the nth of February 1895 a measure
finally became law establishing a gold currency as the only legal
tender in Chile. In July 1896 the Conversion Act was put in
force, a dollar of i8d. being the monetary unit adopted. In 1895
relations with the neighbouring republic of Argentina began to
become somewhat strained in regard to the interpretation of the
treaty concerning the boundary between the two countries.
The treaties of 1881, 1893 and 1895 left doubts in the minds of
both Chileans and Argentines as to the position of the frontier
line. On the lyth of April 1896 another protocol was drawn
up, by which the contending parties agreed to submit any differ-
ences to the arbitration of Great Britain, at the instance of one
or both governments. President Montt had now fulfilled his
term of office, and on the i8th of September 1896 he handed
over the presidential power to his successor, Sefior Federico
Errazuriz, who had been duly elected in the month of Jun.e
previously.

The election for the position of president of the republic was
closely contested in 1896 between Senor Errazuriz and Sefior
Reyes, and ended in the triumph of the former candi-
^ ate ^ v l ^ e narrow majority of one vote. The father
of the new president had been chief magistrate of
Chile from 1871 to 1876, and his administration had been one
of the best the country had ever enjoyed; his son had therefore
traditions to uphold in the post he was now called upon to fill.
At the beginning of 1897 the public attention was absorbed by
foreign political questions. The problems to be solved were the
frontier difficulty with Argentina, the question of the possession
of Tacna and Arica with Peru, and the necessity of fulfilling the
obligation contracted with Bolivia to give that country a seaport
on the Pacific coast. The treaty made in 1896 with the Argentine
government, referring to the arbitration of disputed points con-
cerning the boundary, became practically for the moment a dead
letter, and both Argentines and Chileans began to talk openly
of an appeal to arms to settle the matter once for all. The
governments of both countries began to purchase large supplies
of war material, and generally to make preparations for a possible
conflict. In these circumstances no final settlement with Peru
and Bolivia was possible, the authorities of those republics
holding back to see the issue of the Chile-Argentine dispute, and
Chile being in no position at the time to insist on any terms being
arranged. So matters drifted until the beginning of 1898. In
July of that year the crisis reached an acute stage. Both Chile
and Argentina put forward certain pretensions to territory in the
Atacama district to the north, and also to a section of Patagonia
in the south. Neither side would give way, nor was any dis-
position exhibited to refer the matter to arbitration under the
protocol of 1896. The cry of an acute financial crisis emanating
from the fear of war with Argentina was now raised in Chile.
The president was advised that the only way of averting the
financial ruin of the banking institutions of the republic was to
suspend the conversion law and lend from the national treasury
inconvertible notes to the banks. Senor Errazuriz weakly gave
way, and a decree was promulgated placing the
wltll currency once more on an inconvertible paper money

Argentina, basis until 1902. In August of 1898 the Chilean
government determined to insist upon the terms of the
protocol of 1896 being acted upon, and intimated to Argentina
that they demanded the fulfilment of the clause relating to
arbitration on disputed points. This was practically an ulti-
matum, and a refusal on the part of the Argentine government
to comply with the terms of the 1896 agreement meant a declara-
tion of war by Chile. For a few days the issue hung in the
balance, and then the Argentine government accepted the
provisions made in 1896 for arbitration. The dispute concerning
the Atacama district was submitted to an arbitration tribunal,
consisting of the representative of the United States in Argentina,
assisted by one Argentine and one Chilean commissioner. This
tribunal, after due investigation, gave their decision in April

1899, and the verdict was accepted unreservedly by both govern-
ments. The dispute regarding the I'atagonian territory was
submitted to the arbitration of Great Britain, and a commission
consisting of Lord Macnaghten, Sir John Ardagh and Sir T. H.
Holdich was appointed in 1899 to hear the case.

The Argentine difficulty was ended, but Chile still had to find
a settlement with Peru and Bolivia. The treaty made with the
former country in 1893 was not ratified, as it was thought to
concede too much to Peru, and the subsequent ad referendum
treaty was rejected on account of Peru claiming that only
Peruvians, and not all residents, should have the right to vote
in the plebiscite to be taken by the terms of the treaty of 1883
for the possession of Tacna and Arica. By the terms of the
armistice of 1883 between Chile and Boh' via, a three years'
notice had to be given by either government wishing to denounce
that agreement. By the protocol of 1895 Chile agreed to give
to Bolivia the port of Arica, or some other suitable position on
the seaboard. On these lines a settlement was proposed. Vitor,
a landing-place a little to the south of Arica, was offered by the
Chilean government to Bolivia, but refused as not complying
with the conditions stated in the protocol of 1895; the Bolivians
furthermore preferred to wait and see if Arica was finally ceded
by Peru to Chile, and if so to claim the fulfilment of the terms of
the protocol.

After the accession to office of President Errazuriz there was
no stability of any ministry. Political parties in congress were
so evenly balanced and so subdivided into groups that a vote
against the ministry was easy to obtain, and the resignation of
the cabinet immediately followed in accordance with the so-called
parliamentary system in vogue in Chile. The president of the
republic has no power to dissolve the chambers, to endeavour to
remedy the evil by one or another political party obtaining a
substantial working majority, but must wait to see the results
of the triennial elections. As a consequence of these conditions
Conservative, Liberal and coalition ministries held office at short
intervals. These unsettled political circumstances checked any
continuity of policy, and tended to block the passage of all useful
legislation to help forward the economic development of the
country and inhabitants; on the other hand, the financial
situation was better by the end of 1899 than in the previous year,
since all proposals for a fresh paper issue had been vetoed;
and the elections for congress and municipal office at the opening
of 1900 returned a majority favourable to a stable currency
policy.

In September 1900 a fresh outburst of hostile feeling against
Chile was created in Argentina by a note addressed by the Chilean
government to Bolivia, intimating that Chile was no longer
inclined to hand over the port of Arica or any other port on the
Pacific, but considered the time ripe for a final settlement of the
questions connected with the Chilean occupation of Bolivian
territory, which had now been outstanding for sixteen years.
The foreign policy of Chile, as indicated by this note, was con-
sidered by Argentina to be grasping and unconciliatory, and there
were rumours of an anti-Chilean South American federation.
Chile disclaimed any aggressive intentions^ but in December the
Bolivian congress declined to relinquish their claim to a port,
and refused to conclude a definite treaty of peace. The year
closed with a frontier incident between Chile and Argentina
in the disputed territory of Ultima Esperanza, where some
Argentine colonists were ejected by Chilean police; but both
governments signed protocols agreeing not to take aggressive
action in consequence.

At the opening of 1901 the country was chiefly interested in
the forthcoming presidential election, for which the candidates
were Don Pedro Montt (Conservative and Clerical)
and Senor. German Riesco (Liberal). The relations
between President Errazuriz and congress became
rather strained, owing to the former's inclination to retain in
office a ministry on which congress had passed a vote of censure;
but Errazuriz had been in ill-health for more than a year, and
on the ist of May he resigned, and died in July. At the ensuing
election Riesco was elected president. The attitude of Chile

HISTORY]

CHILE

'59

towards the Pan-American Congress at Mexico became a matter
of interest in the autumn, particularly in connexion with the
proposal for compulsory arbitration between all American
governments. The Chilean government made it quite clear that
they would withdraw from the congress if this proposal was
meant to be retroactive; and their unyielding attitude testified
to the apprehensions felt by Chile concerning United States
interference. In October the Chilean government announced
that the contemplated conversion scheme, for which gold had
been accumulated, would be postponed for two years (till October
1003), the gold being held as a reserve fund pending the result
of the arbitration over the Argentine frontier. This was generally
considered to be a reasonable and statesmanlike course. Un-
fortunately, a recrudescence of the excitement over the boundary
dispute was occasioned by the irritation created in Argentina
by the fact that, pending a decision, Chile was constructing roads
in the disputed territory. During December 1001 relations were
exceedingly strained, and troops were called out on both sides.
But at the end of the month it was agreed to leave the question
to the British arbitrators, and the latter decided to send one of
their number, Sir T. H. Holdich, to examine the territory.
( The survey occupied some eight months, and it was not until
the autumn that Sir T. H. Holdich returned to England to make
his report. The difficulty of ascertaining the true line
Argentine of ^ waters h e d had been very great, but the result
mward?* was eminently successful. The award of King Edward
was signed on the zoth of November 1902, and both
parties to the litigation were satisfied. In order that future
disputes might be amicably settled, a treaty was signed by
which it was agreed that any question that might arise should be
submitted to the arbitration of Great Britain or in default of
that power to the Swiss Confederation. The removal of this
source of irritation and the restoration of friendly relations
between the two republics was a great relief to the finance of
Chile. Had it not been for the political instability of the country,
the effects of the diminution of expenditure on military and naval
preparations would have effected a rapid improvement in its
financial position. The constant change of ministry (there
being no stable majority in the congress) prevented during 1903
any settled policy, or that confidence in the government which
is the basis of commercial prosperity. In 1904, however, both
trade and revenue showed signs of improvement, and the sale
of the warships " Esmeralda " and " Chambuco " for 1,000,000
furnished a surplus, which was devoted to the improvement of
the port of Valparaiso. This was the beginning of a period of
steady industrial growth and development. The settlement of
the long outstanding dispute with Bolivia in a treaty of peace
signed on the i7th of October 1005 was very advantageous to
both countries. By this treaty Bolivia ceded all claims to a
seaport and strip of the coast, on condition that Chile constructed
at her own charges a railway to Lapaz from the port of Arica,
giving at the same time to Bolivia free transit across Chilean
territory to the sea. A cash indemnity of 300,000 was also paid,
and certain stipulations were made with regard to the construc-
tion of other railways giving access from Chile to the Bolivian
interior.

The prosperity of Chile was to suffer a rude shock. On the
17th of August 1006 a terrible earthquake visited Valparaiso
and the surrounding district. The town of Valparaiso
was almost entirely destroyed, while Santiago and
other towns were severely shaken and suffered much
damage. It was estimated that about 3000 persons
were killed, a still larger number injured, and at least 100,000
rendered homeless. The loss of property was enormous. The
fire which broke out after the earthquake shock had subsided
added to the horror of the catastrophe. Measures were, however,
promptly taken for succouring the people, who had been driven
from their homes, and the task of restoration was vigorously
taken in hand. Before the end of the year the rebuilding of the
city was rapidly progressing.

In 1906 Senor Pedro Montt was elected president and entered
upon his office on the i7th of September. The personality of

the president, however, had become of much less importance in
modern Chile than in earlier days. Up to 1870 the government
was in the hands of a small oligarchy of Santiago
families, but the president enjoyed large powers
of initiative. Nowadays the congress has virtually Moott,
absorbed the executive power, with the result that the
cabinet is often changed many times in one year. This prevents
indeed any continuity of policy, for the majority in congress is
perpetually fluctuating, and ministerial crises rapidly follow one
another. Chile, however, except in the Balmacedist civil war,
is happily distinguished by its freedom from revolution and
serious political unrest. Its history in this respect is in marked
contrast to that of the neighbouring South American states.
The completion of the Trans- Andean railway between Valparaiso
and Buenos Aires was bound to be of immense commercial and
industrial value; and eventually the making of a longitudinal
railway route uniting the nitrate province of the north with
Santiago, and Santiago with Puerto Montt in the distant south,
opened up further important prospects. Such a line of through
communication, binding together the different provinces forming
the long narrow strip of territory stretching along more than
2000 m. of the Pacific littoral, could only be looked forward to,
both politically and economically, as an inestimable benefit to
the country.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. General History. The most valuable authority
is D. Barros Arana's Historia jeneral de Chile (15 vols., Santiago,
1884), from the earliest days up to 1830. Smaller handbooks cover-
ing the whole period are : A. U. Hancock, a History of Chile (Chicago.,
!893), the only general history in English, and containing a biblio-
graphy; Caspar Toro, Compendia de la historic, de Chile (Santiago,
1879), a good clear abstract of Chilean history; 'and F. Valdes
Vergara, Historia de Chile (Valparaiso, 1898), written primarily
for schools.but containing useful sketches of leading figures in Chilean
history.

Works on Special Periods. Colonial Period: M. L. Amunatequi,
Descubri miento y conquista de Chile (Santiago, 1885), a valuable
detailed account of the Spanish conquest; by same author, Los
Precursores de la independencia de Chile (Santiago, 1870), a clear
useful description of the evils of the Spanish colonial system;
Horacio Lara, Cronica de la Araucania (Santiago, 1889), a history
of the Araucanian Indians right up to recent dates; Abb6 Eyza-
guirre, Histoire du Chili (Lille, 1855), mainly dealing with the
position of the Church during the colonial period. Perez Garcia's
Historia del reino de Chile (Santiago, 1900), an old history by a
Spanish officer written about 1780, and Molina's History of Chili in
the English translation (London, 1809), will also be found useful.
Useful material for research exists in J. T. Medina's Coleccion de
documentos para la historia de Chile (Santiago, 1888), a collection
of despatches and official documents; his Cosas de la colonia
(Santiago, 1889), an accumulation of undigested information about
life in the colonial period; and Historiadores de Chile (21 vols.,
Santiago, 1861), a collection of ancient chronicles and official
documents up to the early part of the i;th century.

Revolutionary Period. A. Roldan, Las Primer as Asambleas
nacionales (Santiago, 1890), an account of the struggles in the first
national assemblies; A. Valdes, Revolution Chilena. y campanas de
la independencia (Santiago, 1888), an account of the early fighting
and rivalry of the revolutionary leaders ; W. Pilling, Emancipation
of South America (London, 1893), a translation of B. Mitre's life of
San Martin, describing the fighting in the wars of independence;
Lord Cochrane, Narrative of Services in Chile, Peru and Brazil
(London, 1859), an autobiography describing the naval exploits that
helped to secure the expulsion of the Spaniards; B. Vicuna
Machenna, Vida de O'Higgins (Santiago, 1882), giving a useful
account of the revolutionary struggle and the main actors; and the
same author's Historia jeneral de la republica de Chile, a collection
of essays on the early republican history by various writers.

Later History. R. Sotomayor Valdes, Historia de Chili, 1831-
1871, a detailed account of the period (Sanitago, 1875); the same
author's Campana del ejercito Chileno en 1837 (Santiago, 1896),
describing the fighting of the first Peruvian War; B. Vicuna
Machenna, D. Diego Portales (Valparaiso, 1863), a good account_of
the life and time of Portales, the famous minister of the Conservative
party; P. B. Fiqueroa, Historia de la revolution constituyente
1858-59 (Santiago, 1889), an account of the revolution at the end of
Monti's presidency ; F. Fonch, Chile in der Gegenwart (Berlin, 1870),
a description of Chile at the time; Statement on Behalf of Chile (in
the Chilean-Argentine Boundary Arbitration) (6 vols., London,
1901-1902); Sir Thomas Holdich, Countries of the King's Award
(1904); Beltran y Rospido, Los Pueblos hispano-americanos en el
siglo XX. (Madrid, 1904); P. F. Martin, Through Five Republics of
South America (London, 1006); Wright, The Republic of Chile
(London, 1905) ; G. F. Scott Elliot, Chile (London, 1907) ; Sir W. M.

i6o

CHILEAN CIVIL WAR CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR

Conway, Aconcagua and Tierra del Fuego (London, 1902) ; " Chile-
Argentine Arbitration" in the Geog. Journal (January 1903);
C. M. Pepper, Panama to Patagonia (London, 1907); C. E. Akers,
History of South America, 1854-1904 (London, 1904); M. Hume,
Lecture on the Republic of Chile (London, 1902).

(E. G. J. M.; C. E. A.; G. E.)

CHILEAN CIVIL WAR (1891). The Chilean civil war grew
out of political dissensions between the president of Chile, J. M.
Balmaceda, and his congress (see CHILE: History), and began
in January 1891. On the 6th, at Valparaiso, the political leaders
of the Congressional party went on board the ironclad " Blanco
Encalada," and Captain Jorje Montt of that vessel hoisted a
broad pennant as commodore of the Congressional fleet. Prepara-
tions had long been made for the naval pronunciamento, and in
the end but few vessels of the Chilean navy adhered to the cause
of the " dictator " Balmaceda. But amongst these were two
new and fast torpedo gunboats, " Almirante Condell " and
" Almirante Lynch," and in European dockyards (incomplete)
lay the most powerful vessel of the navy, the " Arturo Prat,"
and two fast cruisers. If these were secured by the Balmacedists
the naval supremacy of the congress would be seriously
challenged For the present, and without prejudice to the future,
command of the sea was held by Montt's squadron (January).
The rank and file of the army remained faithful to the executive,
and thus in the early part of the war the " Gobernistas," speaking
broadly, possessed an army without a fleet, the congress a
fleet without an army. Balmaceda hoped to create a navy; the'
congress took steps to recruit an army by taking its sympathizers
on board the fleet. The first shot was fired, on the i6th of
January, by the " Blanco " at the Valparaiso batteries, and
landing parties from the warships engaged small parties of
government troops at various places during January and
February. The dictator's principal forces were stationed in
and about Iquique, Coquimbo, Valparaiso, Santiago and Con-
cepci6n. The troops at Iquique and Coquimbo were necessarily
isolated from the rest and from each other, and military opera-
tions began, as in the campaign of 1879 in this quarter, with a
naval descent upon Pisagua followed by an advance inland to
Dolores. The Congressional forces failed at first to make good
their footing (i6th-23rd of January), but, though defeated in
two or three actions, they brought off many recruits and a
quantity of munitions of war. On the 26th they retook Pisagua,
and on the isth of February the Balmacedist commander,
Eulojio Robles, who offered battle in the expectation of receiving
reinforcements from Tacna, was completely defeated on the old
battlefield cf San Francisco. Robles fell back along the railway,
called up troops from Iquique, and beat the invaders at Haura
on the 1 7th, but Iquique in the meanwhile fell to the Congres-
sional fleet on the i6th. The Pisagua line of operations was at
once abandoned, and the military forces of the congress were
moved by sea to Iquique, whence, under the command of Colonel
Estanislao Del Canto, they started inland. The battle of Pozo
Almonte, fought on the 7th of March, was desperately contested,
but Del Canto was superior in numbers, and Robles was himself
killed and his army dispersed. After this the other Balmacedist
troops in the north gave up the struggle. Some were driven
into Peru, others into Bolivia, and one column made a laborious
retreat from Calama to Santiago, in the course of which it twice
crossed the main chain of the Andes.

The Congressional Junta de Gobierno now established in Iquique
prosecuted the war vigorously, and by the end of April the whole
country was in the hands of the " rebels " from the Peruvian
border to the outposts of the Balmacedists at Coquimbo and La
Serena. The Junta now began the formation of a properly
organized army for the next campaign, which, it was believed
universally on both sides, would be directed against Coquimbo.
But in a few months the arrival of the new ships from Europe
would reopen the struggle for command of the sea; the torpederas
" Condell " and " Lynch " had already weakened the Congres-
sional squadron severely by sinking the " Blanco Encalada " in
Caldera Bay (23rd of April), and the Congressional party could
no longer aim at a methodical conquest of successive provinces,
but was compelled to attempt to crush the dictator at a blow.

Where this blow was to fall was not decided up to the last
moment, but the instrument which was to deliver it was prepared
with all the care possible under the circumstances. Del Canto
was made commander-in-chief, and an ex-Prussian officer, Emil
Korner, chief of staff. The army was organized in three brigades
of all arms, at Iquique, Caldera and Vallenar. Korner super-
intended the training of the men, gave instruction in tactics to
the officers, caused maps to be prepared, and in general took
every precaution that his experience could suggest to ensure
success. Del Canto was himself no mere figurehead, but a
thoroughly capable leader who had distinguished himself at
Tacna (1880) and Miraflores (1881), as well as in the present war.
The men were enthusiastic, and the officers unusually numerous.
The artillery was fair, the cavalry good, and the train and
auxiliary services well organized. About one-third of the infantry
were armed with the (Mannlicher) magazine rifle, which now made
its first appearance in war, the remainder had the Gras and other
breech-loaders, which were also the armament of the dictator's
infantry. Balmaceda could only wait upon events, but he pre-
pared his forces as best he was able, and his torpederas constantly
harried the Congressional navy. By the end of July Del Canto
and Korner had done their work as well as tune permitted, and
early in August the troops prepared to embark, not for Coquimbo,
but for Valparaiso itself.

The expedition by sea was admirably managed, and Quinteros,
N. of Valparaiso and not many miles out of range of its batteries,
was occupied on the zoth of August 1891. Balmaceda was
surprised, but acted promptly. The first battle was fought on
the Aconcagua at Concon on the 2ist. The eager infantry of the
Congressional army forced the passage of the river and stormed
the heights held by the Gobernistas, capturing 36 guns. The
killed and wounded of the Balmacedists numbered 1600, and
nearly all the prisoners, about 1500 men, enrolled themselves
in the rebel army, which thus more than made good its loss of
1000 killed and wounded. The victors pressed on towards
Valparaiso, but were soon brought up by the strong fortified
position of the Balmacedist general Barbosa at Vina del Mar,
whither Balmaceda hurried up all available troops from Valparaiso
and Santiago, and even from Concepcion. Del Canto and Korner
now resolved on a daring step. Supplies of all kinds were brought
up from Quinteros to the front, and on the 24th of August the
army abandoned its line of communications and marched inland.
The flank march was conducted with great skill, little opposition
was encountered, and the rebels finally appeared to the south-
east of Valparaiso. Here, on the 28th, took place the decisive
battle of La Placilla. Concon had been perhaps little more than
the destruction of an isolated corps; the second battle was a fair
trial of strength, for Barbosa was well prepared, and had under
his command the greater part of the existing forces of the dictator.
But the splendid fighting qualities of the Congressional troops
and the superior generalship of their leaders prevailed in the
end over every obstacle. The government army was practically
annihilated, 941 men were killed, including Barbosa and his
second in command, and 2402 wounded. The Congressional
army lost over 1800 men. Valparaiso was occupied the same
evening and Santiago soon afterwards. There was no further
fighting, for so great was the effect of the battles of Concon and
La Placella that even the Coquimbo troops surrendered without
firing a shot.

BIBLIOGRAPHY, Lieut. Sears and Ensign Wells, U.S.N., The
Chilian Revolution of 1891 (Office of Naval Intelligence, Washington,
1893) ; The Capture of Valparaiso, 1891 (Intelligence Department,
War Office, London, 1892) ; Hermann Kunz, Taktische Benspiele aus
den Kriegen der neuest-en Zeit; der Biirgerkrieg in Chile (Berlin,
1901) ; Revista militar de Chile (February-March 1892) ; Hugo
Kunz, Der Biirgerkrieg in Chile (Vienna, 1892) ; Militar Wochenblatt
(5th supplement, 1892); Sir W. Laird Clowes, Four Modern Naval
Campaigns (London, 1902); Proceedings of U. S. Naval Institute
(1894) (for La Placilla); and the military and naval periodicals of
1892.

CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR (1870-1882). The proximate cause
of this war was the seizure, by the authorities of Bolivia, of the
effects of the Chilean Nitrate Company at Antofagasta, then
part of the Bolivian province of Atacama. The first act of

CHILIASM CHILLIANWALLA

161

hostility was the despatch of 500 soldiers to protect Chilean
interests at Antofagasta. This force, under Colonel Sotomayor,
landed and marched inland; the only resistance encountered
was at Calama on the river Loa, where a handful of newly raised
militia was routed (zjrd March 1879). About the same time
Chilean warships occupied Cobija and Tocapilla, and Sotomayor,
after his victory at Calama, marched to the latter port. Bolivia
had declared war on the ist of March, but Peru not till the 5th
of April: this delay gave the Chileans time to occupy every
port on the Bolivian coast. Thus the Chilean admiral was able
to proceed at once to the blockade of the southern ports of Peru,
and in particular Iquique, where there took place the first naval
action of the war. On the zist of April the Chilean sloop
" Esmeralda " and the gunboat " Covadonga " both small and
weak ships engaged the Peruvian heavy ironclads " Huascar "
and " Independencia "; after a hot fight the " Huascar " under
Miguel Grau sank the " Esmeralda " under Arturo Prat, who
was killed, but Carlos Condell in the " Covadonga " manoeuvred
the " Independencia " aground and shelled her into a complete
wreck. The Chileans now gave up the blockade and con-
centrated all their efforts on the destruction of the " Huascar,"
while the allies organized a field army in the neighbour-
hood of Tacna and a large Chilean force assembled at Anto-
fagasta.

On the 8th of October 1879 the " Huascar " was brought to
action off Angamos by the " Blanco Encalada," and the " Al-
mirante Cochrane." Grau was outmatched as hopelessly and
made as brave a fight as- Prat at Iquique. Early in the action
a shot destroyed the Peruvian's conning tower, killing Grau
and his staff, and another entered her turret, killing the flag
captain and nearly all the crew of the turret guns. When the
" Huascar " finally surrendered she had but one gun left in
action, her fourth commander and three-quarters of her crew
were killed and wounded, and the steering-gear had been shot
away. The Peruvian navy had now ceased to exist. The
Chileans resumed the blockade, and more active operations were
soon undertaken. The whole force of the allies was about
20,000 men, scattered along the seaboard of Peru. The Chileans
on the other hand had a striking force of 16,000 men in the
neighbourhood of Antofagasta, and of this nearly half was
embarked for Pisagua on the 26th of October. The expeditionary
force landed, in the face of considerable opposition, on the
2nd of November, and captured Pisagua. From Pisagua the
Peruvians and Bolivians fell back along the railway to their
reinforcements, and when some 10,000 men had been collected
they moved forward to attack the Chilean position of San
Francisco near Dolores station (igth November). In the end
the Chileans were victorious, but their only material gain was
the possession of Iquique and the retreat of the allies, who fell
back inland towards Tarapaca. The tardy pursuit of the
Chileans ended in the battle of Tarapaca on the 27th. In this
the allies were at first surprised, but, rapidly recovering them-
selves, took the offensive, and after a murderous fight, in which
more men were killed than were wounded, the Chileans suffered a
complete defeat. For some inexplicable reason the allies made
no use of their victory, continued to retreat and left the Chileans
in complete possession of the Tarapaca region. With this
the campaign of 1879 ended. Chile had taken possession of the
Bolivian seaboard and of the Peruvian province of Tarapaca,
and had destroyed the hostile navy.

The objective of the Chileans in the second campaign was the
province of Tacna and the field force of the allies at Tacna and Arica.
The invasion was again carried out by sea, and 12,000 Chileans were
landed at Pacocha (Ylo), far to the N. of Arica. Careful prepara-
tions were made for a desert march, and on the I2th of March 1880
the advanced corps started inland for Moquegua, which was occupied
on the 2Oth. Near Moquegua the Peruvians, some 2000 strong, took
up an unusually strong position in the defile of Cuesta de los Angeles.
But the great numerical superiority of the assailants enabled them
to turn the flanks and press the front of the Peruvian position, and
after a severe struggle the defence collapsed (March 22nd). In
April the army began its advance southward from Moquegua to
Tacna, while the Chilean warships engaged in a series of minor
naval operations in and about the bay of Callao. Arica was also

vi. 6

watched, and the blockade was extended north of Lima. The
land campaign had ere this culminated in the battle of Tacna (May
26th), in which the Chileans attacked at first in several disconnected
bodies, and suffered severely until all their forces came on the field.
Then a combined advance carried all before it. The allies engaged
under General Narciso Campero, the new president of Bolivia, lost
nearly 3000 men, and the Chileans, commanded by Manuel Baque-
dano, lost 2000 out of 8500 on the field. The defeated army was
completely dissolved, and it only remained for the Chileans to march
on Arica from the land side. The navy co-operated with its long-
range guns, on the 7th of June a general assault was made, and before
nightfall the whole of the defences were in the hands of the Chileans.
Their second campaign had given them entire possession of another
strip of Peru (from Pisagua to Ylo), and they had shown themselves
greatly superior, both in courage and leadership, to their opponents.
While the army prepared for the next campaign, the Chilean navy
was active; the blockade became more stringent and several fights
took place, in one of which the " Covadonga " was sunk; an expe-
ditionary force about 3000 strong, commanded by Patricio Lynch,
a captain in the Chilean navy, carried out successful raids at various
places on the coast and inland.

The Chilean army was reorganized during the summer, and prepared
for its next operation, this time against Lima itself. General
Baquedano was in command. The leading troops disembarked at
Pisco on the i8th of November 1880, and the whole army was ready
to move against the defences of Lima six weeks later. These defences
consisted of two distinct positions, Chorrillos and Miraflores. the
latter being about 4000 yds. outside Lima. The first line of defence
was attacked by Baquedano on the i^th of January 1881. Recon-
naissances proved that the Peruvian lines could not be turned, and
the battle was a pure frontal attack. The defenders had 22,000 men
in the lines, the Chileans engaged about 24,000. The battle of
Chorrillos ended in the complete defeat of the Peruvians, less than a
quarter of whose army rallied behind the Miraflores defences. The
Chileans lost over 3000 men. Two days later took place the battle
of Miraflores (January 15th). Here the defences were very strong,
and the action began with a daring counter-attack by some Peruvians.
Neither party had intended to fight a battle, for negotiations were in
progress, but the action quickly became general. Its result was, as
before, the complete dissolution of the defending army. Lima, in-
capable of defence, was occupied by the invaders on the I7th, and
on the i8th Callao surrendered. The resistance of the Peruvians was
so far broken that Chile left only a small army of occupation to deal
with the remnants of their army. The last engagement took place
at Caxacamara in September 1882, when the Peruvians won an
unimportant success.

See T. B. M. Mason, The War on the Pacific Coast, 1870-1881
(U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence, Washington, 1883); Captain
Chateauminois (transl.), Memoire du Ministre de la Guerre du Chili
sur la guerre Chilo-Peruvienne (1882); Barros Arana, Hist, de la
guerre du Pacifique (1884) ; Sir W. Laird Clowes, Four Modern Naval
Campaigns (London, 1902); Anon., Precis de la guerre du Pacifique
(Paris, 1886) ; Clements R. Markham, The War between Peru and Chile.

CHILIASM (from Gr. x'^ao'M'fc, X^>t, a thousand), the
belief that Christ will return to reign in the body for a thousand
years, the doctrine of the Millennium (q.v.).

CHILIAN, a city and the capital of the province of Nuble,
in the southern part of central Chile, 35 56' S., 71 37' W.,
246 m. by rail S.S.W. of Santiago and about 56 m. direct (108 by
rail) N.E. of Conception. Pop. (1895) 28,738; (1902, official
estimate) 36,382. Chilian is one of the most active commercial
cities of central Chile, and is surrounded by a rich agricultural
and grazing country. Chilian was founded by Ruiz de Gamb6a
in 1594. Its present site was chosen in 1836. The original site,
known as Chilian Viejo, forms a suburb of the new city. The
hot sulphur springs of Chilian, which were discovered in
1795, are about 45 m. E.S.E. They issue from the flanks
of the " Volcan Viejo," about 7000 ft. above sea-level. The
highest temperature of the water issuing from these springs is
a little over 135. The principal volcanoes of the Chilian
group are the Nevado (9528 ft.) and the Viejo. After a repose
of about two centuries the Nevado de Chilian broke out in
eruption early in 1861 and caused great destruction. The
eruption ceased in 1863, but broke out again in 1864.

CHILLIANWALLA, a village of British India in the Punjab,
situated on the left bank of the river Jhelum, about 85 m. N.W.
of Lahore. It is memorable as the scene of a battle on the I3th
of January 1849, between a British force commanded by Lord
~ough and the Sikh army under Sher Singh. The loss of the
Sikhs was estimated at 4000, while that of the British in killed
and wounded amounted to 2800, of whom nearly 1000 were
Europeans and 89 were British and 43 native officers. An

162

CHILLICOTHE CHILOE

obelisk erected at Chillianwalla by the British government
preserves the names of those who fell.

CHILLICOTHE, a city and the county-seat of Livingston
county, Missouri, U.S.A., situated in the N. part of the state,
on the Grand river, about 80 m. N.E. of Kansas City. Pop.
(1890) 5717; (1900) 6905 (538 negroes); (1910) 6265. It is
served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Wabash, and
the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railways. There are various
manufactures. Coal and limestone are found in the vicinity,
and much live stock is raised, wool and hides being shipped
from Chillicothe. Chillicothe was settled about 1830, and the
town was laid out in 1837 on land granted directly by the
Federal government; it was incorporated in 1855.

CHILLICOTHE, a city and the county-seat of Ross county,
Ohio, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Scioto river, on the Ohio &
Erie Canal, about 50 m. S. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 11,288;
(1900) 12,976, of whom 986 were negroes, and 910 were foreign-
born; (1910 census) 14,508. Chillicothe is served by the
Baltimore & Ohio South-Western (which has railway shops
here), and other railways. The city has two parks. There are
several ancient mounds in the vicinity. Chillicothe is built on a
plain about 30 ft. above the river, in the midst of a fertile agri-
cultural region, and has a large trade in grain and coal, and in
manufactures. The value of the city's factory products increased
from 1,615,959 in 1900 to $3,146,890 in 1905, or 94-7%.
Chillicothe was founded in 1796, and was first incorporated in
1802. In 1800-1803 it was the capital of the North-West
Territory, and in 1803-1810 and 1812-1816 the capital of Ohio.
Three Indian villages bore the name Chillicothe, each being in
turn the chief town of the Chillicothe, one of the four tribal
divisions of the Shawnee, in their retreat before the whites;
the village near what is now Oldtown in Greene county was
destroyed by George Rogers Clark in 1780; that in Miami
county, where Piqua is now, was destroyed by Clark in 1782;
and the Indian village near the present Chillicothe was destroyed
in 1787 by Kentuckians.

See Henry Howe, Historical Collections of Ohio (Columbus, 1891).

CHILLINGWORTH, WILLIAM (1602-1644), English divine
and controversialist, was born at Oxford in October 1602. In
June 1618 he became a scholar of Trinity College, Oxford,
and was made a fellow of his college in June 1628. He had
some reputation as a skilful disputant, excelled in mathematics,
and gained some credit as a writer of verses. The marriage
of Charles I. with Henrietta Maria of France had stimulated
the propaganda of the Roman Catholic Church, and the Jesuits
made the universities their special point of attack. One of
them, " John Fisher," who had his sphere at Oxford, succeeded
in making a convert of young Chillingworth, and prevailed
upon him to go to the Jesuit college at Douai. Influenced,
however, by his godfather, Laud, then bishop of London, he
resolved to make an impartial inquiry into the claims of the two
churches. After a short stay he left Douai in 1631 and returned
to Oxford. On grounds of Scripture and reason he at length
declared for Protestantism, and wrote in 1634, but did not
publish, a confutation of the motives which had led him over to
Rome. This paper was lost; the other, on the same subject,
was probably written on some other occasion at the request of
his friends. He would not, however, take orders. His theo-
logical sensitiveness appears in his refusal of a preferment offered
to him in 1635 by Sir Thomas Coventry, lord keeper of the great
seal. He was in difficulty about subscribing the Thirty-nine
Articles. As he informed Gilbert Sheldon, then warden of All
Souls, in a letter, he was fully resolved on two points that to
say that the Fourth Commandment is a law of God appertaining
to Christians is false and unlawful, and that the damnatory
clauses in the Athanasian Creed are most false, and in a high
degree presumptuous and schismatical. To subscribe, therefore,
he felt would be to " subscribe his own damnation." . At this
time his principal work was far towards completion. It was
undertaken in defence of Dr Christopher Potter, provost of
Queen's College in Oxford, who had for some time been carrying
on a controversy with a Jesuit known as Edward Knott, but

whose real name was Matthias Wilson. Potter had replied in
1633 to Knott's Charity Mistaken (1630), and Knott retaliated
with Mercy and Truth. This work Chillingworth engaged to
answer, and Knott, hearing of his intention and hoping to bias
the public mind, hastily brought out a pamphlet tending to show
that Chillingworth was a Socinian who aimed at perverting not
only Catholicism but Christianity.

Laud, now archbishop of Canterbury, was not a little solicitous
about Chillingworth's reply to Knott, and at his request, as " the
young man had given cause why a more watchful eye should be
held over him and his writings," it was examined by the vice-
chancellor of Oxford and two professors of divinity, and pub-
lished with their approbation in 1637, with the title The Religion
of Protestants a Safe Way to Salvation. The main argument
is a vindication of the sole authority of the Bible in spiritual
matters, and of the free right of the individual conscience to
interpret it. In the preface Chillingworth expresses his new
view about subscription to the articles. " For the Church of
England," he there says, " I am persuaded that the constant
doctrine of it is so pure and orthodox, that whosoever believes
it, and lives according to it, undoubtedly he shall be saved,
and that there is no error in it which may necessitate or warrant
any man to disturb the peace or renounce the communion of it.
This, in my opinion, is all intended by subscription." His
scruples having thus been overcome, he was, in the following
year (1638), promoted to the chancellorship of the church of
Sarum, with the prebend of Brixworth [in Northamptonshire
annexed to it. In the great civil struggle he used his pen against
the Scots, and was in the king's army at the siege of Gloucester,
inventing certain engines for assaulting the town. Shortly
afterwards he accompanied Lord Hopton, general of the king's
troops in the west, in his march; and, being laid up with illness
at Arundel Castle, he was there taken prisoner by the parlia-
mentary forces under Sir William Waller. As he was unable to
go to London with the garrison, he was conveyed to Chichester,
and died there in January 1644. His last days were harassed
by the diatribes of the Puritan preacher, Francis Cheynell.

Besides his principal work, Chillingworth wrote a number of
smaller anti-Jesuit papers published in the posthumous Additional
Discourses (1687), and nine of his sermons have been preserved. In
politics he was a zealous Royalist, asserting that even the unjust and
tyrannous violence of princes may not be resisted, although it might
be avoided in terms of the instruction, " when they persecute you in
one city, flee into another." His writings long enjoyed a high popu-
larity. The Religion of Protestants is characterized by much fairness
and acuteness of argument, and was commended by Locke as a
discipline of " perspicuity and the way of right reasoning." The
charge of Socinianism was frequently brought against him, but, as
Tillotson thought, " for no other cause but his worthy and successful
attempts to make the Christian religion reasonable." His creed,
and the whole gist of his argument, is expressed in a single sentence,
" I am fully assured that God does not, and therefore that men
ought not to, require any more of any man than this, to believe the
Scripture to be God's word, and to endeavour to find the true sense
of it, and to live according to it."

A Life by Rev. T. Birch was prefixed to the 1742 edition of
Chillingworth's Works.

CHILOE (from Chile and hue, " part of Chile "), a province of
southern Chile, and also the name of a large island off the Chilean
coast forming part of the province. The province, area 8593
sq. m., pop. (1895) 77,750, is composed of three groups of islands,
Chiloe, Guaitecas and Chonos, and extends from the narrow
strait of Chacao in 41 40' S. to the peninsula of Taytao, about
45 45' S. The population is composed mainly of Indians,
distantly related to the tribes of the mainland, and mestizos.
The capital of the province is Ancud or San Carlos, at the northern
end of the island of Chiloe, on the sheltered bay of San Carlos,
once frequented by whalers. It is the seat of a bishopric;
pop. (1905) 3182. Other towns are Castro, the former capital,
on the eastern shore of Chilo6, and the oldest town of the island
(founded 1566), once the seat of a Jesuit mission, and Melinca
on an island of the Guaitecas group.

The island of Chilo, which lies immediately south of the province
of Llanquihue, is a continuation of the western Chilean formation,
the coast range appearing in the mountainous range of western Chilo6
and the islands extending south along the coast. Between this coast

CHILON CHILTERN HUNDREDS

163

range and the Andes, the gulfs of Chacao, or Ancud and Corcovado
(average width, 30 m.) separate the island from the mainland. Chiloe
has an extreme length north to south of about 1 1 8 m., and an average
width of 15 to 40 m., with an area of about 4700 sq. m. There are
several lakes on the island Cucap, 12 m. long, being the largest,
and one small river, the Pudeto, in the northern rjart of the island,
is celebrated as the scene of the last engagement in the war for in-
dependence, the Spanish retaining possession of Chilo6 until 1826.

CHILON, of Sparta, son of Damagetus, one of the Seven
Sages of Greece, flourished about the beginning of the 6th century
B.C. In 560 (or 556) he acted as ephor, an office which he is
even said to have founded. The tradition was that he died of
joy on hearing that his son had gained a prize at the Olympic
games. According to Chilon, the great virtue of man was
prudence, or well-grounded judgment as to future events.

A collection of the sayings attributed to him will be found in
F. W. Mullach, Fragmenta Philosophorum Graccorum, \.; see Hero-
dotus i. 69; Diogenes "Laertius i. 68; Pausanias iii. 16, x. 24.

CHILPERIC, the name of two Prankish kings.

CHILPERIC I. (d. 584) was one of the sons of Clotaire I. Im-
mediately after the death of his father in 561 he endeavoured
to take possession of the whole kingdom, seized the treasure
amassed in the royal town of Berny and entered Paris. His
brothers, however, compelled him to divide the kingdom with
them, and Soissons, together with Amiens, Arras, Cambrai,
Th6rouanne, Tournai and Boulogne, fell to Chilperic's share,
but on the death of Charibert in 567 his estates were augmented.
When his brother Sigebert married Brunhilda, Chilperic also
wished to make a brilliant marriage. He had already repudiated
his first wife, Audovera, and had taken as his concubine a
serving-woman called Fredegond. He accordingly dismissed
Fredegond, and married Brunhilda's sister, Galswintha. But
he soon tired of his new partner, and one morning Galswintha
was found strangled in her bed. A few days afterwards Chilperic
married Fredegond. This murder was the cause of long and
bloody wars, interspersed with truces, between Chilperic and
Sigebert. In 575 Sigebert was assassinated by Fredegond at
the very moment when he had Chilperic at his mercy. Chilperic
retrieved his position, took from Austrasia Tours and Poitiers
and some places in Aquitaine, and fostered discord in the king-
dom of the east during the minority of Childebert II. One
day, however, while returning from the chase to the town of
Chelles, Chilperic was stabbed to death.

Chilperic may be regarded as the type of Merovingian
sovereigns. He was exceedingly anxious to extend the royal
authority. He levied numerous imposts, and his fiscal measures
provoked a great sedition at Limoges in 579. He wished to
bring about the subjection of the church, and to this end sold
bishoprics to the highest bidder, annulled the wills made in
favour of the bishoprics and abbeys, and sought to impose upon
his subjects a rationalistic conception of the Trinity. He
pretended to some literary culture, and was the author of some
halting verse. He even added letters to the Latin alphabet,
and wished to have the MSS. rewritten with the new characters.
The wresting of Tours from Austrasia and the seizure of ecclesi-
astical property provoked the bitter hatred of Gregory of Tours,
by whom Chilperic was stigmatized as the Nero and the Herod
of his time.

See S6r6sia, L'&glise et 1'f.lat sous Its rois francs au VI* sitcle
(Ghent, 1888).

CmiPERic II. (d. 720) was the son of Childeric II. He
became king of Neustria in 715, on which occasion he changed
his name from Daniel to Chilperic. At first he was a tool in the
hands of Ragenfrid, the mayor of the palace. Charles Martel,
however, overthrew Ragenfrid, accepted Chilperic as king of
Neustria, and, on the death of Clotaire IV., set him over the whole
kingdom. The young king died soon afterwards. (C. PF.)

CHILTERN HILLS, or THE CHII.TERNS, a range of chalk hills
in England, extending through part of Oxfordshire, Bucking-
hamshire and Bedfordshire. Running from S.W. to N.E., they
form a well-marked escarpment north-westward, while the
south-eastern slope is long. The name of Chilterns is applied
to the hills between the Thames in the neighbourhood of Goring

and the headwaters of its tributary the Lea between Dunstable
and Hitchin, the crest line between these points being about
55 m. in length. But these hills are part of a larger chalk system,
continuing the line of the White Horse Hills from Berkshire,
and themselves continued eastward by the East Anglian ridge.
The greatest elevation of the Chilterns is found in the centre
from Watlington to Tring, where heights from 800 to 850 ft.
are frequent. Westward towards the Thames gap the elevation
falls away but little, but eastward the East Anglian ridge does
not often exceed 500 ft., though it continues the northward
escarpment across Hertfordshire. There are several passes
through the Chilterns, followed by main roads and railways
converging on London, which lies in the basin of which these
hills form part of the northern rim. The most remarkable
passes are those near Tring, Wendover and Prince's Risborough,
the floors of which are occupied by the gravels of former rivers.
The Chilterns were formerly covered with a forest of beech,
and there is still a local supply of this wood for the manufacture
of chairs and other articles in the neighbourhood of Wycombe.

CHILTERN HUNDREDS. An old principle of English parlia-
mentary law declared that a member of the House of Commons,
once duly chosen, could not resign his seat. This rule was a
relic of the days when the local gentry had to be compelled tc
serve in parliament. The only method, therefore, of avoiding
the rule came to be by accepting an office of profit from the
crown, a statute of 1707 enacting that every member accepting
an office of profit from the crown should thereby vacate his seat,
but should be capable of re-election, unless the office in question
had been created since 1705, or had been otherwise declared to
disqualify for a seat in parliament. Among the posts of profit
held by members of the House of Commons in the first half of the
i8th century are to be found the names of several crown steward-
ships, which apparently were not regarded as places of profit
under the crown within the meaning of the act of 1707, for no
seats were vacated by appointment to them. The first instance
of the acceptance of such a stewardship vacating a seat was in
1740, when the house decided that Sir W. W. Wynn, on inheriting
from his father, in virtue of a royal grant, the stewardship of the
lordship and manor of Bromfield and Yale, had ipso facto vacated
his seat. On the passing of the Place Act of 1742, the idea of
utilizing the appointment to certain crown stewardships (possibly
suggested by Sir W. W. Wynn's case) as a pretext for enabling a
member to resign his seat was carried into practice. These
nominal stewardships were eight in number, but only two sur-
vived to be used in this way in contemporary practice those
of the Chilterns and Northstead; and when a member wished
to vacate his seat, he was accordingly spoken of as taking the
Chiltern Hundreds.

1. Steward and Bailiff of the Chiltern Hundreds, County Bucks.
The Chiltern Hundreds formed a bailiwick of the ordinary type.
They are situated on the Chiltern Hills, and the depredations of the
bandits, who found shelter within their recesses, became at an early
period so alarming that a special officer, known as the steward of the
Chiltern Hundreds, was appointed for the protection of the inha-
bitants of the neighbouring districts. It is doubtful at what date
the necessity for such an appointment disappeared, but the three hun-
dreds of Stoke, Burnham and Desborough are still distinguished by
the old name. The appointment of steward was first used for parlia-
mentary purposes in 1750, the appointment being made by the
chancellor of the exchequer (and at his discretion to grant or not),
and the warrant bestowing on the holder " all wages, fees, allowances
and other privileges and pre-eminences." Up to the igth century
there was a nominal salary of 2os. attached to the post. It was laid
down in 1846 by the chancellor of the exchequer that the Chilterns
could not be granted to more than one person in the same day, but
this rule has not been strictly adhered to, for on four occasions
subsequent to 1850 the Chilterns were granted twice on the same day.
The Chilterns might be granted to members whether they had taken
the oath or not, or during a recess, though in this case a new writ
could not be issued until the House met again. Each new warrant
expressly revoked the grant to the last holder, the new steward
retaining it in his turn until another should be appointed.

2. Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of East Hundred, or Hendred,
Berks. This stewardship was first used for parliamentary purposes
in 1763, and was in more or less constant use until 1840, after which
it disappeared. This manor comprised copyholds, the usual courts
were held, and the stewardship was an actual and active office, the
duties being executed by a deputy steward. The manor was sold by

164

CHILWA CHIMERE

public auction in 1823 for 910, but in some manner the crown
retained the right of appointing a steward for seventeen years after
that date.

3. Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of Northstead, Yorkshire.
This manor was crown property before 1750, but was in lease until
1838. It has no copyhold lands, nor are there any records of manor
courts. There are no traces of any profits having ever been derived
from the oflB ce. It was used for parliamentary purposes in 1844 and
subsequently.

4. Steward of the Manor of Hempholme, Yorkshire. This manor
appears to have been of the same nature as that of Northstead. It
was in lease until 1835. It was first used for parliamentary purposes
in 1845 and was in constant use until 1865. It was sold in 1866.

5. Escheator of Munster. Escheators were officers commissioned
to secure the rights of the crown over property which had legally
escheated to it. In Ireland mention is made of escheators as early as
1256. In 1605 the escheatorship of Ireland was split up into four,
one for each province, but the duties soon became practically nominal.
The escheatorship of Munster was first used for parliamentary pur-
poses in the Irish parliament from 1703 to 1800, and in the united
parliament (24 times for Irish seats and once for a Scottish seat) from
1801 to 1820. After 1820 it was discontinued and finally abolished
in 1838.

6. Steward of the Manor of Old Shoreham, Sussex. This manor
belonged to the duchy of Cornwall, and it is difficult to understand
how it came to be regarded as a crown appointment. It was first
used for parliamentary purposes in 1756, and then, occasionally,
until 1799, in which year it was sold by the duchy to the duke of
Norfolk.

7. Steward of the Manor of Poynings, Sussex. This manor reverted
to the crown on the death of Lord Montague about 1804, but was
leased up to about 1835. It was only twice used for parliamentary
purposes, in 1841 and 1843.

8. Escheator of Ulster. Thjs appointment was used in the united
parliament three times, for Irish seats only; the last time in 1819.

See parliamentary paper Report from the Select Committee on
House of Commons (Vacating of Seats) (1894). (T. A. I.)

CHILWA (incorrectly SHIRWA), a shallow lake in south-east
Africa, S.S.E. of Lake Nyasa, cut by 35 20' E., and lying between
1 5 and 1 5 3 5' S. The lake is undergoing a process of desiccation,
and in some dry seasons (as in 1879 and 1903) the " open water "
is reduced to a number of large pools. Formerly the lake seems
to have found an outlet northwards to the Lujenda branch of
the Rovuma, but with the sinking of its level it is now sepa-
rated from the Lujenda by a wooded ridge some 30 to 40 ft.
above the surrounding plains. There are four islands, the
largest rising 500 ft. above the water. The lake was discovered
by David Livingstone in 1859 and was by him called Shirwa,
from a mishearing of the native name.

CHIMAERA, in Greek mythology, a fire-breathing female
monster resembling a lion in the fore part, a goat in the middle,
and a dragon behind (Iliad, vi. 179), with three heads correspond-
ing. She devastated Caria and Lycia until she was finally slain by
Bellerophon (see H. A. Fischer, Bellerophon, 1851). The origin
of the myth was the volcanic nature of the soil of Lycia (Pliny,
Nat. Hist. ii. no; Servius on Aeneid, vi 288), where works
have been found containing representations of the Chimaera
in the simple form of a lion. In modern art the Chimaera is
usually represented as a lion, with a goat's head in the middle
of the back, as in the bronze Chimaera of Arezzo (sth century).
The word is now used generally to denote a fantastic idea or
fiction of the imagination.

CHIHAY, a town in the extreme south-east of the province of
Hainaut, Belgium, dating from the 7th century. Pop. (1904)
3383. It is more commonly spoken of as being in the district
entre Sambre et Meuse. Owing to its proximity to the French
frontier it has undergone many sieges, the last of which was in
1640, when Turenne gave orders that it should be reduced to
such ruin that it could never stand another. The town is chiefly
famous for the castle and park that bear its name. Originally a
stronghold of the Croy family, it has passed through the D'Aren-
bergs to its present owners, the princes of Caraman-Chimay.
The castle, which before Turenne's order to demolish it possessed
seven towers, has now only one in ruins, and a modern chateau
was built in the Tudor style in the i8th century. This domain
carried with it the right to one of the twelve peerages of Hainaut.
Madame Tallien, daughter of Dr Cabarrus, the Lady of Thermidor,
married as her second husband the prince de Chimay, and held
her little court here down to her death in 1835. There is a

memorial to her in the church, which also contains a fine monu-
ment of Phillippe de Croy, chamberlain and comrade in arms of
the emperor Charles V. John Froissart the chronicler died and
was buried here. There is. a statue in his honour on the Grand
Place. Chimay is situated on a stream called the White Water,
which in its lower course becomes the Viroin and joins the Meuse.
CHIME, (i) (Probably derived from a mistaken separation
into two words, chimbe bell, of chymbal or chymbel, the old form
of "cymbal," Lat. cymbalum), a mechanical arrangement by
which a set of bells in a church or other tower, or in a clock, are
struck so as to produce a sequence of musical sounds or a tune.
For the mechanism of such an arrangement in a clock and in a
set of bells, see the articles CLOCK and BELL. The word is also
applied to the tune thus played by the bells and also to the
harmonious " fall " of verse, and so, figuratively, to any harmoni-
ous agreement of thought or action. (2) (Fr.om Mid. Eng. chimb,
a word meaning " edge," common in varied forms to Teutonic
languages, cf. Ger. Kimme), the bevelled rim formed by the
projecting staves at the ends of a cask.

CHIMERE (Lat. chimera, chimaera; O. Fr. chamarre, Mod. Fr.
simarre; Ital. zimarra; cf. Span, zamarra, a sheepskin coat;'
possibly derived ultimately from Gr. X&.I&PUK, " wintry, "
i.e. a winter overcoat), in modem English use the name of a
garment worn as part of the ceremonial dress of Anglican bishops.
It is a long sleeveless gown of silk or satin, open down the front,
gathered in at the back between the shoulders, and with slits
for the arms. It is worn over the rochet (q.v.), and its colour is
either black or scarlet (convocation robes). By a late abuse the
sleeves of the rochet were, from motives of convenience, some-
times attached to the chimere. The origin of the chimere has
been the subject of much debate; but the view that it is a
modification of the cope (q.v.) is now discarded, and it is practic-
ally proved to be derived from the medieval tabard (tabardtim,
laberda or collobium), an upper garment worn in civil life by all
classes of people both in England and abroad. It has there-
fore a common origin with certain academic robes (see ROBES,
Academic dress).

The word " chimere," which first appears in England in the
1 4th century, was sometimes applied not only to the tabard
worn over the rochet, but to the sleeved cassock worn under it.
Thus Archbishop Scrope is described as wearing when on his way
to execution (1405) a blue chimere with sleeves. But the word
properly applies to the sleeveless tabard which tended to super-
sede, from the isth century onwards, the inconvenient cappa
clausa (a long closed cloak with a slit in front for the arms) as the
out-of-doors upper garment of bishops. These chimeres, the
colours of which (murrey, scarlet, green, &c.) may possibly have
denoted academical rank, were part of the civil costume of
prelates. Thus in the inventory of Walter Skirlawe, bishop of
Durham- (1405-1406), eight chimeres of various colours are
mentioned, including two for riding (pro equitalura). The
chimere was, moreover, a cold weather garment. In summer its
place was taken by the tippet.

In the Anglican form for the consecration of bishops the newly
consecrated prelate, hitherto vested in rochet, is directed to put
on " the rest of the episcopal habit," i.e. the chimere. The robe
has thus become in the Church of England symbolical of the
episcopal office, and is in effect a liturgical vestment. The rubric
containing this direction was added to the Book of Common
Prayer in 1662; and there is proof that the development of the
chimere into at least a choir vestment was subsequent to the
Reformation. Foxe, indeed, mentions that Hooper at his
consecration wore " a long scarlet chymere down to the foot "
(Acts and Man., ed. 1563, p. 1051), a source of trouble to himself
and of scandal to other extreme reformers; but that this was
no more than the full civil dress of a bishop is proved by the
fact that Archbishop Parker at his consecration wore surplice
and tippet, and only put on the chimere, when the service was
over, to go away in. This civil quality of the garment still
survives alongside the other; the full dress of an Anglican prelate
at civil functions of importance (e.g. in parliament, or at court)
is still rochet and chimere.

CHIMESYAN CHIMNEYPIECE

165

The continental equivalent of the chimere is the zimarra or simarre,
which is defined by foreign ecclesiologists (Moroni, Barbier de
Montault) as a kind of soutane (cassock), from which it is distinguished
by having a small cape and short, open arms (manches-fausses) reach-
ing to the middle of the upper arm and decorated with buttons. In
France and Germany it is fitted more or less to the figure; in Italy
it is wider and falls down straight in front. Like the soutane, the
zimarra is not proper to any particular rank of clergy, but in the case
of bishops and prelates it is ornamented with red buttons and bind-
ings. It never has a train (cauda). It is not universajly worn, e.g. in
Germany apparently only by prelates. G. Moroni identifies the
timarra with the epitogium which Domenico Magri, in his Hierolexicon
(ed. 1677), calls the uppermost garment of the clergy, worn over the
soutane (toga) instead of the mantellum (vestis supremo, dericorum loco
pallii), with a cross-reference to Tabardum, the "usual" upper
garment (pallium usuale) ; and this definition is repeated in the 8th
edition of the work (1732). From this it appears that so late as the
middle of the i8th century the zimarra was still in common use as an
out-of-doors overcoat. But, according to Moroni, by the latter half
of the igth century the zimarra., though still worn by certain civilians
(e.g. notaries and students), had become in Italy chiefly the domestic
garment of the clergy, notably of superiors, parish priests, rectors,
certain regulars, priests of congregations, bishops, prelates and
cardinals. It was worn also by the Roman senators, and is still worn
by university professors. A biack zimarra lined with white, and
sometimes ornamented with a white binding and gold tassels, is worn
by the pope.

More analogous to the Anglican chimere in shape, though not in
significance, is the purple mantelletum worn over the rochet by bishops,
and by others authorized to wear the episcopal insignia, in presence
of the pope or his legates. This symbolizes the temporary suspension
of the episcopal jurisdiction (symbolized by the rochet) so long as the
pope or his representative is present. Thus at the Curia cardinals and
prelates wear the mantelletum, while the pope wears the zimarra, and
the first act of the cardinal camerlengo after the pope's death is to
expose his rochet by laying aside the mantelletum, the other cardinals
following his example, as a symbol that during the vacancy of the
papacy the pope's jurisdiction is vested in the Sacred College. On
the analogy of the mantelletum certain Anglican prelates, American
and colonial, have from time to time appeared in purple chimeres ;
which, as the Rev. N. F. Robinson justly points out, is a most un-
happy innovation, since it has no historical justification, and its
symbolism is rather unfortunate.

AUTHORITIES. See the Report of the sub-committee of Con-
vocation on the ornaments of the church and its ministers, p. 31
(London, 1908); the Rev. N. F. Robinson, " The black chimere of
Anglican Prelates: a plea for its retention and proper use," in
Transactions of the St Paul's Ecclesiological Soc. vol. iv. pp. 181-220
(London, 1898); Herbert Druitt, Costume on Brasses (London,
1906); G. Moroni, Dizionario dell' erudizione storico-ecdesiastica
(Venice, 1861), vol. 103, s.v. "Zimarra"; X. Barbier de Montault,
Trait^ pratique de la construction, &c., des 6glises, ii. 538 (Paris,
1878). (W. A. P.)

CHIMESYAN (Tsimshian), a tribe of North American Indians,
now some 3000 in number, living around the mouth of the
Skeena river, British Columbia, and on the islands near the
coast. They are a powerfully built people, who tattoo and wear
labrets and rings in noses and ears. They are skilful fishermen,
and live in large communal houses. They are divided into
clans and distinct social orders.

CHIMKENT, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the province of
Syr-darya, 70 m. by rail N.N.E. of Tashkent. Pop. (1897)
10,756, mostly Sarts. It occupies a strategical position at the
west end of the valley between the Alexander range and the
Ala-tau (or Talas-tau), at the meeting of commercial routes
from (i) Vyernyi and Siberia beyond, from the north-east,
(2) the Aral Sea and Orenburg (connected with it by rail since
1905) to the north-west, and (3) Ferghana and Bokhara to the
south. The citadel, which was stormed by the Russians in 1864,
stands on high ground above the town, but is now in ruins.
Chimkent is visited by consumptive patients who wish to try
the koumiss cure. It has cotton mills and soap-works.

CHIMNEY (through the Fr. cheminee, from caminala, sc.
camera, a Lat. derivative of caminus, an oven or furnace), in
architecture, that portion of a building, rising above the 'roof,
in which are the flues conveying the smoke to the outer air.
Originally the term included the fireplace as well as the chimney
shaft. At Rochester Castle (1130) and Heddington, Essex,
there were no external chimney shafts, and the flue was carried
through the wall at some height above the fireplace. In the
early examples the chimney shaft was circular, with one flue only,
and was terminated with a conical cap, the smoke issuing from

openings in the side, which at Sherborne Abbey (A.D. 1300)
were treated decoratively. It was not till the isth century that
the smoke issued at the top, and later in the century that -nore
than one flue was carried up in the same shaft. There are a few
examples of the clustered shaft in stone, but as a rule they are
contemporaneous with the general use of brick. The brick
chimney shafts, of which there are fine specimens at Hampton
Court, were richly decorated with chevrons and other geometrical
patterns. One of the best examples is that at Thornton Castle,
Gloucestershire.

In the i sth and i6th centuries in France the chimney shaft
was recognized as an important architectural feature, and was
of considerable elevation in consequence of the great height of
the roofs. In the chateau of Meillant (1503) the chimney shafts
are decorated with angle buttresses, niches and canopies, in the
late Flamboyant style; and at Chambord and Blois they are
carved with pilasters and niches with panelling above, carved
with the salamander and other armorial devices. In the Roman
palaces they are sometimes masked by the balustrades, and
(when shown) take the form of sepulchral urns, as if to disguise
their real purpose. Though not of a very architectural character,
the chimneys at Venice present perhaps the greatest variety of
terminations, and as a rule the smoke comes out on the sides
and not through the top. (R. P. S.)

Factory Chimneys. Chimneys, besides removing the products of
combustion, also serve to provide the fire with the air requisite for
burning the fuel. The hot air in the shaft, being lighter than the cold
air outside it, tends to rise, and as it does so air flows in at the bottom
to take its place. An ascending current is thus established in the
chimney, its velocity, other things being equal, varying as the square
root of the height of the shaft above the grate. The velocity also
increases with increase of temperature in the gas column, but since
the weight of each cubic foot grows less as the gases expand, the
amount of smoke discharged by a chimney does not increase inde-
finitely with the temperature; a maximum is reached when the
difference in temperature between the gases in the shaft and the out-
side air is about 600 F., but the rate of increase is very slow after the
difference has passed about 300 F. In designing a chimney the
dimensions (height and sectional area) have to be so proportioned to
the amount of fuel to be burnt in the various furnaces connected
with it that at the temperature employed the products of combustion
are effectively removed, due allowance being made for the frictional
retardation of the current against the sides of the flues and shafts
and in passing through the fire. The velocity of the current in actual
chimneys varies widely, from 3 or 4 to 50 or 6p ft. a second. Increased
velocity, obtainable by increasing the height of the shaft, gives
increased delivering capacity, but a speed of 10 or 12 ft. a second
is regarded as good practice. Ordinary factory chimneys do not in
general exceed 180 or 200 ft. in height, but in some cases, especially
when, as in chemical works, they are employed to get rid of objection-
able vapours, they have been made double that height, or even more.
In section they are round, octagonal or square. The circular form
offers the least resistance to wind pressure, and for a given height
and sectional area requires less material to secure stability than the
octagonal and still less than the square; on the other hand, there is
more liability to cracking. Brick is the material commonly used, but
many chimneys are now made of iron or steel. Reinforced concrete
is also employed.

CHIMNEYPIECE, the term given to the projecting hood which
in medieval times was built over a fireplace to catch the smoke,
and at a later date to the decorative framework, often carried
up to the ceiling. " Chimneypiece " or " mantelpiece " is now
the general term for the jambs, mantelshelf and external acces-
sories of a fireplace. For many centuries the chimneypiece
was the most ornamental and most artistic feature of a room,
but as fireplaces have become smaller, and modern methods of
heating have been introduced, its artistic as well as its practical
significance has grown less.

Up to the 1 2th century rooms were warmed entirely by a hypo-
caust, or with braziers, or by fires on the hearth, the smoke finding
its way up to a lantern in the roof. The earliest chimneypiece known
is that in the King's House at Southampton, with Norman shafts in
the joints carrying a segmental arch, which is attributed to the first
half of the I2th century. At a later date, in consequence of the
greater width of the fireplace, flat or segmental arches were thrown
across and constructed with voussoirs, sometimes joggled, the thrust
of the arch being resisted by bars of iron at the back. In domestic
work of the I4th century the chimneypiece was greatly increased
in order to allow of the members of the family sitting on either side
of the fire on the hearth, and in these cases great beams of timber
were employed to carry the hood ; in such cases the fireplace was so

i66

CHIMPANZEE CHINA

deeply recessed as to become externally an important architectural
feature, as at Haddon Hall. The largest chimneypiece existing is
in the great hall of the Palais des Comtes at Poitiers, which is nearly
30 ft. wide, having two intermediate supports to carry the hood ;
the stone flues arc carried up between the tracery of an immense
window above. In the early Renaissance style, the chimneypiece
of the Palais de Justice at Bruges is a magnificent example; the
upper portion, carved in oak, extends the whole width of the room,
with statues of nearly life size of Charles V. and others of the royal
family of Spain. The most prolific modern designer of chimneypiec
was J. B. Piranesi, who in 1765 published a large series, on which at a
later date the Empire style in France was based. In France the finest
work of the early Renaissance period is to be found in the chimney-
pieces, which are of infinite variety of design.

The English chimneypieces of the early i7th century, when the
purer Italian style was introduced by Inigo Jones, were extremely
simple in design, sometimes consisting only of the ordinary mantel-
piece, with classic architraves and shelf, the upper part of the
chimney breast being panelled like the rest of the room. In the
latter part of the century the classic architrave was abandoned in
favour of a much bolder and more effective moulding, as in the
chimneypieces at Hampton Court, and the shelf was omitted.

In_the i8th century the architects returned to the Inigo Jones
classic type, but influenced by the French work of Louis XIV. and
XV. Figure sculpture, generally represented by graceful figures on
each side, which assisted to carry the shelf, was introduced, and the
overmantel developed into an elaborate frame for the family portrait
over the chimneypiece. Towards the close of the i8th century the
designs of the brothers Adam superseded all others, and a century
later they came again into fashion. The Adam mantels are in wood
enriched with ornament, cast in moulds, sometimes copied from the
carved wood decoration of old times. (R. P. S.)

CHIMPANZEE (Chimpanzi), the vernacular name of the
highest species of the man-like apes, forming the typical repre-
sentatives of the genus Anthropopithecus. Chimpanzees, of
which there appear to be at least two species, range through the
tropical forest-zone of Africa from the west coast to Uganda.
The typical A. troglodytes has been long known to European
science, Dr Tyson, a celebrated surgeon and anatonu'st of his time,
having dissected a young individual, and described it, as a pigmy
or Homo syhestris, in a book published in 1699. Of this baby
chimpanzee the skeleton may be seen in the Natural History
branch of the British Museum alongside the volume in which
it is described. It was not, however, till 1 788 that the chimpanzee
received what is now recognized as a scientific name, having been
christened in that year Simia troglodytes by the naturalist
Johann Friedrich Gmelin. In his classification it was included
in the same genus as the orang-utan; and it has recently been
suggested that the name Simia pertains of right to the chim-
panzee rather than to the orang-utan. Between the typical West
African chimpanzee and the gorilla (?..) there is no difficulty
in drawing a distinction; the difficulty conies in when we have
to deal with the aberrant races, or species, of chimpanzee, some
of which are so gorilla-like that it is by no means easy to deter-
mine to which group they really pertain. In height the adult
male chimpanzee of the typical form does not exceed 5 ft., and the
colour of the hair is a full black, while the skin, especially that of
the face, is light-coloured; the ears are remarkably large and
prominent, and the hands reach only a short distance below the
knees. The head is rounded and short, without prominent beet-
ling ridges above the eyes, or a strong crest along the middle line of
the back of the skull ; and the tusks of the old males are of no very
great length and prominence. Moreover, there is no very marked
difference in the size of the two sexes. Gentleness and docility
are specially characteristic of the species, even when full-grown;
while in the native state its habits are thoroughly arboreal.

In central Africa the chimpanzees assume more or less marked
gorilla-like traits. The first of these aberrant types is Schweinfurth's
chimpanzee (Anthropopithecus troglodytes schweinfurihi), which in-
habits the Niam-Niam country, and, although evidently belonging
to the same species as the typical race, exhibits certain gorilla-like
features. These traits are still more developed in the bald chim-
panzee (A. tschego) of Loango, the Gabun, and other regions of
French Congo, which takes its English name from the sparse covering
of hair on the head. The most gorilla-like of all the races is, however,
the kulu-kamba chimpanzee (A. kulu-kamba) of du Chaillu, which
inhabits central Africa. The celebrated ape " Mafuka," which lived
in the Dresden zoological gardens during 1875, and came from Loango,
was apparently a member of this species, although it was at one time
regarded as a hybrid between a chimpanzee and a gorilla. These
gorilla-like traits were still more pronounced in "Johanna," a female

chimpanzee living in Barnum & Bailey's show in 1899, which has been
described and figured by Dr A. Keith. The heavy ridges over the
brow, originally supposed to be distinctive of the gorilla, are particu-
larly weir marked in "Johanna," and they would doubtless be still
more noticeable in the male of the same race, which seems to be
undoubtedly du Chaillu's kulu-kamba. Still the large size and
prominence of the ears proclaim that both " Mafuka " and
' Johanna " were chimpanzees and not gorillas. A gorilla-like
feature in " Johanna " is, however, the presence of large folds at
the sides (a/a) of the nostrils, which are absent in the typical chim-
panzee, but in the gorilla extend down to the upper lip. Chimpanzees
exhibit great docifity in confinement, where, however, they seldom
survive for any great length of time. They likewise display a much
higher degree of intelligence than any of the other man-like apes.
(See PRIMATES.) (R. L.*)

CHINA, a country of eastern Asia, the principal division of
the Chinese empire. In addition to China proper the Chinese
Empire includes Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet and Sin-kiang
(East Turkestan, Kulja, Dzungaria, &c., i.e. all the Chinese
dependencies lying between Mongolia on the north and Tibet on
the south). Its most southern point is in 18 50' N.; its most
northern in 53 25' N.; its most western in 74 E., and its most
eastern in 135 E. It h'es, however, mainly between 20 and
50 N. and 80 and 130 E. It is considerably larger than the
whole of Europe. Though its area has not been exactly ascer-
tained the various estimates closely approximate, varying
between 4,277,000 and 4,300,000 sq. m. It is bounded N.W.,
N. and N.E. by Asiatic Russia, along a frontier extending some
6000 m.; E. by Korea and those parts of the Pacific known as
the Yellow Sea and China Sea; S. and S.W. by the China Sea,
French Indo-China, Upper Burma and the Himalayan states.
It is narrowest in the extreme west. Chinese Turkestan along
the meridian of Kashgar (76 E.) has a breadth of but 250 m.
It rapidly broadens and for the greater part of its area is over
1800 m. across in a direct N. and S. line. Its greatest length is
from the N.E. corner of Manchuria to the S.W. confines of Tibet,
a distance of 3.100 m. in a direct line. Its seaboard, about 5000
m. following the indentations of the coast, is almost wholly in
China proper, but the peninsula of Liao-tung and also the western
shores of the Gulf of Liao-tung are in Manchuria.

China 1 proper or the Eighteen Provinces (Shih-pa-sheng)
occupies the south-eastern part of the empire. It is bounded N.
by Mongolia, W. by Turkestan and Tibet, S.W. by Burma, S.
by Tongking and the gulf of that name, S.E. by the South China
Sea, E. by the East China Sea, the Yellow Sea, Gulf of Chih-li
and Manchuria. Its area is approximately 1,500,000 sq. m.'

This vast country is separated from the rest of continental
Asia by lofty tablelands and rugged mountain ranges, which
determine the general course west to east of its principal
rivers. On the north and west the Mongolian and Tibetan
tablelands present towards China steep escarpments across
which are very few passes. On the S.W. and S., on the borders
of Yun-nan, high mountains and deep valleys separate China
from Burma and Tongking. On the narrow N.E. frontier the
transition from the Manchurian plateau to the alluvial plain of
northern China is not abrupt, but, before the advent of railways,
Manchuria afforded few and difficult means of access to other
egions. Thus China was almost cut off from the rest of the
world save by sea routes.

I. THE COUNTRY

Western China consists of highlands often sparsely, and eastern
China of lowlands densely peopled. Western China contains the
only provinces where the population is under 100 per sq. m.

From the Tibetan and Mongolian tablelands project mountain
ranges which, ramifying over the western region, enclose elevated

evel tracts and 1 lower basins and valleys. East of this mountain-
ous region, which extends into central China and covers probably

1 As to the origin of the names China and Cathay (the medieval
lame) see below History. According to one theory the name
"hifta is of Malay origin, designating originally the region now called
hido-China, but transferred in early times to China proper. By the
Chinese the country is often called Shih-pa-shSng, " the Eighteen
Provinces," from the number of its great territorial divisions. It
s also called Chung-kwo, " the Middle Kingdom," properly used of
the central part of China, and Hwa-kwo, " the Flowery Kingdom."

GEOGRAPHY]

CHINA

167

fully half of the kingdom, are, in the north a great alluvial plain
and in the south a vast calcareous tableland traversed by hill
ranges of moderate elevation (see Mountains and Geology).
In north-eastern China there is only one mountain system, the
group of hills highest peak 5060 ft. forming the Shan-tung
peninsula. This peninsula was formerly an island, but has been
attached to the mainland by the growth of the alluvial plain.
Besides the broad division of the country into western and
eastern China it may also be considered as divided into three
regions by the basins of its chief rivers, the Hwang-ho (Yellow
river) in the north, the Yangtsze-kiang in the centre, and the
Si-kiang (West river) in the south. In the northern provinces of
Kan-suh and Shen-si the basins of the Hwang-ho and Yangtsze-
kiang are separated by a mountain chain with various names
the eastern termination of the Kuen-lun range of central Asia.
These mountains, in China, attain, in the Tsing-ling Shan, a
maximum elevation of 13,000 ft. East of Shen-si, in Ho-nan the
Fu-niu-shan continue the range, but with decreasing elevation,
and beyond this the deltaic plain is entered.

The watershed between the Yangtsze-kiang and that of the
Si-kiang is less clearly marked. It traverses the immense table-
land which occupies a great part of the south-west^ provinces of
Yun-nan and Kwei-chow and is continued eastward by the lower
tableland of Kwang-si and the Nanshan hills (whose elevation
seldom exceeds 6000 ft.) . The basin of the Yangtsze-kiang forms
the whole of central China. Its western border, in Sze-ch'uen
and Yun-nan, is wholly mountainous, with heights exceeding
19,000 ft. Central Sze-ch'uen, which is shut in by these moun-
tains on the west, by the Yun-nan and Kwei-chow plateau on the
south, by the Kiu-lung range on the north, and by highlands
eastward (save for the narrow valley through which the Yangtsze-
kiang forces its way), is a vast red sandstone tableland of about
1600 ft. elevation. It is exceedingly fertile and supports a dense
population. Eastward of Sze-ch'uen the Yangtsze valley is
studded with lakes. Finally it enters the deltaic plain. The
basin of the Si-kiang fills the two southern provinces of Kwang-si
and Kwang-tung and contains no very striking orographic
features. It may be added that in the extreme S.W. portion of
China is part of a fourth drainage area. Here the Mekong,
Salween, Song-koi (Red river), &c. flow south to Indo-China.

The Coast. The coast-line, following all the minor indentations,
is reckoned at over 4500 m.; if only the larger inlets and pro-
montories be regarded, the coast-line is about 2150 m. in length.
Its shape is that of a semicircle, with its most easterly point midway
(30 N.) between its northern and southern extremities. At either
end of this semicircular sweep lies a peninsula, and beyond the
peninsula a gulf. In the north are the peninsula of Shan-tung and
the gulf of Chih-li; in the south the Lien-chow peninsula and the
gulf of Tongking. Due south of Lien-chow peninsula, separated
from it by a narrow strait, is Hai-nan, the only considerable island
of China. From the northern point of the gulf of Chih-li to 30 N.,
where is Hang-chow bay, the snores are flat and alluvial save where
the Shan-tung peninsula juts out. Along this stretch there are few
good natural harbours, except at the mouths of rivers and in the
Shan-tung promontory; the sea is shallow and has many shoals.
The waters bordering the coast of Chih-li are partly frozen in winter;
at 10 m. from the shore the water is only 20 ft. deep. The proximity
of Peking gives its few ports importance; that of Taku is at the
mouth of the Peiho. In Shan-tung, deeply indented on its southern
coast, are the ports of Chi-fu, Wei-hai-wei and Tsing-tao (the last in
Kiao-chow bay). South of Shan-tung and north of the mouth of the
Yangtsze huge sandbanks border the coast, with narrow channels
between them and the shore. The estuary of the Yangtsze is 60 m.
across; it contains islands and sandbanks, but there is easy access
to Wusung (Shanghai) and other river ports. The bay of Hang-
chow, as broad at its entrance as the Yangtsze estuary, forms the
mouth of the Tsien-tang-kiang. The Chusan and other groups of
islands lie across the entrance of the bay.

South of Hang-chow bay the character of the coast alters. In
place of the alluvial plain, with flat, sandy and often marshy shores,
the coast is generally hilly, often rocky and abrupt; it abounds
in small indentations and possesses numerous excellent harbours;
in this region are Fu-chow, Amoy, Swatow, Hongkong, Macao,
Canton and other well-known ports. The whole of this coast is
bordered by small islands. Formosa lies opposite the S.E. coast,
the channel between it and Fu-kien province being about 100 m. wide.
Formosa protects the neighbouring regions of China from the typhoons
experienced farther north and farther south.

Surface. As already indicated, one of the most noticeable features
in the surface of China is the immense deltaic plain in the north-

eastern portion of the country, which, curving round the mountain-
ous districts of Shan-tung, extends for about 700 m. in a southerly
direction from the neighbourhood of Peking and varies
from 150 to 500 m. in breadth. This plain is the delta of
the Yellow river and, to some extent, that of the Yangtsze-

Deltalc
plain.

Moun-
tains.

kiang also. Beginning in the prefecture of Yung-p'ing Fu, in the
province of Chih-li, its outer limit passes in a westerly direction as
far as Ch'ang-p'ing Chow, north-west of Peking. Thence running
a south-south-westerly course it passes westward of Ch6ne-ting Fu
and Kwang-p'ing Fu till it reaches the upper waters of the Wei river
in Ho-nan. From this point it turns westward and crosses the
Hwang-ho or Yellow river in the prefecture of Hwai-k'ing. Leaving
this river it takes a course a little to the east of south, and passing
west of Ju-ning Fu, in the province of Ho-nan, it turns in a more
easterly direction as far as Luchow Fu. From this prefecture an
arm of the plain, in which lies the Chap Lake, stretches southward
from the Hwai river to the Yangtsze-kiang, and trending eastward
occupies the region between that river and Hangchow Bay. To the
north of this arm rises a hilly district, in the centre of which stands
Nanking. The greater part of this vast plain descends very gently
towards the sea, and is generally below the level of the Yellow
river, hence the disastrous inundations which so often accompany
the rise of that river. Owing to the great quantity of soil which is
brought down by the waters of the Yellow nver, and to the absence
of oceanic currents, this delta is rapidly increasing and the adjoining
seas are as rapidly becoming shallower. As an instance, it is said
that the town of P'utai was one Chinese mile ' west of the seashore
in the year 200 B.C., and in 1730 it was 140 m. inland, thus giving a
yearly encroachment upon the sea of about loo ft. Again, Sien-
shwuy-kow on the Peiho was on the seashore in A.D. 500, and it is
now about 18 m. inland.

Some of the ranges connected with the mountain system of
central Asia which enter the western provinces of China have been
mentioned above, others may be indicated here. In the
eastern portion of Tibet the Kuen-lun range throws off
a number of branches, which spread first of all in a south-
easterly direction and eventually take a north and south course,
partly in the provinces of Sze-ch'uen and Yun-nan, where they divide
the beds of the rivers which flow into Siam and French Indo-China,
as well as the principal northern tributaries of the Yangtsze-kiang.
In the north-west, traversing the western portion of the province of
Kan-suh, are parallel ranges running N.W. and S.E. and forming a
prolongation of the northern Tibetan mountains. They are known
as the Lung-shan, Richthofen and Nan-shan, and join on the south-
east the Kuen-lun range. The Richthofen range (locally called
Tien-shan, or Celestial Mountains)attains elevations of over 20,000 ft.
Several of its peaks are snowclad, and there are many glaciers.
Forming the northern frontier of the province of Sze-ch'uen run the
Min-shan and the Kiu-lung(or Po-mng) ranges.which, entering China
in 102 E., extend in a general easterly course as far as 1 12 E. in the
province of Hu-peh. These ranges have an average elevation of
8000 and 1 1 ,000 ft. respectively. In the south a number of parallel
ranges spread from the Yun-nan plateau in an easterly direction as
far as the province of Kwang-tung. Then turning north-eastward
they run in lines often parallel with the coast, and cover large areas
of the provinces of Fu-kien, Kiang-si, Cheh-kiang, Hu-nan and
southern Ngan-hui, until they reach the Yangtsze-kiang; the valley
of that river from the Tung-ting Lake to Chinkiang Fu forming
their northern boundary. In Fu-kien these hills attain the character
of a true mountain range with heights of from 6500 to nearly 10,000
ft. Besides the chief ranges there are the Tai-hang Mountains in
Shan-si, and many others, among which may be mentioned the ranges
part of the escarpment of the Mongolian plateau which form the
northern frontier of Chih-li. Here the highest peak is Ta-kuang-
ting-tzu (6500 ft.), about 300 m. N.N.E. of Peking and immediately
north of Wei Ch'ang (the imperial hunting grounds).

Rivers and Canals. The rivers of China are very numerous and
there are many canals. In the north the rivers are only navigable by
small craft ; elsewhere they form some of the most f re- _. Y eUaw
quented highways in the country. The two largest rivers,
the Yangtsze-kiang and the Hwang-ho (Yellow river), are
separately noticed. The Hwang-ho (length about 2400 m.) has
only one important tributary in China, the Wei-ho, which rises in
Kan-suh and flows through the centre of Shen-si. Below the con-
fluence the Hwang-ho enters the plains. According to the Chinese
records this portion of the river has changed its course nine times
during 2500 years, and has emptied itself into the sea at different
mouths, the most northerly of which is represented as having been
in about 39" N., or in the neighbourhood of the present mouth of the
Peiho, and the most southerly being that which existed before the
change in 1851-1853, in 34 N. Owing to its small value as a nayi-
gable highway and to its propensity to inundate the regions in its
neighbourhood, there are no considerable towns on its lower course.

The Yangtsze-kiang is the chief waterway of China. The river,
flowing through the centre of the country, after a course of 2oxx> m.,
empties itself into the Yellow_ Sea in about 31 N. Unlike the
Yellow river, the Yangtsze-kiang is dotted along its navigable
portions with many rich and populous cities, among which are
Nanking, An-ch'ing (Ngank'ing), Kiu-kiang, Hankow and I-ch'ang.

1 A Chinese mile, li, or /e = o-36 English mile.

i68

CHINA

[GEOGRAPHY

From its mouth to I-ch'ang, about 1000 m., the river is navigable by
large steamers. Above this last-named city the navigation becomes
impossible for any but light native craft or foreign vessels
specially constructed for the navigation, by reason of
Yaaftsze- t {j e ra p lc l s which occur at frequent intervals in the deep
kiag- mountain gorges through which the river runs between
Kwei-chow and I-ch'ang. Above Kwei-chow it receives from the
north many tributaries, notably the Min, which water the low table-
land of central Sze-ch'uen. The main river itself has in this province
a considerable navigable stretch, while below I-ch'ang it receives the
waters of numerous navigable affluents. The Yangtsze system is thus
all important in the economic and commercial development of China.
Perhaps the most remarkable of the affluents of the Yangtsze is
the Han-kiang or Han river. It rises in the Po-mng mountains to
the north of the city of Ning-kiang Chow in Shen-si. Taking a
generally easterly course from its source as far as Fan-cheng, it
from that point takes a more southerly direction and empties itself
into the Yangtsze-kiang at Han-kow, " the mouth of the Han."
Here it is only 200 ft. wide, while higher up it widens to 2600 ft.
It is navigable by steamers for 300 m. The summer high-water line
is for a great part of its course, from I-ch'eng Hien to Han-kow,
above the level of its banks. Near Sien-t'ao-che'n the elevation of
the plain above low water is no more than I ft., and in summer the
river rises about 26 ft. above its lowest level. To protect themselves
against inundations the natives have here, as elsewhere, thrown up
high embankments on both sides of the river, but at a distance from
the natural banks of abont 50 to 100 ft. This intervening space is
flooded every year, and by the action of the water new layers of
sand and soil are deposited every summer, thus strengthening the
embankments from season to season.

The Hwai-ho is a large river of east central China flowing between
the Hwang-ho and the Yangtsze-kiang. The Hwai-ho and its
numerous affluents (it is said to have 72 tributaries) rise in Ho-nan.
The main river flows through the centre of Ngan-hui, in which
province it receives from the N.W. the Sha-ho, Fei-ho and other
important affluents. Formerly it received through the Sha-ho part
of the waters of the Hwang-ho. The Hwai-ho flows into the Hungtso
lake, through which it feeds the Grand Canal, not far from the old
course of the Hwang-ho, and probably at one time joined that river
not far from its mouth. It has a length of about 800 m. and is navi-
gable from the point where it leaves the hill country of Ho-nan to
Lake Hungtso. It is subject to violent floods, which inundate the
surrounding country for a distance of 10 to 20 m. Many of its
tributaries are also navigable for considerable distances.

Next in importance to the Yangtsze-kiang as a water highway is
the Yun-ho, or, as it is generally known in Europe, the Grand Canal.
This magnificent artificial river reaches from Hang-chow
Fu in the province of Cheh-kiang to Tientsin in Chih-li,
where it unites with the Peiho, and thus may be said to
extend to Tung-chow in the neighbourhood of Peking. According
to the itineraries published by Pere Gandar, the total length of the
canal is 3630 It, or about 1200 m. A rough measurement, taking
account only of the main bends of the canal, makes its length 850 m.
After leaving Hang-chow the canal passes round the eastern border
of the Tai-hu or Great Lake, surrounding in its course the beautiful
city of Su-chow, and then trends in a generally north-westerly
direction through the fertile districts of Kiang-su as far as Chin-
kiang on the Yangtsze-kiang. In this, the southern section, the
slope is gentle and water is plentiful (from 7 ft. at low water to 1 1 ft.,
and occasionally 13 ft. at high water). Between Su-chow and Chin-
kiang the canal is often over loo ft. wide, and its sides are in many
places faced with stone. It is spanned by fine stone bridges, and near
its banks are many memorial arches and lofty pagodas. In the
central portion of the canal, that is between Chin-kiang and Tsing-
kiang-pu, at which latter place it crosses the dry channel which marks
the course of the Yellow river before 1852, the current is strong and
difficult to ascend in the upward (northern) journey. This part of
the canal skirts several lakes and is fed by the Hwai-ho as it issues
from the Hungtso lake. The country lying west of the canal is
higher than its bed; while the country east is lower than the canal.
The two regions are known respectively as Shang-ho (above the
river) and Ssia-ho (below the river). Waste weirs opening on the
Ssia-ho (one of the great rice-producing areas of China) discharge
the surplus water in flood seasons. The northern and considerably
the longest section of the canal extends from the old bed of the
Yellow river to Tientsin. It largely utilizes existing rivers and
follows their original windings. Between Tsing-kiang-pu and the
present course of the Yellow river the canal trends N.N.W., skirting
the highlands of Shan-tung. In this region it passes through a series
of lagoons, which in summer form one lake Chow-yang. North of
that lake on the east bank of the canal is the city of Tsi-ning-chow.
About 25 m. N. of that city the highest level of the canal is reached
at the town of Nan Wang. Here the river Wen enters the canal from
the east, and about 30 m. farther N. the Yellow river is reached.
On the west side of the canal, at the point where the Yellow river
now cuts across it, there is laid down in Chinese maps of the i8th
century a dry channel which is described as being that once followed
by the Yellow river, i.e. before it took the channel it abandoned in
1851-1853. The passage of the Yellow river to the part of the canal
lying north of that stream is difficult, and can only be effected at

certain levels of the river. Frequently the waters of the river are
either too low or the current is too strong to permit a passage,
leaving this point the canal passes through a well-wooded and hilly
country west of Tung-p'ing Chow and east of Tung-ch'ang Fu.
At Lin-ching Chow it is joined at right angles by the Wei river
in the midst of the city. Up to this point, i.e. from Tsing-kiang-pu
to Lin-ching Chow, a distance of over 300 m., navigation is difficult
and the water-supply often insufficient. The differences of level,
20 to 30 ft., are provided for by barrages over which the boats
having discharged their cargo are hauled by windlasses. Below
the junction with the Wei the canal borrows the channel of the river
and again becomes easily navigable. Crossing the frontier into
Chih-li, between Te Chow and Tsang Chow, which it passes to the
west, it joins the Peiho at Tientsin, after haying received the waters
of the Keto river in the neighbourhood of Tsing Hien. 1

The most ancient part of the canal is the section between the
Yangtsze and the Hwai-ho. This part is thought, on the strength
of a passage in one of the books of Confucius, to have been built
c. 486 B.C. It was repaired and enlarged in the 3rd century A.D.
The southern part, between the Yangtsze and Hang-chow, was built
early in the 7th century A.D. The northern part is stated to have
been constructed in the three years 1280-1283. The northern portion
of the canai is now of little use as a means of communication between
north and south. 2 It is badly built, neglected and charged with the
mud-laden waters of the Yellow river. The " tribute fleet " bearing
rice to Peking still uses this route; but the rice is now largely
forwarded by sea. The central and southern portions of the canal
are very largely used.

The Peiho (length about 350 m.) is of importance as being the
high waterway to Peking. Taking its rise in the Si-shan, or Western
Mountains, beyond Peking, it passes the city of T'sung-chow, the
port of Peking, and Tientsin, where it meets the waters of the Hun-ho
and empties itself into the gulf of Chih-li at the village pt Taku.
The Peiho is navigable for small steamers as far as Tientsin during
the greater part of the year, but from the end of November to the
beginning of March it is frozen up.

In the southern provinces the Si-kiang, or Western river, is the
most considerable. It has a length of over 1000 m. This river takes
its rise in the prefecture of Kwang-nan Fu in Yun-nan,
whence it reaches the frontier of Kwang-si at a distance i/ */
of about 90 li from its source. Then trending in a north-
easterly direction it forms the boundary between the two provinces
for about 150 li. From this point it takes a generally south-easterly
course, passing the cities of Tsien Chow, Fung-e Chow, Shang-Iin
Hien, Lung-ngan Hien, Yung-kang Chow and Nan-ning Fu to Yung-
shan Hien. Here it makes a bend to the north-east, and continues
this general direction as far as Sin-chow Fu, a distance of 800 li,
where it meets and joins the waters of the Kien-kiang from the north.
Its course is then easterly, and after passing Wu-chow Fu it crosses
the frontier into Kwang-tung. In this part of its course it flows
through a gorge 3 m. long and in places but 270 yds. in width.
Both above and below this gorge it is I m. wide. Some 30 m. above
Canton it divides into* two main and several small branches. The
northern branch, called Chu-kiang, or Pearl river, flows past Fat-
shan and Canton and reaches the sea through the estuary called the
Bocca Tigris or Bogue, et the mouth of which is the island of Hong-
Kong. The southern branch, which retains the name of Si-kiang,
reaches the sea west of Macao. Near the head of its delta the Si-
kiang receives the Pei-kiang, a considerable river which flows through
Kwang-tung in a general N. to S. direction. Like the Yangtsze-
kiang the Si-kiang is known by various names in different parts of
its course. From its source to Nan-ning Fu in Kwang-si it is called
the Si-yang-kiang, or river of the Western Ocean; from Nan-ning
Fu to Sin-chow Fu it is known as the Yu-kiang, or the Bending river;
and over the remainder of its course it is recognized by the name of
the Si-kiang, or Western river. The Si-kiang is navigable as far as
Shao-king, 130 m., for vessels not drawing more than 15 ft. of water,
and vessels of a light draught may easily reach Wu-chow Fu, in
Kwang-si, which is situated 75 m. farther up. In winter the navi-
gation is difficult above Wu-chow Fu. Above that place there is a
rapid at low water, but navigation is possible to beyond Nan-ning Fu.

Lakes. There are numerous lakes in the central provinces of
China. The largest of these is the Tung-t'ing in Hu-nan, which,
according to the Chinese geographers, is upwards of 800 li, or 266 m.,
in circumference. In native gazetteers its various portions are known
under distinct names; thus it is said to include the Ts'ing-ts'ao, or
Green Grass Lake; the Ung, or Venerable Lake; the Chih-sha, or
Red Sand Lake; the Hwang-yih, or Imperial Post-house Lake;
the Ngan-nan, or Peaceful Southern Lake; and the Ta-tung, or

1 For the Grand Canal the chief authority is Dominique Gandar,
S.J., " Le Canal Imperial. Etude historique et descriptive," Varietis
sinologiques No. 4 (Shanghai, 1903) ; see also Stenz, " Der Kaiser-
kanal," in Beitragen zur Kolonialpolitik, Band v. (Berlin, 1903-1904),
and the works of Ney Elias, Sir J. F. Davis, A. Williamson, E. H.
Parker and W. R. Carles.

1 Nevertheless there is considerable local traffic. The transit
trade with Shan-tung, passing the Chin-kiang customs and using
some 250 m. of the worst part of the canal, was valued in 1905 at
3,331,000 taels.

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GEOLOGY]

CHINA

169

Great Deep Lake. In ancient times it went by the name of the
Kiu-kiang Hu, or Lake of the Nine Rivers, from the fact that nine
rivers flowed into it. Its chief affluents are the Siang-kiang, which
rises in the highlands in the north of Kwan^-si and flows in a general
N.N.E. direction, and the Yuen-kiang, which flows N. and then E.
from the eastern border of Kwei-chow. The lake is connected with
the Yangtsze-kiang by two canals, the Taping and the Yochow Fu.
In summer it is fed by the overflow from the Yangtsze-kiang; in
winter it pours its waters into that river through the Yochow Fu
canal. During the winter and spring the water of the lake is so low
that the shallow portions become islands, separated by rivers such
as the Siang and Yuen, and numberless streams; but in summer,
owing to the rise in the waters of the Yangtsze-kiang, the whole basin
of the lake is filled. It is then about 75 m. lone and 60 m. broad.
About 1 80 m. E. of the Tung-t'ing lake is the Poyang lake, which
occupies the low- lying part of the province of Kiang-si, and is con-
nected with the Yangtsze by the Hu-kow canal. The Poyang lake
is also subject to a wide difference between high and low water, but
not quite to the same extent as the Tung-t'ing lake, and its land-
marks are more distinctly denned. It is about 90 m. long by 20
broad. The T'ai lake, in the neighbourhood of Su-chow Fu, is also
celebrated for its size and the beauty of its surroundings. It is
about 150 m. in circumference, and is dotted over with islands,
on which are built temples for the devotees of religion, and summer-
houses for the votaries of pleasure from the rich and voluptuous
cities of Hang-chow and Su-chow. The boundary line between the
provinces of Choh-kiang and Kiang-su crosses its blue waters, and
its snores are divided among thirteen prefectures. Besides these
lakes there are, among others, two in Yun-nan, the Kun-yang-hai
(Tien-chi) near Yun-nan Fu, which is 40 m. long and is connected
with the Yangtsze-kiang by the Pu-to river, and the Erh-hai (Urh-
hai) to the east of the city of Tali.

The Great Wall. Along the northern provinces of Chih-li, Shan-si,
Shen-si and Kan-suh, over 22 of longitude (98 to 120 E.), stretches
the Great Wall of China, built to defend the country against foreign
aggression. It was begun in the 3rd century B.C., was repaired in
the isth century, and in the i6th century was extended by 300 m.
Following the windings the wall is 1500 m. long. Starting near the
seashore 1 at Shan-hai-kwan on the gulf of Liao-tung, where the
Chinese and Manchurian frontiers meet, it goes eastward past Peking
(which is about 35 m. to the south) and then trends S. and E. across
Shan-si to the Hwang-ho. From the neighbourhood of Peking to
the Hwang-ho there is an inner and an outer wall. The outer
(northern) wall passes through Kalgan, thus guarding the pass
into Mongolia. A branch wall separates the greater part of the
western frontier of Chih-li from Shan-si. West of the Hwang-ho
the Great Wall forms the northern frontier of Shen-si, and west of
Shen-si it keeps near the northern frontier of Kan-suh, following
for some distance in that province the north bank of the Hwang-ho.
It ends at Kiayu-kwan (98 14' E.) just west of Su-chow. This part
of the wall was built to protect the one main artery leading from
central Asia to China through Kan-suh and Shen-si by the valley
of the Wei-ho, tributary of the Hwang-ho. There is a branch wall
in Kan-suh running west and south to protect the Tibetan frontier.
The height of the wall is generally from 20 to 30 ft., and at intervals
of some 200 yds. are towers about 40 ft. high. Its base is from
15 to 25 ft. thick and its summit 12 ft. wide. The wall is carried
over valleys and mountains, and in places is over 4000 ft. above
sea-level. Military posts are still maintained at the chief gates or
passes at Shan-hai-kwan, the Kalgan pass, the Yenmun pass (at
the N. of Shan-si) and the Kaiyu pass in the extreme west, through
which runs the caravan route to Barkal in Turkestan. Colonel
A. W. S. Wingate, who in the opening years of the2Oth century
visited the Great Wall at over twenty places widely apart and
gathered many descriptions of it in other places, states that its
position is wrongly shown " on the maps of the day " (1907) in a
number of places; while in others it had ceased to exist, " the only
places where it forms a substantial boundary being in the valley
bottoms, on the passes and where it crosses main routes. These
remarks apply with particular force to the branch running south-
west from the Nan-k'owpass and forming the boundary ofChih-li
and Shan-si provinces." In Colonel Wingate's opinion the wall
was originally built by degrees and in sections, not of hewn stone,
but of round boulders and earth, the differeirt sections being repaired
as they fell into ruin. " Only in the^rSflley bottoms and on the
passes was it composed of maspafy or brickwork. The Mings
rebuilt of solid masonry all thpsC'sections through which led a likely
road for invading Tatars to follow, or where it could be seen at a
distance from the sky-line." The building of the wall " was a
sufficiently simple affair," not to be compared with the task of
building the pyramids of Egypt. 1

1 The portion of the wall which abutted on to the sea has been
destroyed.

* See the Geog. Jnl. (Feb. and March 1907). For a popular account
of the wall, with numerous photographs, see The Great Wall of
China (London, 1909), by W. E. Giel, who in 1908 followed its course
from east to west. Consult also A. Williamson, Journey in North
China (London, 1870); Martin, " La Grande Muraille de la Chine,"
Revue scientifique (1891).

Climate. The climate over so vast an area as China necessarily
varies greatly. The southern parts of Yun-nan, Kwang-si and
Kwang-tung (including the city of Canton) lie within the tropics.
The northern zone (in which lies Peking) by contrast has a climate
which resembles that of northern Europe, with winters of Arctic
severity. The central zone (in which Shanghai is situated) has a
generally temperate climate. But over both northern and central
China the influence of the great plateau of Mongolia tends to establish
uniform conditions unusual in so large an area. The prevailing winds
during summer the rainy season are south-easterly, caused by
heat and the ascending current of air over the sandy deserts of
central Asia, thus drawing in a current from the Pacific Ocean.
In the winter the converse takes place, and the prevailing winds,
descending from the Mongolian plateau, are north and north-west,
and are cold and dry. From October to May the climate of central
China is bracing and enjoyable. The rainfall is moderate and regular.

In northern China the inequalities both of temperature and rainfall
are greater than in the central provinces. In the province of Chih-li,
for example, the heat of summer is as intense as is the cold of winter.
In summer the rains often render the plain swampy, while the dry
persistent westerly winds of spring create dust storms (experienced
in Peking from March to June). The rainfall is, however, uncertain,
and thus the harvests are precarious. The province? of Shan-tung
and Shan-si are peculiarly liable to prolonged periods of drought,
with consequent severe famines such as that of 1877-1878, wnen
many millions died. In these regions the air is generally extremely
dry, and the daily variations of temperature consequent on excessive
radiation are much greater than farther south.

Accurate statistics both of heat and rainfall are available from a
few stations only. The rainfall on the southern coasts is said to be
about 100 in. yearly; at Peking the rainfall is about 24 in. a year.
In the coast regions the temperatures of Peking, Shanghai and
Canton may be taken as typical of those of the northern, central
and southern zones. In Peking (39 N.) the mean annual temperature
is about 53 F., the mean for January 23, for July 79. In Shanghai
(31 n' N.) 3 the mean annual temperature is 59, the mean for
January 36-2, for July 80-4. In Canton (23 15' N.) the mean
annual temperature is 70, the mean for January 54, for July 82.
The range of temperature, even within the tropics, is noteworthy.
At Peking and Tientsin the thermometer in winter falls sometimes
to 5 below zero and rises in summer to 105 (at Taku 107 has
been recorded); in Shanghai in winter the thermometer falls to 18
and in summer rises to 102. In Canton frost is said to have been
recorded, but according to the China Sea Directory the extreme range
is from 38 to ioo. 4 The climate of Shanghai, which resembles,
but is not so good as, that of the Yangtsze-kiang valley generally, is
fairly healthy, but there is an almost constant excess of moisture.
The summer months, July to September, are very hot, while snow
usually falls in December and January.

At Canton and along the south coast the hot season corresponds
with the S.W. monsoon; the cool season mid October to end of
April with the N.E. monsoon. Farther north, at Shanghai, the
S.W. monsoon is sufficiently felt to make the prevailing wind in
summer southerly.

Provinces. China proper is divided into the following provinces:
Cheh-kiang, Chih-li, Fu-kien, Ngan-hui (An-hui), Ho-nan, Hu-nan,
Hu-peh, Kan-suh, Kiang-si, Kiang-su, Kwang-si, Kwang-tung,
Kwei-chow, Shan-si, Shan-tung, Shen-si, Sze-ch'uen and Yun-nan.
See the separate notices of each province and the article on ShSng-
king, the southern province of Manchuria. X.

Geology.

The Palaeozoic formations of China, excepting only the upper part
of the Carboniferous system, are marine, while the Mesozoic and
Tertiary deposits are estuarine and freshwater or else of terrestrial
origin. From the close of the Palaeozoic period down to the present
day the greater part of the empire has been dry land, and it is only
in the southern portion of Tibet and in the western Tian Shan that
any evidence of a Mesozoic sea has yet been found. The geological
sequence may be summarized as follows:

Archean. Gneiss, crystalline schists, phyllites, crystalline lime-
stones. Exposed in Liao-tung, Shan-tung, Shan-si, northern Chih-li
and in the axis of the mountain ranges, e.g. the Kuen-lun and the
ranges of southern China.

Sinian.- Sandstones, quartzites, limestones. Sometimes rests
unconformably upon the folded rocks of the Archaen system; but
sometimes, according to Loczy, there is no unconformity. Covers
a large area in the northern part of China proper; absent in the
eastern Kuen-lun; occurs again in the ranges of S.E. China. In
Liao-tung Cambrian fossils have been found near the summit of the
series; they belong to the oldest fauna known upon the earth,
the fauna of the Olenellus zone. It is, however, not improbable
that in many places beds of considerably later date have been
included in the Sinian system.

1 For Shanghai the figures are compiled from twenty-six years' ob-
servations. See China Sea Directory, vol. iii. (4th ed., 1904) p. 660.

4 The thermometer registered 23 F. in January 1893, on the river
28 m. below Canton. This is the lowest reading known. Ibid.
pp. 104-105.

170

CHINA

[FAUNA

Ordovician. Ordovician fossils have been found in the Lung-
shan Kiang-su (about 50 m. east of Nan-king), in the south-west of
Cheh-kiang and in the south-east of Yun-nan. Ordovician beds
probably occur also in the Kuen-lun.

Silurian. Limestones and slates with Silurian corals and other
fossils have been found in Sze-ch'uen.

Devonian. Found in Kan-suh and in the Tsing-lmg-shan, but
becomes much more important in southern China. Occurs also on
the south of the Tian-shan, in the Altyn-tagh, the Nan-shan and the
western Kuen-lun.

Carboniferous. Covers a large area in northern China, in the
plateau of Shen-si and Shan-si, extending westwards in tongues
between the folds of the Kuen-lun. In this region it consists of a
lower series of limestones and an upper series of sandstones with
seams of coal, which may perhaps be in part of Permian age. This is
probably the most extensive coalfield in the world.

In south China the whole series consists chiefly of limestones, and
the coal seams are comparatively unimportant. Carboniferous beds
are also found in the Tian-shan, the Nan-shan, Kan-suh, on the
southern borders of the Gobi, &c.

Mesozoic. Marine Triassic beds containing fossils similar to those
of the German Muschelkalk have been found by Loczy near Chung-
tien, on the eastern border of the Tibetan plateau. Elsewhere,
however, the Mesozoic is represented chiefly by a red sandstone,
which covers the greater part of Sze-ch'uen and fills also a number
of troughs amongst the older beds of southern China. No marine fos-
sils are found in this sandstone, but remains of plants are numerous,
and these belong to the Rhaetic, Lias and Lower Oolite. No
Cretaceous beds are known in China excepting in S. Tibet, (on the
shores of the Tengri-nor) and in the western portion of the
Tian-shan.

Cainozoic and Recent. No marine deposits of this age are known.
Although the loess of the great plain and the sand of the desert are
still in process of formation, the accumulation of these deposits
probably began in the Tertiary period.

Volcanic Rocks. Amongst the Archean rocks granitic and other
intrusions are abundant, but of more modern volcanic activity the
remains are comparatively scanty. In south China there is no evi-
dence of Tertiary or Post-Tertiary volcanoes, but groups of volcanic
cones occur in the great plain of north China. In the Liao-tung
and Shan-tung peninsulas there are basaltic plateaus, and similar
outpourings occur upon the borders of Mongolia. All these out-
bursts appear to be of Tertiary or later data.

Loess. One of the most characteristic deposits of China is the
loess, which not merely imparts to north China the physical character
of the scenery, but also determines the agricultural products, the
transport, and general economic life of the people of that part of
the country. It is peculiar to north China and it is not found
south of the Yangtsze. The loess is a solid but friable earth of
brownish-yellow colour, and when triturated with water is not unlike
loam, but differs from the latter by its highly porous and tubular
structure. The loess soil is extremely favourable to agriculture.
(See LOESS and infra, Agriculture.)

The loess is called by the Chinese Hwang-t'u, or yellow earth,
and it has been suggested that the imperiaj title Hwang-ti, Yellow
Emperor or Ruler of the Yellow, had its origin in the fact that the
emperor is lord of the loess or yellow earth.

Structurally, China proper may be divided into two regions,
separated from each other by the folded range of the Tsing-ling-
Structure. shan, which is a continuation of the folded belt of the
Kuen-lun. North of this chain the Palaeozoic beds are
in general nearly horizontal, and the limestones and sandstones of
the Sinian and Carboniferous systems form an extensive plateau
which rises abruptly from the western margin of the great plain of
northern China. The plateau is deeply carved by the rivers which
flow through it; and the strata are often faulted, but they are
never sharply folded. South of the Tsing-ling-shan, on the other
hand, the Palaeozoic beds are thrown into a series of folds running
from W. 30 S. to E. 30 N., which form the hilly region of southern
China. Towards Tongking these folds probably bend southwards
and join the folds of Further India. Amongst these folded beds lie
trough-like depressions filled with the Mesozoic red sandstone which
lies unconformably upon the Palaeozoic rocks.

The present configuration of Chirta is due, in a very considerable
degree, to faulting. The abrupt eastern edge of the Shan-si plateau,
where it overlooks the great plain, is a line of fault, or rather a
series of step faults, with the downthrow on the east; and von
Richthofen has shown reason to believe that this line of faulting is
continued far to the south and to the north. He believed also that
the present coast-line of China has to a large extent been determined
by similar faults with their downthrow on the east.

Concerning the structure of the central Asian plateau our know-
ledge is still incomplete. The great mountain chains, the Kuen-
lun, the Nan-shan and the Tian-shan, are belts of folding; but the
Mongolian Altai is a horst a strip of ancient rock lying between
two faults and with a depressed area upon each side. In the whole
of this northern region faulting, as distinct from folding, seems to
have played an important part. Along the southern margin of the
Tian-shan there is a remarkable trough-like depression which appears
to lie between two approximately parallel faults. (P. LA.)

Fauna.

China lies within two zoological provinces or regions, its southern
portion forming a part of the Oriental or Indian region and having a
fauna close akin to that of the western Himalaya, Burma and Siam,
whereas the districts to the north of Fu-chow and south of the
Yangtsze-kiang lie within the eastern Holarctic (Palaearctic) region,
or rather the southern fringe of the latter, which has been separated
as the Mediterranean transitional region. Of these two divisions of
the Chinese fauna, the northern one is the more interesting, since it
forms the chief home of a number of peculiar generic types, and also
includes types represented elsewhere at the present day (exclusive in
one case of Japan) only in North America. The occurrence in China
of these types common to the eastern and western hemispheres is
important in regard to the former existence of a land-bridge between
Eastern Asia and North America by way of Bering Strait.

Of the types peculiar to China and North America the alligator
of the Yangtsze-kiang is generically identical with its Mississippi
relative. The spoon-beaked sturgeon of the Yangtsze and Hwang-ho
is, however, now separated, as Psephurus, from the closely allied
American Polyodon. Among insectivorous mammals the Chinese
and Japanese shrew-moles, respectively forming the genera Uropsilus
and Urotrichus, are represented in America by Neurotrichus. The
giant salamander of the rivers of China and Japan and the Chinese
mandarin duck are by some included in the same genera as their
American representatives, while by others they are referred to genera
apart. Whichever view we take does not alter their close relationship.
One wapiti occurs on the Tibetan frontier, and others in Manchuria
and Amurland.

As regards mammals and birds, the largest number of generic and
specific types peculiar to China are met with in Sze-ch'uen. Foremost
among these is the great panda (Aeluropus melanoleucus), represent-
ing a genus by itself, probably related to bears and to the true panda
(Aelurus), the latter of which has a local race in Sze-ch'uen. Next
come the snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus), of which the typical
species is a native of Sze-ch'uen, while a second is found on the upper
Mekong, and a third in the mountains of central China. In the In-
sectivora the swimming-shrew (Nectogale) forms another generic type
peculiar to Sze-ch'uen, which is also the sole habitat of the mole-like
Scaptochirus, of Uropsilus, near akin to the Japanese Urotrichus, of
Scaptonyx, which connects the latter with the moles (Talpa), and of
Neotetracus , a relative of the Malay rat-shrews (Gymnura). Here also
may be mentioned the raccoon-dog, forming the subgenus Nyctereutes,
common to China and Japan. The Himalayan black and the Malay
bear have each a local race in Sze-ch'uen, where the long-haired
Fontanier's cat (Felts tristis) and the Tibet cat (F. scripta) connect
Indo-Malay species with the American ocelots, while the bay cat (F.
temmincki), a Malay type, is represented by local forms in Sze-ch'uen
and Fu-chow. The Amurland leopard and Manchurian tiger likewise
constitute local races of their respective species.

Among ruminants, the Sze-ch'uen takin represents a genus (Budor-
cas) found elsewhere in the Mishmi Hills and Bhutan, while serows
(Nemorhaedus) and gorals (Urotragus), allied to Himalayan and
Burmo-Malay types, abound. The Himalayan fauna is also repre-
sented by a race of the Kashmir hangul deer. Of other deer, the
original habitat of Pere David's milu (Elaphurus), formerly kept in
the Peking park, is unknown. The sika group, which is peculiar to
China, Japan and Formosa, is represented by Cervus hortulorum in
Manchuria and the smaller C. manchuricus and sika in that province
and the Yangtsze valley; while musk-deer (Moschus) abound in
Kan-suh and Sze-ch'uen. The small water-deer (Hydropotes or
Hydrelaphus) of the Yangtsze valley represents a genus peculiar to
the country, as do the three species of tufted deer (Elaphodus),
whose united range extends from Sze-ch'uen to Ning-po and I-ch'ang.
Muntjacs (Cervulus) are likewise very characteristic of the country,
to which the white-tailed, plum-coloured species, like the Tenasserim
C. crinifrons, are peculiar. The occurrence of races of the wapiti in
Manchuria and Amurland has been already mentioned.

To refer in detail to the numerous forms of rodents inhabiting China
is impossible here, and it must suffice to mention that the flying-
squirrels (Pteromys) are represented by a large and handsome species
in Sze-ch'uen, where is also found the largest kind of bamboo-rat
(Rhizomys), the other species of which are natives of the western
Himalaya and the Malay countries. Dwarf hamsters of the genus
Cricetulus are natives of the northern provinces. In the extreme
south, in Hai-nan, is found a gibbon ape (Hylobates), while langur
(Semnopithecus) and macaque monkeys (Macacus) likewise occur in
the south, one of the latter also inhabiting Sze-ch'uen.

To give an adequate account of Chinese ornithology would require
space many times the length of this article. The gorgeous mandarin
duck (Aix galerita) has already been mentioned among generic types
common to America. In marked distinction to this is the number of
species of pheasants inhabiting north-western China, whence the
group ranges into the eastern Himalaya. Among Chinese species are
two of the three species of blood-pheasants (Ithagenes) , two tragopans
(Ceriornis or Tragopan), a monal (Lophophorus) , three out of the five
species of Crossoptilum, the other two being Tibetan, two kinds of
Pucrasia, the gorgeous golden and Amherst's pheasants alone repre-
senting the genus Chrysolophus, together with several species of the
typical genus Phasianus, among which it will suffice to mention the

FLORA]

CHINA

171

long-tailed P. reevesi. The Himalayan bamboo-partridges (Bam-
busicola) have also a Chinese representative. The only other large
bird that can be mentioned is the Manchurian crane, misnamed
Grusjaponensis. Pigeons include the peculiar subgenus Dendroleron ;
while among smaller birds, warblers, tits and finches, all of an
Eastern Holarctic type, constitute the common element in the avi-
fauna. Little would be gained by naming the genera, peculiar or
otherwise.

China has a few peculiar types of freshwater tortoises, among
which Ocadia sinensis represents a genus unknown elsewhere, while
there is also a species of the otherwise Indian genus Damonia. The
Chinese alligator, Alligator sinensis, has been already mentioned.
Among lizards, the genera Plestiodon, Mabuia, Tachydromus and
Gecko, of which the two latter are very characteristic of the Oriental
region, range through China to Japan ; and among snakes, the Malay
python (Python reticulatus) is likewise Chinese. The giant sala-
mander (Cryptobranchus, or Megalobatrachus, maximus) represents,
as mentioned above, a type found elsewhere only in North America,
while Hynobius and Onychodactylus are peculiar generic types of
salamanders. Among fishes, it must suffice to refer to the spoon-
beaked sturgeon (Psephurus) of the Yangtsze-kiang, and the numerous
members of the carp family to be found in the rivers of China. From
these native carp the Chinese have produced two highly coloured
breeds, the goldfish and the tejescope-eyed carp.

Among the invertebrates special mention may be made of the great
ailanthus silk-moth (Attacus cynthia) of northern China and Japan,
and also of its Manchurian relative A. pernyi ; while it may be added
that the domesticated " silkworm " (Bombyx mori) is generally
believed to be of Chinese origin, although this is not certain. Very
characteristic of China is the abundance of handsomely coloured
swallow-tailed butterflies of the family Papilionidae. The Chinese
kermes (Coccus sinensis) is also worth mention, on account of it
yielding wax. As regards land and freshwater snails, China exhibits
a marked similarity to Siam and India; the two groups in which the
Chinese province displays decided peculiarities of its own being Helix
(in the wider sense) and Clausilia. There are, for instance, nearly
half a score of subgenera of Helix whose headquarters are Chinese,
while among these, forms with sinistral shells are relatively common.
The genus Clausilia is remarkable on account of attaining a second
centre of development in China, where its finest species, referable to
several subgenera, occur. Carnivorous molluscs include a peculiar
slug (Rathouisia) and the shelled genera Ennea and Streptaxis. In
the western provinces species of Buliminus are abundant, and in the
operculate group Heudeta forms a peculiar type akin to Helicina, but
with internal foldings to the shell.

Lastly, it has to be mentioned that the waters of the Yangtsze-
kiang are inhabited by a small jelly-fish, or medusa (Limnocodium
kawaii), near akin to L. sowerbii, which was discovered in the hot-
house tanks in the Botanical Gardens in the Regent's Park, London,
but whose real home is probably the Amazon. (R. L.*)

Flora.

The vegetation of China is extremely rich, no fewer than 9000
species of flowering plants having been already enumerated, of which
nearly a half are endemic or not known to occur elsewhere. Whole
provinces are as yet only partially explored; and the total flora is
estimated to comprise ultimately 12,000 species. China is the con-
tinuation eastward of the great Himalayan mass, numerous chains of
mountains running irregularly to the sea-board. Thousands of deep
narrow valleys form isolated areas, where peculiar species have been
evolved. Though the greater part of the country has long ago been
cleared of its primeval forest and submitted to agriculture, there still
remain some extensive forests and countless small woods in which
the original flora is well preserved. Towards the north the vegetation
is palaearctic, and differs little in its composition from that of
Germany, Russia and Siberia. The flora of the western and central
provinces is closely allied to that of the Himalayas and of Japan;
while towards the south this element mingles with species derived
from Indo-China, Burma and the plain of Hindostan. Above a certain
elevation, decreasing with the latitude, but approximately 6000 ft. in
the Yangtsze basin, there exist in districts remote from the traffic of
the great rivers, extensive forests of conifers, like those of Central
Europe in character, but with different species of silver fir, larch,
spruce and Cembran pine. Below this altitude the woods are com-
posed of deciduous and evergreen broad-leafed trees and shrubs,
mingled together in a profusion of species. Pure broad-leafed forests
of one or two species are rare, though small woods of oak, of alder
and of birch are occasionally seen. There is nothing comparable to
the extensive beech forests of Europe, the two species of Chinese
beech being sporadic and rare trees. The heaths, Calluna and Erica,
which cover great tracts of barren sandy land in Europe, are absent
from China, where the Ericaceous vegetation is made up of numerous
species of Rhododendron, which often cover vast areas on the moun-
tain slopes. Pine forests occur at low levels, but are always small in
extent.

The appearance of the vegetation is very different from that of
the United States, which is comparable to China in situation and in
extent. Though there are 60 species of oak in China, many with mag-
nificent foliage and remarkable cupules, the red oaks, so characteristic
of North America, with their bristle-pointed leaves, turning beautiful

colours in autumn, are quite unknown. The great coniferous forest
west of the Rocky Mountains has no analogue in China, the gigantic
and preponderant Douglas fir being absent, while the giant Sequoias
are represented only on a small scale by Cryplomeria, which attains
half their height.

Certain remnants of the Miocene flora which have disappeared
from Europe are stilj conspicuous and similar in North America and
China. In both regions there are several species of Magnolia one
species each of Liriodendron, Liquidambar and Sassafras; and curious
genera like Nyssa, Hamamelis, Decumaria and Gymnocladus. The
swamps of the south-eastern states, in which still survive the once
widely spread Taxodium or deciduous cypress, are imitated on a
small scale by the marshy banks of rivers near Canton, which are
clad with Glyptostrpbus, the " water-pine "of the Chinese. Pseudo-
larix, Cunninghamia and Keteleeria are coniferous genera peculiar to
China, which nave become extinct elsewhere. The most remarkable
tree in China, the only surviving link between ferns and conifers,
Ginkgo biloba, has only been seen in temple gardens, but may occur
wild in some of the unexplored provinces. Its leaves have been
found in the tertiary beds of the Isle of Mull.

Most of the European genera occur in China, though there are
curious exceptions like the plane tree, and the whole family of the
Cistaceae, which characterize the peculiar maquis of the Mediterranean
region. The rhododendrons, of which only four species are European,
have their headquarters in China, numbering 130 species, varying in
size from miniature shrubs 6 in. high to tall trees. Lysimacnia,
Primula, Clematis, Rubus and Gentiana have each a hundred species,
extraordinary variable in habit, in size and in colour of the flowers.
The ferns are equally polymorphic, numbering 400 species, and
including strange genera like Archangiopteris and Cheiropteris,
unknown elsewhere. About 40 species of bamboos have been dis-
tinguished; the one with a square stem from Fu-kien is the most
curious.

With a great wealth of beautiful flowering shrubs and herbaceous
plants, the Chinese at an early period became skilled horticulturists.
The emperor Wu Ti established in in B.C. a botanjc garden at
Ch'ang-an, into which rare plants were introduced from the west
and south. Many garden varieties originated in China. The
chrysanthemum, perhaps the most variable of cultivated flowers, is
derived from two wild species ^small and inconspicuous plants), and
is mentioned in the ancient Chinese classics. We owe to the skill of
the Chinese many kinds of roses, lilies, camellias and peonies; and
have introduced from China some of the most ornamental plants in
our gardens, as Wistaria, Diervilla, Kerria, Incarvittea, Deutzia,
Primula sinensis, Hemerocallis, &c. The peach and several oranges
are natives of China. The varnish tree (Rhus vernicifera), from
which lacquer is obtained; the tallow tree (Sapium-sebiferum); the
white mulberry, on which silkworms are fed ; and the tea plant were
all first utilized by the Chinese. The Chinese have also numerous
medicinal plants, of which ginseng and rhubarb are best known.
Nearly all our vegetables and cereals have their counterpart in China,
where there are numerous varieties not yet introduced into Europe,
though some, like the Soy bean, are now attracting great attention.

AUTHORITIES. L. Richard (S.J.), Geographic de {'empire de Chine
(Shanghai, 1905) the first systematic account of China as a whole in
modern times. The work, enlarged, revised and translated into
English by M. Kennelly (S.J.), was reissued in 1908 as Richard's
Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire and Dependencies.
This is the standard authority for the country and gives for each
section bibliographical notes. It has been used in the revision of the
present article. Valuable information on northern, central and
western China is furnished by Col. C. C. Manifold and Col. A. W. S.
Wingate in the Geog. Journ. vol. xxiii. (1904) and vol. xxix. (1907).
Consult also Marshall Broomhall (ed.), The Chinese Empire: a
General and Missionary Survey (London, 1907) ; B. Willis, E. Black-
welder and others, Research in China, vol. i. part i. " Descriptive
Topography and Geology," part ii. " Petrography and Zoology,"
and Atlas (Washington, Carnegie Institution, 1906-1907}; Forbes
and Hemsley, " Enumeration of Chinese Plants, ' in Journ.
Linnean Soc. (Bot.), vols. xxiii. and xxxyi. ; Bretschneider, History
of European Botanical Discoveries in China ; E. Tiessen, China das
Reich der achtzehn Provinzen, Teil i. " Die allgemeine Geographic
des Landes" (Berlin, 1902); and The China Sea Directory (published
by the British Admiralty), a valuable guide to the coasts: vol. ii.
(5th ed. , 1906) deals with Hong- Kong and places south thereof, vol. iii.
(4th ed., 1906, supp. 1907) with the rest of the Chinese coast; vol. i.
(5th ed., 1906) treats of the islands and straits in the S.W. approach
to the China Sea. Much of China has not been surveyed, but con-
siderable progress has been made since 1900. The Atlas of the
Chinese Empire (London, 1908), a good general atlas, which, however,
has no hill shading, gives maps of each province on the scale of
i : 3,000,000. The preface contains a list of the best regional maps.

The Journal of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society con-
tains papers on all subjects relating to China.

II. THE PEOPLE

China is noted for the density of its population, but no accurate
statistics are forthcoming. The province of Shan-tung is reputed

172

CHINA

[SOCIAL LIFE

to have a population of 680 per sq. m. The provinces of centra
China, in the basin of the Yangtsze-kiang namely Sze-ch'uen
Hu-peh, Ngan -hui, Kiang-su and Cheh-kiang contain
probably a third of the total population, the density
of the people in these provinces being representec
as from 400 to 310 per sq. m. Ho-nan, which belongs partly to
the basin of the Hwang-ho and partly to that of the Yangtsze-
kiang, as well as the S.E. coast provinces of Fu-kien and Kwang-
tung, are also densely peopled, Ho-nan being credited with 520
persons per sq. m., Fu-kien with 400 and Kwang-tung with
about 320.

The Chinese government prints from time to time in the Peking
Gazette returns of the population made by the various provincial
authorities. The method of numeration is to count the households,
and from that to make a return of the total inhabitants of each
province. There would be no great difficulty in obtaining' fairly
accurate returns if sufficient care were taken. It does not appear,
however, that much care is taken. Mr E. H. Parker published in the
Statistical Society' s Journal for March 1899 tables translated from
Chinese records, giving the population from year to year between
1651 and 1860. These tables show a gradual rise, though with many
fluctuations, up till 1851, when the total population is stated to be
432 millions. From that point it decreases till 1860, when it is put
down at only 261 millions. The Chinese Imperial Customs put the
total population of the empire in 1906 at 438,214,000 and that of
China proper at 407,253,000. It has been held by several inquirers
that these figures are gross over-estimates. Mr Rockhill, American
minister at Peking (1905-1909), after careful inquiry ' concluded
that the inhabitants of China proper did not exceed, in 1904,
270,000,000. Other competent authorities are inclined to accept
the round _ figure of 400,000,000 as nearer the accurate number.
Eleven cities were credited in 1908 with between 500,000 and
1,000,000 inhabitants each, and smaller cities are very numerous,
but the population is predominantly rural. In addition to the
Chinese the population includes a number of aboriginal races such
as the Lolos (q.v.), the Miaotsze (g.p.), the Ikias of Kwei-chow and
Kwang-si, the Hakka, found in the south-east provinces, and the
Hoklos of Kwang-tung province. 2 The Manchus resident in China
are estimated to number 4,000,000. According to the Imperial
Customs authorities, the number of foreigners resident in China in
1908 was 69,852. Of these 44,143 were Japanese, 9520 Russian,
9043 British, 3637 German, 3545 American, 3353 Portuguese, 2029
French, 554 Italian and 282 Belgian.

The Chinese are a colonizing race, and in Manchuria, Mongolia and
Turkestan they have brought several districts under cultivation. In
Eat/era- tne re S> ons where they settle they become the dominant
race-^-thus southern Manchuria now differs little from a
province of China proper. In Indo-China, the Malay
Peninsula and throughout the Far East Chinese are numerous as
farmers, labourers and traders; in some places, such as Singapore,
Chinese are among the principal merchants. This colonizing spirit
is probably due more to the enterprise of the people than to the
density of the population. There were Chinese settlements at places
on the east coast of Africa before the loth century A.D. Following
the discovery of gold in California there was from 1850 onwards a
large emigration of Chinese to that state and to other parts of America.
But in 1879 Chinese exclusion acts were passed by the United States,
an example followed by Australia, where Chinese immigration was
also held to be a public danger. Canada also adopted the policy
of excluding Chinese, but not before there had been a considerable
immigration into British Columbia. Two factors, a racial and an
economic, are at work to bring about these measures of exclusion.
As indentured labourers Chinese have been employed in the West
Indies, South America and other places (see COOLIE).

In addition to several million Chinese settlers in Manchuria, and
smaller numbers in Mongolia, Turkestan and Tibet, it was estimated
in 1908 that there were over 9,000,000 Chinese resident beyond the
empire. Of these 2,250,000 were in Formosa, which for long formed
a part of the empire, and over 6,000,000 in neighbouring regions of
Asia and in Pacific Islands. In the West Indies (chiefly Cuba) the
number of Chinese was estimated at 100,000, in South America
(Brazil, Peru and Chile) at 72,000, in the United States at 150,000, in
Canada at 12,000, and in Australia and New Zealand at 35,000.
There are comparatively few Chinese in Japan (if Formosa be ex-
cepted) and Korea. The number is given in 1908 as 17,000 in Japan
and 1 1 ,oco in Korea.

Social Life.

The awakening of the East which has followed the Russo-
Japanese War of 1904-5 has affected China also. It is too soon
to say how far the influx of European ideas will be able to modify

1 See W. W. Rockhill, Inquiry into the Population of China
(Washington, 1904).

* For a bibliography of works relating to the aboriginal races of
China see Richard's Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire
(1908 ed.), pp. 371-373.

the immemorial customs and traditions of perhaps the most
conservative people in the world; but the process has begun,
and this fact makes it difficult to give a picture of Chinese habits
and customs which shall be more than historical or provisional.
Moreover, the difficulty of presenting a picture which shall be
true of China as a whole is enhanced by the different character-
istics observable in various regions of so vast a country. The
Chinese themselves, until the material superiority of Western
civilization forced them to a certain degree to conform to its
standards, looked down from the height of their superior culture
with contempt on the " Western barbarians." Nor was their
attitude wholly without justification. Their civilization was
already old at a time when Britain and Germany were peopled
by half-naked barbarians, and the philosophical and ethical
principles on which it was based remain, to all appearances, as
firmly rooted as ever. That these principles have, on the whole,
helped to create a national type of a very high order few
Europeans who know the Chinese well would deny. The Chinese
are naturally reserved, earnest and good-natured; for the
occasional outbursts of ferocious violence, notably against
foreign settlements, are no index to the national character.
There is a national proverb that " the men of the Four Seas are
all brothers," and even strangers can travel through the country
without meeting with rudeness, much less outrage. If the
Chinese character is inferior to the European, this inferiority lies
in the fact that the Chinaman's whole philosophy of life dis-
inclines him to change or to energetic action. He is industrious;
but his industry is normally along the lines marked out by
authority and tradition. He is brave; but his courage does
not naturally seek an outlet in war. The jealously exclusive
empire, into which in the ipth century the nations of the West
forced an entrance, was organized for peace; the arts of war had
been all but forgotten, and soldiers were of all classes the most
despised.

The whole social and political organization of the Chinese is based,
in a far more real sense than in the West, on the family. The supreme
duty is that of the child to its parent; on this the whole Chinese
moral system is built up. Filial piety, according to the teaching of
Confucius, is the very foundation of society; the nation itself is
but one great family, and the authority of the government itself is
but an extension of the paternal authority, to which all its children
are bound to yield implicit obedience. The western idea of the liberty
and dignity of the individual, as distinct from the community to
which he belongs, is wholly alien to the Chinese mind. The political
unit in China is not the individual but the family, and the father of
the family is supposed to be responsible for the qualities and views of
all his km. He is rewarded for their virtues, punished for their
Faults ; the deserts of a son ennoble the father and all his ancestors,
and conversely his crimes disgrace them.

An outcome of this principle is the extraordinary importance in
~hma of funeral rites, especially in the case of the father. The eldest
son, now head of the family, or, failing him, his first-born or adopted
son, fixes one of the three souls of the dead in the tablet commemor-
ating his virtues, burns incense to his shade, and supplies him with
paper money and paper representations of everything (clothes,
servants, horses) that he may require in his journey to the other
world. Mourning lasts for three years, during which the mourners
wear white garments and abstain from meat, wine and public
gatherings. Custom, too, dictates that wherever the Chinaman may
die he must be brought back for burial to the place of his birth ; one
of the objects of the friendly societies is to provide funds to charter
ships to transport home the bodies of those who have died abroad.
Annually, in Mav, the white-clad people stream to the graves and
mortuary temples with flowers, fruit and other offerings for the
dead. Christian missionaries have found in this ancestor worship
he most serious obstacle to the spread of a religion which teaches
that the convert must, if need be, despise his father and his mother
and follow Christ.

The same elaborate ceremonialism that characterizes the Chinese

uneral customs is found also in their marriage rites and the rules of

heir social intercourse generally. Confucius is reported to have said

that " all virtues have their source in etiquette," and the due

observance of the " ceremonial " (li) in the fulfilling of social duties

s that which, in Chinese opinion, distinguishes civilized from bar-

>arous peoples. The Board of Rites, one of the departments of

he central government, exists for the purpose of giving decisions in

matters of etiquette and ceremony. As to marriage, the rule that the

ndividual counts for nothing obtains here in its fullest significance.

The breeding of sons to carry on the ancestral cult is a matter of

orime importance, and the marriage of a young man is arranged at

he earliest possible age. The bride and bridegroom have little voice

SOCIAL LIFE]

CHINA

173

in the matter, the match being arranged by the parents of the
parties; the lifting of the bride's veil, so that the bridegroom may
see her face, is the very last act of the long and complicated
ceremony.

In the traditional Chinese social system four classes are dis-
tinguished: the literary, the agricultural, the artisan and the
trading class. Hereditary nobility, in the European sense, scarcely
exists, and the possession of an hereditary title gives in itself no
special privileges. Official position is more highly esteemed than
birth and the bureaucracy takes the place of the aristocracy in the
west. There are, nevertheless, besides personal decorations for
merit, such as the yellow jacket, five hereditary rewards for merit;
these last only for a fixed number of lives. A few Chinese families,
however, enjoy hereditary titles in the full sense, the chief among
them being the Holy Duke of Yen (the descendant of Confucius).
The Imperial Clansmen consist of those who trace their descent
direct from the founder of the Manchu dynasty, and are distinguished
by the privilege of wearing a yellow girdle; collateral relatives
of the imperial house wear a red girdle. Twelve degrees of nobility
(in a descending scale as one generation succeeds another) are
conferred on the descendants of every emperor; in the thirteenth
generation the descendants of emperors are merged in the general
population, save that they retain the yellow girdle. The heads of
eight houses, the " Iron-capped " (or helmeted) princes, maintain
their titles in perpetuity by rule of primogeniture in virtue of having
helped the Manchu in the conquest of China. Imperial princes
apart, the highest class is that forming the civil service. (See also
Government and Administration.) The peasant class forms the bulk of
the population. The majority of Chinese are small landowners; their
standard of living is very low in comparison with European standards.
This is in part due to the system o f land tenure. A parent cannot,
even if he wished to do so, leave all his land to one son. There must
be substantially an equal division, the will of the father notwith-
standing. As early marriages and large families are the rule, this
process of continual division and subdivision has brought things down
to the irreducible minimum in many places. Small patches of one-
tenth or even one-twentieth of an acre are to be found as the
estate of an individual landowner, and the vast majority of holdings
run between one and three acres. With three acres a family is
deemed very comfortable, and the possession of ten acres means
luxury.

The only class which at all resembles the territorial magnates of
other countries is the class of retired officials. The wealth of an
official is not infrequently invested in land, and consequently there
are in most provinces several families with a country seat and the
usual insignia of local rank and influence. On the decease of the
heads or founders of such families it is considered dignified for the
sons to live together, sharing the rents and profits in common. This
is sometimes continued for several generations, until the country seat
becomes an agglomeration of households and the family a sort of
clan. A family of this kind, with literary traditions, and with the
means to educate the young men, is constantly sending its scions
into the public service. These in turn bring their earnings to
swell the common funds, while the rank and dignity which they
may earn add to the importance and standing of the group as a
whole. The members of this class are usually termed the literati or
gentry.

The complex character of the Chinese is shown in various ways.
Side by side with the reverence of ancestors the law recognizes the
right of the parent to sell his offspring into slavery and among the
poor this is not an uncommon practice, though in comparison with
the total population the number of slaves is few. The kidnapping of
children for sale as slaves is carried on, but there is no slave raiding.
There are more female than male slaves; the descendants of male
slaves acquire freedom in the fifth generation. While every Chinese
man is anxious to have male children, girls are often considered
superfluous.

The position of women is one of distinct inferiority; a woman is
always subject to the men of her family before marriage to her
father, during marriage to her husband, in widowhood to her son;
these states being known as " the three obediences." Sons who do
not, however, honour their mothers outrage public opinion. Polygamy
is tolerated, secondary wives being sometimes provided by the
first wife when she is growing old. Secondary wives are subordinate
to first wives. A wife may be divorced for any one of seven reasons.
The sale of wives is practised, but is not recognized by law. Women
of the upper classes are treated with much respect. The home of a
Chinese man is often in reality ruled by his mother, or by his wife as
she approaches old age, a state held in veneration. Chinese women
frequently prove of excellent business capacity, and those of high
rank as the recent history of China has conspicuously proved
exercise considerable influence on public affairs.

Deforming the feet of girls by binding and stopping their growth has
been common for centuries. The tottering walk of the Chinese lady
resulting from this deformation of the feet is the admiration of her
husband and friends. Foot-binding is practised by rich and poor in all
parts of the country, but is not universal. In southern and western
China Hakka women and certain others never have their feet bound.
It has been noted that officials (who all serve on the itinerary system)
take for secondary wives natural-footed women, who are frequently

slaves. 1 Every child is one at birth, and two on what Europeans
call its first birthday, the period of gestation counting as one year.

In their social intercourse the Chinese are polite and ceremonious;
they do not shake hands or kiss, but prostrations (kotowing), salu-
tations with joined hands and congratulations are common. They
have no weekly day of rest, but keep many festivals, the most im-
portant being that of New Year's Day. Debts are supposed to be
paid before New Year's Day begins and for the occasion new clothes
are bought. Other notable holidays are the Festival of the First
Full Moon, the Feast of Lanterns and the Festival of the Dragon
Boat. A feature of the festivals is the employment of thousands
of lanterns made of paper, covered with landscapes and other scenes
in gorgeous colours. Of outdoor sports kita-flying is the most
popular and is engaged in by adults; shuttle-cock is also a favourite
game, while cards and dominoes are indoor amusements. The
theatre and marionette shows are largely patronized. The habit of
opium smoking is referred to elsewhere; tobacco smoking is general
among both sexes.

Except in their head-dress and their shoes little distinction is made
between the costumes of men and women. 1 Both sexes wear a long
loose jacket or robe which fits closely round the neck and has wide
sleeves, and wide short trousers. Over the robe shorter jackets
often sleeveless are worn, according to the weather. For winter
wear the jackets are wadded, and a Chinaman will speak of " a
three, four or six coat cold day." A man's robe is generally longer
than that of a woman. Petticoats are worn by ladies on ceremonial
occasions and the long robe is removed when in the house. " It is
considered very unwomanly not to wear trousers, and very indelicate
for a man not to have skirts to his coat." No Chinese woman ever
bares any part of her body in public even the hands are concealed
in the large sleeves and the evening dress of European ladies is
considered indelicate; but Hakka women move about freely without
shoes or stockings. A Chinese man will, however, in warm weather
often strip naked to the waist. Coolies frequently go bare-legged;
they use sandals made of rope and possess rain-coats made of palm
leaves. The garments of the poorer classes are made of cotton,
generally dyed blue. Wealthy people have their clothes made of silk.
Skirts and jackets are elaborately embroidered. Costly furs and fur-
lined clothes are much prized, and many wealthy Chinese have fine
collections of furs. Certain colours may only be used with official
permission as denoting a definite rank or distinction, e.g. the yellow
jacket. The colours used harmonize the contrasts in colour seen in
the clothes of Europeans is avoided. Dark purple over blue are usual
colour combinations. The mourning colour is white. Common shoes
are made of cotton or silk and have thick felt soles; all officials wear
boots of satin into which is thrust the pipe or the fan the latter
carried equally by men and women. The fan is otherwise stuck at
the back of the neck, or attached to the girdle, which may also hold
the purse, watch, snuff-box and a pair of chop-sticks.

Formerly Chinese men let their hair grow sufficiently long to gather
it in a knot at the top ; on the conquest of the country by the Manchu
they were compelled to adopt the queue or pigtail, which is often
artificially lengthened by the employment of silk thread, usually
black in colour. The front part of the head is shaved. As no
Chinese dress their own hair, barbers are numerous and do a thriving
trade. Women do not shave the head nor adopt the queue. Men
wear in general a close-fitting cap, and the peasants large straw hats.
Circular caps, larger at the crown than round the head and with an
outward slope are worn in winter by mandarins, conical straw hats in
summer. Women have elaborate head ornaments, decking their hair
with artificial flowers, butterflies made of jade, gold pins and pearls.
The faces of Chinese ladies are habitually rouged, their eyebrows
painted. Pearl or bead necklaces are worn both by men and women.
Officials and men of leisure let one or two finger nails grow long and
protect them with a metal case.

The staple food of the majority of the Chinese in the south and
central provinces is rice; in the northern provinces millet as well
as rice is much eaten. In separate bowls are placed morsels of pork,
fish, chicken, vegetables and other relishes. Rice-flour, bean-meal,
macaroni, and shell fish are all largely used. Flour balls cooked in
sugar are esteemed. Beef is never eaten, but Mahommedans eat
mutton, and there is hardly any limit to the things the Chinese use
as food. In Canton dogs which have been specially fed are an article
of diet. Eggs are preserved for years in a solution of salt, lime and
wood-ash, or in spirits made from rice. Condiments are highly
prized, as are also preserved fruits. Special Chinese dishes are
soups made from sea-slugs and a glutinous substance found in
certain birds' nests, ducks' tongues, sharks' fins, the brains of
chickens and of fish, the sinews of deer and of whales, fish with
pickled fir-tree cones, and roots of the lotus lily. A kind of beer
brewed from rice is a usual drink; samshu is a spirit distilled from
the same grain and at dinners is served hot in small bowls. Excellent

1 Evidences of the social changes taking place in China are to be
found in the strong movement for the education of girls, and in the
formation of societies, under official patronage, to prevent the bind-
ing of women's feet.

J It must be remembered that there is great variety in the
costumes worn in the various provinces. The particulars here given
are of the most general styles of dress.

174

CHINA

[RELIGION

native wines are made. The Chinese are, however, abstemious with
regard to alcoholic liquors. Water is drunk hot by the very poor, as
a substitute for tea. Tea is drunk before and after meals in cups
without handle or saucer; the cups are always provided with a cover.
Two substantial meals are taken during the day luncheon and
dinner; the last named at varying hours from four till seven o'clock.
At dinner a rich man will offer his guest twenty-four or more dishes
(always a multiple of 4), four to six dishes being served at a time.
Food is eaten from bowls and with chop-sticks (q.v.) and little
porcelain spoons. Men dine by themselves when any guests are
present; dinner parties are sometimes given by ladies to ladies.
Chinese cookery is excellent; in the culinary art the Chinese are
reputed to be second only to the French.

Ethnologically the Chinese are classed among the Mongolian races
(in which division the Manchus are also included), although they
present many marked contrasts to the Mongols. The Tatars,
Tibetans, Burmese, Shans, Manchu and other races including the
Arab and Japanese have mingled with the indigenous population to
form the Chinese type, while aboriginal tribes still resist the pressure
of absorption by the dominant race (see ante, Population). The
Chinese are in fact ethnically a very mixed people, and the pure
Mongol type is uncommon among them. Moreover, natives of
different provinces still present striking contrasts one to another,
and their common culture is probably the strongest national link.
By some authorities it is held that the parent stock of the Chinese
came from the north-west, beyond the alluvial plain; others hold
that it was indigenous in eastern China. Notwithstanding the
marked differences between the inhabitants of different provinces
and even between those livingin the same province, certain features
are common to the race. "The stature is below the average and
seldom exceeds 5 ft. 4 in., except in the North. The head is normally
brachycephalic or round horizontally, and the forehead low and
narrow. The face is round, the mouth large, and the chin small and
receding. The cheek-bones are prominent, the eyes almond-shaped,
oblique upwards and outwards, and the hair coarse, lank and inva-
riably black. The beard appears late in life, and ^remains gener-
ally scanty. The eyebrows are straight and the iris of the eye is
black. The nose is generally short, broad and flat. The hands and
feet are disproportionately small, and the body early inclines to
obesity. The complexion varies from an almost pale-yellow to a
dark-brown, without any red or ruddy tinge. Yellow, however,
predominates." l

A few words may be added concerning the Manchus, who are the
ruling race in China. Their ethnic affinities are not precisely known,
but they may be classed among the Ural-Altaic tribes, although the
term Ural-Altaic (q.v.) denotes a linguistic rather than a racial group.
By some authorities they are called Tung-tatze, i.e. Eastern Tatars
the Tatars of to-day being of true Mongol descent. Manchu is the
name adopted in the I3th century by one of several tribes which
led a nomadic life in Manchuria and were known collectively in the
nth century as Niichihs. Some authorities regard the Khitans
(whence the European form Cathay), who in the 9th and loth
centuries dwelt in the upper Liao region, as the ancestors of this race.
It was not until the i6th century that the people became known
generally as Manchus and obtained possession of the whole of the
country now bearing their name (see MANCHURIA). They had then a
considerable mixture of Chinese and Korean blood, but had developed
a distinct nationality and kept their ancient Ural-Altaic language.
In China the Manchus retained their separate nationality and semi-
military organization. It was not until the early years of the 2oth
century that steps were officially taken to obliterate the distinction
between the two races. The Manchus are a more robust race than the
inhabitants of central and southern China, but resemble those of
northern China save that their eyes are horizontally set. They are a
lively and enterprising people, but have not in general the intellectual
or business ability of the Chinese. They are courteous in their
relations with strangers. The common people are frugal and
industrious. The Manchu family is generally large. The women's
feet are unbound; they twist their hair round a silver bangle placed
cross-wise on the top of the head. The Manchus have no literature
of their own, but as the language of the court Manchu has been
extensively studied in China.

AUTHORITIES. Sir John F. Davies, China (2 vols., London, 1857);
E. Reclus, The Universal Geography.vol. vii. (Eng. trans, ed. by E. G.
Ravenstein and A. H. Keane); E. and O. Reclus, L' Empire du
milieu (Paris, 1902); Sir R. K. Douglas, Society in China (London,
I8 95): J- Doolittle, Social Life of the Chinese (2 vols.. New York,
1867); H. A. Giles, China and the Chinese (1902); E. Bard, Les
Chinois chez eux (Paris, 1900); A. G. Jones, Desultory Notes on
Chinese Etiquette (Shanghai, 1906); Mrs Archibald Little, Intimate
China (London, 1899) and The Land of the Blue Gown (London,
1902); E. H. Parker, John Chinaman and a Few Others (London,
loo:); J. Dyer-Ball, Things Chinese (Shanghai, 1903); Chen,
Kitung, The Chinese Painted by Themselves (Eng. trans, by

Millington, London, 1885); L. Richard, Comprehensive Geography

of the Chinese Empire (Shanghai, 1908).

[x:

1 Richard's Comprehensive Geography, &c. (1908 edition), pp.
340-34I-

Religion.

The earliest traces of religious thought and practice in China
point to a simple monotheism. There was a Divine Ruler of
the universe, abiding on high, beyond the ken of man.
This Power was not regarded as the Creator of the
human race, but as a Supreme Being to whom wicked-
ness was abhorrent and virtuous conduct a source of
joy, and who dealt out rewards and punishments with unerring
justice, claiming neither love nor reverence from mankind. If
a man did his duty towards his neighbour, he might pass his
whole time on earth oblivious of the fact that such a Power was
in existence; unless perchance he wished to obtain some good
or attain some end, in which case he might seek to propitiate
Him by sacrifice and prayer. There was no Devil to tempt man
astray, and to rejoice in his fall; neither was there any belief
that righteous behaviour in this world would lead at death to
absorption in the Deity. To God, understood hi this sense, the
people gave the name Tien, which in the colloquial language
was used of the sky; and when, in the first stages of the written
character, it became necessary to express the idea of Tien, they
did not attempt any vague picture of the heavens, but set down
the rude outline of a man. Perhaps about this period the title
Shang Ti, or Supreme Ruler, came into vogue as synonymous
with Tien. But although the two terms were synonyms, and
both may be equally rendered by " God," there is nevertheless
an important distinction to be observed, much as though Tien
and Shang Ti were two Persons in one substance. Tien is far
more an abstract Being, while Shang Ti partakes rather of the
nature of a personal God, whose anthropomorphic nature is
much more strongly accentuated. Shang Ti is described as
walking and talking, as enjoying the flavour of sacrifices, as
pleased with music and dancing in his honour, and even as taking
sides in warfare; whereas T ten holds aloof, wrapped in an
impenetrable majesty, an ignolum pro mirifico. So much for
religion in primeval days, gathered scrap by scrap from many
sources; for nothing like a history of religion is to be found in
Chinese literature.

Gradually to this monotheistic conception was added a worship
of the sun, moon and constellations, of the five planets, and of
such noticeable individual stars as (e.g.) Canopus, which is now
looked upon as the home of the God of Longevity. Earth, too
Mother Earth came in for her share of worship, indicated
especially by the God of the Soil, and further distributed among
rivers and hills. Wind, rain, heat, cold, thunder and lightning,
as each became objects of desire or aversion, were invested with
the attributes of deities. The various parts of the house door,
kitchen-stove, courtyard, &c. were also conceived of as shelter-
ing some spirit whose influence might be benign or the reverse.
The spirits of the land and of grain came to mean one's country,
the commonwealth, the state; and the sacrifices of these spirits
by the emperor formed a public announcement of his accession,
or of his continued right to the throne. Side by side with such
sacrificial rites was the worship of ancestors, stretching so far
back that its origin is not discernible in such historical documents
as we possess. In early times only the emperor, or the feudal
nobles, or certain high officials, could sacrifice to the spirits
of nature; the common people sacrificed to their own ancestors
and to the spirits of their own homes. For three days before
performing such sacrifices, a strict vigil with purification was
maintained; and by the expiration of that time, from sheer
concentration of thought, the mourner was able to see the spirits
of the departed, and at the sacrifice next day seemed to hear their
movements and even the murmur of their sighs. Ancestral
worship in China has always been, and still is, worship in the
strict sense of the term. It is not a memorial service in simple
honour of the dead; but sacrifices are offered, and the whole
ceremonial is performed that the spirits of former ancestors may
be induced to extend their protection to the living and secure to
them as many as possible of the good things of this world.

For Confucianism, which cannot, strictly speaking, be classed
as a religion, see CONFUCIUS.

RELIGION]

CHINA

Around the scanty utterances of Lao Tzu or Lao-tsze (q.v. ;
see also Chinese Literature, Philosophy) an attempt was made
by later writers to weave a scheme of thought which
Taoism. should serve to satisfy the cravings of mortals for some
definite solution of the puzzle of life. Lao Tzu himself had enunciated
a criterion which he called Tao,or the Way, from which is derived the
word Taoism; and in his usual paradoxical style he had asserted
that the secret of this Way, which was at the beginning apparently
nothing more than a line of right conduct, could not possibly be im-
parted, even by those who understood it. His disciples, however, of
later days proceeded to interpret the term in the sense of the Absolute,
the First Cause, and finally as One, in whose obliterating unity all
seemingly opposed conditions of time and space were indistinguish-
ably blended. This One, the source of human life, was placed beyond
the limits of the visible universe; and for human life to return
thither at death and to enjoy immortality, it was only necessary to
refine away all corporeal grossness by following the doctrines of Lao
Tzu. By and by, this One came to be regarded as a fixed point of
dazzling luminosity in remote ether, around which circled for ever
and ever, in the supremest glorv of motion, the souls of those who
had left the slough of humanity behind them. These transcendental
notions were entirely corrupted at a very early date by the intro-
duction of belief in an elixir of life, and later still by the practice of
alchemistic experiments. Opposed by Buddhism, which next laid a
claim for a share in the profits of popular patronage, Taoism rapidly
underwent a radical transformation. It became a religion, borrowing
certain ceremonial, vestments, liturgies, the idea of a hell, arrange-
ment of temples, &c., from its rival; which rival was not slow in re-
turning the compliment. As Chu Hsi said, " Buddhism stole the best
features of Taoism; Taoism stole the worst features of Buddhism.
It is as though one took a jewel from the other, and the loser
recouped the loss with a stone." At the present day there is not
much to choose between the two religions, which flourish peaceably
together. As to their temples, priests and ceremonial, it takes an
expert to distinguish one from the other.

There is no trustworthy information as to the exact date at which
Buddhism first reached China. It is related that the emperor Ming
Ti (A.D. 58-76) had a dream in which a golden man ap-
"" peared to him, and this mysterious visitant was interpreted
by the emperor's brother to be none other than Shakyamuni Buddha,
the far-famed divinity of the West. This shows that Buddhism must
then have been known to the Chinese, at any rate by hearsay. The
earliest alleged appearance of Buddhism in China dates from 217 B.C.,
when certain Shamans who came to proselytize were seized and
thrown into prison. They escaped through the miraculous inter-
vention of a golden man, who came to them in the middle of the night
and opened their prison doors. Hsu Kuan, a writer of the Sung
dynasty, quotes in his Tung Chai, Chi passages to support the view
that Buddhism was known in China some centuries before the reign
of Ming Ti; among others, the following from the Sui Shu Ching
Chi Chih: " These Buddhist writings had long been circulated far
and wide, but disappeared with the advent of the Ch'in dynasty,"
under which (see Chinese Literature, //ii/ory)occurred the Burn-
ing of the Books. It is, however, convenient to begin with the alleged
dream of Ming Ti, as it was only subsequent to that date that
Buddhism became a recognized religion of the people. It is certain
that in A.D. 65 a mission of eighteen members was despatched to
Khotan to make inquiries on the subject, and that in 67 the mission
returned, bringing Buddhist writings and images, and accompanied
by an Indian priest, Kashiapmadanga, who was followed shortly
afterwards by another priest, Gobharana. A temple was built for
these two at Lo-yang, then the capital of China, and they settled
down to the work of translating portions of the Buddhist scriptures
into Chinese; but all that now remains of their work is the Sutra of
Forty-two Sections, translated by Kashiapmadanga. During the
next two hundred and fifty years an unbroken line of foreign priests
came to China to continue the task of translation, and to assist in
spreading the faith. Such work was indeed entirely in their hands,
for until the 4th century the Chinese people were prohibited from
taking orders as priests; but by that date Buddhism had taken a
firm hold upon the masses, and many Chinese priests were attracted
towards India, despite the long and dangerous journey, partly to
visit the birthplace of the creed and to see with their own eyes the
scenes which had so fired their imaginations, and partly in the hope
of addingfto the store of books and images already available in China
(see Chinese Literature, Geography and Travel). Still, the train
of Indian missionaries, moving in the opposite direction, did not
cease. In 401 , Kumarajiva, the nineteenth of the Western Patriarchs
and translator of the Diamond Sutra, finally took up his residence
at the court of the soi-disant emperor, Yao Hsing. In 405 he became
State Preceptor and dictated his commentaries on the sacred books
of Buddhism to some eight hundred priests, besides composing a
shastra on Reality and Semblance. Dying in 417, his body was
cremated, as is stilj usual with priests, but his tongue, which had done
such eminent service during life, remained unharmed in the midst of
the flames. In the year 520 Bodhidharma, or Ta-mo, as he is
affectionately known to the Chinese, being also called the White
Buddha, reached Canton, bringing with him the sacred bowl of the
Buddhist Patriarchate, of which he was the last representative in the
west and the first to hold office in the east. Summoned to Nanking,

he offended the emperor by asserting that real merit lay, not in works,
but solely in purity and wisdom combined. He therefore retired to
Lo-yang, crossing the swollen waters of the Yangtsze on a reed, a
feat which has ever since had a great fascination for Chinese painters
and poets. There he spent the rest of his life, teaching that religion
was not to be learnt from books, but that man shouhf seek ?nd find
the Buddha in his own heart. Thus Buddhism gradually made its
way. It had to meet first of all the bitter hostility of the Taoists;
and secondly, the fitful patronage and opposition of the court.
Several emperors and empresses were infatuated supporters of the
faith; one even went so far as to take vows and lead the life of an
ascetiCj further insisting that to render full obedience to the Buddhist
commandment, " Thou shalt not kill," the sacrificial animals were to
be made of dough. Other emperors, instigated by Confucian advisers,
went to the opposite _ extreme of persecution, closed all religious
houses, confiscated their property, and forced the priests and nuns to
return to the world. From about the nth century onwards Buddhism
has enjoyed comparative immunity from attack or restriction, and it
now covers the Chinese empire from end to end. The form under
which it apoears in China is to some extent of local growth ; that is to
say, the Chinese have added and subtracted not a Rttle to and from
the parent stock. The cleavage which took place under Kanishka,
ruler of the Indo-Scythian empire, about the 1st century A.D.,
divided Buddhism into the Mahayana, or Greater Vehicle, and the
Hinayana, as it is somewhat contemptuously styled, or Lesser
Vehicle. The latter was the nearer of the two to the Buddhism of
Shakyamuni, and exhibits rather the mystic and esoteric sides of the
faith. The former, which spread northwards and on to Nepaul,
Tibet, China, Mongolia and Japan, leaving southern India, Burma
and Siam to its rival, began early to lean towards the deification of
Buddha as a personal Saviour. New Buddhas and BOdhisatvas were
added, and new worlds were provided for them to live in; in China,
especially, there was an enormous extension of the mythological
element. In fact, the Mahayana system of Buddhism, inspired, as
has been observed, by a progressive spirit, but without contradicting
the inner significance of the teachings of Buddha, broadened its scope
and assimilated other religio-philosophical beliefs, .whenever this
could be done to the advantage of those who came within its influ-
ence. Such is the form of this religion which prevails in China, of
which, however, the Chinese layman understands nothing. He goes
to a temple, worships the gods with prostrations, lighted candles,
incense, &c., to secure his particular ends at the moment; he may
even listen to a service chanted in a foreign tongue and just as in-
comprehensible to the priests as to himself. He pays his fees and
departs, absolutely ignorant of the history or dogmas of the religion
to which he looks for salvation in a future state. All such knowledge,
and there is now not much of it, is confined to a few of the more
cultured priests.

The 7th century seems to have been notable in the religious
history of China. Early in that century, Mazdaism, or the religion
of Zoroaster, based upon the worship of fire, was intro-
duced into China, and in 621 the first temple under that n * taalsm -
denomination was built at Ch'ang-an in Shensi, then the capital.
But the_ harvest of converts was insignificant; the religion failed
to hold its ground, and in the'gth century disappeared altogether.

Mahommedans first settled in China in the Year of the Mission,
A.D. 628, under Wahb-Abi-Kabha, a maternal uncle of Mahomet,
who was sent with presents to the emperor. Wahb-Abi-
Kabha travelled by sea to Canton, and thence over-'"'
land to Ch'ang-an, the capital, where he was well re- medaal
ceived. The first mosque was built at Canton, where after several
restorations, it still exists. Another mosque was erected in 742 ;
but many of the Mahommedans went to China merely as traders,
and afterwards returned to their own country. The true stock of

they married native wives; and four centuries later, with the
conquests of Jenghiz Khan, large numbers of Arabs penetrated
into the empire and swelled the Mahommedan community. Its
members are now indistinguishable from the general population;
they are under no civic disabilities, and are free to open mosques
wherever they please, so long as, in common with Buddhists and
Taoists, they exhibit the tablet of the emperor's sovereignty in
some conspicuous position.

In A.D. 631 the Nestorians sent a mission to China and intro-
duced Christianity under the name of the Luminous Doctrine.
In 636 they were allowed to settle at Ch'ang-an; and in
638 an Imperial Decree was issued, stating that Olopun,
a Nestorian priest who is casually mentioned as a Persian, tonum.
had presented a form of religion which his Majesty had carefully
examined and had found to be in every way satisfactory, and that
it would henceforth be permissible to preach this new doctrine within
the boundaries of the empire. Further, the establishment of a
monastery was authorized, to be served by twenty-one priests.
For more than a century after this, Nestorian Christianity seems to
have flourished in China. In 781 the famous Nestorian Tablet,

1 Otherwise Abu Ja'far Ibn Mahommed al-Mansur (see CALIPHATE,
C. 2).

176

CHINA

[EDUCATION

giving a rough outline of the object and scope of the faith, was se
up at Ch'ang-an (the modern Si-gan Fu), disappearing soon after
wards in the political troubles which laid the city in ruins, to be
brought to light again in 1625 by Father Semedo, S. I. " The genuine
ness of this tablet was for many years in dispute, Voltaire, Renan
and others of lesser fame regarding it as a pious Jesuit fraud; bu
all doubts on the subject have now been dispelled by the exhaustivi
monograph of Pere Havret, S. J., entitled La Stile de Si-ngan. The
date of the tablet seems to mark the zenith of Nestorian Christianity
in China; after this date it began to decay. Marco Polo refers
to it as existing in the I3th century; but then it fades out o
sight, leaving scant traces in Chinese literature of ever having
existed.

The Manichaeans, worshippers of the Chaidaean Mani or Manes,
who died about A.D. 274, appear to have found their way to China
Maaich * n tne year 6 94- In 719 an envoy from Tokharestan
reached Ch'ang-an, bringing a letter to the emperor, in
which a request was made that an astronomer who
accompanied the mission might be permitted to establish places ol
worship for persons of the Manichaean faith. Subsequently, a
number of such chapels were_ opened at various centres; but little
is known of the history of this religion, which is often confounded
by Chinese writers with Mazdeism, the fate of which it seems to have
shared, also disappearing about the middle of the gth century.

By " the sect of those who take out the sinew," the Chinese refer
to the Jews and their peculiar method of preparing meat in order
Judaism to mak ? il k <? sfler - wild stories have been told of their
arrival in China seven centuries before the Christian era,
after one of the numerous upheavals mentioned in the Old Testa-
ment; and again, of their having carried the Pentateuch to China
shortly after the Babylonish captivity, and having founded a
colony in Ho-nan in A.D. 72. The Jews really reached China for the
first time in the year A.D. 1163, and were permitted to open a syna-
gogue at the modern K'ai-fSng Fu in 1164. There they seem to
have lived peaceably, enjoying the protection of the authorities
and making some slight efforts to spread their tenets. There their
descendants were found, a dwindling community, by the Jesuit
Fathers of the I7th century; and there again they were visited in
1850 by a Protestant mission, which succeeded in obtaining from
them Hebrew rolls of parts of the Pentateuch in the square character,
with vowel points. After this, it was generally believed that the
few remaining stragglers, who seemed to be entirely ignorant of
everything connected with their faith, had become merged in the
ordinary population. A recent traveller, however, asserts that in
1909 he found at K'ai-fSng Fu a Jewish community, the members
of which keep as much as possible to themselves, worshipping in
secret, and preserving their ancient ritual and formulary.

See H. Hackmann, Buddhism as a Religion (1910); H. A. Giles,
Religions of Ancient China (1905) ; G. Smith, The Jews at K'ae-fung-
foo (1851); Dabry de Thiersant, Le Mahometisme en Chine (1878);
P. Havret, S.J., La Stele chretienne de Si-ngan fou (1895).

(H. A. Gi.)

[Christian missions, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, are
established in every province in China. Freedom to embrace the
Christian Christian faith has been guaranteed by the Chinese govern-
i/ missions ment since 1 860, and as a rule the missionaries have free
/ ' scope in teaching and preaching, though local disturbances

are not infrequent. The number of members of the Roman Catholic
Church in China was reckoned by the Jesuit fathers at Shanghai to
be, in 1907, " about one million ; in the same year the Protestant
societies reckoned in all 250,000 church members. By the Chinese,
Roman Catholicism is called the " Religion of the Lord of Heaven " ;
Protestantism the " Religion of Jesus." For the progress and effects
of Christianity in China see History, and MISSIONS, China. ED.]

Education and the Press.

The educational system of China till nearly the close of the
igth century was confined in its scope to the study of Chinese
classics. Elementary instruction was not provided by the state.
The well-to-do engaged private tutors for their sons; the poorer
boys were taught in small schools on a voluntary basis. No
curriculum was compulsory, but the books used and the pro-
gramme pursued followed a traditional rule. The boys (there
were no schools for girls) began by memorizing the classics for
four or five years. Then followed letter-writing and easy
composition. This completed the education of the vast majority
of the boys not intended for the public service. The chief
merit of the system was that it developed the memory
and the imitative faculty. For secondary education some-
what better provision was made, practically the only method
of attaining eminence in the state being through the schools
(see Civil Service). At prefectural cities and provincial
capitals colleges were maintained at the public expense, and
at these institutions a more or less thorough knowledge of
the classics might be obtained. At the public examinations

held periodically the exercises proposed were original poems
and literary essays. Three degrees were conferred, Siu-ts'ai

(budding talent), ChU-jen (promoted scholar) and Chin-skik

(entered scholar). The last degree was given to those who
passed the final examination at Peking, and the successful can-
didates were also called metropolitan graduates.

^ The first education on western lines wag given by the Roman
Catholic missionaries. In 1852 they founded a college for the
education of native priests; they also founded and maintained many
primary and some higher schools mainly if not exclusively for the
benefit of their converts. The Protestant missions followed the ex-
ample of the Roman Catholics, but a new departure, which has had
a wide success, was initiated by the American Protestant missionary
societies in founding schools primary and higher and colleges in
which western education was given equally to all comers, Christian
or non-Christian. Universities and medical schools have also been
established by the missionary societies. They also initiated a move-
ment for the education of girls and opened special schools for their
instruction.

Missionary effort apart, the first step towards western education
was the establishment of two colleges in 1861, one at Peking, the
other at Canton in connexion with the imperial maritime customs.
These institutions were known as T'ung Wen Kwan, and were pro-
vided with a staff of foreign professors and teachers. These colleges
were mainly schools of languages to enable young Chinese to qualify
as interpreters in English, French, &c. Similar schools were
established at Canton, Fuchow and one or two other places, with but
indifferent results. A more promising plan was conceived in 1880,
or thereabouts, by the then viceroy ofNanking, who sent a batch of
thirty or forty students to America to receive a regular training on
the understanding that on their return they would receive official
appointments. The promise was not kept. A report was spread that
these students were becoming too much Americanized. They were
hastily recalled, and when they returned they were left in obscurity.
The next step was taken by the viceroy Chang Chih-tung after the
Chino-Japanese War of 1894-95. The viceroy wrote a book, China's
Only Hope, which he circulated throughout the empire, and in which
he strongly advocated a reform of the traditional educational
system. His scheme was to make Chinese learning the foundation
on which a western education should be imparted. 1 The book was
one of the factors in the 1898 reform movement, and Chang Chih-
tung's proposals were condemned when that movement was sup-
pressed. But after the Boxer rising the Peking government adopted
nis views, and in 1902 regulations were issued for the reform of the old
system of public instruction. A university on western lines was
established in that year at Peking, the T'ung Wen Kwan at
the capital being incorporated in it. The new educational move-
ment gained enormously in strength as the result of the Russo-
Japanese War, and in 1906 a new system, theoretically almost
perfect, was established. The new system comprises the study
of the Chinese language, literature and composition, modern
sciences, history and geography, foreign languages, 1 gymnastics,
drill and, in the higher grades, political economy, and civil and
international law.

By 1910 primary and secondary government schools and schools
'or special subjects (such as agriculture and engineering) had been
;stablished in considerable numbers. In every province an Imperial
University was also established. The Imperial University at Peking
now teaches not only languages and Chinese subjects but also law,
:hemistry, mathematics, &c. A medical school was founded at
Peking in 1906 through the energy of British Protestant missionaries,
and is called the Union Medical College. When in 1908, the United
States, finding that the indemnity for the Boxer outrages awarded her
was excessive, agreed to forgo the payment of 2,500,000, China
undertook to spend an equal amount in sending students to America.

The general verdict of foreign observers on tne working of the new

system up to 1910 was that in many instances the teaching was

Ineffective, but there were notable exceptions. The best teachers,

lext to Europeans, were foreign or mission-trained Chinese. The

fapanese employed as teachers were often ignorant of Chinese and

were not as a rule very successful. (See further History.) A

remarkable indication of the thirst for western learning and cul-

ure was the translation into Chinese and their diffusion throughout

he country of numerous foreign standard and other works, including

modern fiction.

The Peking Gazette, which is sometimes called the oldest paper in
he world, is not a newspaper in the ordinary sense, but merely a
:ourt gazette for publishing imperial decrees and such public docu-
ments as the government may wish to give out. It never contains
original articles nor any discussion of public affairs. The first

1 For a summary of Chang Chih-tung's treatise, see Changing
'hina (1910 edition), chap. xxii.

1 It was announced in June 1910 that the throne had approved

a recommendation of the Board of Education that English should

be the official language for scientific and technical education, and

hat the study of English should be compulsory in all provincial

scientific and technical schools.

AGRICULTURE]

CHINA

genuine native newspaper was published at Shanghai about 1870. It

was termed the Shen Poo or Shanghai News, and was a Chinese

speculation under foreign protection, the first editor being

an Englishman. It was some years before it made much

headway, but success came, and it was followed by various

imitators, some published at Shanghai, some at other treaty ports

and at Hong-Kong. In 1910 there were over 200 daily, weekly or

monthly journals in China. The effect of this mass of literature on

the public mind of China is of first-rate importance.

The attitude of the central government towards the native
press is somewhat undefined. Official registration of a newspaper is
required before postal facilities are given. There are no press laws,
but as every official is a law unto himself in these matters, there is
nothing to prevent him from summarily suppressing an obnoxious
newspaper and putting the editor in prison. The emperor, among
other reform edicts which provoked the coup d'etat of 1898, declared
that newspapers were a boon to the public and appointed one of them
a government organ. The empress-dowager revoked this decree, and
declared that the public discussion of affairs of state in the news-
papers was an impertinence, and ought to be suppressed. Neverthe-
less the newspapers continued to flourish, and their outspoken
criticism had a salutary effect on the public and on the government.
The official classes seem to have become alarmed at the independent
attitude of the newspapers, but instead of a campaign of suppression
the method was adopted, about 1908, of bringing the vernacular
press under official control. This was accomplished chiefly by the
purchase of the newspapers by the mandarins, with the result that at
the beginning of 1910 there was said to be hardly an independent
native daily newspaper left in China. The use of government funds
to subsidize or to purchase newspapers and thus to stifle or mislead
public opinion provoked strong protests from members of the Nanking
provincial council at its first sitting in the autumn of 1909. The
appropriation by the Shanghai Taot'ai of moneys belonging to the
Huangpu conservancy fund for subsidizing papers led to his im-
peachment by a censor and to the return of the moneys. 1 (X.)

III. ECONOMICS
Agriculture and Industry.

China is pre-eminently an agricultural country. The great
majority of its inhabitants are cultivators of the soil. The
holdings are in general very small, and the methods of farming
primitive. Water is abundant and irrigation common over
large areas. Stock-raising, except in Sze-ch'uen and Kwang-tung,
is only practised to a small extent; there are few large herds of
cattle or flocks of sheep, nor are there any large meadows, natural
or cultivated. In Sze-ch'uen yaks, sheep and goats are reared
in the mountains, and buffaloes and a fine breed of ponies on
the plateau. Cattle are extensively reared in the mountainous
districts of Kwang-tung. The camel, horse and donkey are
reared in Chih-li. Forestry is likewise neglected. While the
existing forests, found mainly in high regions in the provinces
of Hu-nan, Fu-kien and Kwei-chow, are disappearing and timber
has to be imported, few trees are planted. This does not apply
to fruit trees, which are grown in great variety, while horticulture
is also a favourite pursuit.

The Chinese farmer, if his methods be primitive, is diligent
and persevering. In the richer and most thickly populated
districts terraces are raised on the mountain sides, nd even
the tops of lofty hills are cultivated. The nature of the soil and
means of irrigation as well as climate are determining factors in
the nature of the crops grown; rice and cotton, for example,
are grown in the most northern as well as the most southern
districts of China. This is, however, exceptional and each climatic
region has its characteristic cultures.

The Joess soil (see Geology) is the chief element in determining
the agricultural products of north China. Loess soil bears excellent
g H f crops, and not merely on the lower grounds, but at

altitudes of 6000 and 8000 ft. Wherever loess is found the
peasant can live and thrive. Only one thing is essential, and that
is the annual rainfall. As, owing to the porous nature of loess, no
artificial irrigation is possible, if the rain fails the crops must neces-
sarily fail. Thus seasons of great famine alternate with seasons of
' great plenty. It appears, also, that the soil needs little or no manur-
ing and very little tillage. From its extremely friable nature it is
easily broken up, and thus a less amount of labour is required than
in other parts The extreme porosity of the soil probably also
accounts for the length of time it will go on bearing crops without
becoming exhausted. The rainfall, penetrating deeply into the soil
in the absence of stratification, comes into contact with the moisture
retained below, which holds in solution whatever inorganic salts

1 Sec The Times of the igth of February and the 3rd of May 1910.

the soil may contain, and thus the vegetation has an indefinite store
to draw upon. 1

There is no one dominant deposit in south China, where red sand-
stone and limestone formations are frequent. Cultivation here is
not possible on the high elevations as in the north, but in the plains
and river valleys the soil is exceedingly fertile, while the lower
slopes of the mountains are also cultivated. In the north, moreover,
but one crop, in general, can be raised in the year. In the centre
two and sometimes three crops are raised yearly, and in the south,
especially in the lower basin of the Si-kiang, three crops are normally
gathered. In the north, too, the farmer has frequently to contend
with drought or with rain or floods; in the central and southern
regions the weather is more settled.

In the north of China wheat, barley, millet, buckwheat and maize
are the staple crops. Beans and peas are also cultivated. Rice
thrives in north-east Kan-suh, in some districts of Shan-
si, in the extreme south of Shan-tung and in parts of
the Wei-ho plain in Shen-si. Cotton is grown in Shen-si
and Shan-tung. In Kan-suh and Shen-si two crops are
raised in favoured localities, cereals in spring and cotton or rice in
summer. Tobacco and the poppy are also grown in several of the
northern provinces. Rhubarb and fruit trees are largely cultivated
in the western part of north China.

In the central provinces tea, cotton, rice and ramie fibre are the
chief crops. Tea is most largely cultivated in Ngan-hui, Kiang-si,
Hu-peh, Hu-nan, Sze-ch'uen and Yun-nan. Cotton is chiefly grown
in Kiang-su, Ngan-hui and Hu-peh. The seed is sown in May and
the crops gathered in September. The cotton is known as white
and yellow, the white variety being the better and the most cultivated.
The poppy is largely cultivated and, in connexion with the silk
industry, the mulberry tree. The mulberry is found principally in
the provinces of Sze-ch'uen, Kiang-su and Cheh-kiang. The central
provinces are also noted for their gum-lac, varnish and tallow trees.

The crops of the south-eastern provinces are much the same as
those of the central provinces, but are predominantly rice, the sugar-
cane, ground-nuts and cinnamon. Tea is the chief crop in Fu-kien.
The sugar-cane is principally cultivated in Kwang-tung, Fu-!den
and Sze-ch'uen. In the south-western provinces the poppy, tea,
tobacco and rice are the chief crops. Wheat, maize and barley are
also largely raised.

While rice does not, unlike tea and cotton, form the principal
crop of any one province it is more universally cultivated than any
other plant and forms an important item in the products of all the
central and southern provinces. Regarding China as a whole it
forms the staple product and food of the country. Two chief
varieties are grown, that suited only to low-lying regions requiring
ample water and the red rice cultivated in the uplands. Next to
rice the most extensively cultivated plants are tea and cotton, the
sugar-cane, poppy and bamboo. Besides the infinite variety of
uses to which the wood of the bamboo is applied, its tender snoots
and its fruit are articles of diet.

Fruit is extensively cultivated throughout China. In the northern
provinces the chief fruits grov/n are pears, plums, apples, apricots,
peaches, medlars, wajnuts and chestnuts, and in Kan-suh ..
and Shan-tung the jujube (q.v.). Strawberries are an
important crop in Kan-suh. In Shan-si, S.W. Chih-li and Shan-tung
the vine is cultivated ; the grapes of Shan-si are reputed to produce
the best wine of China. Oranges are also grown in favoured localities
in the north. The chief fruits of the central and southern provinces
are the orange, lichi, mango, persimmon, banana, vine and pine-
apple, but the fruits of the northern regions are also grown. The
coco-nut and other palms flourish on the southern coast.

As shown above, the poppy nas been grown .in almost every
district of China. In 1906 it was chiefly cultivated in the following
provinces: Yun-nan, Kwei-chow, Sze-ch'uen, Kan-suh, _.
Shen-si, Shan-si, Shan-tung, Ho-nan, Kiang-su (northern poop
part) and Cheh-kiang. The poppy is first mentioned in
Chinese literature in a book written in the first half of the 8th
century A.D., and its medicinal qualities are referred to in the Her-
balist's Treasury of 973. It was not than nor for centuries later
grown in China for the preparation of opium. 3 There is no evidence
to show that the Chinese ever took opium in the shape of pills
(otherwise than medicinally). The cultivation of the poppy for the
manufacture of opium began in China in the i?th century, but it
was not until after 1796, when the importation of foreign opium was
declared illegal, that the plant was cultivated on an extensive scale.
After 1906 large areas which had been devoted to the poppy were
given over to other crops, in consequence of the imperial edict aimed
at the suppression of opium-smoking (see History).

Mining. The mineral resources of China are great, but the
government has shown a marked repugnance to allow foreigners

1 Another peculiarity of loess in China is that it lends itself
readily to the excavation of dwellings for the people. In many
places whole villages live in cave dwellings dug out in the vertical
wall of loess. They construct spiral staircases, selecting places
where the ground is firm, and excavate endless chambers and
recesses which are said to be very comfortable and salubrious.

' See J. Edktns, The Poppy in China, and H. B. Morse, The Trade
and A dministration of the Chinese Empire, chap. xi.

178

CHINA

[COMMERCE

to work mines, and'the mineral wealth has been very inadequately
exploited. Mining operations are controlled by the Board of
Commerce. In 1907 this board drew up regulations respecting
the constitution of mining and other companies. They contained
many features against which foreign powers protested.

Coal, iron, copper and tin are the principal minerals found in
China ; there are also extensive deposits of coal and other minerals
in Manchuria. In China proper the largest coal measures
are found in Shan-si, Hu-nan, Kwei-chow and Sze-ch'uen.
There are also important coalfields in Chih-li, Shan-tung, Shen-si,
Ho-nan, Yun-nan, Hu-peh and Kwang-tung and almost all of the
seven other provinces have also coal measures of more or less value.
The lack of transport facilities as well as the aversion from the
employment of foreign capital has greatly hindered the development
of mining. Numerous small mines have been worked for a long
period by the natives in the province of Hu-nan. There are two
principal local fields in this province, one lying in the basin of the
Lei river and yielding anthracite, and the other in the basin of the
Siang river yielding tituminous coal. Both rivers drain into the
Yangtsze, and there is thus an easy outlet by water to Hankow.
The quality of the coal, however, is inferior, as the stratification has
been much disturbed, and the coal-seams have been in consequence
crushed and broken. The largest coalfield in China lies in the province
of Shan-si. Coal and iron have here been worked by the natives
from time immemorial, but owing to the difficulty of transport they
have attained only a limited local circulation. The whole of southern
Shan-si, extending over 30,000 sq. m., is one vast coalfield, and
contains, according to the estimate of Baron von Richthofen, enough
coal to last the world at the present rate of consumption for several
thousand years. The coal-seams, which are from 20 to 36 ft. in
thickness, rest conformably on a substructure of limestone. The
stratification is throughout undisturbed and practically horizontal.
As the limestone bed is raised some 2000 ft. above the neighbouring
plain the coal-seams crop out in all directions. Mining is thus carried
on by adits driven into the face of the formation, rendering the
mining of the coal extremely easy. The coalfield is divided into two
by a mountain range of ancient granitic formation running north-
east and south-west, termed the Ho-shan. It is of anterior date to
the limestone and coal formations, and has not affected the uni-
formity of the stratification, but it has this peculiarity, that the coal
on the east side is anthracite, and that on the west side is bituminous.
A concession to work coal and iron in certain specified districts in
this area was granted to a British company, the Peking Syndicate,
together with the right to connect the mines by railway with water
navigation. The syndicate built a railway in Shan-si from P'ingyang
to Tsi-chow-fu, the centre of a vast coalfield, and connected with
the main Peking- Hankow line; lines to serve coal mines have also
been built in Hu-nan and other provinces. The earliest in date was
that to the Ka'ip'ing collieries in the east of the province of Chih-li,
the railway connecting the mines with the seaport of Taku. The
coal at K'aip'ing is a soft bituminous coal with a large proportion
of dust. The output is about 1,500,000 tons per annum. A
mine has also been opened in the province of Hu-peh, about 6p m.
below Hankow, and near the Yangtsze, in connexion with iron-
works.

Iron ore of various qualities is found almost as widely diffused
as coal. The districts where it is most worked at present lie within
Iron ^ e coa 'field of Shan-si, viz. at Tsi-chow-fu and P'ing-

ting-chow. The ore is a mixture of clay iron ore and
spathic ore, together with limonite and hematite. It is found
abundantly in irregular deposits in the Coal Measures, and is easily
smelted by the natives in crucibles laid in open furnaces. -This
region supplies nearly the whole of north China with the iron required
for agricultural and domestic use. The out-turn must be very
considerable, but no data are available for forming an accurate
estimate. The province of Sze-ch'uen also yields an abundance of
iron ores of various kinds. They are worked by the natives in
numerous places, but always on a small scale and for local con-
sumption only. The ores occur in the Coal Measures, predominant
among them being a clay iron ore. Hu-nan, Fu-kien, Cheh-kiang and
Shan-tung all furnish iron ores. Iron (found in conjunction with
coal) is worked in Manchuria.

Copper is found chiefly in the provinces of Kwei-chow and Yun-nan,
where a rich belt of copper-bearing ores runs east and west across
_ both provinces, and including south Sze-ch'uen. The

aa&L chief centres of production are at the cities of Tung-
ch'uen-fu, Chow-t'ung and Ning-yuen. The mines are
worked as a government monopoly, private mining being nominally
prohibited. The output is considerable, but no statistics are pub-
lished by government. Rich veins of copper ore are also worked
near Kiu-kiang. Tin is mined in Yun-nan, the headquarters of the
industry being the city of Meng-tsze, which since 1909 has been
connected with Hanoi by railway. This is an important industry,
the value of tin exported in 1908 being 600,000. Tin is also mined
in Hai-nan and lead in Yun-nan. Antimony ore is exported from
Hu-nan; petroleum is found in the upper Yangtsze region. Quick-
silver is obtained in Kwei-chow. Salt is obtained from brine wells
in Shan-si and Sre-ch'uen, and by evaporation from sea water.

Excellent kaolin abounds in the north-eastern part of Kiang-si, and
is largely used in the manufacture of porcelain.

The Chinese government has opened small gold mines at Hai-nan,
in which island silver is also found. A little gold-washing is done
in the sandy beds of certain rivers, for instance, the Han ^^
river and the upper Yangtsze, above Su-chow (Suifu),
which here goes by the name of the "Goldsand" river.
The amount so extracted is extremely small and hardly pays the
labour of washing, but the existence of gold grains points to a matrix
higher up. The whole of south-western China has the reputation of
being highly metalliferous. Gold is obtained in some quantities on
the upper waters of the Amur river, on the frontier between China
and Siberia. The washings are carried on by Chinese. Gold has
also been found in quartz veins at P'ing-tu, in Shan-tung, but hardly
in paying quantities. There are silver mines in Yun-nan.

Manufactures. The principal native manufactures before the
competition of western nations made itself felt were apart from
the preparation of tea and other produce for the market
those of porcelain and silk. The silks and gauzes of Su- s "* a *"
chow and Nanking in the province of Kiang-su, and those Porcelain.
of Hang-chow in Cheh-kiang, are highly esteemed throughout China.
Silk-weaving is still carried on solely in native looms and chiefly in
the cities named. The greater part of the silk spun is used in China,
but a considerable export trade has grown up and 27 % of the world's
supply of raw silk is from China. The reeling of silk cocoons by
steam-machinery is supplanting native methods. There are filatures
for winding silk at Shanghai, Canton, Chifu and other cities.

The most famous porcelain came from the province of Kiang-si,
the seat of the industry being the city of King-te-chen. Imperial
works were established here about the year A. D. looo.and the finest
porcelain is sent to Peking for the use of the emperor. At one time
1,000,000 work-people were said to be employed, and the kilns
numbered 600. The Taiping rebels destroyed the kilns in 1850.
Some of them have been rebuilt. " Activity begins to reign anew,
but the porcelain turned out is far from equalling in colour and finish
that of former times. At the present day King-te-chen has but 1 60
furnaces and employs 160,000 workmen." 1 The common rice bowls
sold throughout China are manufactured here. The value of the
export sales is said to be about 500,000 yearly.

The spinning and weaving of cotton on hand-looms is carried on
almost universally. Besides that locally manufactured, the whole of
the large import of Indian yarn is worked up into cloth by
the women of the household. Four-fifths of the clothing Cotton,
of the lower classes is supplied by this domestic industry. ""

Of minor industries Indian ink is manufactured in Ngan-hui and Sze-
ch'uen, fans, furniture, lacquer ware and matting in Kwang-tung,
dyes in Cheh-kiang and Chih-li, and varnished tiles in Hu-nan.
Paper, bricks and earthenware are made in almost all the provinces.

Of industries on a large scale^other than those indicated the
most important are cotton-spinning and weaving mills established
by foreign companies at Shanghai. Permission to carry on this
industry was refused to foreigners until the right was secured by
the Japanese treaty following the war of 1894-95. Some native-
owned mills had been working before that "date, and were reported
to have made large profits. Nine mills, with an aggregate of 400,000
spindles, were working in 1906, five of them under foreign manage-
ment. There are also four or five mills at one or other of the ports
working 80,000 spindles more. These mills are all engaged in the
manufacture of yarn for the Chinese market, very little weaving
being done. Chinese-grown cotton is used, the staple of which is
short ; only the coarser counts can be spun.

At certain large centres flour and rice mills have been erected and
are superseding native methods of treating wheat and rice; at
Canton there are sugar refineries. At Hanyang near Hankow are
large iron- works owned by Chinese. They are supplied with ore from
the mines at Ta-ye, 60 m. distant, and turn out (1909) about 300 steel
rails a day.

Commerce.

The foreign trade of China is conducted through the " treaty
ports," i.e. sea and river ports and a few inland cities which by the
treaty of Nanking (1842) that of Tientsin (1860) and subsequent
treaties have been thrown open to foreigners for purposes of trade.
(The Nanking treaty recognized five ports only as open to foreigners
Canton,* Amoy, Fu-chow, Ning-po and Shanghai.) These places are
as follows, treaty ports in Manchuria being included: Amoy,
Antung, Canton, Chang-sha, Dairen, Chin-kiang, Chinwantao,
Ch'ungk'ing, Chifu, Fu-chow, Funing (Santuao), Hang-chow,
Hankow, I-ch'ang, Kang-moon, Kiao-chow, Kiu-kiang, K'iung-chow,
Kow-loon, Lappa, Lung-chow, Mengtsze, Mukden, Nanking, Nan-
ning, Ning-po, Niu-chwang, Pakhoi, Sanshui, Shanghai, Shasi, Su-
chow, Swatow, Szemao, Tatungkow, Tientsin, Teng-yueh, W6n-
chow, Wu-chow, Wuhu, Yo-chow.

1 Richard's Comprehensive Geography, &c. (1908 edition), p. 144.

* In the 1 8th century foreign trade was restricted to Canton.
In the I7th century, however, the Dutch traded to Formosa and
Amoy, and the English to Amoy also. The Portuguese traded with
Canton as early as 1517. For the early intercourse between Portugal
and China see the introductory chapter in Donald Ferguson's
Letters from Portuguese Captives in Canton (Bombay, 1902).

COMMERCE]

CHINA

179

The progress of the foreign trade of China is set out in the following
table. The values are given both in currency and sterling, but it
is to be remarked that during the period when silver was falling,
that is, from 1875 to 1893, the silver valuation represents much more
accurately variations in the volume of trade than does the gold
valuation. Gold prices fell continuously during this period, while
silver prices were nearly constant. Since 1893 silver prices have
tended to rise, and the gold valuation is then mere accurate. The
conversion from silver to gold is made at the rate of exchange of
the day, and therefore varies from year to year.

Table of Imports and Exports, exclusive of Bullion.

Year.

Imports.

Exports.

Value in
Taels.

Equivalent in
Sterling.

Value in
Taels.

Equivalent in
Sterling.

1875
1885
1890

1895
1898
1904
1905

66,344,000
84,803,000
113,082,000
154,685,000
189,991,000
344,060.000
447,100,791

19,903,000
22,618,000
29,213,000
25,136,000
28,498,000
49,315,000
67,065,118

77,308,000
73,899,000
96,695,000
154,964,000
170,743:000
239,486 ooo
227,888,197

23,193,000
19,206,000
24,980,000
25,181,000
25,612,000
34,326,000
34,183,229

* This marked increase is partly owing to a more complete pre-
sentation of statistics; in 1903 an additional number of vessels were
placed under the control of the imperial maritime customs.

In 1907 the net imports were valued at 67,664,222 and the exports
at 42,961,863. In 1908 China suffered from the general depression
in trade. In that year the imports were valued at 52,600,730, the
exports at 36,888,050. The distribution of the trade among the
various countries of the world is shown in the table which is given
below. Hong-Kong is a port for trans-shipment. The imports
into China from it come originally from Great Britain, India,

Imports into China, (ooo's omitted.)

35,000,000 ft and in 1904 it reached 217,171,066 ft. The imports
into China from all countries for 1908 were as follows:

Opium . . . 4,563,000 Coal and coke . 1,124,000
Cotton goods . 14,786,000 Oil, kerosene . 2,666,000
Raw cotton . . 232,000 Rice .... 3,543,000
Woollen goods . 717,000 Sugar . . . 3,514,000
Metals . . . 2,956,000 Fish, &c. . . 1,028,000

The principal exports from China are silk and tea. These two
articles, indeed, up to 1880 constituted more than 80% of the whole
export. Owing, however, mainly to the fall in silver, and partly also
to cheap ocean freights, it has become profitable to place on the
European market a vast number of miscellaneous articles of Chinese
produce which formerly found no place in the returns of trade. The
silver prices in China did not change materially with the fall in silver,
and Chinese produce was thus able to compete favourably with the
produce of other countries. The following table shows the relative
condition of the export trade in 1880 and 1908:

Exports of

1880.

1908.

Silk

/q,7eo.OOO

1 1 O'v'x OOO

Tea . . . . .
Miscellaneous

11,774,000
4,058,000

4,384,000
21,448,000

Total . . .

25,582,000

36,888,000

arts in 1908 were
,379,000; hides,

Imports from

I875-

1880.

1885.

1890.

1895-

1905.

IOX)8.

United Kingdom
Hong-Kong ....
India
Other British possessions
United States . .
Continent of Europe (ex-
cept Russia)
Russian Empire .
Japan

6340
8282

4451
396
304-

230

746

6382
8829
6039
346
351

671

IO2I

6396
9404
4306

542
884

6 7 I
1404

6,357
18,615
2,661
571
949

638
231
1,909

5-518
H-33I
2,753
732
827

1,227
309
2,794

i-97i
22,240

5,220
963
11.538

4-295
302

9,197

9-647
20,033
4,O66

5-499

3,332 1
422
7,000

Exports from China, (ooo's omitted.)

Exports to

1875-

1880.

1885.

1890.

I895-

1905-

1908.

United Kingdom

8749

8125

5864

3383

l?l8

2,710

i.673

Hong-Kong ....

3824

4844

4232

8507

5651

12,218

12,281

India

323

157

273

449

408

545

Other British possessions

948

874

818

886

586

647

United States

2302

2906

2213

2109

2499

4,055

3,176

Continent of Europe (ex-

cept Russia)

2524

376o

1948

3004

3440

4.697

7 ,i28t

Russian Empire .

1339

' 1260

1293

2288

2535

I-4I9

1,123

Japan

586

642

398

1248

2408

5,320

4,949

t Germany, France, Belgium and Italy only.

Germany, France, America, Australia, the Straits Settlements, &c.,
and the exports from China to it go ultimately to the same
countries.

_ The chief imports are cotton goods, opium, rice and sugar, metals,
oil, coal and coke, woollen goods and raw cotton, and fish. Cotton
goods are by far the most important of the imports. They come
chiefly from the United Kingdom, which also exports to China
woollen manufactures, metals and machinery. China is next to
India the greatest consumer of Manchester goods. The export of
plain cotton cloths to China and Hong-Kong has for some years
averaged 500,000,000 yds. per annum. The only competitor which
Great Britain has in this particular branch of trade is the United
States of America, which has been supplying China with increasing
quantities of cotton goods. The value in sterling of the total imports
into China from the United Kingdom long remained nearly constant,
but inasmuch as the gold prices were falling the volume of the export
was in reality steadily growing. The imports into England, however,
of Chinese produce have fallen off, mainly because China tea has
been driven out of the English market by the growth of the India
and Ceylon tea trade, and also because the bulk of the China silk is
now shipped directly to Lyons and other continental ports instead
of to London, as formerly was the rule. The growth of the import of
Indian yarn into China has been very rapid. In 1884 the import was

In the miscellaneous class the chief items of expor
beans and bcancakc, 3,142,000; raw cotton, 1,3;
1,028,000; straw braid, 1,002,000; furs and skin rugs, 760,000;
paper, 458,000; and clothing, 177,000. Sugar, tobacco, mats
and matting are also exported. The export of all cereals except
pulse is forbidden. Of the tea exported in 1908 the greater part
went to Russia and Siberia, the United States and Great Britain.
There is a regular export of gold amounting on an average to about
a million sterling per annum. A part of it would seem to be the
hoardings of the nation brought out by the high price of gold in

terms of silver, but a part is virgin
gold derived from gold workings
in Manchuria on the upper waters
of the Amur river.

Customs duty is levied on ex-
ports as well as imports, both
being assessed at rates based on a
nominal 5 % ad val.

Shipping and Navigation.
Besides the over-sea trade China
has a large coasting and river
trade which is largely carried on
by British and other foreign
vessels. During the year 1908,
207,605 vessels, of 83,991,289
tons (86,600 being steamers of
77,955,525 tons), entered and
cleared Chinese ports. 1 Of these
28,445 vessels of 34,405,761 tons
were Brit jsh ; 33,539 of 1 1 ,998,588
tons, Chinese vessels of foreign
pe; 103,124 of 4,947,272 tons,
inese junks; 5496 vessels of
6,585,671 tons, German; 30,708
of 18,055,138 tons, Japanese; 653
of 998,775 tons, American; 3901
of 5,071,689 tons, French; 1033
of 980,635 tons, Norwegian.

Of vessels engaged in the foreign
trade only the entrances during

the year numbered 38,556 of 12,187,140 tons, and the clearances
36,602 of 12,057,126 tons. The nationality of the vessels (direct
foreign trade) was mainly as follows:

type

Chir

Nationality
1908.

Entrances.

Clearances.

No.

Tons.

No.

Tons.

British . . .
German
Norwegian
French
American
Japanese
Chinese

4.569
891

255
468

136

2,187

29,775

4,678,094
1-195,775
254,211
629,680
440,602
2,587,818
2,001,872

4,614
928

259
468

131
2,046
27,888

4,754,087
1,124,872

255,295
616,883

439,947
2,461,132

1.915.258'

The tonnage of the Dutch, Austrian and Russian vessels cleared
and entered was in each case between 102,000 and 127,000.

Communications.

External communication is carried on by ancient caravan routes
crossing Central Asia, by the trans-Siberian railway, which is

1 From The Statesman's Year Book, 1910 edition.

i8o

CHINA

[COMMUNICATIONS

The

Pioneer
Line de-
stroyed.

increasingly used for passenger traffic, but chiefly by steamship, the
steamers being almost entirely owned by foreign companies. There is
regular and rapid communication with Europe (via the Suez canal
route) and with Japan and the Pacific coast of America. Other lines
serve the African and the Australasian trade. The only important
Chinese-owned steamers are those of the Chinese Merchants Steam
Navigation Company, which has its headquarters at Shanghai.

Internal communications are by river, canal, road and railway, the
railways since the beginning of the 2oth century having become a very
important factor. In 1898 the Chinese government agreed that all
internal waterways should be open to foreign and native steamers,
and in 1907 there were on the registers of the river ports for inland
water traffic 609 steamers under the Chinese flag and 255 under
foreign flags.

Railways. A short line of railway between Shanghai and Wusung
was opened in 1875. The fate of this pioneer railway may be
mentioned as an introduction to what follows. The railway was
really built without any regular permission from the Chinese govern-
ment, but it was hoped that, once finished and working, the
irregularity would be overlooked in view of the manifest
benefit to the people. This might have been accomplished
but for an unfortunate accident which happened on the
line a few months after it was opened. A Chinaman was
run over and killed, and this event, of course, intensi-
fied the official opposition, and indeed threatened to bring about a
riot. The working of the line was stopped by order of the British
minister, and thereupon negotiations were entered into with a view
to selling the line to the Chinese government. A bargain was struck
sufficiently favourable to the foreign promoters of the line, and it
was further agreed that, pending payment of the instalments which
were spread over a year, the line should continue to be worked by
the cpmoany. The expectation was that when the officials once got
the line into their own hands, and found it a paying concern, they
would continue to run it in their own interest. Not so, however,
did things fall out. The very day that the twelve months were
up the line was closed; the engines were dismantled, the rails and
sleepers were torn up, and the whole concern was shipped off to the
distant island of Formosa, where carriages, axles and all the rest
of the gear were dumped on the shore and left lor the most part to
disappear in the mud. The spacious area of the Shanghai station
was cleared of its buildings, and thereon was erected a temple to
the queen of heaven by way of purifying the sacred soil of China
from such abomination. This put a stop for nearly twenty years
to all efforts on the part of foreigners to introduce railways into
China. The next step in railway construction was taken by the
Chinese themselves, and on the initiative of Li Hung-
chang. IA 1886 a company was formed under official
patronage, and it built a short line, to connect the coal-
mines of K'aip'ing in Chih-li with the mouth of the
Peiho river at Taku. The government next authorized the formation
of a Native Merchants' Company, under official control, to build a
line from Taku to Tientsin, which was opened to traffic in 1888.
It was not, however, till nine years later, viz. in 1897, that the line
was completed as far as Peking. A British engineer, Mr Kinder,
was responsible for the construction of the railway. Meantime,
however, the extension had been continued north-east along the
coast as far as Shanhai-Kwan, and a farther extension subsequently
connected with the treaty port of Niu-chwang. The money for
these extensions was mostly found by the government, and the
whole line is now known as the Imperial Northern railway. The
length of the line is 600 m. Meanwhile the high officials of the empire
had gradually been brought round to the idea that railway develop-
ment was in itself a good thing. Chang Chih-tung, then viceroy of
the Canton provinces, memorialized strongly in this sense, with the
condition, however, that the railways should be built with Chinese
capital and of Chinese materials. In particular, he urged the
The era making of a line to connect Peking with Hankow for
of coo- strategic purposes. The government took him at his
cessions. W 9 r d, and he was transferred from Canton to Hankow,
_with authority to proceed forthwith with his railway.
True to his purpose, he at once set to work to construct iron-works
at Hankow. Smelting furnaces, rolling mills, and all the machinery
necessary for turning out steel rails, locomotives, &c., were erected.
Several years were wasted over this preliminary work, and over
1,000.000 sterling was spent, only to find that the works after all
were a practical failure. Steel rails could be made, but at a cost
two or three times what they could be procured for in Europe.
After the Japanese War the hope of building railways with Chinese
capital was abandoned. A prominent official named Sheng Hsuan-
hwai was appointed director-general of railways, and empowered to
enter into negotiations with foreign financiers for the purpose of
raising loans. It was still hoped that at least the main control
would remain in Chinese hands, but the diplomatic pressure of
France and Russia caused even that to be given up, and Great
Britain insisting on equal privileges for her subjects, the future of
railways in China remained in the hands of the various concession-
aires. But after the defeat of Russia by Japan (1904-1905) the
theory of the undivided Chinese control of railways was resuscitated.
The new spirit was exemplified in the contracts for the financing
and construction of three railways the Canton-Kowloon line in

China's

first

efforts.

1907, and the Tientsin-Yangtsze and the Shanghai-Hangchow-
Ning-po lines in 1908. In the first of these instances the railway
was mortgaged as security for the loan raised for its construction,
and its finance and working were to be modelled on the arrangements
obtaining in the case of the Imperial Northern railway, under which
the administration, while vested in the Chinese government, was
supervised by a British accountant and chief engineer. In the other
two instances, however, no such security was offered; the Chinese
government undertook the unfettered administration of the foreign
capital invested in the lines, and the Europeans connected with
these works became simply Chinese employes. Moreover, in 1908
the Peking-Hankow line was redeemed from Belgian concessionaires,
a 5% loan of 5,000,000 being raised for the purpose in London
and Paris. In that year there was much popular outcry against
foreign concessionaires being allowed to carry out the terms of their
contract, and the British and Chinese corporation in consequence
parted with their concession for the Su-chow, Ning-po and Hang-chow
railway, making instead a loan of 1,500,000 to the ministry of
communications for the provinces through which the line would run.
A double difficulty was encountered in the construction and manage-
ment of the railways ; the reconciliation of the privileges accorded
to foreign syndicates and governments with the " Recovery of
Rights ' campaign, and the reconciliation of the claims of the
central government at Peking with the demands of the
provincial authorities. As to the foreigners. Great V. "!
Britain, France, Germany, the United States, Russia and
Japan, all had claims and concessions, many of them conflicting;
while as between Peking and the provinces there was a quarrel
mainly concerned with the spoils and " squeezes " to be obtained
by railway construction; in some instances the provinces proved
more powerful than the central government, as in the case of the
Su-chow-Ning-po line, and notably in the matter of the Tientsin-
Pukau (Nanking) railway. In that case the provincial authorities
overrode the central government, with the result that " for whole-
sale jobbery, waste and mismanagement the enterprise acquired
unenviable notoriety in a land where these things are generally
condoned." The good record of one or two lines notwithstanding, the
management of the railways under Chinese control had proved, up
to 1910, inefficient and corrupt. 1 Nevertheless, so great was the
economic development following the opening of the line, that in
Chinese hands the Peking-Hankow railway yielded a profit.

The main scheme of the railway systems of China is simple. It
consists of lines, more or less parallel, running roughly north and
south, linked by cross lines with coast ports, or abutting _.
on navigable rivers. One great east and west line will L *..
run through central China, from Hankow to Sze-ch'uen.
Connexion with Europe is afforded by the Manchuria-
trans-Siberia main line, which has a general east and west direction.
From Harbin on this railway a branch runs south to Mukden, which
since 1908 has become an important railway centre. Thence one
line goes due south to Port Arthur; another south-east to An-tung
(on the Yalu) and Korea; a third south and west to Tientsin and
Peking. A branch from the Mukden-Tientsin line goes round the
head of the Gulf of Liao-tung and connects Niu-chwang with the
Mukden-Port Arthur line. By this route it is 470 m. from Peking
to Niu-chwang.

From Peking the trunk line (completed in 1905) runs south
through the heart of China to Hankow on the Yangtsze-kiang.
This section (754 m. long) is popularly known as " the Lu-Han
line," from the first part of the names of the terminal stations.
The continuation south of this line from Hankow to Canton was in
1910 under construction. Thus a great north and south connexion
nearly 2000 m. long is established from Canton to Harbin. From
Mukden southward the line is owned and worked by China.

A railway (German concession) starts from Kiao-chow and runs
westward through Shan-tung to Chinan Fu, whence an extension
farther west to join the main Lu-Han line at Cheng-ting Fu in
Chih-li was undertaken. Westward from Cheng-ting Fu a line
financed by the Russo-Chinese Bank runs to T'ai-yuen Fu in Shan-si.

Another main north and south railway parallel to, but east of,
the Lu-Han line and following more or less the route of the Grand
Canal, is designed to connect Tientsin, Su-chow (in Kiang-su),
Chin-kiang, Nanking, Shanghai, Hang-chow and Ning-po. The
southern section (Nanking, Shanghai, &c.) was open in 1909. This
Tientsin-Ning-po railway connects at Chinan-Fu with the Shan-
tung lines.

A third north and south line starts from Kiu-Kiang on the Yangtsze
below Hankow and traversing the centre of Kiang-si province will
join the Canton-Hankow line at Shao-Chow in Kwang-tung province.
The construction of the first section, Kiu-Kiang to Nanchang
(76 m.), began in 1910.

In southern China besides the main Canton to Hankow railway
(under construction) a line (120 m. long) runs from Canton to
Kowloon (opposite Hong- Kong), and there are local lines running
inland from Swatow and Fuchow. The French completed in 1909
a trunk line (500 m. long) from Haiphong in Tong King to Yun-nan Fu,
the capital of Yun-nan, some 200 m. being in Chinese territoiy. The
French hold concessions for railways in Kwang-si and Kwang-tung.

1 See The Times of the 28th of March 1910.

GOVERNMENT]

CHINA

181

The British government has the right to extend the Burma railway
system through Yun-nan and north to the Yangtsze.

There are local lines in Hu-nan and Ho-nan which connect with
the trunk line from Canton to Peking. The Peking-Kalgan line
(122 m. long) is a distinct undertaking. The Chinese propose to
continue it another 530 m. north-westward to Urga in Mongolia,
and an eventual junction with the trans-Siberian railway in the
neighbourhood of Lake Baikal is contemplated. This line would
greatly shorten the distance between Moscow and Peking.

In 1910 there were open for traffic in China (not reckoning the
Russian and Japanese systems in Manchuria, q.v.) over 3000 m. of
railway, and 1500 m. of trunk lines were under construction.

China is traversed in all directions by roads. Very few are paved
of metalled and nearly ail are badly kept; speaking generally, the
. government spends nothing in keeping either the roads

| . or canals in repair. The roads in several instances are
subsidiary to the canals and navigable rivers as a means
of communication. The ancient trade routes were twelve
in number, viz. 1 :

1. The West river route (W. from Canton).

2. The Cheling Pass route (N.\V, from Canton).

3. The Meiling Pass route (N. from Canton).

4. The Min river route (N.W. from Fu-chow).

5. The Lower Yangtsze route (as far W. as Hu-peh and Hu-nan).

6. The Upper Yangtsze route (from I'chang to Sze-ch'uen).

7. The Kwei-chow route.

8. The Han river route (Hankow to Shen-si).

9. The Grand Canal (already described).
10. The Shan-si route.

n. The Kiakhta route.
12. The Manchurian route.

Of the routes named, that by the West river commands the trade
of Kwang-si and penetrates to Yun-nan (where it now has to meet
the competition of the French railway from Tong King) and Kwei-
chow. The Cheling Pass route from Canton is so named as it crosses
that pass (1500 ft. high) to reach the water-ways of Hu-nan at Chen-
chow on an affluent ofthe Siang, and thus connects with the Yangtsze.
The trade of this route whence in former times the teas of Hu-nan
(Oonam) and Hu-peh (Oopaek) reached Canton has been largely
diverted via Shanghai and up the Yangtsze. The Canton-Hankow
railway also supersedes it for through traffic. The route by the
Meiling Pass (1000 ft. high) links Canton and Kiu-kiang. This route
is used by the King-te Chen porcelain works to send to Canton the
commoner ware, there to be painted with florid and multicoloured
designs. The Min river route serves mainly the province of Fu-kien.
The Lower Yangtsze is a river route, now mainly served by steamers
(though the salt is still carried by junks), and the Upper Yangtsze
is a river route also, but much more difficult of navigation. The
Kwei-chow route is up the river Yuen from Changte and the Tung-
t'ing lake. The Han river route becomes beyong Smg-nagn Fu a land
route over the Tsingling mountains to the capital of Shen-si, and
thence on to Kan-suh, Mongolia and Siberia. The Shan-si route from
Peking, wholly by road, calls for no detailed account ; the Man-
churian route is now adequately served by railways. There remains
the important Kiakhta route. From Peking it goes to Kalgan (this
section is now served by a railway), whence the main route traverses
Mongolia, while branches serve Shan-si, Shen-si, Kan-suh, Turkestan,
&c. By this route go the caravans bearing tea to Siberia and
Russia. Other routes are from Yun-nan to Burma and from Sze-
ch'uen province to Tibet.

The government maintains a number of courier roads, which,
like the main trade roads, keep approximately to a straight line.
These courier roads are sometimes cut in the steep sides of mountains
or run through them in tunnels. They are, in the plains, 20 to 25 ft.
wide and are occasionally paved. The chief courier roads starting
from Peking go to Sze-chu'en, Yun-nan, Kweilin (in Kwang-si),
Canton and Fu-chow. Canals are numerous, especially in the deltas
of the Yangtsze and Si-kiang.

In the centre and south of China the roads are rarely more than
5 ft. broad and wheeled traffic is seldom possible. Bridges are
generally of stone, sometimes of wood ; large rivers are crossed by
bridges of boats. In the north carts drawn by ponies, mules or oxen
are employed; in the centre and south passengers travel in sedan-
chairs or in wheelbarrows, or ride on ponies. Occasionally the local
authorities employ the corvee system to dig out the bed of a canal,
but as a rule roads are left to take care of themselves.

Posts and Telegraphs. Every important city is now connected
by telegraph with the capital, and the service is reasonably efficient.
In 1907 there were 25,913 m. of telegraph lines. Connexion is also
established with the British lines in Burma and the Russian lines in
Siberia. The Great Northern Telegraph Company (Danish) and the
Eastern Extension Telegraph Company (British) connect Shanghai by
cable with Hong-Kong, Japan, Singapore and Europe. An imperial
postal service was established in 1896 under the general control of
the maritime customs, 2 By an edict of November 1906 the control

1 See Morse, op. cit. chap. x.

1 The maritime customs had established a postal service for its
own convenience in 1861, and it first gave facilities to the general

of the postal services was transferred to the Board of Communication.
The Post Office serves all the open ports, and every important city
in the interior. There were in 1910 some 4000 native post offices,
employing 15,000 persons, of whom about 200 only were foreigners.
The treaty powers, however, still maintain their separate post offices
at Shanghai, and several other treaty ports for the despatch and
receipt of mails from Europe. During the years 1901-1908 mail
matters increased from ten millions to two hundred and fifty-two
millions of items; and_the 250 tons of parcels handled to 27, 155 tons.
In postal matters China has adopted a most progressive attitude.
The imperial post conforms in ail respects to the universal Postal
Union regulations. (G. J.; X.)

IV. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION
Changes in the traditional form of government in China an
autocracy based on parental rule were initiated in 1905 when a
commission was appointed to study the forms of government in
other countries. 3 On the ist of September 1006 an imperial
edict was issued in which the establishment of parliamentary
institutions in China was foreshadowed. In 1907 an advisory
council as a sort of stepping-stone to representative government
was established by another edict. On the ayth of August
1908 an edict announced the convocation of a parliament in
the ninth year from that date. An edict of the 3rd of December
1908 reaffirmed that of the 2yth of August. An edict of the 3ist
of October 1909 fixed the classes from which an Imperial
Assembly (or Senate) was to be selected, and an edict of the
9th of May 1910 gave the names of the senators, all of whom
had been nominated by the throne. The assembly as thus con-
stituted consisted of 200 members drawn from eight classes: (i)
princes and nobles of the imperial house 16 members; (2)
Manchu and Chinese nobles 12 members; (3) princes and nobles
of dependencies 14 members; (4) imperial clansmen other
than those mentioned 6 members; (5) Peking officials 32
members; (6) eminent scholars 10 members; (7) exceptional
property owners 10 members; (8) representatives of provincial
assemblies 100 members. The national assembly, which was
opened by the regent on the 3rd of October 1910, thus contained
the elements of a two-chambered parliament. The edict sum-
moning the assembly contained the following exhortations:

The members should understand that this assemblage of the senate
is an unprecedented undertaking in China and will be the fore-
runner of the creation of a parliament. They are earnestly desired
to devote to it their patriotism and sincerity, to observe proper
order, and to fulfil their duties in representing public opinion. Thus
it is hoped that our sincere wish to effect constitutional reforms in
their proper order and to aim at success may be duly satisfied.

Concurrently with these steps towards a fundamental altera-
tion in the method of government, changes were made in
many departments of the state, and an elective element was intro-
duced into the provincial administrations. The old conception
of government with such modifications as had been made up to
1910 are set forth below.

The laws of the state prescribe the government of the country to
be based on the government of the family. 4 The emperor is the sole
and supreme head of the state, his will being absolute
alike in the highest affairs and in the humblest details of Cl ^ aise
private life. The highest form of legislation was an coniXDt i oa
imperial decree, whether promulgated in general terms or
to meet a special case. In either form it was the law of m ^ t
the land, and no privilege or prescriptive right could be
pleaded against it. All officers of state, all judges and magistrates,
hold their offices entirely at the imperial pleasure. They can be
dismissed, degraded, punished, without reason assigned and without
form of trial even without knowing by whom or of what they are
accused. The monarch has an advisory council, but he is not bound
by its advice, nor need he pretend that he is acting by and with its
advice and concurrence. This condition of affairs dates back to a
primitive state of society, which probably existed among the Chinese
who first developed a civilized form of government. That this
system should have been maintained in China through many centuries

public in 1876. An organized service for the conveyance of govern-
ment despatches has existed in China for many centuries, and the
commercial classes maintain at their own expense a system (" letter
hongs") for the transmission of correspondence.

' For the causes leading to this movement and the progress of
reform see History.

4 For recent authoritative accounts of the government of China
see H. B. Morse, The Trade and Administration ofthe Chinese Empire,
chap. iii. ; Richard's Comprehensive Geography, &c., Bk. I. v., and
The Statesman's Year Book.

CHINA

[GOVERNMENT

is a fact into the causes of which it is worth while to inquire. We
find it pictured in the records which make up the Rook of History,
and we find it enforced in the writings of the great apostle of patri-
archal institutions, Confucius, and in all the other works which
go to make up the Confucian Canon. The reverence with which
these scriptures are viewed was the principal means of perpetuating
the primitive form of Chinese imperialism. The contents of their
pages formed the study of every schoolboy, and supplied the themes
at the competitive examinations through which every one had to
pass who sought an official career. Thus the mind of the nation
was constantly and almost exclusively turned towards them, and
their dogmas became part and parcel of the national training. The
whole theory of government is the embodiment of parental love and
filial piety. As the people are the children of the emperor, so is he
the Tien-tsze or the Son of Heaven.

In practice the arbitrary power of the emperor is tempered in
several ways. Firstly, although the constitution conferred this
_. absolute and unchecked power on the emperor, it was not

^ for his gratification but that he might exercise it for the

good of his people. He rules by divine authority, and
as the vicegerent of heaven upon earth. If he rules corruptly or
unjustly, heaven will send disasters and calamity on the people as
a reproof; if the rule becomes tyrannical, heaven may withdraw its
favour entirely, and then rebellion may be justified. The Manchu
dynasty came to the throne as foreign conquerors, nevertheless they
base their right to rule, not on the power of the sword, but on divine
approval. On this moral ground they claim the obedience of their
subjects, and submit themselves to the corresponding obligations.
The emperor, unless he has gained the throne by conquest, is selected
by his predecessor or by the imperial family in conclave. He is
usually a son (but seldom the eldest son) of his predecessor, and need
not be the child of the empress-consort, 1 though (other things being
equal) a son of the empress is preferred. Failing a son another prince
of the imperial house is chosen, the choice being properly among the
princes of a generation below that of the preceding emperor, so that
the new emperor may be adopted as the son of his predecessor, and
perform for him the due ceremonies at the ancestral tablets. Apart
from this ancestor-worship the emperor worships only at the Altar
of Heaven, leaving Buddhism, Taoism, and any other form of worship
to his subjects. The emperor's sacrifices and prayers to heaven are
conducted with great parade and ceremony. The chief of these state
observances is the sacrifice at the winter solstice, which is performed
before sunrise on the morning of the 2ist ot December at the Temple
of Heaven. The form of the altar is peculiar.

" It consists of a triple circular terrace, 210 ft. wide at the base,
150 in the middle, and 90 at the top. . . . The emperor, with his
immediate suite, kneels in front of the tablet of Shang-ti (The
Supreme Being, or Heaven), and faces the north. The platform is
laid with marble stones, forming nine concentric circles; the inner
circle consists of nine stones, cut so as to fit with close edges round
the central stone, which is a perfect circle. Hers the emperor kneels,
and is surrounded first by the circles of the terraces and their
enclosing walls, and then by the circle of the horizon. He then seems
to himself and to his court to be in the centre of the universe, and
turning to the north, assuming the attitude of a subject, he acknow-
ledges in prayer and by his position that he is inferior to heaven,
and to heaven alone. Round him on the pavement are the nine
circles of as many heavens, consisting of nine stones, then eighteen,
then twenty-seven, and so on in successive multiples of nine till the
square of nine, the favourite number of Chinese philosophy, is
reached in the outermost circle of eighty-one stones."

On this occasion, also, a bullock of two years old, and without
blemish, is offered as a whole burnt-offering in a green porcelain
furnace which stands close beside the altar. The emperor's life is
largely occupied with ceremonial observances, and custom ordains
that except on state occasions he should not leave the walls of the
palace.

For his knowledge of public affairs the emperor is thus largely
dependent upon such information as courtiers and high officers of
state permit to reach him. 2 The palace eunuchs have often exercised
great power, though their influence has been less under the Manchus
than was the case during previous dynasties. Though in theory the
throne commands the services and money of all its subjects yet the
crown as such has no revenues peculiarly its own. It is dependent
on contributions levied through the high officials on the several
provinces, subject always to the will of the people, and without their
concurrence and co-operation nothing can be done. 3 The power of
the purse and the power of the sword are thus exercised mediately,
and the autocratic power is in practice transferred to the general body
of high functionaries, or to that clique which for the time being has

1 The empress-consort is chosen by the emperor from a number
of girls selected by his ministers from the families of Manchu nobles.
From the same candidates the emperor also selects secondary-
empresses (usually not more than four). Concubines, not limited in
number, are chosen from the daughters of Manchu nobles and free-
men. All the children are equally legitimate.

J Recent emperore have been children at accession and have been
kept in seclusion.

See " Democratic China " in H. A. Giles, China, and the Chinese.

China
governed
by It*
civil
service.

of the
central

the ear of the emperor, and is united enough and powerful enough
to impose its will on the others.

The functionaries who thus really wield the supreme power are
almost without exception civil officials. Naturally the court has
shown an inclination to choose Manchu rather thanChinese,
but of late years this preference has become less marked,
and in the imperial appointments to provincial administra-
tions the proportion of Manchus chosen was at the begin-
ning of the aoth century not more than one-fifth of the
whole number. The real reason for this change is the
marked superiority of the Chinese, in whose hands the administration
is stated to be safer for the Manchu dynasty. Practically all the
high Chinese officials have risen through the junior ranks of the civil
service, and obtained their high position as the reward so it must
be presumed of long and distinguished public service.

Through the weakness of some of the emperors the functions of
the central government gradually came to be to check the action
of the provincial governments rather than assume a _ ..
direct initiative in the conduct of affairs. " The central
government may be said to criticize rather than to
control the action of the provincial administrations, ..nver
wielding, however, at all times the power of immediate ment
removal from his post of any official whose conduct may
be found irregular or considered dangerous to the stability of the
state." 4 This was written in 1877, and since then the pressure of
foreign nations has compelled the central government to assume
greater responsibilities, and the empire is now ruled from Peking in
a much more effective manner than was the case when Lord Napier in
1834 could find no representative of the central government with
whom to transact business.

If the central authorities take the initiative, and issue orders to
the provincial authorities, it, however, does not follow that they will
be carried out. The orders, if unwelcome, are not directly disobeyed,
but rather ignored, or specious pleas are put forward, showing the
difficulty or impossibility of carrying them out at that particular
juncture. The central government always wields the power of
removing or degrading a recalcitrant governor, and no case has
been known where such an order was not promptly obeyed. But
the central government, being composed of officials, stand by their
order, and are extremely reluctant to issue such a command,
especially at the bidding of a foreign power. Generally the opinion
of the governors and viceroys has great weight with the central
government.

Under the Ming dynasty the Nuiko or Grand Secretariat formed
the supreme council of the empire. It is now of more honorific
than actual importance. Active membership is limited
to six persons, namely, four grand secretaries and two
assistant grand secretaries, half of whom, according to a
general rule formerly applicable to nearly all the high
offices in Peking, must be Manchu and half Chinese. It
constitutes the imperial chancery or court of archives,
and admission to its ranks confers the highest distinction
attainable by Chinese officials, though with functions that are almost
purely nominal. Members of the grand secretariat are distinguished
by the honorary title of Chung-t'ang. The most distinguished
viceroys are usually advanced to the dignity of grand secretary while
continuing to occupy their posts in the provinces. The best known
of recent grand secretaries was Li Hung-chang.

Under the Manchu dynasty the Grand Council (Chun Chi Ch'u)
became the actual privy council of the sovereign, in whose presence
its members daily transacted the business of the state. This council
is composed of a small knot of men holding various high offices in
the government boards at Peking. The literal meaning of Chun
Chi Ch'u is " place of plans for the army," and the institution derives
its name from the practice established by the early emperors of the
Manchu dynasty of treating public affairs on the footing of a military
council. The usual time of transacting business is from 4 to 6 a.m.
In addition to the grand council and the grand secretariat there were
boards to supervise particular departments. By a decree of the 6th
of November 1906 the central administration was remodelled, subse-
quent decrees making other changes. The administration in 1910
was carried on by the following agencies :

A. Councils. (i) The grand council. Its title was modified in
1906 and it is now known as the Grand Council of State Affairs or
Privy Council. It has no special function, but deals with all matters
of general administration and is presided over by the emperor (or
regent). (2) The Grand Secretariat. This body gained no increase
of power in 1906. (3) The advisory council or senate (Tu CMng
Yuen) created in 1907 and containing representatives of each
province. It includes all members of the grand council and the
grand secretariat and the heads of all the executive departments.*
The members of these three bodies form advisory cabinets to the
emperor.

B. Boards. Besides boards concerned with the affairs of the court
there were, before the pressure of foreign nations and the movement
for reform caused changes to be made, six boards charged with the

Depart-
ments
of toe
central
adminis-
tration.

4 W. F. Mayers, The Chinese Government (1878).
1 This body is superseded by the Imperial Senate summoned to
meet for the first time on the 3rd of October 1910.

PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT]

CHINA

183

conduct of public affairs. They were: (i) Li Pu, the Board of Civil
Appointments, controlling all appointments in the civil service from
the rank of district magistrate upwards. (2) Hu Pu, the Board of
Revenue, dealing with all revenues which reached the central
government. (3) Li Pu, the Board of Ceremonies. (4) Ping Pu, the
Board of War. It controlled the provincial forces. The Manchu
forces were an independent organization attached to the palace.
(5) Hsing Pu, the Board of Punishments. It dealt with the crim-
inal law only, especially the punishment of officials guilty of
malpractices. (6) Kung Pu, the Board of Works. Its work was
limited to the control of the construction and repair of official
residences.

As rearranged and enlarged there are now the following boards,
given in order of precedence :

1. Wai-wu Pu. This was established in 1901 in succession to the
Tsung-li Yamen, 1 which was created in 1861 after the Anglo-Chinese
War in 1 860 as a board for foreign affairs. Previous to that war, which
established the right of foreign powers to have their representatives
in Peking, all business with Western nations was transacted by
provincial authorities, chiefly the viceroy at Canton. The only
department at Peking which dealt specially with foreign affairs was
the Li Fan Yuen, or board of control for the dependencies, wliich
regulated the affairs of Mongolia, Tibet and the tributary states
generally. With the advent of formally accredited ambassadors
From the European powers something more than this was required,
and a special board was appointed to discuss all questions with the
foreign envoys. The number was originally four, with Prince Kung,
a brother of the emperor Hien F6ng, at their head. It was subse-
quently raised to ten, another prince of the blood, Prince Ching,
becoming president. The members were spoken of collectively as
the prince and ministers. For a long time the board had no real
power, and was looked on rather as a buffer between the foreign
envoys and the real government. The importance of foreign affairs,
however, especially since the Japanese War, identified the Yamfai
more with the grand council, several of the most prominent men being
members of both. At the same time that the Tsung-li YamSn was
created, two important offices were established in the provinces for
dealing with foreign commercial questions, viz. the superintendencies
of trade for the northern and southern ports. The negotiations con-
nected with the Boxer outbreak proved so conclusively that the
machinery to the Tsung-li Yamen was of too antiquated a nature to
serve the new requirements, that it was determined to abolish the
Yamn and to substitute for it a board (Pu) to be styled the Wai-wu
Pu, or " board of foreign affairs."

2. Board of Civil Appointments.

3. Board of Home Affairs.

4. Board of Finance and Paymaster General's Department.

5. Board of Ceremonies.

6. Army Board or Ministry of War (instituted 1906).*

7. Board of Judicature.

8. Board of Agriculture, Works and Commerce (instituted 1903).

9. Board of dependencies.

10. Board of Education (instituted 1903).

11. Board of Communications (instituted 1906).

Each board has one president and two vice-presidents, with the
exception of the Wai-wu Pu, which has a comptroller-general and
two presidents, and the Boards of War and Education, each of which
has a comptroller-general in addition to the president. According
to the decree of 1906 no distinction, in filling up the various boards,
is to be made between Manchu and Chinese.

Besides the boards named there are other departments of state,
some of them not limited to any one branch of the public service.
The more important are those that folllpw :

The Censorate (Tu Ch*u Yuen). An institution peculiar to China.
The constitution provides a paid body of men whose duty it is to in-
form the emperor of all facts affecting the welfare of the people and
the conduct of government, and in particular to keep an eye on the
malfeasance of his officers. These men are termed Yii shih (imperial
recorder), generally translated censors. Their office has existed since
the 3rd century B.C. The body consists of two presidents, a Chinese
and a Manchu, 24 supervising censors attached to the ministries at
Peking, and 56 censors, divided into fifteen divisions, each division
taking a particular province or area, so as to embrace the whole
eighteen provinces, besides one metropolitan division. The censors
are privileged to animadvert on the conduct even of the emperor
himself; to censure the manner in which all other officials perform or
neglect their duties and to denounce them to the throne. They
receive appeals made to the emperor, either by the people against the
officials or by subordinate officials against their superiors. They
exercise, in accord with the Board of Justice, an oversight over all
criminal cases and give their opinion whenever the death penalty is

1 Yamfin is the name given to the residences of all high officials.
Tsung-li Yamn=the bureau for managing each (foreign) kingdom's
affairs.

1 An edict of the isth of July 1909 created a naval and military
advisory board. Up to that time the navy was controlled by the
viceroys at Canton, Nanking, Fu-chow and Tientsin; the viceroys
at Canton and Tientsin being ministers superintendent of the
southern and northern ports respectively.

to be pronounced. They superintend the working of the different
boards and are sometimes sent to various places as imperial in-
spectors, hence they are called irk mu kuan (the eyes and ears of the
emperor). The censors exercise their office at times with great
boldness; * their advice if unpalatable may be disregarded and the
censor in question degraded. The system of the censorate lends itself
to espionage and to bribery, and it is said to be more powerful for
mischief than for good. With the growth in influence of the native
press the institution appears to lose its raison d'itre.

The grand court of revision (Ta-li sze) or Court of Cassation exer-
cises, in conjunction with the Board of Justice and the Censorate, a
general supervision over the administration of the criminal law.
These bodies are styled collectively San-fah sze (the Three High
Justices).

The Hanlin College (Hanlin Yuen, literally Forest of Pencils) is
composed of all the literate who have passed the palace examination
and obtained the title of Hanlin or imperial academist. It has two
chancellors a Manchu and a Chinese. Its functions are of a purely
literary character and it is of importance chiefly because the heads of
the college, who are presumably the most eminent scholars of the
empire, have the right of advising the throne on all public affairs,
and are eligible as members of the grand council or of the Wai-wu
Pu. The Chinese set fire to it during the fighting in Peking in June
1900 in the hope of burning out the adjoining British legation.
The whole of the library, containing some of the most valuable
manuscripts in the world, was destroyed.

Each of the eighteen provinces of China proper, the three provinces
of Manchuria and the province of Sin-kiang are ruled by a viceroy
placed over one, two and in one instance three provinces,
or by a governor over a single province either under a
viceroy or depending directly on the central government, *!
the viceroy or the governor being held responsible to the
emperor for the entire administration, political, judicial, military and
fiscal. The most important viceroyalties are those of Chih-li, Liang-
kiang and Liang-kwang. The viceroyalty of Liang-kiang comprises
the provinces of Kiang-su, Ngan-hui and Kiang-si. The viceroy
resides at Nanking and hence is sometimes called the viceroy of
Nanking. Similarly the viceroy of Liang-kwang (comprising the
provinces of Kwang-tung and Kwang-si) through having his residence
at Canton is sometimes styled the viceroy of Canton. The three
provinces adjoining the metropolitan province of Chih-li Shan-tung,
Shan-si and Hon-an have no viceroys over them ; seven provinces
including Chih-li have no governors, the viceroy officiating as
governor. In provinces where there are both a viceroy and a
governor they act conjointly, but special departments are ad-
ministered by the one rather than the other. The viceroy controls
the military and the salt tax; the governor the civil service
generally.

The viceroy or governor is assisted by various other high officials,
all of whom down to the district magistrate are nominated from
Peking. The chief officials are the treasurer, the judicial com-
missioner or provincial judge, and the commissioner of education
(this last post being created in 1903). The treasurer controls the
finances of the whole province, receiving the taxes and paying the
salaries of the officials. The judge, the salt commissioner, and the
grain collector are the only other officials whose authority extends
over the whole province. Each province is subdivided into pre-
fectures ruled by prefects, and each prefecture into districts ruled
by a district magistrate, Chih-hsien, the official through whom the
people in general receive the orders of the government. Two or
more prefectures are united into a tao or circuit, the official at the
head of which is called a Taot'ai. Each town and village has also
its unofficial governing body of " gentry." 4 The officials appointed
from Peking hold office for three years, but they maybe re-appointed
once, and in the case of powerful viceroys they may hold office for
a prolonged period. Another rule is that no official is ever appointed
to a post in the province of his birth; a rule which, however, did
not apply to Manchuria. The Peking authorities take care also in
making the high appointments to send men of different political
parties to posts in the same province.

The edict of the 6th of November 1906 initiating changes in the
central administration was accompanied by another edict outlining
changes in the provincial government, _and an edict of the 22nd of
July 1908 ordered the election of provincial assemblies. The edict
made it clear that the functions of the assemblies were to be purely
consultative. The elections took place according to the regulations,
the number of members allotted to each province varying from 30
(Kirin province, Manchuria, and two others) to 140 in Chih-li. The
franchise was restricted, but the returns for the first elections showed
nearly 1000 voters for each representative. The first meetings of
the assemblies were held in October 1909.

3 Thus in 1910 Prince Ching, president of the grand council, was,
for the third time, impeached by censors, being denounced as an
" old treacherous minister," who filled the public service with a
crowd of men as unworthy as himself. The censor who made the
charge was stripped of his office (see The Times of the 3Oth of March
1910).

* For details of local government see Richard's Comprehensive
Geography, 1908 edition, pp. 301 et seq.

184

CHINA

[CIVIL SERVICE

The Civil Service. The bureaucratic element is a vital feature
in the government of China, the holding of office being almost
the only road to distinction. Officials are by the Chinese called
collectively Kwan (rulers or magistrates) but are known to
foreigners as mandarins (?..). The mandarins are divided into
nine degrees, distinguished by the buttons worn on the top of
their caps. These are as follows: first and highest, a plain
red button; second, a flowered red button; third, a transparent
blue button; fourth, an opaque blue button; fifth, an un-
coloured glass button; sixth, an opaque white shell button;
seventh, a plain gilt button; eighth, a gilt button with flowers in
relief; ninth, a gilt button with engraved flowers. The buttons
indicate simply rank, not office. The peacock feathers worn in
their hats are an order granted as reward of merit, and indicate
neither rank nor office. The Yellow Jacket similarly is a decora-
tion, the most important in China.

The ranks of the civil service are recruited by means of examina-
tions. Up to the beginning of 1906 the subjects in which candi-
dates were examined were purely Chinese and literary with a
smattering of history. In 1906 this system was modified and
an official career was opened to candidates who had obtained
honours in an examination in western subjects (see Education).
The old system is so closely identified with the life of China that
some space must be devoted to a description of it.

As a general rule students preparing for the public examination
read with private tutors. There were neither high schools nor uni-
versities where a regular training could be got. In most of the pro-
vincial capitals, and at some other places, there were indeed institu-
tions termed colleges, supported to some extent from public funds,
where advanced students could prosecute their studies; but before
the movement initiated by the viceroy Chang Chih-tung after the
China-Japan War of 1894, they hardly counted as factors in the
national education. The private tutors, on the other hand, were
plentiful and cheap. After a series of preliminary trials the student
obtained his first qualification by examination held before the
literary chancellor in the prefecture to which he belonged. This was
termed the Siuts'ai, or licentiate's degree, and was merely a quali-
fication to enter for the higher examinations. The number of
licentiate degrees to be given was, however, strictly limited; those
who failed to get in were set back to try again, which they might do
as often as they pleased. There was no limit of age. Those selected
next proceeded to the great examination held at the capital of each
province, once in three years, before examiners sent from Peking
for the purpose. Here again the number who passed was strictly
limited. Out of 10,000 or 12,000 competitors only some 300 or 350
could obtain degrees. The others, as before, must go back and try
again. This degree, termed Chtijen, or provincial graduate, was the
first substantial reward of the student's ambition, and of itself
qualified for the public service, though it did not immediately _nor
necessarily lead to active employment. The third and final examina-
tion took place at Peking, and was open to provincial graduates from
all parts of the empire. Out of 6000 competitors entering for this
final test, which was held triennially, some 325 to 350 succeeded in
obtaining the degree of Chin Mh, or metropolitan graduate. These
were the finally selected men who became the officials of the empire.

Several other doors were, however, open by which admission to the
ranks of bureaucracy could be obtained. In the first place, to en-
courage scholars to persevere, a certain number of those who failed to
reach the chii jen, or second degree, were allowed, _ as a reward of
repeated efforts, to get into a special class from which selection for
office might be made. Further, the government reserved to itself the
right to nominate the sons and grandsons of distinguished deceased
public servants without examination. And, lastly, _by a system of

recommendation," young men from favoured institutions or men
who had served as clerks in the boards, might be put on the roster
for substantive appointment. The necessities of the Chinese govern-
ment also from time to time compelled it to throw open a still wider
door of entry into the civil service, namely, admission by purchase.
During the T'aip'ing rebellion, when the government was at its wits'
end for money, formal sanction was given to what had previously-
been only intermittently resorted to, and since then immense sums
of money have been received by the sale of patents of rank, to secure
either admission to office or more rapid promotion of those already
employed. As a result of this policy, the country has been saddled
with thousands of titular officials far in excess of the number_ of
appointments to be given away. Deserving men were kept waiting
for years, while inferior and less capable officials were pushed ahead,
because they had money wherewith to bribe their way. Nevertheless
the purchase system admitted into the-service_ a number of men
free from that bigoted adherence to Confucian doctrine which
characterizes the literary classes, and more in touch with modern
progress.

All candidates who succeed in entering the official ranks are eligible

Bribery

and

torture.

for active employment, but as the number of candidates is far in
excess of the number of appointments a period of weary waiting
ensues. A few of the best scholars get admitted at once into the
Hanlin college or into one or other of the boards at Peking. The rest
are drafted off in batches to the various provinces to await their turn
for appointment as vacancies occur. During this period of waiting
they are termed " expectants " and draw no regular pay. Occasional
service, however, falls in their way, as when they are commissioned
for special duty in outlying districts, which they perform as Wei
yuens, or deputies of the regular officials. The period of expectancy
may be abridged by recommendation or purchase, and it is generally
supposed that this last lever must invariably be resorted to to secure
any lucrative local appointment. A poor but promising official is
often, it is said, financed by a syndicate of relations and friends,
who look to recoup themselves put of the customary perquisites
which attach to the post. Appointments to the junior provincial
posts are usually left to the provincial government, but the central
government can always interfere directly. Appointments to the
lucrative posts of customs, taot'ai, at the treaty ports are usually
made direct from Peking, and the officer selected is neither necessarily
nor usually from the provincial staff. It would perhaps be safe to
say that this appointment has hitherto always been the result of a
pecuniary arrangement of greater or less magnitude.

During the first five years (1906-1910) of the new method, by
which candidates for the civil service were required, in addition to
Chinese classics, to have a knowledge of western science,
great efforts were made in severalprovinces to train up
a better class of public officiaj. The old system of ad-
ministration had many theoretical excellencies, and there
had been notable instances of upright administration, but the
regulation which forbade a mandarin to hold any office for more than
three years made it the selfish interest of every office-holder to get
as much out of the people within his jurisdiction as he possibly
could in that time. This corruption in high places had a thoroughly
demoralizing effect. While among the better commercial classes
Chinese probity in business relations with foreigners is proverbial,
the people generally set little or no value upon truth, and this has
led to the use of torture in their courts of justice; for it is argued
that where the value of an oath is not understood, some other
means must be resorted to to extract evidence.

Justice. The Chih-Hsien or district magistrate decides ordinary
police cases ; he is also coroner and sheriff, he hears suits for divorce
and breach of promise, and is a court of first instance in all civil cases ;
" the penalty for taking a case first to a higher court is fifty blows
with the bamboo on the naked thigh." * Appeal from the Hsien -
court lies to the Fu, or prefectural court, and thence cases may be
taken to the provincial judge, who signs death warrants, while there
are final courts of appeal at Peking. Civil cases are usually settled
by trade gilds in towns and by village elders, or by arbitration in
rural districts. Reference has been made to the use of torture.
Flogging is the only form of torture which has been allowed under
the Manchus. The obdurate witness is laid on his face, and the
executioner delivers his blows on the upper part of the thighs with
the concave side of a split bamboo, the sharp edges of which muti-
late the sufferer terribly. The punishment is continued until the
man either supplies the evidence required or becomes insensible.
Punishment by bamboo was formally abolished by imperial edict
in 1905, and other judicial reforms were instituted. They remained
largely inoperative, and even in Shanghai, under the eyes of foreign
residents, gross cases of the infliction of torture occurred in 1909.*

For capital offences the usual modes of inflicting the extreme
penalty of the law are in bad cases, such as parricides, " cutting to
pieces, and for less aggravated crimes either strangulation or
decapitation. The culprit who is condemned to be " cut to pieces "
is fastened to a cross, and while thus suspended cuts are made by the
executioner on the fleshy parts of the body ; and he is then beheaded.
Strangulation is reserved for lesser degrees of guilt, it being con-
sidered a privilege to pass out of life with a whole body. When it has
been granted to a criminal of rank thus to meet his end, a silken cord
is sent to him at his own home. No explanatory message is con-
sidered necessary, and he is left to consummate his own doom.
Popular sentiment regards decapitation as a peculiarly disgraceful
mode of death. Constant practice makes the executioners wonder-
fully expert in the performance of their office. No block or resting-
place for the head is used. The neck is simply outstretched to its
full length by the aid of an assistant, and one blow invariably leaves
the body headless.

The laws are in accord with the principle which regards the
family as a unit. Thus there is no bankruptcy law if a debtor's own
estate will not suffice to pay his debts the deficiency must consular
be made good by his relatives; if a debtor absconds his
immediate family are imprisoned. By analogy if one
member of a party commits an offence and the guilty
person cannot be detected, the whole party must suffer. Foreigners
residing in China resented the application of this principle of law
to themselves. As a result extra-territorial rights were sought by
European powers. They were secured by Russia as early as 1689,

1 Morse, op. cit., 1908 edition, p. 70.

* See The Times of the 28th of February 1910.

FINANCE]

CHINA

185

but it was not until 1843 that any other nation acquired them. In
that year Great Britain obtained the right to try British subjects by
its own consuls, a right secured in more explicit terms by the United
States and France in 1844. Now eighteen powers, including Japan,
have consular courts for the trial of their own subjects according to
the laws of their native lands. Mixed courts have also been estab-
lished, that is, a defendant is tried in the court of his own nationality,
the court giving its decision under the supervision of a representative
of the plaintiff s nationality. In practice the Chinese have seldom
sent representatives to sit on the bench of consular courts, but, as the
Europeans lack confidence in the administration of Chinese justice, no
suit brought by a foreigner against a Chinese is decided without the
presence of an assessor of the plaintiff's nationality.

Defence. The Chinese constitution in the period before the
reform edicts of 1905-1906 provided for two independent sets of
military organizations namely, the Manchu army and
Army. tne several provincial armies. On the establishment
of the dynasty in 1644 the victorious troops, composed mainly of
Manchus, but including also Mongols and Chinese, were permanently
quartered in Peking, and constituted a hereditary national army.
The force was divided into eight banners, and under one or other of
these all Manchus and all the descendants of the members of other
nationalities were enrolled. They form the bulk of the population
of the " Tatar city " of Peking. Each adult male was by birth
entitled to be enrolled as a soldier, and by virtue of his enrolment
had a right to draw rations i.e. his allowance of the tribute rice,
whether on active service or not. Detachments from one or other
of the banners were stationed as garrisons in the chief provincial
centres, as at Canton, Fuchow and Hang-chow, &c., and their
descendants still occupy the same position. As a fighting force
the Manchu garrisons both in the capital and in the provinces
had long become quite effete. In the capital, however, the elite of
the Manchu soldiery were formed into a special corps termed the
Peking Field Force. Its nominal strength was 20,000, the men were
armed and drilled after the European fashion, and fairly well paid.
There were other corps of picked Manchus better paid and better
armed than the ordinary soldier, and it was computed that in 1901
the Manchu army in or near Peking could muster 40,000, all more
or less efficient.

The second organization was termed the army of the Green
Standard, being the Chinese provincial forces. The nominal strength
was from 20,000 to 30,000 for each province, or about 500,000 in all ;
the actual strength was about one-third of this. They were enrolled
to keep the peace within their own province, and resembled a militia
or local constabulary rather than a national army. They were
generally poorly paid and equally badly drilled and armed.

The only real fighting force which China possessed at the beginning
of the 2Oth century was made up of certain special corps which were
not provided for in the constitution, and consequently used to be
termed yung, " braves," or irregulars, but had acquired various
distinctive names. They were enlisted by provincial governors, and
all had some smattering of foreign drill. They were also fairly well
paid and armed. After the Chino-Japanese War of 1894-95 some
of these corps were quartered near Peking and Tientsin, and came
generally to be spoken of as the Army of the North.

An imperial decree issued in 1901 after the Boxer rising ordered
the reorganization of the military forces of the empire, and on pro-
vincial Tines something was accomplished especially in Chih-li
under Yuan Shih-k'ai, who practically created " the Army of the
North." It was not, however, until after the Russo-Japanese War
that determined efforts were made to organize a national army on
western lines; an army which should be responsible to the central
government and not dependent upon the provincial administrations.
A decree of 1905 provided (on paper) for training schools for officers
in each of the provinces, middle grade military schools in selected
provinces, and a training college and military high school in Peking.
The Army Board was reorganized and steps taken to form a general
staff. Considerable progress had been made by 1910 in the evolution
of a body of efficient officers. In practice the administration re-
mained largely provincial for instance the armament of the troops
was provided by the provincial governors and was far from uniform.
The scheme * contemplated the creation of a force about 400,000
strong in 36 divisions and in two armies, the northern and the
southern. Recruitment is on the voluntary principle, except in
the case of the Manchus, who apparently enter the new army instead'
of the " eight banners." The terms of service are three years with
the colours, three in the reserve and four in the territorial army.
The Japanese system of training is followed. Reservists are called
out for 30 days every year and the territorialists for 30 days every
other year.

Up to 1909 six divisions and one mixed brigade of the northern
army had been organized in Shan-tung, Chih-li and Ho-nan; else-
where three divisions and six mixed brigades; total strength about
60,000 with 350 guns. (These figures dp not include all the pro-
vincial foreign trained troops.) The efficiency of the troops varied ;
the northern army was superior to the others in training and arma-
ment. About a third of the 60,000 men of the new army were in
1909 stationed in Manchuria. (See also History.)

'See The Statesman's Year-Book (1910 edition).

An imperial edict of the istfc of September 1907 reorganized the
army of the Green Standard. It was placed under the control of
the minister of war and formed in battalions and squadrons. The
duty of the troops in peace time remained much as previously. In
war they pass under the control of regular officers, though their use
outside their own provinces does not seem to be contemplated.

The Chinese navy in 1909 consisted of the 4300 ton cruiser " Hai
Chi (two 8-in., ten 4-7-in. guns) of 24 knot original speed, three
3000 ton cruisers, "Hai Yung," "Hai Schew and
' Hai Shen " (three 6-in., eight 4-in. guns) of 19-5 knot Nuvy.
original speed, some modern gunboats built in Japan, a few mis-
cellaneous vessels and some old torpedo boats. With the destruction
of the northern fleet by the Japanese at the capture of Wei-hai-wei
in 1895, the Chinese navy may be said to have ceased to exist.
Previously it consisted of two divisions, the northern and southern,
of which the former was by far the more formidable. The southern
was under the control of the viceroy of Nanking, and took no part
in the Chino-Japanese War. While the northern fleet was grappling
in a death-struggle, the southern was lying snugly in the Yangtsze
waters, the viceroy of Nanking apparently thinking that as the
Japanese had not attacked him there was no reason why he should
risk his ships.

The New Scheme. An edict of the isth of July 1909 created a
naval and military advisory board. Nimrod Sound, centrally
situated on the coast of Cheh-kiang, was chosen as naval base, and
four naval schools were ordered to be established; a navigation
school at Chifu, an engineering school at Whampoa, a school for
naval artificers at Fuchow, and a gunnery and musketry school at
Nimrod Sound. A superior naval college was founded at Peking.
The coast defences were placed under the control of the naval
department, and the reorganization of the dockyards undertaken.
During 1910 orders for cruisers were placed abroad.

Arsenals and Dockyards. After the loss of Port Arthur, China
possessed no dockyard which could dock vessels over 3000 tons.
Many years ago the Chinese government established at Fuchow a
shipbuilding yard, placing it in the hands of French engineers.
Training schools both for languages and practical. navigation were
at the same time organized, and a training ship was procured and
put under the command of a British naval officer. Some twenty-
five or thirty small vessels were built in the course of as many years,
but gradually the whole organization was allowed to fall into decay.
Except for petty repairs this establishment was in 1909 valueless
to the Chinese government. There were also small dockyards at
Kiang-nan (near Shanghai), Whampoa and Taku. There are well-
equipped arsenals at Shanghai and at Tientsin, but as they are both
placed up shallow rivers they are useless for naval repairs. Both
are capable o/ turning out heavy guns, and also rifles and ammunition
in large quantities. There are also military arsenals at Nanking,
Wuchang, Canton and Chngtu.

Forts. A great number efforts and batteries have been erected
along the coast and at the entrance to the principal rivers. Chief
among these, now that the Taku forts formerly commanding the
entrance to Tientsin have been demolished, are the Kiangyin forts
commanding the entrance to the Yangtsze, the Min forts at the
entrance of the Fuchow river, and the Bogue forts at the entrance
to the Canton river. These are supplied with heavy armament from
the Krupp and Armstrong factories.

Finance.

In fiscal matters, as for many other purposes, the Chinese
empire is an agglomeration of a number of quasi-independent
units. Each province has a complete administrative staff,
collects its own revenue, pays its own civil service, and other
charges placed upon it, and out of the surplus contributes
towards the expenses of the imperial government' a sum which
varies with the imperiousness of the needs of the latter and with
its own comparative wealth or poverty. The imperial govern-
ment does not collect directly any part of the revenues, unless
the imperial maritime customs be exoepted, though these, too,
pass through the books of the provincial authorities. 1

It has hitherto been extremely difficult to obtain anything
like trustworthy figures for the whole revenue of China, for the
reason that no complete statistics are published by the central
government at Peking. 3 The only available data are, first, the
returns published by the imperial maritime customs for the duties
levied on foreign trade; and, secondly, the memorials sent to
Peking by the provincial authorities on revenue matters, certain
of which are published from time to time in the Peking Gazette.

1 A few of the- ojd native customs stations, which are deemed
perquisites of the imperial court, may also be excepted, as, for
instance, the native custom-house at Canton, Hwei Kwan on the
Grand Canal, and various stations in the neighbourhood of Peking.

* The production of a budget in 1915 was promised in one of the
reform edicts of 1908.

i86

CHINA

[FINANCE

These are usually fragmentary, being merely reports which the
governor has received from his subordinates, detailing, as the case
may be, the yield of the land tax or the likin for his particular
district, with a dissertation on the causes which have made it
more or less than for the previous period. Or the return may be
one detailing the expenditure of such and such a department,
or reporting the transmission of a sum in reply to a requisition
of the board of revenue, with a statement of the source from
which it has been met. It is only by collating these returns
over a long period that anything like a complete statement can
be made up. And even then these returns do not represent any-
thing like the total of taxation paid by the people, but, as far
as they go, they may be taken to represent the volume of taxa-
tion on which the Peking government can draw revenue.

The following table, taken from a memorandum by Sir Robert
Hart, dated the zsth of March 1901, shows the latest official
estimate (up to 1910) of the revenue and expenditure of China:

Revenue,

Land tax ....
Provincial duties .

receipts (various)
Grain commutation
Salt gabelle ....

l.i-kin

Native customs .
Maritime customs:

General cargo .

Foreign opium .

Native opium .

Taels. 1
26,500,000
1,600,000

1,000,000

3,100,000
13.500,000
16,000,000

2,700,000

17,000,000
5,000,000
1,800,000

Total .

. 88,200,000

Expenditure.

Taels.

Provincial 20,000,000

Military and naval 35,000,000

Metropolitan 10,000,000

Bannermen (Manchu " soldiers ") . . . 1,380,000

Palace 1,100,000

Customs 3,600,000

Legations 1,000,000

River works 940,000

Railways 800,000

Loans 24,000,000

Contingent reserve 3,300,000

Total

101,120,000

A calculation of revenue from all sources published by the
Shanghai Shen Pao in 1908, apparently derived from official
sources, gave a total revenue of 105,000,000 taels, or about
15 million sterling. This sum is obviously less than the actual
figures. In 1907 Mr H. B. Morse, commissioner of customs and
statistical secretary in the inspectorate general of customs,
drew up the following table based on the amounts presumed to
be paid by the tax payer:

Imperial
Adminis-
tration. '

Provincial
Adminis-
tration. '

Local
Adminis-
tration.

I. Land Tax . . .
II. Tribute ....
III. Native Customs .
IV. Salt Gabelle . . .
V. Miscellaneous
VI. Foreign Customs
VII. Li-kin

Taels.
25,887,000
7,420,000
3,790,000
13,050.000
3,856,000
31,169,000
13,890,000

Taels.
67,060,000
15,582,000
1,290,000
26,000,000
5,998,000
3,942,000
22,502,000

Taels.
9.315.000
2,300,000
249,000
25,000,000
985,000
1,230,000
3,639,000

Total ....

99,062,000

142,374,000

42,718,000

Mr Morse adds that the grand total shown, taels 284,iso,ooo, 2
" is an obviously insufficient sum on which to maintain the
fabric of government in an empire like China, but it has been
reached by calculations based on a few known facts and ... is
offered as throwing some light on a subject veiled in obscurity." 3

1 In this article the tael used as a standard is the Haikwan (i.e.
customs) tael, worth about 35. It fluctuates with the value of silver.
1 Roughly 43,000,000.
' Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire (1910), p. 118.

The service of the foreign debt, together with the pressure of
other needs such as the cost of education and the army made
more manifest than previously the chaos of the Chinese fiscal
system. A scheme to reform the national finances was pro-
mulgated under an edict of the nth of January 1909, but it did
not appear to be of a practical character.

Sources of Revenue, i. Land Tax. In China, as in most oriental
countries, the land has from time immemorial been the mainstay
of the revenue. In the early years of the present dynasty there was
levied along with the land tax a poll tax on all adult males, but in
1712 the two were amalgamated, and the whole burden was thrown
upon land, families not possessing land being thereafter exempted
from taxation. At the same time it was decreed that the amount
of the land tax as then fixed should be permanent and settled for all
time coming. It would appear from the records that this promise
has been kept as far as the central government has been concerned.
In all its many financial difficulties it does not seem ever to have
tried to increase the revenue by raising the land tax. The amount
of tax leviable on each plot is entered on the title deed, and, once
entered, it cannot be changed. 4 The tax on almost all lands is thus
stated to be so much in silver and so much in rice, wheat or what-
ever the principal crop may be. Except in two provinces, however,
the grain tax is now commuted and paid in silver. The exceptions
are Kiang-su and Cheh-kiang, which still send forward their taxes in
grain. The value of the grain forwarded (generally called tribute
rice) is estimated at taels 6,500,000. The total collection in silver,
as reported by the responsible officials, amounts in round numbers
to taels 25,000,000. The total yield of the land tax, therefore,
is taels 31,500,000, or say 4,725,000. It will readily be granted
that for such a large country as China this is a very insignificant
one. In India the land tax yields about 20,000,000, and China
has undoubtedly a larger cultivated area, a larger population,
and soil that is on the whole more fertile ; but it is certain that this
sum by no means represents the amounts actually paid by the
cultivators. It is the sum which the various magistrates and
collectors have to account for and remit in hard cash. But as
nothing is allowed them for the costs of collection, they add on a
percentage beforehand to cover the cost. This they usually do by
declaring the taxes leviable not in silver, but in copper " cash,
which indeed is the only currency that circulates in country places,
and by fixing the rate of exchange to suit themselves. Thus while
the market rate is, say, 1500 cash to the tael, they declare by general
proclamation that for tax-paying purposes cash will be received at
the rate of 3500 or 4000 to the tael. Thus while the nominal land
tax in silver remains the same it is in effect doubled or trebled, and,
what is worse, no return is made or account required of the extra
sums thus levied. Each magistrate or collector is in effect a farmer.
The sum standing opposite the name of his district is the sum
which he is bound to return under penalty of dismissal, but all
sums which he can scrape together over and above are the per-
quisites of office less his necessary expenses. Custom, no doubt, sets
bounds to his rapacity. If he went too far he would provoke a riot ;
but one may safely say there never is any reduction, what change
can be effected being in the upward direction. According to the
best information obtainable a moderate estimate of the sums actually
paid by the cultivators would give two shillings per acre. This on
an estimate of the area under cultivation should give for the eighteen
provinces 19,000,000 as being actually levied, or more than four
times what is returned.

2. The Salt Duty. The trade in salt is a government monopoly.
Only licensed merchants are allowed to deal in it, and the import
of foreign salt is forbidden by the treaties. For the purpose of salt
administration China is divided into seven or eight main circuits,
each of which has its own sources of production. Each circuit has
carefully defined boundaries, and salt produced in one circuit is not
allowed to be consigned into or sold m- another. There are great
differences in price between the several circuits, but the consumer
is not allowed to buy in the cheapest market. He can only buy
from the licensed merchants in his own circuit, who in turn are
debarred from procuring supplies except at the depot to which
they belong. Conveyance from one circuit to another is deemed
smuggling, and subjects the article to confiscation.

Duty is levied under two heads, the first being a duty proper,
payable on the issue of salt from the depot, and the second being
likin levied on transit or at the place of destination. The two
together amount on an average to about taels 1-50 per picul of
I33i ft or 33. gd. per cwt. The total collection returned by the
various salt collectorates amounts to taels 13,500,000 (2,025,000)
per annum. The total consumption of salt for all China is estimated
at 25 million piculs, or nearly ij million tons, which is at the rate
of gib per annum per head of the population. If the above amount
of taels 1-50 were uniformly levied and returned, the revenue would
be 37 J million taels instead of 13$. In this calculation, however,
no allowance is made for the cost of collection.

3. Likin on General Merchandise. By the term likin is meant

4 Temporary reductions are granted in provinces affected by
rebellion, drought or flood.

FINANCE]

CHINA

187

a tax on inland trade levied while in transit from one district to
another. It was originally a war tax imposed as a temporary
measure to meet the military expenditure required bytheT'aip'ing
and Mahommedan rebellions of 1850-1870. It is now one of the
permanent sources of income, but at the same time it is in form as
objectionable as a tax can be, and is equally obnoxious to the native
and to the foreign merchant. Tolls or barriers are erected at frequent
intervals along all the principal routes of trade, whether by land or
water, and a small levy is made at each on every conceivable
article of commerce. The individual levy is small, but over a long
transit it may amount to IS or 20%. The objectionable feature is
the frequent stoppages with overhauling of cargo and consequent
delays. By treaty, foreign goods may commute all transit dues for
a single payment of one-halfthe import tariff duty, but this stipula-
tion is but indifferently observed. It must also be remembered, per
contra, that dishonest foreign merchants will take out passes to cover
native-owned goods. The difficulty in securing due observance of
treaty rights lies in the fact that the likin revenue is claimed by the
provincial authorities, and the transit dues when commuted belong
to the central government, so that the former are interested in
opposing the commutation by every means in their power. As
a further means of neutralizing the commutation they have devised
a new form of impost, viz. a terminal tax which is levied on the
goods after the termination of the transit. The amount and fre-
quency of likin taxation are fixed by provincial legislation that is,
by a proclamation of the governor. The levy is authorized in geYieral
terms by an imperial decree, but all details are left to the local
authorities. The yield of this tax is estimated at taels 13,000,000
(1,950,000), a sum which probably represents one-third of what is
actually paid by the merchants, the balance being costs of collection.

4. Imperial Maritime Customs. The maritime customs is the
one department of finance in China which is managed with probity
and honesty, and this it owes to the fact that it is worked under
foreign control. It collects all the duties leviable under the treaties
on the foreign trade of China, and also all duties on the coasting
trade so far as carried on by vessels of foreign build, whether Chinese
or foreign owned. It does not control the trade in native craft, the
so-called junk trade, the duties on which are still levied by the native
custom-house officials. By arrangement between the British and
Chinese governments the foreign customs levy at the port of entry
a likin on Indian opium of taels 80 per chest, in addition to the tariff
duty of taels 30. This levy frees the opium from any further duty on
transit into the interior. The revenue of the maritime customs rose
from taels 8,200,000 in 1865 to taels 35,111,000 in 1905.

5. Native Customs. The administration of the native customs
continues to be similar to what prevailed in the maritime customs
before the introduction of foreign supervision. Each collector is
constituted a farmer, bound to account for a fixed minimum sum,
but practically at liberty to retain all he may collect over and
above. If he returns more he may claim certain honorary rewards
as for extra diligence, but he generally manages to make out his
accounts so as to show a small surplus, and no more. Only imperfect
and fragmentary returns of the native collectorates have been
published, but the total revenue accruing to the Chinese government
from this source did not appear up to 1900 much to exceed two
million taels (300,000). In November 1901 native customs offices
within 15 m. of a treaty port were placed under the control of the
maritime customs, their revenues having been hypothecated for
the service of the Boxer indemnity. The result was that the amount
of the native customs collected by the commissioners of customs
increased from taels 2,206,000 in 1902 to taels 3,699,000 in 1906.

6. Duty on Native Opium. The collection of the duty on opium
is in the hands of the provincial officials, but they are required to
render a separate account of duty and likin collected on the drug,
and to hold the sum at the disposal of the board of revenue at
Peking. The annual import into China of Indian opium used
to amount to about 50,000 chests, the exact amount of opium
imported in 1904 being 54,750 piculs, on which the Chinese govern-
ment received from duty and likin combined about 5$ million taels
(825,000). The total amount of native-grown opium was estimated
in 1901 at about 400,000 chests (53,000,000 Ib), and if this were
taxed at taels 60 per chest, which in proportion to its price was
a similar rate to that levied on Indian opium, it should give a revenue
of 24 million taels. Compared with this the sums actually levied,
or at least returned by the local officials as levied, were insignificant.
The returns gave a total levy for all the eighteen provinces of only
taels 2,200,000 (330,000). The anti-opium smoking campaign
initiated by the Chinese government in 1905 affected the revenue
both by the decreased importation of the drug and the decrease in
the area under poppy cultivation in China. In 1908 the opium likin
revenue had fallen to taels 3,800,000.

7. Miscellaneous. Besides the main and regular sources of in-
come, the provincial officials levy sums which must in the aggregate
amount to a very large figure, but which hardly find a place in the
returns. The principal are land transfer fees, pawnbrokers' and
other licences, duties on reed flats, commutation of corvee and
personal services, &c. The fee on land transfers is 3 %, and it could
be shown, from a calculation based on the extent and value of the
arable land and the probable number of sales, that this item alone
ought to yield an annual return of between one and two millions

sterling. Practically the whole of this is absorbed in office expenses.
Under this heading should also be included certain items which
though not deemed part of the regular revenue, have been so often
resorted to that they cannot be left out of account. These are the
sums derived from sale of office or of brevet rank, and the sub-
scriptions and benevolences which under one plea or another the
government succeeds in levying from the wealthy. Excluding these,
the government is always ready to receive subscriptions, rewarding
the donor with a grant of official rank entitling him to wear the appro-
priate " button.' The right is much sought after, and indeed there
are very few Chinamen ofany standing that are not thus decorated,
for not only does the button confer social standing, but it gives the
wearer certain very substantial advantages in case he should come
into contact with the law courts. The minimum price for the lowest
grade is taels 120 (i 8), and more of course for higher grades. The
proceeds of these sales go directly to the Peking government, and
do not as a rule figure in the provincial returns. The total of the
miscellaneous items accruing for the benefit of the government is
estimated at taels 5,500,000.

Expenditure. In regard to expenditure a distinction has to be
drawn between that portion of the revenue which is controlled by
the central government, and that controlled by the several provincial
authorities. As the provinces collect the revenue, and as the
authorities there are held responsible for the peace, order and good
government of their respective territories, it foHows that the necessary
expenses of the provinces form a sort of first charge on the revenue.
(As the tables given show, the provinces spend the greater part of the
revenue collected.) The board of revenue at Peking, which is charged
with a general supervision of finance matters all over the empire,
makes up at the end of the year a general estimate of the funds
that will be required for imperial purposes during the ensuing year,
and apportions the amount among the several provinces and the
several collectorates in each province. The estimate is submitted
to the emperor, and, when sanctioned, instructions are sent to all the
viceroys and governors in that sense, who, in turn, pass them on to
their subordinate officers. In ordinary times these demands do not
materially vary from year to year, and long practice has created
a sort of equilibrium between imperial and provincial demands.
The remittances to the capital are, as a rule, forwarded with reason-
able regularity, mostly in the form of hard cash. There is, however, a
constant pull going on between Peking and the provinces the
former always asking for more, the latter resisting and pleading
impecuniosity, yet generally able to find the amounts required.
The expenses which the central government has to meet are:
(i) Imperial household ; (2) pay of the Manchu garrison in and about
Peking; (3) costs of the civil administration in the capital; (4)
cost of the army so far as the expenses are not borne by the pro-
vinces; (5) naval expenses; 1 (6) foreign loans interest and
sinking fund. To meet all these charges the Peking government
for several years up to 1900 drew on the provinces for about taels
20,000,000 (3,000,000), including the value of the tribute rice,
which goes to the support of the Manchu bannermen.* No estimates
are furnished of the sums allowed under such heading. The imperial
household appears to receive in silver about taels i ,500,000 (225,000)
but it draws besides large supplies in kind from the provinces, e.g.
silks and satins from the imperial factories at Su-chow and Hang-
chow, porcelain from the Kiang-si potteries, &c., the cost of which is
defrayed by the provinces. The jmperial government has also at its
disposal the revenue of the foreign customs. Prior to the Chino-
Japanese war of 1894-95 this revenue, which, after allowing for the
costs of collection, amounted to about 20,000,000 taels (3,000,000),
was nominally shared with the provinces in the proportion of four-
tenths and six-tenths. The whole of the customs revenue is now
pledged to foreign bondholders and absorbed by the service of the
several loans. Besides supplying its own wants the imperial govern-
ment has to provide for outlying portions of the empire which are
unable to maintain themselves (i) Manchuria, (2) Kan-suh and the
central Asian dominion, (3) the south-western provinces of Yun-nan,
Kwei-chow and Kwang-si. Manchuria, or, as it is termed, the
north-east frontier defence, costs about taels 2,000,000 over and
above its own resources. The central Asian territories constitute a
drain on the imperial government of about taels 4,000,000 a year.
This is met by subsidies from Sze-ch'uen, Shan-si, Ho-nan and other
wealthy provinces. Yun-nan, Kwei-chow and Kwang-si require aids
aggregating taels 2,000,000 to keep things going.

External Debt. Prior to the war with Japan in 1894 the foreign
debt of China was almost nil. A few trifling loans had been con-
tracted at 7 and 8 %, but they had been punctually paid off, and
only a fraction of one remained. The expenses of the war, however,
and the large indemnity of taels 230,000,000 (54,500,000) which
Japan exacted, forced China for the first time into the European
market as a serious borrower. The sum of 6,635,000 was raised in
1894-1895 in four small loans at 6 or 7% interest. In 1895 a

1 Information as to what extent the expenses of the new army
and navy are met by the central government is lacking.

* To meet the expenditure on interest and redemption of the
indemnities for the Boxer outrages the Peking government required
the provincial authorities to increase their annual remittances by
taels 18,700,000 during the years 1902-1910.

CHINA

[HISTORY

Franco-Russian loan of fr. 440,000,000 (15,820,000) was raised in
Paris. Two Anglo-German loans, each of 16,000,000 (one in 1896,
the other in 1808) were raised through the Hong Kong and Shanghai
Bank. The Franco-Russian loan bears 4 % interest, the first
Anglo-German 5 %, the second 4$ %. The foreign loans contracted
up to 1900 amounted altogether to 54,455,000. The charges for
interest and sinking fund, which amounted to over 5,000,000, were
secured on the revenue of the maritime customs, and on the likin
taxes of certain specified provinces. The net income from these
two sources amounted to over taels 24,000,000, equivalent at
existing rate of exchange to 3,400,000, which was amply sufficient.

Between 1899 and 1907 (both years inclusive) 12,200,000 was
raised on loan for railway purposes. The charges on the first loan
for 2,300,000 were secured on the revenue of the Imperial
Northern railway, the interest being 5%. The same interest was
secured on the other loans, save one for 1,000,000 in which the
Hong Kong government was concerned, which bears 4 % interest.

The foreign debt also includes the indemnities exacted in 1901
by the powers for the Boxer outrages. These indemnities, secured
on imperial revenue, are divided into five series amounting alto-
gether to 67,500,000, the amount payable on these indemnities
(at 4 % interest) in 1907 being 2,824,425. The burden of meeting
this amount was apportioned between the eighteen provinces the
sums allocated ranging from taeis 2,500,000 for Kiang-su to taels
300,000 for Kwei-chow. In 1909 the grand total of China's indebted-
ness exceeded 140,000,000 and the interest called for the payment
of 7,427,450 in gold.

Banks and Banking. Native banks for purposes of inland ex-
change are to be found in most large cities. They are private banks
using their own capital, and seldom receiving deposits from the
public. The best known are the Shan-si banks, which have branches
all over the empire. They work on a small capital, seldom over
50,000 each, and do a small but profitable business by selling their
drafts on distant places. None of them issues notes, although they
are not debarred from doing so by law. They lend money on personal
security, but do not advance against shipments of goods. In some
places there are small local banks, usually called cash shops, which
issue paper notes for small sums and lend money out on personal
security. The notes never reach more than a very limited local
circulation, and pass current merely on the credit of the institution.
There is no law regulating the formation of banks or the issue of
notes. Pawnshops occupy a prominent position in the internal
economy of China. They lend on deposit of personality at very high
rates, 18 and 24%, and they receive deposits of money from the
public, usually allowing 6 to 10%. They are the real banks of
deposit of the country, and the better class enjoy good credit.
Foreign Banks do a large business at Shanghai and other treaty
ports, and a Government Bank has been established at Peking.

Currency. In the commercial treaty between Great Britain and
China of 1902 China agreed to provide a uniform national coinage.
An imperial decree of October 1908 commanded the introduction of
a uniform tael currency; but another decree of May 1910 established
a standard currency dollar weighing 72 candareens (a candareen is the
100th part of the tael ounce) and subsidiary coins of fixed values in
decimal ratio. This decree properly enforced would introduce a much
needed stability into the monetary system of China.

The actual currency (1910) consists .of (l) Silver, which may be
either uncoined ingots passing current by weight, or imported coins,
Mexican dollars and Brjtish dollars; and (2) Copper " cash, " which
has no fixed relation to silver. The standard is silver, the unit being
the Chinese ounce or tael, containing 565 grains. The tael is not a
coin, but a weight. Its value in sterling consequently fluctuates
with the value of silver; in 1870 it was worth about 6s. 8d., in 1907
it was worth 3s._ 3d. 1 The name given in China to uncoined silver
in current use is " sycee." It is cast for convenience sake into
ingots weighing one to 50 taels. Its average fineness is 916-66
per 1000. When foreign silver is imported, say into Shanghai, it
can be converted into currency by a very simple process. The bars
of silver are sent to a quasi-public office termed the " Kung K'u, "
or public valuers, and by them melted down and cast into ingots of
the customary size. The fineness is estimated, and the premium or
betterness, together with the exact weight, is marked in ink on
each ingot. The whole process only occupies a few hours, and the
silver is then ready to be put into use. The Kung K'u is simply a
local office appointed by the bankers of the place, and the weight
and fineness are only good for that locality. The government takes
no responsibility in the matter, but leaves merchants and bankers
to adjust the currency as they please. For purposes of taxation
and payment of duties there is a standard or treasury tael, which is
about 10% heavier than the tael of commerce in use at Shanghai.
Every large commercial centre has its own customary tael, the
weight and therefore the value of which differ from that of every
other. Silver dollars coined in Mexico, and British dollars coined
in Bombay, also circulate freely at the open ports of trade and for
some distance inland, passing at a little above their intrinsic value.
Carplus dollars, introduced long ago and no longer coined, are
retained in current use in several parts of the interior, chiefly the
tea-growing districts. Being preferred by the people, and as the

1 It must be remembered that the Haikwan tael is here indicated.

supply cannot be added to, they have reached a considerable
premium above their intrinsic value. Provincial mints in Canton,
Wuchang, and other places have issued silver coins of the same
weight and touch as the Mexican dollar, but very few have gone into
use. As they possess no privilege in debt-paying power over im-
ported Mexican dollars there is no inducement for the people to take
them up unless they can be had at a cheaper rate than the latter,
and these are laid down at so small a cost above the intrinsic value
that no profit is left to the mint. The coinage has in consequence
been almost discontinued. Subsidiary coins, no wever, came largely
into use, being issued by the local minti. One coin " the hundredth
part of a dollar " proved very popular (the issue to the end of 1906
being computed at 12,500,000,000), but at rates corresponding closely
to the intrinsic value of the metal in it. The only coin officially
issued by the government up to 1910 was the so-called copper
cash. It is a small coin which by regulation should weigh fa of a
tael, and should contain 50 parts of copper, 40 of zinc, and 10 of
lead or tin, and it should bear a fixed ratio to silver of 1000 cash to
one tael of silver. _ In practice none of these conditions was observed.
Being issued from'a number of mints, mostly provincial, the standard
was never uniform, and in many cases debased. Excessive issues
lowered the value of the coins, and for many years the average
exchange was 1600 or more per tael. The rise in copper led to the
melting down of all the older and superior coins, and as for the same
reason coining was suspended, the result was an appreciation of the
" cash," so that a tael in 1909 exchanged for about 1220 cash or
about 35 to a penny English. Inasmuch as the " cash " bore no
fixed relation to silver, and was, moreover, of no uniform composition,
it formed a sort of mongrel standard of its own, varying with the
volume in circulation. (G. J. ; X.)

V. HISTORY
(A) European Knowledge of China up to 1615.

China as known to the Ancients. The spacious seat of ancient
civilization which we call China has been distinguished by
different appellations, according as it was reached by the southern
sea-route or by the northern land-route traversing the longitude
of Asia. In the former aspect the name has nearly always been
some form of the name Sin, Chin, Sinoe, China. In the latter
point of view the region in question was known to the ancients
as the land of the Seres, to the middle ages as the empire of
Cathay. The name of Chin has been supposed (doubtfully) to
be derived from the dynasty of Ts'in, which a little more than
two centuries before the Christian era enjoyed a vigorous exist-
ence, uniting all the Chinese provinces under its authority, and
extending its conquests far beyond those limits to the south and
the west. The mention of the Chinas in ancient Sanskrit
literature, both in the laws of Manu and in the Mahabharata,
has often been supposed to prove the application of the name
long before the predominance of the Ts'in dynasty. But the
coupling of that name with the Daradas, still surviving as the
people of Dardistan, on the Indus, suggests it as more probable
that those Chinas were a kindred race of mountaineers, whose
name as Shinas in fact likewise remains applied to a branch
of the Dard races. Whether the Sinim of the prophet Isaiah
should be interpreted of the Chinese is probably not susceptible
of any decision; by the context it appears certainly to indicate
a people of the extreme east or south. The name probably
came to Europe through the Arabs, who made the China of the
farther east into Sin, and perhaps sometimes into Thin. Hence
the Thtn of the author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea,
who appears to be the first extant writer to employ the name
in this form (i.e. assuming Max Muller's view that he belongs
to the ist century); hence also the Sinae and Thinae of Ptolemy.

It has often indeed been denied that the Sinae of Ptolemy really
represented the Chinese. But if we compare the statement of
Marciarms of Heraclea (a mere condenser of Ptolemy), when he tells
us that the " nations of the Sinae lie at the extremity of the habitable
world, and adjoin the eastern Terra Incognita," with that of Cosmas,
who says, in speaking of Tzinista, a name of which no one can
question the application to China, that " beyond this there is neither
habitation nor navigation " we cannot doubt the same region to
be meant by both. The fundamental error of Ptolemy's conception
of the Indian Sea as a closed basin rendered it impossible but that he
should misplace the Chinese coast. But considering that the name of
Sin has come down among the Arabs from time immemorial as
applied to the Chinese, considering that in the work of Ptolemy this
name certainly represented the farthest known East, and considering
how inaccurate are Ptolemy's configurations and longitudes much
nearer home, it seems almost as reasonable to deny the identity of
his India with ours as to deny that his Sinae were Chinese.

If we now turn to the Seres we find this name mentioned by classic

CHINA

HISTORY]

authors much more frequently and at an earlier date, for the passages
of Eratosthenes (in Strabo), formerly supposed to speak of a paralle
passing through Thinae 6id QivSiv are now known to read correctly
aT'Aflijxwi'. The name Seres indeed is familiar to the Latin poets of the
Augustan age, hut always in a vague way, and usually with a general
reference to Central Asia and the farther East. We find, however,
that the first endeavours to assign more accurately the position of
this people, which are those of Mela and Pliny, gravitate distinctly
towards China in its northern aspect as the true ideal involved. Thus
Mela describes the remotest east of Asia as occupied by the three
races (proceeding from south to north), Indians, Seres and Scyths;
just as in a general way we might still say that eastern Asia is
occupied by the Indies, China and Tartary.

Ptolemy first uses the names of Sera and Sence, the former tor the
chief city, the latter for the country of the Seres, and as usual defines
their position with a precision far beyond what his knowledge
justified the necessary result of his system. Yet even his definition
of Serice is most consistent with the view that this name indicated
the Chinese empire in its northern aspect, for he carries it eastward
to the iSoth degree of longitude, which is also, according to his
calculation, in a lower latitude the eastern boundary of the Sinae.

Ammianus Marcellinus devotes some paragraphs to a description
of the Seres and their country, one passage of which is startling at
first sight in its seeming allusion to the Great Wall, and in this sense
it has been rashly interpreted by Lassen and by Reinaud. But
Ammianus is merely converting Ptolemy's dry tables into fine
writing, and speaks only of an encircling rampart of mountains
within which the spacious and happy valley of the Seres lies. It is
true that Ptolemy makes his Serice extend westward to Imaus, i.e.
to Pamir. But the Chinese empire did so extend at that epoch, and
we find Lieut. John Wood in 1838 speaking of " China ' as lying
immediately beyond Pamir, just as the Arabs of the 8th century
spoke of the country beyond the Jaxartes as " Sin," and as Ptolemy
spoke of " Serice " as immediately beyond Imaus.

If we fuse into one the ancient notices of the Seres and their
country, omitting anomalous statements and manifest fables, the
result will be somewhat as follows: " The region of the Seres is a
vast and populous country, touching on the east the ocean and the
limits of the habitable world, and extending west to Imaus and the
confines of Bactria. The people are civilized, mild, just and frugal,
eschewing collisions with their neighbours, and even shy of close
intercourse, but not averse to dispose of their own products, of
which raw silk is the staple, but which included also silk-stuffs, fine
furs, and iron of remarkable quality." That is manifestly a definition
of the Chinese.

That Greek and Roman knowledge of the true position of_so
remote a nation should at best have been somewhat hazy is nothing
wonderful. And it is worthy of note that the view entertained by
the ancient Chinese of the Roman empire and its inhabitants, under
the name of Ta-lhsin, had some striking points of analogy to those
views of the Chinese which are indicated in the classical descriptions
of the Seres. There can be no mistaking the fact that in this case
also the great object was within the horizon of vision, yet the details
ascribed to it are often far from being true characteristics, being
only the accidents of its outer borders.

The Medieval Cathay. " Cathay " is the name by which the
Chinese empire was known to medieval Europe, and it is in its
original form (Kitai) that China is still known in Russia and to
most of the nations of Central Asia. West of Russia this name
has long ceased to be a geographical expression, but it is asso-
ciated with a remarkable phase in the history of geography and
commerce. The name first became known to Europe in the I3th
century, when the vast conquests of Jenghiz Khan and his
house drew a new and vivid attention to Asia. For some three
centuries previously the northern provinces of China had been
detached from indigenous rule, and subject to northern con-
querors. The first of these . foreign dynasties was of a race
called Khit&n issuing from the basin of the Sungari river, and
supposed (but doubtfully) to have been of the blood of the
modern Tunguses. The rule of this race endured for two centuries
and originated the application of the name Khitdt or Khitd'i to
northern China. The dynasty itself, known in Chinese history
as Liao, or " Iron," disappeared from China 1123, but the name
remained attached to the territory which they had ruled.

The Khitan were displaced by the Niichih (Ny&che or Chfirche)
race, akin to the modern Manchus. These reigned, under the
title of Kin, or " Golden," till Jenghiz and his Mongols invaded
them in turn. In 1234 the conquest of the Kin empire was
completed, and the dynasty extinguished under Ogdai (Ogotai)
the son and successor of Jenghiz Khan. Forty years later, in
the reign of Kublai, grandson and ablest successor of Jenghiz
the Mongol rule was extended over southern China (1276)

189

which till then had remained under a native dynasty, the Sung,
mlding its royal residence in a vast and splendid city, now
tnown as Hang-chow, but then as Ling-nan, or more commonly
as King-sze, i.e. the court. The southern empire was usually
called by the conquerors Mantzi (or as some of the old travellers
write, Mangi), a name which western Asiatics seem to have
dentified with Mdchtn (from the Sanskrit Mahdchtn), one of
he names by whkh China was known to the traders from
Persian and Arabian ports.

The conquests of Jenghiz and his successors had spread not
only over China and the adjoining East, but westward also over
all northern Asia, Persia, Armenia, part of Asia Minor and
Russia, threatening to deluge Christendom. Though the Mongol
wave retired, as it seemed almost by an immediate act of Provi-
dence, when Europe lay at its feet, it had levelled or covered
all political barriers from the frontier of Poland to the Yellow
Sea, and when western Europe recovered from its alarm, Asia
:ay open, as never before or since, to the inspection of Christen-
dom. Princes, envoys, priests half-missionary, half-envoy
visited the court of the great khan in Mongolia; and besides
these, the accidents of war, commerce or opportunity carried
a variety of persons from various classes of human life into the
depths of Asia. " 'Tis worthy of the grateful remembrance
of all Christian people," says an able missionary friar of the next
age (Ricold of Monte Croce), " that just at the time when God
sent forth into the Eastern parts of the world the Tatars to slay
and to be slain, He also sent into the West his faithful and blessed
servants, Dominic and Francis, to enlighten, instruct and
build up in the faith." Whatever on the whole may be thought
of the world's debt to Dominic, it is to the two mendicant
orders, but especially to the Franciscans, that we owe a vast
amount of information about medieval Asia, and, among other
things, the first mention of Cathay. Among the many strangers
who reached Mongolia were (1245-1247) John de Piano Carpini
and (1253) William of Rubruk (Rubruquis) in French Flanders,
both Franciscan friars of high intelligence, who happily have
left behind them reports of their observations.

Carpini, after mentioning the wars of Jenghiz against the Kitai,
goes on to speak of that people as follows: " Now these Kitai are
heathen men, and have a written character of their own. . . . They
seem, indeed, to be kindly and polished folks enough. They have
no beard, and in character of countenance have a considerable
resemblance to the Mongols " [are Mongoloid, as our ethnologists
would say], " but are not so broad in the face. They have a peculiar
language. Their betters as craftsmen in every art practised by man
are not to be found in the whole world. Their country is very rich
in corn, in wine, in gold and silver, in silk, and in every kind of
produce tending to the support of mankind." The notice of Rubruk,
shrewder and more graphic, runs thus: " Farther on is Great
Cathay, which I take to be the country which was anciently called
the Land of the Seres. For the best silk stuffs are still got from
them. . . . The sea lies between it and India. Those Cathayans are
little fellows, speaking much through the nose, and, as is general with
all those eastern people, their eyes are very narrow. They are first-
rate artists in every kind, and their physicians have a thorough know-
ledge of the virtues of herbs, and an admirable skill in diagnosis by
the pulse. . . . The common money of Cathay consists of pieces
of cotton-paper, about a palm in length and breadth, upon which
certain lines are printed, resembling the seal of Mangu Khan. They
do their writing with a pencil, such as painters paint with, and a single
character of theirs comprehends several letters, so as to form a whole
word."

Here we have not only what is probably the first European notice
of paper-money, but a partial recognition of the peculiarity of
Chinese writing, and a perception that puts to shame the perverse
boggling of later critics over the identity of these Cathayans with
'the Seres of classic fame.

But though these travellers saw Cathayans in the bazaars
in the great khan's camps, the first actual visitors of Cathay
itself were the Polo family, and it is to the book of Marco
Polo's recollections mainly that Cathay owed the growing
familiarity of its name in Europe during the I4th and istb
centuries. It is, however, a great mistake to suppose, as has
often been assumed, that the residence of the Polos in that
country remained an isolated fact. They were but the pioneers
of a very considerable intercourse, which endured till the decay
of the Mongol dynasty in Cathay, i.e. for about half a century.

CHINA

[HISTORY

We have no evidence that either in the I3th or i4th century
Cathayans, i.e. Chinese, ever reached Europe, but it is possible
that some did, at least in the former century. For, during the
campaigns of Hulagu in Persia (1256-1265), and the reigns o
his successors, Chinese engineers were employed on the banks
of the Tigris, and Chinese astrologers and physicians could be
consulted at Tabriz. Many diplomatic communications passec
between the Hulaguid Ilkhans and the princes of Christendom
The former, as the great khan's liegemen, still received from
him their seals of state; and two of their letters which survive
in the archives of France exhibit the vermilion impressions ol
those seals in Chinese characters perhaps affording the earliest
specimen of that character which reached western Europe.

Just as the Polos were reaching their native city (1295), after
an absence of a quarter of a century, the forerunner of a new
series of travellers was entering southern China by way of the
Indian seas. This was John of Monte Corvino, another Franciscan
who, already some fifty years of age, was plunging single-handed
into that great ocean of paganism to preach the gospel according
to his lights. After years of uphill and solitary toil converts
began to multiply; coadjutors joined him. The Papal See
became cognizant of the harvest that was being reaped in the
far East. It made Friar John archbishop in Cambaluc (or
Peking), with patriarchal authority, and sent him batches of
suffragan bishops and preachers of his own order. The Roman
Church spread; churches and Minorite houses were established
at Cambaluc, at Zayton or Tsuan-chow in Fu-kien, at Yang-
chow and elsewhere; and the missions flourished under the
smile of the great khan, as the Jesuit missions did for a time
under the Manchu emperors three centuries and a half later.
Archbishop John was followed to the grave, about 1328, by
mourning multitudes of pagans and Christians alike. Several
of the bishops and friars who served under him have left letters
or other memoranda of their experience, e.g. Andrew, bishop
of Zayton, John of Cora, afterwards archbishop of Sultania in
Persia, and Odoric of Pordenone, whose fame as a pious traveller
won from the vox populi at his funeral a beatification which
the church was fain to seal. The only ecclesiastical narrative
regarding Cathay, of which we are aware, subsequent to the time
of Archbishop John, is that which has been gathered from the
recollections of Giovanni de' Marignolli, a Florentine Franciscan,
who was sent by Pope Benedict XII. with a mission to the great
khan, in return for one from that potentate which arrived at
Avignon from Cathay in 1338, and who spent four years (1342-
1346) at the court of Cambaluc as legate of the Holy See. These
recollections are found dispersed incoherently over a chronicle
of Bohemia which the traveller wrote by order of the emperor
Charles IV., whose chaplain he was after his return.

But intercourse during the period in question was not confined
to ecclesiastical channels. Commerce also grew up, and flourished
for a time even along the vast line that stretches from Genoa
and Florence to the marts of Cheh-kiang and Fu-kien. The
record is very fragmentary and imperfect, but many circum-
stances and incidental notices show how frequently the remote
East was reached by European traders in the first half of the
i4th century a state of things which it is very difficult to
realize when we see how all those regions, when reopened to
knowledge two centuries later, seemed to be discoveries as new
as the empires which, about the same time, Cortes and Pizarro
were conquering in the West.

This commercial intercourse probably began about 1310-1320.-
John of Monte Corvino, writing in 1305, says it was twelve years
since he had heard any news from Europe; the only Western
stranger who had arrived in all that time being a certain Lombard
chirurgeon (probably one of the Patarini who got hard measure at
home in those days), who had spread the most incredible blasphemies
about the Roman Curia and the order of St Francis. Yet even on
his first entrance to Cathay Friar John had been accompanied by one
Master Peter of Lucolongo, whom he describes as a faithful Christian
man and a great merchant, and who seems to have remained many
years at Peking. The letter of Andrew, bishop of Zayton (1326),
quotes the opinion of Genoese merchants at that port regarding a
question of exchanges. Odoric, who was in Cathay about 1323-1327,
refers for confirmation of the wonders which he related of the great
city of Cansay (i.e. King-sze, or Hang-chow) to the many persons

whom he had met at Venice since his return, who had themselves
been witnesses of those marvels. And Marignolli, some twenty years
later, found attached to one of the convents at Zayton, in Fu-kien, a
fondaco or factory for the accommodation of the Christian merchants.
But by far the most distinct and notable evidence of the import-
ance and frequency of European trade with Cathay, of which silk
and silk goods formed the staple, is to be found in the commercial
hand-book (c. 1340) of Francesco Balducci Pegolotti, a clerk and
factor of the great Florentine house of the Bardi, which was brought
to the ground about that time by its dealings with Edward III. of
England. This book, called by its author Libra di divisamenti di
Paesi, is a sort of trade-guide, devoting successive chapters to the
various ports and markets of his time, detailing the nature of imports
and exports at each, the duties and exactions, the local customs of
business, weights, measures and money. The first two chapters of
this work contain instructions for the merchant proceeding to Cathay ;
and it is evident, from the terms used, that the road thither was
not unfrequently travelled by European merchants, from whom
Pegolotti had "derived his information. The route which he describes
lay by Azov, Astrakhan, Khiva, Otrar (on the Jaxartes), Almalik
(Gulja in Hi), Kan-chow (in Kan-suh), and so to Hang-chow and
Peking. Particulars are given as to the silver ingots which formed
the currency of Tatary, and the paper-money of Cathay. That the
ventures on this trade were not insignificant is plain from the example
taken by the author to illustrate the question of expenses on the
journey, which is that of a merchant investing in goods there to the
amount of some 12,000 (i.e. in actual gold value, not as calculated
by any fanciful and fallacious equation of values).
_ Of the same remarkable phase of history that we are here con-
sidering we have also a number of notices by Mahommedan writers.
The establishment of the Mongol dynasty in Persia, by which the
great khan was acknowledged as lord paramount, led (as we have
already noticed in part) to a good deal of intercourse. And some of
the Persian historians, writing at Tabriz, under the patronage of the
Mongol princes, have told us much about Cathay, especially Rashi-
duddin, the great minister and historian of the dynasty (died 1318).
We have also in the book of the Moorish traveller Ibn Batuta, who
visited China about 1347-1348, very many curious and in great part
true notices, though it is not possible to give credence to the whole of
this episode in his extensive travels.

About the time of the traveller first named the throne of the
degenerate descendants of Jenghiz began to totter to its fall, and we
have no knowledge of any Frank visitor to Cathay in that age later
than Marignolli; missions and merchants alike disappear from the
field. We hear, indeed, once and again of ecclesiastics despatched
from Avignon, but they go forth into the darkness, and are heard
of no more. Islam, with all its jealousy and exclusiveness, had
recovered its grasp over Central Asia; the Nestorian Christianity
which once had prevailed so widely was vanishing, and the new rulers
of China reverted to the old national policy, and held the foreigner
at arm's length. Night descended upon the farther East, covering
Cathay with those cities of which the old travellers had told such
marvels, Cambaluc and Cansay, Zayton and Chinkalan. And when
the veil rose before the Portuguese and Spanish explorers of the l6th
century, those names are heard no more. In their stead we have
China, Peking, Hangchow, Chinchew, Canton. Not only were the old
names forgotten, but the fact that those places had ever been known
pefore was forgotten also. Gradually new missionaries went forth
rom Rome Jesuits and Dominicans now; new converts were
made, and new vicariates constituted; but the old Franciscan
churches, and the Nestorianism with which they had battled, had
alike been swallowed up in the ocean of pagan indifference. In time
a wreck or two floated to the surface -a. MS. Latin Bible or a piece
of Catholic sculpture; and when the intelligent missionaries called
Marco Polo to mind, and studied his story, one and another became
convinced that Cathay and China were one.

But for a long time all but a sagacious few continued to regard

'athay as a region distinct from any of the new-found Indies; whilst

map-makers, well on into the 1 7th century, continued to represent it

as a great country lying entirely to the north of China, and stretching

to the Arctic Sea.

It was Cathay, with its outlying island of Zipangu (Japan), that
Zolumbus sought to reach by sailing westward, penetratedas he was
>y his intense conviction of the smallness of the earth, and of the vast
extension of Asia eastward ; and to the day of his death he was full
of the imagination of the proximity of the domain of the great khan
p the islands and coasts which he had discovered. And such imagina-
tions are curiously embodied in some of the maps of the early i6th
:entury, which intermingle on the same coast-line the new discoveries
rom Labrador to Brazil with the provinces and rivers of Marco Polo's
Cathay.

Cathay had been the aim of the first voyage of the Cabots in 1496,
and it continued to be the object of many adventurous voyages by
English and Hollanders to the N.W. and N.E. till far on in the i6th
:entury. At least one memorable land-journey also was made by
Jnglishmen, of which the exploration of a trade-route to Cathay
vas a chief object that in which Anthony Jenkinson and the two
T ohnsons reached Bokhara by way of Russia in 1558-1559. The
wintry of which they collected notices at that city was still known
to them only as Cathay, and its great capital only as Cambaluc.

HISTORY]

CHINA

191

Cathay as a supposed separate entity may be considered to come
to an end with the journey of Benedict Goes, the lay-Jesuit. This
admirable person was, in 1603, despatched through Central Asia by
his superiors in India with the specific object of determining whether
the Cathay of old European writers and of modern Mahommedans
was or was not a distinct region from that China of which parallel
marvels had now for some time been recounted. Benedict, as one
of his brethren pronounced his epitaph, " seeking Cathay found
Heaven." He died at Suchow, the frontier city of China, but not
before he had ascertained that China and Cathay were the same.
After the publication of the narrative of his journey (in the Expeditio
Christiana apud Smas of Trigault, 1615) inexcusable ignorance alone
could continue to distinguish between them, but such ignorance
lingered many years longer. (H. Y.)

(B) Chinese Origins.

Chinese literature contains no record of any kind which
might justify us in assuming that the nucleus of the nation
may have immigrated from some other part of the world; and
the several ingenious theories pointing to Babylonia, Egypt,
India, Khotan, and other seats of ancient civilization as the
starting-points of ethnical wanderings must be dismissed as
untenable. Whether the Chinese were seated in their later
homes from times immemorial, as their own historians assume,
or whether they arrived there* from abroad, as some foreign
scholars have pretended, cannot be proved to the satisfaction
of historical critics. Indeed, anthropological arguments seem
to contradict the idea of any connexion with Babylonians,
Egyptians, Assyrians, or Indians. The earliest hieroglyphics
of the Chinese, ascribed by them to the Shang dynasty (second
millennium B.C.), betray the Mongol character of the nation
that invented them by the decided obliquity of the human eye
wherever it appears in an ideograph. In a pair of eyes as shown
in the most ancient pictorial or sculptural representations in
the west, the four corners may be connected by a horizontal
straight line; whereas lines drawn through the eyes of one of the
oldest Chinese hieroglyphics cross each other at a sharp angle,
as shown in the accompanying diagrams:

Egyptian.

Chinese.

This does not seem to speak for racial consanguinity any more
than the well-known curled heads and bearded faces of Assyrian
sculptures as compared to the straight-haired and almost beardless
Chinese. Similarities in the creation of cultural elements may, it
is true, be shown to exist on either side, even at periods when
mutual intercourse was probably out of the question; but this
may be due to uniformity in the construction of the human brain,
which leads man in different parts of the world to arrive at
similar ideas under similar conditions, or to prehistoric connexions
which it is as impossible for us to trace now as is the origin of
mankind itself. Our standpoint as regards the origin of the
Chinese race is, therefore, that of the agnostic. All we can do is
to reproduce the tradition as it is found in Chinese literature.
This tradition, as applying to the very earliest periods, may
be nothing more than historical superstition, yet it has its
historical importance. Supposing it were possible to prove
that none of the persons mentioned in the Bible from Adam
down to the Apostles ever lived, even the most sceptical critic
would still have to admit that the history of a great portion of
the human race has been materially affected by the belief in the
examples of their alleged lives. Something similar may be said
of the alleged earliest history of the Chinese with its model
emperors and detestable tyrants, the accounts of which, whether
based on reality or not, have exercised much influence on the
development of the nation.
"The Chinese have developed their theories of prehistoric life.
Speculation as to the origin and gradual evolution of their
civilization has resulted in the expression of views by authors
who may have reconstructed their systems from remnants ol

ancestral life revealed by excavations, or from observation of
neighbouring nations living in a state of barbarism. This may
account for a good deal of the repetition found in the Chinese
mythological and legendary narratives, the personal and chrono-
logical part of which may have been invented merely as a frame-
work for illustrating social and cultural progress. The scene of
action of all the prehistoric figures from P'an-ku, the first human
being, down to the beginning of real history has been laid in a
part of the world which has never been anything but Chinese
territory. P'an-ku's epoch, millions of years ago, was followed
by ten distinct periods of sovereigns, including the " Heavenly
emperors," the " Terrestrial emperors," and the " Human
emperors," the Yu-ch'au or " Nest-builders," and Sui-jdn,
the " Fire Producer," the Prometheus of the Chinese, who
borrowed fire from the stars for the benefit of man. Several
of the characteristic phases of cultural progress and social
organization have been ascribed to this mythological period.
Authors of less fertile imagination refer them to later times,
when the heroes of their accounts appear in shapes somewhat
resembling human beings rather than as gods and demigods.

The Chinese themselves look upon Fu-hi as their first historical
emperor; and they place his lifetime in the years 2852-2738 B.C.
Some accounts represent him as a supernatural being; and we
see him depicted as a human figure with a fish tail something
like a mermaid. He is credited with having established social
order among his people, who, before him, had lived like animals
in the wilds. The social chaos out of which Chinese society
arose is described as being characterized by the absence of
family life; for " children knew only their mothers and not
their fathers." Fu-hi introduced matrimony; and in so doing
he placed man as the husband at the head of the family and
abolished the original matriarchate. This quite corresponds
with his views on the dualism in natural philosophy, of which
he is supposed to have laid the germs by the invention of the
so-called pa-kua, eight symbols, each consisting of three parallel
lines, broken or continuous. The continuous lines represented
the male element in nature; the broken ones, the female. It
is characteristic that the same ruler who assigned to man his
position as the head of the family is also credited with the
invention of that natural philosophy of the " male and female
principles," according to which all good things and qualities
were held to be male, while their less sympathetic opposites were
female, such as heaven and earth, sun and moon, day and night,
south and north. If these traditions really represent the oldest
prehistoric creations of the popular mind, it would almost seem
that the most ancient Chinese shared that naive sentiment
which caused our own forefathers to invent gender. The differ-
ence is that, with us, the conception survives merely in the
language, where the article or suffixes mark gender, whereas
with the Chinese, whose language does not express gender, it
survives in their system of metaphysics. For all their attempts
at fathoming the secrets of nature are based on the idea that
male or female powers are inherent in all matter.

To the same Emperor Fu-hi are ascribed many of the
elementary inventions which raise man from the life of a brute
to that of a social being. He taught his people to hunt, to fish,
and to keep flocks; he constructed musical instruments, and
replaced a kind of knot-writing previously in use by a system
of hieroglyphics. All this cannot of course be considered as
history; but it shows that the authors of later centuries who
credited Fu-hi with certain inventions were not quite illogical
in starting from the matriarchal chaos, after which he is said
to have organized society with occupations corresponding to
those of a period of hunting, fishing and herding. This period
was bound to be followed by a further step towards the final
development of the nation's social condition; and we find it
quite logically succeeded by a period of agricultural life, personi-
fied in the Emperor, Shon-nung, supposed to have lived in the
twenty-eighth century B.C. His name may be freely translated
as " Divine Labourer" ; and to him the Chinese ascribe the
invention of agricultural implements, and the discovery of the
medicinal properties of numerous plants.

192

CHINA

[HISTORY

The third historical emperor was Huang-ti, the " Yellow
emperor," according to the literal translation. Ssi-ma Ts'ien,
the Herodotus of the Chinese, begins his history with him; but
Fu-hi and Shon-nung are referred to in texts much older than
this historian, though many details relating to their alleged
reigns have been added in later times. Huang-ti extended the
boundaries of the empire, described as being originally confined
to a limited territory near the banks of the Yellow river and the
present city of Si-an-fu. Here were the sites of cities used as
capitals of the empire under various names during long periods
since remote antiquity. To Huang-ti, whose reign is said to have
commenced in 2704 according to one source and in 2491 according
to another, are ascribed most of the cultural innovations which
historians were not able otherwise to locate within historical
times. Under Huang-ti we find the first mention of a nation
called the Hun-yii, who occupied the north of his empire and with
whom he is represented to have engaged in warfare. The Chinese
identify this name with that of the Hiung-nu, their old hereditary
enemy and the ancestors of Attila's Huns. Even though the
details of these legendary accounts may deserve little confidence,
there must have been an old tradition that a nation called the
Hun-yii, occupying the northern confines of China, were the
ancestors of the Hiung-nu tribes, well known in historical times,
a scion of whose great khans settled in territory belonging to the
king of Sogdiana during the first century B.C., levied tribute from
his neighbours, the Alans, and with his small but warlike horde
initiated that era of migrations which led to the overrunning of
Europe with Central- Asiatic Tatars.

Fu-hi, Shon-nung and Huang-ti represent a group of rulers
comprised by the Chinese under the name of San-huang, i.e.
" The Three Emperors." Although we have no reason to deny
their existence, the details recorded concerning them contain
enough in the way of improbabilities to justify us in considering
them as mythical creations. The chronology, too, is apparently
quite fictitious; for the time allotted to their reigns is much
too long as a term of government for a single human life, and,
on the other hand, much too short, it we measure it by the
cultural progress said to have been brought about in it. Fu-hi's
period of hunting life must have lasted many generations before
it led to the agricultural period represented by the name Shon-
nung; and this period in turn could not possibly have led within
a little more than one hundred years to the enormous progress
ascribed to Huang-ti. Under the latter ruler a regular board
of historians is said to have been organized with Ts'ang-kie
as president, who is known also as Shi-huang, i.e. " the Emperor
of Historians," the reputed inventor of hieroglyphic writing
placed by some authors into the Fu-hi period and worshipped as
Tzi-shon, i.e. " God of writing," to the present day. Huang-ti
is supposed to have been the first builder of temples, houses and
cities; to have regulated the calendar, to which he added the
intercalary month; and to have devised means of traffic by
cars drawn by oxen and by boats to ply on the lakes and rivers
of his empire. His wife, known as " the lady of Si-ling," is
credited with the invention of the several manipulations in the
rearing of silkworms and the manufacture of silk. The invention
of certain flutes, combined to form a kind of reed organ, led to a
deeper study of music; and in order to construct these instru-
ments with the necessary accuracy a system of weights and
measures had to be devised. Huang-ti's successors, Shau-hau,
Chuan-hu, and Ti-k'u, were less prominent, though each of them
had their particular merits.

The Model Emperors. Most of the stories regarding the " Three
Emperors " are told in comparatively late records. The Shu- king,
sometimes described as the " Canon of History, "our oldest sourceof
pre-Confucian history, supposed to have been edited by Confucius
himself, knows nothing of Fu-hi, Shon-nung and Huang-ti; but it
begins by extolling the virtues of the emperor Yau and his successor
Shun. Yau and Shun are probably the most popular names in
Chinese history as taught in China. Whatever good qualities may
be imagined of the rulers of a great nation have been heaped upon
their heads; and the example of their lives has at all times been held
up by Confucianists as the height of perfection in a sovereign's
character. Yau, whose reign has been placed by the fictitious stan-
dard chronology of the Chinese in the years 2357-2258, and about

200 years later by the less extravagant " Annals of the Bamboo
Books," is represented as the patron of certain astronomers who had
to watch the heavenly bodies; and much has been written about the
reputed astronomical knowledge of the Chinese in this remote period.
Names like Deguignes, Gaubil, Biot and Schlegel are among those of
the investigators. On the other side are the sceptics, who maintain
that later editors interpolated statements which could have been
made only with the astronomical knowledge possessed by their own
contemporaries. According to an old legend, Shun banished " the
four wicked ones " to distant territories. One of these bore the name
T'au-t'ie, i.e. " Glutton"; called also San-miau. Tau-fie is also the
name of an ornament, very common on the surface of the most
ancient bronze vessels, showing the distorted face of some ravenous
animal. The San-miau as a trfbe are said to have been the forefathers
of the Tangutans, the Tibetans and the Miau-tzi in the south-west of
China. This legend may be interpreted as indicating that the non-
Chinese races in the south-west have come to their present seats by
migration from Central China in remote antiquity. During Yau s
reign a catastrophe reminding one of the biblical deluge threatened
the Chinese world. The emperor held his minister of works, Kun,
responsible for this misfortune, probably an inundation of the Yellow
river such as has been witnessed by the present generation. Its
horrors are described with poetical exaggeration in the Shu-king.
When the efforts to stop the floods had proved futile for nine years,
Yau wished to abdicate, and he selected a virtuous young man of the
name of Shun as his successor. Among the legends told about this
second model emperor is the story that he had a board before his
palace on which every subject was permitted to note whatever faults
he had to find with his government, and that by means of a drum
suspended at his palace gate attention might be drawn to any com-
plaint that was to be made to him. Since TKun had not succeeded in
stopping the floods, he was dismissed and his son Yu was appointed
in his stead. Probably the waters began to subside of their own
accord, but Yu has been praised up as the national hero who, by his
engineering works, saved his people from utter destruction. His
labours in this direction are described in a special section of the Con-
fucian account known as Yii-kung, i.e. " Tribute of Yu." Yti's
merit has in the sequel been exaggerated so as to credit him with
more than human powers. He is supposed to have cut canals through
the hills, in order to furnish outlets to the floods, and to have per-
formed feat.a of engineering compared to which, according to Von
Richthofen, the construction of the St Gotthard tunnel without blast-
ing materials would be child's play, and all this within a few years.

The Hia Dynasty. As a reward for his services Yu was
selected to succeed Shun as emperor. He divided the empire
into nine provinces, the description of which in the Yu-kung
chapter of the " Canon of History " bears a suspicious resemblance
to later accounts. Yii's reign has been assigned to the years
2205-2198, and the Hia Dynasty, of which he became the head,
has been made to extend to the overthrow in 1766 B.C. of Kie,
its eighteenth and last emperor, a cruel tyrant of the most
vicious and contemptible character. Among the Hia emperors
we find Chung-Pang (2159-2147), whose reign has attracted
the attention of European scholars by the mention of an eclipse
of the sun, which his court astronomers had failed to predict.
European astronomers and sinologues have brought much
acumen to bear on the problem involved in the Shu-king account
in trying to decide which of the several eclipses known to have
occurred about that time was identical with the one observed
in China under Chung-k'ang.

The Shang, or Yin, Dynasty. This period, which preceded the
classical Ch6u dynasty, is made to extend from 1766 to 1122
B.C. We must now be prepared to see an energetic or virtuous
ruler at the head of a dynasty and either a cruel tyrant or a
contemptible weakling at the end of it. It seems natural that
.this should be so; but Chinese historians, like the writers of
Roman history, have a tendency to exaggerate both good and
bad qualities. Ch'ong-tang, its first sovereign, is represented
as a model of goodness and of humane feeling towards his
subjects. Even the animal world benefited by his kindness,
inasmuch as he abolished all useless torture in the chase. His
great minister I Yin, who had greatly assisted him in securing
the throne, served two of his successors. P'an-kong (1401)
and Wu-ting (1324) are described as good rulers among a some-
what indifferent set of monarchs. The Shang dynasty, like
the Hia, came to an end through the reckless vice and cruelty
of a tyrant (Chou-sin with his consort Ta-ki). China had even
in those days to maintain her position as a civilized nation by
keeping at bay the barbarous nations by which she was sur-
rounded. Chief among these were the ancestors of the Hiung-nu

HISTORY]

CHINA

193

tribes, or Huns, on the northern and western boundaries. To
fight them, to make pacts and compromises with them, and to
befriend them with gifts so as to keep them out of the Imperial
territories, had been the role of a palatinate on the western
frontier, the duchy of Chou, while the court of China with its
vicious emperor gave itself up to effeminate luxury. Ch6u-sin's
evil practices had aroused the indignation of the palatine,
subsequently known as Won-wang, who in vain remonstrated
with the emperor's criminal treatment of his subjects. The
strength and integrity of Won-wang's character had made him
the corner-stone of that important epoch; and his name is one
of the best known both in history and in literature. The courage
with which he spoke his mind in rebuking his unworthy liege
lord caused the emperor to imprison him, his great popularity
alone saving his life. During his incarceration, extending over
three years, he compiled the I-king, or " Canon of Changes,"
supposed to be the oldest book of Chinese literature, and certainly
the one most extensively studied by the nation. Won-wang's
son, known as Wu-wang, was destined to avenge his father and
the many victims of Chou-sin's cruelty. Under his leadership
the people rose against the emperor and, with the assistance of
his allies, " men of the west," possibly ancestors of the Huns,
overthrew the Shang dynasty after a decisive battle, whereupon
Ch6u-sin committed suicide by setting fire to his palace.

Clt6u Dynasty. Wu-wang, the first emperor of the new
dynasty, named after his duchy of Ch6u on the western frontier,
was greatly assisted in consolidating the empire by his brother,
Chou-kung, i.e. " Duke of Chou." As the loyal prime-minister
of Wu-wang and his successor the duke of Chou laid the founda-
tion of the government institutions of the dynasty, which became
the prototype of most of the characteristic features in Chinese
public and social life down to recent times. The brothers and
adherents of the new sovereign were rewarded with fiefs which
in the sequel grew into as many states. China thus developed
into a confederation, resembling that of the German empire,
inasmuch as a number of independent states, each having its
own sovereign, were united under one liege lord, the emperor,
styled " The Son of Heaven," who as high priest of the nation
reigned in the name of Heaven. The emperor represented the
nation in sacrificing and praying to God. His relations with his
vassals and government officials, and those of the heads of the
vassal states with their subjects as well as of the people among
themselves were regulated by the most rigid ceremonial. The
dress to be worn, the speeches to be made, and the postures
to be assumed on all possible occasions, whether at court or in
private life, were subject to regulations. The duke of Chou,
or whoever may have been the creator of this system, showed
deep wisdom in his speculations, if he based that immutability
of government which in the sequel became a Chinese character-
istic, on the physical and moral immutability of individuals by
depriving them of all spontaneous action in public and private
life. Originally and nominally the emperor's power as the ruler
over his vassals, who again ruled in his name, was unquestion-
able ; and the first few generations of the dynasty saw no decline
of the original strength of central power. A certain loyalty
based on the traditional ancestral worship counteracted the
desire to revolt. The rightful heir to the throne was responsible
to his ancestors as his subjects were to theirs. " We have to
do as our ancestors did," the people argued; " and since they
obeyed the ancestors cf our present sovereign, we have to be
loyal to him." Interference with this time-honoured belief would
have amounted to a rupture, as it were, in the nation's religious
relations, and as long as the people looked upon the emperor as
the Son of Heaven, his moral power would outweigh strong armies
sent against him in rebellion. The tim'e came soon enough when
central power depended merely on this spontaneous loyalty.

Not all the successors of Wu-wang profited by the lessons
given them by past history. Incapacity, excessive severity and
undue weakness had created discontent and loosened the rela-
tions between the emperor and his vassals. Increase in the
extent of the empire greatly added to this decline of central
power. For the emperor's own dominion was centrally situated
vi. 7

and surrounded by the several confederate states; its geogra-
phical position prevented it from participating in the general
aggrandisement of China, and increase in territory, population
and prestige had become the privilege of boundary states.
Tatar tribes in the north and west and the aboriginal Man
barbarians in the south were forced by warfare to yield land,
or enticed to exchange it for goods, or induced to mingle with
their Chinese neighbours, thus producing a mixed population
combining the superior intelligence' of the Chinese race with the
energetic and warlike spirit of barbarians. These may be the
main reasons which gradually undermined the Imperial authority
and brought some of the confederate states to the front, so as to
overshadow the authority of the Son of Heaven himself, whose
military and financial resources were inferior to those of several
of his vassals. A few out of the thirty-five sovereigns of the
Chou dynasty were distinguished by extraordinary qualities.
Mu-wang of the loth century performed journeys far beyond
the western frontier of his empire, and was successful in warfare
against the Dog Barbarians, described as the ancestors of the
Hiung-nu, or Huns. The reign of Suan-wang (827-782 B.C.)
was filled with warfare against the Tangutans and the Huns,
called Hien-yun in a contemporaneous poem of the "Book of
Odes " ; but the most noteworthy reign in this century is that
of the lascivious Yu-wang, the oppressiveness of whose govern-
ment had caused a bard represented in the " Book of Odes "
to complain about the emperor's evil ways. The writer of this
poem refers to certain signs showing that Heaven itself is indig-
nant at Yu-wang's crimes. One of these signs was an eclipse
of the sun which had recently occurred, the date and month being
clearly stated. This date corresponds exactly with August 29,
776 B.C.; and astronomers have calculated that on that precise
date an eclipse of the sun was visible in North China. This,
of course, cannot be a mere accident; and since the date falls
into the sixth year of Yu-wang's reign, the coincidence is bound
to increase our confidence in that part of Chinese history.
Our knowledge of it, however, is due to mere chance; for the
record of the eclipse would probably not have been preserved
until our days had it not been interpreted as a kind of tekel
upharsin owing to the peculiarity of the political situation.
It does not follow, therefore, as some foreign critics assume,
that the historical period begins as late as Yu-wang's reign.
China has no architectural witnesses to testify to her antiquity
as Egypt has in her pyramids and temple ruins; but the sacri-
ficial bronze vessels of the Shang and Chou dynasties, with their
characteristic ornaments and hieroglyphic inscriptions, seem
to support the historical tradition inasmuch as natural develop-
ment may be traced by the analysis of their artistic and paleo-
graphic phases. Counterfeiters, say a thousand years later,
could not have resisted the temptation to introduce patterns and
hieroglyphic shapes of later periods; and whatever bronzes have
been assigned to the Shang dynasty, i.e. some time in the second
millennium B.C., exhibit the Shang characteristics. The words
occurring in their inscriptions, carefully collected, may be shown
to be confined to ideas peculiar to primitive states of cultural
life, not one of them pointing to an invention we may suspect
to be of later origin. But, apart from this, it seems a matter
of individual judgment how far back beyond that indisputable
year 776 B.C. a student will date the beginning of real history.

In the 7th century central authority had declined to such
an extent that the emperor was merely the nominal head of the
confederation, the hegemony in the empire falling in turn to
one of the five principal states, for which reason the Chinese
speak of a period of the " Five Leaders." The state of Ts/i,
corresponding to North Shan-tung, had begun to overshadow
the other states by unprecedented success in economic enterprise,
due to the prudent advice of its prime minister, the philosopher
Kuan-tzi. Other states attained leadership by success in warfare.
Among these leaders we see duke Mu of T'sin (659 B.C.), a
state on the western boundary which was so much influenced
by amalgamation with its Hunnic neighbours that the purely
Chinese states regarded it as a barbarian country. The emperor
was in those days a mere shadow; several of his vassals had

CHINA

[HISTORY

grown strong enough to claim and be granted the title " king,"
and they all tried to annihilate their neighbours by ruse in
diplomacy and by force of arms, without referring to their
common ruler for arbitration, as they were in duty bound. In
this helium omnium contra omnes the state of Ts'in, in spite of
repeated reverses, remained in possession of the field.

The period of this general struggle is spoken of by Chinese historians
as that of " The Contending States." Like that of the " Five
Leaders "it is full of romance; and the examples of heroism,
cowardice, diplomatic skill and philosophical equanimity which fill
the pages of its history have become the subject of elegant literature
in prose and poetry. The political development of the Chou dynasty
is the exact counterpart of that of its spiritual life as shown in the
contemporaneous literature. The orthodox conservative spirit which
reflects the ethical views of the emperor and his royal partisans is
represented by the name Confucius (551-479 B.C.). The great sage
had collected old traditions and formulated the moral principles
which had been dormant in the Chinese nation for centuries. His
doctrines tended to support the maintenance of central power; so
did those of other members of his school, especially Mencius. Filial
love showed itself as obedience to the parents in the family and as
loyalty to the emperor and his government in public life. It was the
highest virtue, according to the Confucian school. The history of the
nation as taught in the Shu-king was in its early part merely an
illustration of Confucianist ideas about good and bad government.
The perpetual advice to rulers was: " Be like Yau, Shun and Yu,
and you will be right." Confucianism was dominant during the
earlier centuries of the Chou dynasty, whose lucky star began to
wane when doctrines opposed to it got the upper hand. The philo-
sophical schools buiit up on the doctrines of Lau-tzi had in the course
of generations become antagonistic, and found favour with those who
did not endorse that loyalty to the emperor demanded by Mencius;
so had other thinkers, some of whom had preached morals which
were bound to break up all social relations, like the philosopher of
egotism, Yang Chu, according to Mencius disloyalty personified and
the very reverse of his ideal, the duke of Chou. The egotism recom-
mended by Yang Chu to the individual had begun to be practised
on a large scale by the contending states, their governments and
sovereigns, some of whom had long discarded Confucian rites under
the influence of Tatar neighbours. It appears that the anti-
Confucian spirit which paved the way towards the final extinction
of Wu-wang's dynasty received its chief nourishment from the Tatar
element in the population of the northern and western boundary
states. Among these Ts'in was the most prominent. Having placed
itself in the possession of the territories of nearly all of the remaining
states, Ts'in made war against the last shadow emperor, Nan-wang
who had attempted to form an alliance against the powerful usurper,
with the result that the western part of the Chou dominion was lost
to the aggressor.

Nan-wang died soon after (256 B.C.), and a relative whom he had
appointed regent was captured in 249 B.C., when the king of Ts'in

Cut an end to this last remnant of the once glorious Chou dynasty
y annexing its territory. The king had already secured the posses-
sion of the Nine Tripods, huge bronze vases said to have been cast
by the emperor Yii as representing the nine divisions of his empire
and since preserved in the treasuries of all the various emperors as a
symbol of Imperial power. With the loss of these tripods Nan-wang
had forfeited the right to call himself " Son of Heaven." Another
prerogative was the offering of sacrifice to Shang-ti, the Supreme
Ruler, or God, with whom only the emperor was supposed to com-
municate. The king of Ts'in had performed the ceremony as early
as 253 B.C. (F. H.*)

After the fall of the Chou dynasty a kind of interregnum
followed during which China was practically without an emperor.
Ts'la This was the time when the state of Ts'in asserted
dynasty itself as the leader and finally as the master of all the
249-210 contending states. Its king, Chau-siang, who died in
251 B.C., though virtually emperor, abstained from
adopting the imperial title. He was succeeded by his son, Hiao-
wen Wang, who died after a three days' reign. Chwan-siang
Wang, his son and successor, was a man of no mark. He died
in < 246 B.C. giving place to Shi Hwang-ti, " the first universal
emperor." This sovereign was then only thirteen, but he
speedily made his influence felt everywhere. He chose Hien-
yang, the modern Si-gan Fu, as his capital, and built there a
magnificent palace, which was the wonder and admira-
ti 011 f his contemporaries. He abolished the feudal
system, and divided the country into provinces over
whom he set officers directly responsible to himself. He con-
structed roads through the empire, he formed canals, and erected
numerous and handsome public buildings.

&hl

Haying settled the internal affairs of his kingdom, he turned his
attention to the enemies beyond his frontier. Chief among these
were the Hiung-nu Tatars, whose attacks had for years disquieted
the Chinese and neighbouring principalities. Against these foes he
marched with an army of 300,000 men, exterminating those in the
neighbourhood of China, and driving the rest into Mongolia. On his
return from this campaign he was called upon to face a formidable
rebellion in Ho-nan, which had been set on foot by the adherents
of the feudal princes whom he had dispossessed. Having crushed the
rebellion, he marched southwards and subdued the tribes on the
south of the Nan-shan ranges, i.e. the inhabitants of the modern
provinces of Fu-kien, Kwang-tung and Kwang-si. The limits of
his empire were thus as nearly as possible those of modern China
proper. One monument remains to bear witness to his energy.
Finding that the northern states of Ts'in, Chao and Yen were
building lines of fortification along their northern frontier for pro-
tection against the Hiung-nu, he conceived the idea of building one
gigantic wall, which was to stretch across the whole northern limit
of the huge empire from the sea to the farthest western corner of the
modern province of Kan-suh. This work was begun under his
immediate supervision in 214 B.C. His reforming zeal made him
unpopular with the upper classes. Schoolmen and pedants held up
to the admiration of the people the heroes of the feudal times and
the advantages of the system they administered. Seeing in this
propaganda danger to the state Shi Hwang-ti determined to break
once and for all with the past. To this end he ordered the destruc-
tion of all books having reference to the past history of the empire,
and many scholars were put to death for failing in obedience to it.
(See infra Chinese Literature, History.) The measure was
unpopular and on his death (210 B.C.) rebellion broke out. His
son and successor Erh-shi, a weak and debauched youth, was
murdered after having offered a feeble resistance to his enemies.
His son Tsze-yung surrendered to Liu Pang, the prince of Han, one
of the two generals who were the leaders of the rebellion. He after-
wards fell into the hands of Hiang Yu, the other chieftain, who put
him and his family and associates to death, rliang Yu aspiring to
imperial honours, war broke out between him and Liu Pang.
After five years' conflict Hiang Yu was killed in a decisive battle
before Wu-kiang. Liu Pang was then proclaimed emperor (206 B.C.)
under the title of Kao-ti, and the new line was styled the Han
dynasty.

Kao-ti established his capital at Lo-yang in Ho-nan, and
afterwards removed it to Chang-an in Shen-si. Having founded
his right to rebel on the oppressive nature of the laws
promulgated by Shi Hwang-ti, he abolished the
ordinances of Ts'in, except that referring to the
destruction of the books tor, like his great pre-
decessor, he dreaded the influence exercised by the literati and
he exchanged the worship of the gods of the soil of Ts'in for that
of those of Han, his native state. His successor Hwei-ti (194-
179 B.C.), however, gave every encouragement to literature, and
appointed a commission to restore as far as possible the texts
which had been destroyed by Shi Hwang-ti. In this the com-
mission was very successful. It was discovered that in many
cases the law had been evaded, while in numerous instances
scholars were found to write down from memory the text of
books of which all copies had been destroyed, though in some
cases the purity of the text is doubtful and in other cases there
were undoubted forgeries. A period of repose was now enjoyed
by the empire. There was peace within its borders, and its
frontiers remained unchallenged, except by the Hiung-nu, who
suffered many severe defeats. Thwarted in their attacks on
China, these marauders attacked the kingdom of the Yueh-chi,
which had grown up in the western extremity of Kan-suh, and
after much fighting drove their victims along the T'ien-shan-
nan-lu to the territory between Turkestan and the Caspian Sea.
This position of affairs suggested to the emperor the idea of
forming an offensive and defensive alliance with the Yueh-chi
against the Hiung-nu. With this object the general Chang
K'ien was sent as an ambassador to western Tatary. After
having been twice imprisoned by the Hiung-nu he returned to
China. Chang K'ien had actually reached the court of the
Yueh-chi, or Indo-Scythians as they were called owing to their
having become masters of India later on, and paid a visit to the
kingdom of Bactria, recently conquered by the Yueh-chi. His
report on the several kingdoms of western Asia opened up a new
world to the Chinese, and numerous elements of culture, plants
and animals were then imported for the first time from the west
into China. While in Bactria Chan K'ien's attention was first
drawn to the existence of India, and attempts to send expeditions,

HISTORY]

CHINA

though at first fruitless, finally led to its discovery. Under
Wu-ti (140-86 B.C.) the power of the Hiung-nu was broken and
eastern Turkestan changed into a Chinese colony, through which
caravans could safely pass to bring back merchandise and art
treasures from Persia and the Roman market. By the Hans the
feudal system was restored in a modified form; 103 feudal
principalities were created, but they were more or less under
the jurisdiction of civil governors appointed to administer the
thirteen chows (provinces) into which the country was divided.
About the beginning of the Christian era Wan? Mang rose in
revolt against the infant successor of P'ing-ti (A.D. i), and in
A.D. 9 proclaimed himself emperor. He, however, only gained
the suffrages of a portion of the nation, and before long his
oppressive acts estranged his supporters. In A.D. 23 Liu Siu,
one of the princes of Han, completely defeated him. His head
was cut off, and his body was torn in pieces by his own soldiery.

Liu Siu, was proclaimed emperor under the title of Kwang-
wu-ti, reigned from A.D. 58 to 76. Having fixed on Lo-yang
Eastern m Ho-nan as his capital, the line of which he was the
Hao first emperor became known as the Eastern Han

dynasty, dynasty. It is also known as the Later Han dynasty.
A.D. 23. During the reign of his successor Ming-ti, A.D. 65,
Buddhism was introduced from India into China (see ante
^Religion). About the same time the celebrated general Pan
Ch'ao was sent on an embassy to the king of Shen-shen, a small
state of Turkestan, near the modern Pidjan. Before long he
added the states of Shen-shen, Khotan, Kucha and Kashgar as
apanages to the Chinese crown, and for a considerable period the
country enjoyed prosperity. The Han dynasty (including in
the term the Eastern Han dynasty) has been considered the first
national dynasty and is one of the most famous in China; nor
has any ruling family been more popular. The Chinese, espe-
cially the northern Chinese, still call themselves " the sons of
Han." The wealth and trade as well as the culture of the
country was greatly developed, and the competitive examina-
tions for literary degrees instituted. The homogeneity of the
nation was so nrmly established that subsequent dissensions
and conquests could not alter fundamentally the character of
the nation.

Towards the end of the 2nd century the power of the Eastern Hans
declined. In 173 a virulent pestilence, which continued for eleven
years, broke out. A magical cure for this plague was said to have
been discovered by a Taoist priest named Chang Chio, who in a
single month won a sufficiently large following to enable him to gain
possession of the northern provinces of the empire. He was, hcw-
ever, defeated by Ts'aou Ts'aou, another aspirant to imperial
honours, whose son, Ts'aou P'ei, on the death cf Hien-ti (A.D. 220),
proclaimed himself emperor, adopting the title of Wei as the appella-
tion of his dynasty. There were then, however, two other
?*' claimants to the throne, Liu Pei and Sun Ch'tian, and the

y ' three adventurers agreed to divide the empire between
them. Ts'aou P'ei, under the title of Wen-ti, ruled over the kingdom
of Wei (220), which occupied the whole of the central and northern
portion of Chjna. Liu Pei established the Shuh .Han dynasty in the
modern province of Sze-ch'uen (221), and called himself Chao-
lieh-ti; and to Sun Ch'uan fell the southern provinces of the empire,
from the Yangtsze-kiang southwards, including the modern Tong-
king, which he formed into the kingdom of Wu with Nan-king for
his capital, adopting for himself the imperial style of Ta-te 1 (A.D.

222).

China during the period of the " Three Kingdoms " was a house
divided against itself. Liu Pei, as a descendant of the house of
Han, looked upon himself as the rightful sovereign of
ki a ^ " t ' ie wh k empire, and he despatched an army under
Chu-ko Liang to support his claims. This army was met
by an opposing force under the Wei commander Sze-ma I,
of whom Chinese historians say that " he led armies like a god,"
and who, by adopting a Fabian policy, completely discomfited his
adversary. But the close of this campaign brought no peace to the
country. Wars became chronic, and the reins of power slipped out
of the hands of emperor'* into those of their generals. Foremost
among these were the members of the Sze-ma family of Wei. Sze-ma
I left a son, Sze-ma Chao, scarcely less distinguished than himself,
and when Sze-ma Chao died his honours descended to Sze-ma Yen,
who deposed the ruling sovereign of Wei, and proclaimed himself
emperor of China (A.D. 265). His dynasty he styled the Western
Tsin dynasty, and he adopted for himself the title of Wu-ti. The most
noticeable event in this reign was the advent of the ambassadors of
the emperor Diocletian in 284. For some years the neighbouring states
appear to have transferred their allegiance from the house of Wei to

that of Tsin. Wu-ti's successors proving, however, weak and incap-
able, the country soon fell again into disorder. The Hiung-nu renewed
incursions into the empire at the beginning of the 4th
century, and in the confusion which followed, an adventurer
named Liu Yuen established himself (in 311) as emperor, '""
first at P'ing-yang in Shan-si and afterwards in Lo- "fi***?.
yang and Chang-an. The history of this period is very chaotic.
Numerous states sprang into existence, some founded by the Hiung-
nu and others by the Sien-pi tribe, a Tungusic clan, inhabiting a
territory to the north of China, which afterwards established the
Liao dynasty in China. In 419 the Eastern Tsin dynasty came to
an end, and with it disappeared for nearly two hundred years all
semblance of united authority. The country became divided into
two parts, the_ north and the south. In the north four families
reigned successively, two of which were of Sien-pi origin, viz. the Wei
and the How Chow, the other two, the Pih Ts'i and the How Liang,
being Chinese. In the south five different houses supplied rulers,
who were all of Chinese descent.

This period of disorder was brought to a close by the establish-
ment of the Suy dynasty (590). Among the officials of the ephemeral
dynasty of Chow was one Yang Kien, who on his daughter
becoming empress (578) was created duke of Suy. Two
years later Yang Kien proclaimed himself emperor. The
country, weary of contention, was glad to acknowledge his undi-
vided authority; and during the sixteen years of his reign the
internal affairs of China were comparatively peaceably administered.
The emperor instituted an improved code of laws, and added 5000
volumes to the 10,000 which composed the imperial library. Abroad,
his policy was equally successful. He defeated the Tatars and
chastised the Koreans, who had for a long period recognized Chinese
suzerainty, but were torn by civil wars and were disposed to reject
her authority. After his death in 604 his second son forced the heir
to the throne to strangle himself, and then seized the throne. This
usurper, Yang-ti, sent expeditions against the Tatars, and himself
headed an expedition against the Uighurs, while one of his generals
annexed the Lu-chu Islands to the imperial crown. During his .
reign the volumes in the imperial library were increased to 54,000,
and he spent vast sums in erecting a magnificent palace at Lo-yang,
and in constructing unprofitable canals. These and other extrava-
gances laid so heavy a burden on the country that discontent began
again to prevail, and on the emperor's return from a successful
expedition against the Koreans, he found the empire divided into
rebellious factions. In the troubles which followed General Li
Yuen became prominent. On the death of the emperor by assassina-
tion this man set Kung-ti, the rightful heir, on the throne (617)
until such time as he should have matured his schemes.

Kung-ti was poisoned in the following year and Li Yuen
proclaimed himself as Kao-tsu, the first emperor of the T'ang
dynasty. At this time the Turks were at the height of
their power in Asia (see TURKS: History), and Kao-
tsu was glad to purchase their alliance with money.
But divisions weakened the power of the Turks, and T'ai-tsung
(reigned 627-650), Kao-tsu's son and successor, regained much of
the position in Central Asia which had formerly been held by
China. In 640 Hami, Turfan and the rest of the Turkish territory
were again included within the Chinese empire, and four military
governorships were appointed in Central Asia, viz. at Kucha,
Khotan, Kharastan and Kashgar. At the same time the frontier
was extended as far as eastern Persia and the Caspian Sea. So
great was now the fame of China, that ambassadors from Nepal,
Magadha, Persia and Constantinople (643) came to pay their
court to the emperor. Under T'ai-tsung there was national unity
and peace, and in consequence agriculture and commerce as well
as literature flourished. The emperor gave direct encourage-
ments to the Nestorians, and gave a favourable reception to an
embassy from Mahommed (see ante Religion). On the accession
of Kao-tsung (650) his wife, Wu How, gained supreme influence,
and on the death of her husband in 683 she set aside his lawful
successor, Chung-tsung, and took possession of the throne. This
was the first occasion the country was ruled by a dowager
empress. She governed with discretion, and her armies defeated
the Khitan in the north-east and also the Tibetans, who had
latterly gained possession of Kucha, Khotan and Kashgar. On
her death, in 705, Chung-tsung partially left the obscurity in
which he had lived during his mother's reign. But his wife,
desiring to play a similar r61e to that enjoyed by her mother-in-
law, poisoned him and set his son, Jui-tsung (710), on the throne.
This monarch, who was weak and vicious, was succeeded by Yuen-
tsung (713), who introduced reform into the administration and
encouraged literature and learning. The king of Khokand
applied for aid against the Tibetans and Arabs, and Yuen-tsung

196

CHINA

[HISTORY

sent an army to his succour, but his general was completely
defeated. During the disorder which arose in consequence of
the invasion of the northern provinces by the Khitan, General
An Lu-shan, an officer of Turkish descent, placed himself at the
head of a revolt, and having secured Tung-kwan on the Yellow
river, advanced on Chang-an. Thereupon the emperor fled, and
placed his son, Su-tsung (756-762), on the throne. This
sovereign, with the help of the forces of Khotan, Khokand and
Bokhara, of the Uighurs and of some 4000 Arabs sent by the
caliph Mansur, completely defeated An Lu-shan. During the
following reigns the Tibetans made constant incursions into the
western provinces of the empire, and T'ai-tsung (763-780)
purchased the assistance of the Turks against those intruders by
giving a Chinese princess as wife to the khan.

At this epoch the eunuchs of the palace gained an unwonted degree
of power, and several of the subsequent emperors fell victims to their
plots. The T'ang dynasty, which for over a hundred years had
governed firmly and for the good of the nation, began to decline.
The history of the 8th and 9th centuries is for the most part a
monotonous record of feeble governments, oppressions and rebellions.
Almost the only event worth chronicling is the iconoclastic policy of
the emperor Wu-tsung (841-847). Viewing the increase of monasteries
and ecclesiastical establishments as an evil, he abolished all temples,
closed the monasteries and nunneries, and sent the inmates back to
their families. Foreign priests were subjected to the same repressive
legislation, and Christians, Buddhists and Magi were bidden to return
whence they came. Buddhism again revived during the reign of the
emperor I-tsung (860-874), who, having discovered a bone of
Buddha, brought it to the capital in great state. By internal dis-
sensions the empire became so weakened that the prince of Liang
found no difficulty in gaining possession of the throne (907). He
took the title of T'ai-tsu, being the first emperor of the Later Liang
dynasty. Thus ended the T'ang dynasty, which is regarded as being
the golden age of Chinese literature.

Five dynasties, viz. the Later Liang, the Later T'ang, the Later
Tsin, the Later Han and the Later Chow, followed each other between
the years 907 and 960. Though the monarchs of these lines nominally
held sway over the empire, their real power was confined to very
narrow limits. The disorders which were rife during the time when
the T'ang dynasty was tottering to its fall fostered the development
of independent states, and so arose Liang in Ho-nan and Shan-tung,
Ki in Shen-si, Hwai-nan in Kiang-nan, Chow in Sze-ch'uen and parts
of Shen-si and Hu-kwang, Wu-yue in Cheh-kiang, Tsu and King-nan
in Hu-kwang, Ling-nan in Kwang-tung and the Uighurs in Tangut.

A partial end was made to this recognized disorganization
when, in 960, General Chao Kw'ang-yin was proclaimed by
the army emperor in succession to the youthful
dynasty. Kung-ti, who was compelled to abdicate. The circum-
. stances of the time justified the change. It required
a strong hand to weld the empire together again, and to resist
the attacks of the Khitan Tatars, whose rule at this period
extended over the whole of Manchuria and Liao-tung. Against
these aggressive neighbours T'ai-tsu (ni Chao Kw'ang-yin)
directed his efforts with varying success, and he died in 976,
while the war was still being waged. His son T'ai-tsung (976-997)
entered on the campaign with energy, but in the end was com-
pelled to conclude a peace with the Khitan. His successor,
Chen-tsung (997-1022), paid them tribute to abstain from
further incursions. Probably this tribute was not sent regularly;
at all events, under Jen-tsung (1023-1064), the Khitan again
threatened to invade the empire, and were only bought off
by the promise of an annual tribute of taels 200,000 of silver,
besides a great quantity of silken piece goods. Neither was this
arrangement long binding, and so formidable were the advances
made by the Tatars in the following reigns, that Hwei-tsung
(1101-1126) invited the Ntichih Tatars to expel the Khitan from
Liao-tung. This they did, but having once possessed themselves
of the country they declined to yield it to the Chinese, and the
result was that a still more aggressive neighbour was established
on the north-eastern frontier of China. The Niichih or Kin,
as they now styled themselves, overran the provinces of Chih-li,
Shen-si, Shan-si and Ho-nan, and during the reign of Kao-tsung
(1127-1163) they advanced their conquests to the line of the
Yangtsze-kiang. From this time the Sung ruled only over
southern China; while the Kin or " Golden " dynasty reigned
in the north. The Kin made Chung-tu, which occupied in part
the site of the modern Peking, their usual residence. The Sung

fixed their capital at Nanking and afterwards at Hangchow.
Between them and the Kin there was almost constant war.

During this period the Mongols began to acquire power in
eastern Asia, and about the beginning of the I2th century the
forces of Jenghiz Khan (q.v.) invaded the north-western Mongol
frontier of China and the principality of Hia, which invasion:
at that time consisted of the modern provinces of ath
Shen-si and Kan-suh. To purchase the good-will ceatury -
of the Mongols the king of Hia agreed to pay them a tribute,
and gave a princess in marriage to their ruler. In consequence
of a dispute with the Kin emperor Wei-shao Wang, Jenghiz
Khan determined to invade Liao-tung. He was aided by the
followers of the Khitan leader Yeh-lii Ts'u-ts'ai, and in alliance
with this general he captured Liao-yang, the capital city.

After an unsuccessful invasion of China in 1212, Jenghiz Khan
renewed the attack in 1213. He divided his armies into four divi-
sions, and made a general advance southwards. His soldiers swept
over Ho-nan, Chih-li and Shan-tung, destroying upwards of ninety
cities. It was their boast that a horseman might ride without
stumbling over the sites where those cities had stood. Panic-
stricken, the emperor moved his court from Chung-tu to K'ai-fgng
Fu, much against the advice of his ministers, who foresaw the
disastrous effect this retreat would have on the fortunes of Kin.
The state of Sung, which up to this time had paid tribute, now
declined to recognize Kin as its feudal chief, and a short time after-
wards declared war against its quondam ally. Meanwhile, in 1215,
Yeh-lii Ts'u-ts'ai advanced into China by the Shan-hai Kwan, and
made himself master of Peking, one of the few cities in Chih-li which
remained to Kin. After this victory his nobles wished him to pro-
claim himself emperor, but he refused, being mindful of an oath
which he had sworn to Jenghiz Khan. In 1216 Tung-kwan, a
mountain pass on the frontiers of Ho-nan and Shen-si, and the scene
of numerous dynastic battles (as it is the only gateway between
north-eastern and north-western China), was taken by the invaders.
As the war dragged on the resistance offered by the Km grew weaker
and weaker. In 1220 Chi-nan Fu, the capital of Shan-tung, was
taken, and five years later Jenghiz Khan marched an army westward
into Hia and conquered the forces of the king. Two years later
(1227) Jenghiz Khan died.

With the view to the complete conquest of China by the Mongols,
Jenghiz declined to nominate either of the eldest two sons who had
been born to his Chinese wives as his heir, but chose his third son
Ogdai, whose mother was a Tatar. On hearing of the death of
Jenghiz Khan the Kin sent an embassy to his successor desiring
peace, but Ogdai told them there would be no peace for them until
their dynasty should be overthrown. Hitherto the Mongols had been
without any code of laws. But the consolidation of the nation by
the conquests of Jenghiz Khan made it necessary to establish a
recognized code of laws, and one of the first acts of Ogdai was to
form such a code. With the help also of Yeh-lii Ts'u-ts'ai, he estab-
lished custom-houses in Chih-li, Shan-tung, Shan-si and Liao-tung;
and for this purpose divided these provinces into ten departments.
Meanwhile the war with the Kin was carried on with energy. In
1230 Si-gan Fu was taken, and sixty important posts were captured.
Two years later, Tu-16, brother of Ogdai, took Feng-siang Fu and
Han-chung Fu, in the flight from which last-named place 100,000
persons are said to have perished. Following the course of the river
Han in his victorious career, this general destroyed 140 towns and
fortresses, and defeated the army of Kin at Mount San-feng.

In 1232 the Mongols made an alliance with the state of Sung, by
which, on condition of Sung helping to destroy Kin, Ho-nan was to
be the property of Sung for ever. The effect of this
coalition soon became apparent. Barely had the Kin
emperor retreated from K'ai-feng Fu to Ju-ning Fu in Ho-
nan when the former place fell into the hands of the allies.
Next fell Loyang, and the victorious generals then marched
on to besiege Ju-ning Fu. The presence of the emperor gave energy
to the defenders, and they held out until every animal in the city
had been killed for food, until every old and useless person had
suffered death to lessen the number of hungry mouths, until so many
able-bodied men had fallen that the women manned the ramparts,
and then the allies stormed the walls. The emperor burned himself
to death in his palace, that his body might not fall into the hands of
his enemies. For a few days the shadow of the imperial crown rested
on the head of his heir Chang-lin, but in a tumult which broke out
amongst his followers he lost his life, and with him ended the
" Golden " dynasty.

Notwithstanding the treaty between Ogdai and Sung, no sooner
were the spoils of Kin to be divided than war broke out again
between them, in prosecuting which the Mongol armies swept over
the provinces of Sze-ch'uen, Hu-kwang, Kiang-nan and Ho-nan,
and were checked only when they reached the walls of Lu-chow Fu
in Ngan-hui. Ogdai died in 1241, and was nominally succeeded by
his grandson Cheliemgn. But one of his widows, Tolickona, took
possession of the throne, and after exercising rule for four years,
established her son Kwei-yew as great khan. In 1248 his life was

The Klo
dynasty
over-
thrown.

HISTORY]

CHINA

197

' blttl

cut short, and the nobles, disregarding the claims of Chelieme'n,
proclaimed as emperor Mangu, the eldest son of Tu-le. Under this
monarch the war against Sung was carried on with energy, and
Kublai, outstripping the bounds of Sung territory, made his way
into the province of Yun-nan, at that time divided into a number of
independent states, and having attached them to his brother's
crown he passed on into Tibet, Tongking and Cochin-China, and
thence striking northwards entered the province of Kwang-si.

On the death of Mangu in 1259 Kublai (g.v.) ascended the
throne. Never in the history of China was the nation more
illustrious, nor its power more widely felt, than under
his sovereignty. During the first twenty years of
his reign Sung kept up a resistance against his
authority. Their last emperor Ping-ti, seeing his
cause lost, drowned himself in the sea. The Sung dynasty,
which had ruled southern China 320 years, despite its misfortunes
is accounted one of the great dynasties of China. During its
sway arts and literature were cultivated and many eminent
writers flourished. His enemies subdued, Kublai Khan in 1 280
assumed complete jurisdiction as emperor of China. He took
the title of Shit-su and founded what is known as the Yuen
dynasty. He built a new capital close to Chung-tu, which
became known as Kaanbaligh (city of the khan), in medieval
European chronicles, Cambaluc, and later as Peking. At this
time his authority was acknowledged " from the Frozen Sea,
almost to the Straits of Malacca. With the exception of
Hindustan, Arabia and the westernmost parts of Asia, all the
Mongol princes as far as the Dnieper declared themselves his
vassals, and brought regularly their tribute." It was during
this reign that Marco Polo visited China, and he describes in
glowing colours the virtues and glories of the " great khan."
His rule was characterized by discretion and munificence.
He undertook public works, he patronized literature, and relieved
the distress of the poor, but the Chinese never forgot that he
was an alien and regarded him as a barbarian. He died un-
regretted in 1294. His son had died during his lifetime, and
after some contention his grandson Timur ascended the throne
under the title of Yuen-cheng. This monarch died in 1307 after
an uneventful reign, and, as he left no son, Wu-tsung, a Mongol
prince, became emperor. To him succeeded Jen-tsung in 1312,
who made himself conspicuous by the honour he showed to the
memory of Confucius, and by distributing offices more equally
between Mongols and Chinese than had hitherto been done.
This act of justice gave great satisfaction to the Chinese, and his
death ended a peaceful and prosperous reign in 1320. At this
time there appears to have been a considerable commercial
intercourse between Europe and China. But after Jen-tsung's
death the dynasty fell on evil days. The Mongols in adopting
Chinese civilization had lost much of their martial spirit. They
were still regarded as alien by the Chinese and numerous secret
societies were formed to achieve their overthrow. Jen-tsung's
successors were weak and incapable rulers, and in the person of
Shun-ti (1333-1368) were summed up the vices and faults of
his predecessors. Revolts broke out, and finally this descendant
of Jenghiz Khan was compelled to fly before Chu Yuen-chang,
the son of a Chinese labouring man. Deserted by his followers,
he sought refuge in Ying-chang Fu, and there the last of the
Yuen dynasty died. These Mongol emperors, whatever their
faults, had shown tolerance to Christian missionaries and Papal
legates (see ante The Medieval Cathay) .

Chu Yuen-chang met with little opposition, more especially
as his first care on becoming possessed of a district was to
suppress lawlessness and to establish a settled govern-
dyn*sty. me nt. In 1355 he captured Nanking, and proclaimed
himself duke of Wu, but carefully avoided adopting
any of the insignia of royalty. Even when master of the empire,
thirteen years later, he still professed to dislike the idea of
assuming the imperial title. His scruples were overcome, and
he declared himself emperor in 1368. He carried his arms
into Tatary, where he subdued the last semblance of Mongol
power in that direction, and then bent his steps towards Liao-
tung. Here the Mongols defended themselves with the bravery
of despair, but unavailingly, and the conquest of this province

left Hung-wu, as the founder of the new or Ming (" Bright" )
dynasty styled himself, without a foe in the empire.

All intercourse with Europe seems now to have ceased until the
Portuguese arrived in the l6th century, but Hung-wu cultivated
friendly relations with the neighbouring states. As a quondam
Buddhist priest he lent his countenance to that religion to the
exclusion of Taoism, whose priests had for centuries earned tho
contempt of all but the most ignorant by their pretended magical
arts and their search after the philosopher's stone. Hung-wu died
in 1398 and was succeeded by his grandson Kien-Wfin. Aware that
the appointment of this youth his father was dead would give
offence. to the young emperor's uncles, Hung-wu had dismissed them
to their respective governments. However, the prince of Yen, his
eldest surviving son, rose in revolt as soon as the news reached him
of his nephew's accession, and after gaining several victories over the
armies of Kien-wln he presented himself before the gates of Nanking,
the capital. _ Treachery opened the gates to him, and the emperor
having fled in the disguise of a monk, the victorious prince became
emperor and took the title of Yung-lo (1403). At home Yung-lo
devoted himself to the encouragement of literature and the fine arts,
and, possibly from a knowledge that Kien-we'n was among the
Buddhist priests, he renewed the law prohibiting Buddhism. Abroad
he swept Cochin-China and Tongking within the folds of his empire
and carried his arms into Tatary, where he made new conquests of
waste regions, and erected a monument of his victories. He died in
1425, and was succeeded by his son Hung-hi.

Hung-hi's reign was short and uneventful. He strove to promote
only such mandarins as had proved themselves to be able and honest,
and to further the welfare of the people. During the reign of his
successor, Suen-tS (1426-1436), the empire suffered the first loss of
territory since the commencement of the dynasty. Cochin-China
rebelled and gained her independence. The next emperor, Cheng-
t'ung (1436), was taken prisoner by a Tatar chieftain, a descendant
of the Yuen family named Yi-sien, who had invaded the northern
provinces. Having been completely defeated by a Chinese force
from Liao-tung, Yi-sien liberated his captive, who reoccupied the
throne, which during his imprisonment (1450-1457) had been held by
his brother King-ti. The two following reigns, those of Cheng-hwa
(1465-1488) and of Hung-chi (1488-1506). were quiet and peaceful.

The most notable event in the reign of the next monarch, ChSng-te
(1506-1522), was the arrival of the Portuguese at Canton (1517).
From this time dates modern European intercourse with China.
Che'ng-te suppressed a formidable insurrection headed by the prince
of Ning, but disorder caused by this civil war encouraged the foreign
enemies of China. From the north came a Tatar army under Ycn-ta
in 1542, during the reign of Kia-tsing, which laid waste the province
of Shen-si, and even threatened the capital, and a little later a
Japanese fleet ravaged the littoral provinces. Ill-blood had arisen
between the two peoples before this, and a Japanese colony had been
driven out of Ningpo by force and not without bloodshed a few years
previously. Kia-tsing (d. 1567) was not equal to such emergencies,
and his son Lung-king (i567-i573)sought to placate the Tatar Yen-ta
by making him a pnnce of the empire and giving him commercial
privileges, which were supplemented by the succeeding emperor
Wan-li (1573-1620) by the grant of land in Shen-si. During the reign
of this sovereign, in the year 1592, the Japanese successfully invaded
Korea, and Taikosama, the regent of Japan, was on the point of
proclaiming himself king of the peninsula.when a large Chinese force,
answering to the invitation of the king, appeared and completely
routed the Japanese army, at the same time that the Chinese fleet
cut off their retreat by sea. In this extremity the Japanese sued for
peace, and sent an embassy to Peking to arrange terms.
But the peace was of short duration. In 1597 the Japanese
again invaded Korea, defeated the Chinese army, destroyed
the Chinese fleet and ravaged the coast. Suddenly, how-
ever, when in the full tide of conquest, they evacuated Korea, which
again fell under the direction of China. Four years later the mission-
ary Matteo Ricci (q.v.) arrived at the Chinese court ; and though at
first the emperor was inclined to send him out of the country, his
abilities gradually won for him the esteem of the sovereign and his
ministers, and he remained the scientific adviser of the court until his
death in 1610.

About this time the Manchu Tatars, goaded into war by the
injustice they were constantly receiving at the hands of the
Chinese, led an army into China (in 1616) and completely defeated
the force which was sent against them. Three years later they
gained possession of the province of Liao-tung. These disasters
overwhelmed the emperor, and he died of a broken heart in 1620.

In the same year T'ien-ming, the Manchu sovereign, having
declared himself independent, moved the court to San-ku, to the
east of Mukden, which, five years later, he made his Manchu
capital. In 1627 Ts'ung-chtog, the last emperor of invasion:
the Ming dynasty, ascended the Chinese throne. In I7tl>
his reign English merchants first made their appearance '
at Canton. The empire was now torn by internal dissensions.

i 9 8

CHINA

[HISTORY

Rebel bands, enriched by plunder, and grown bold by success,
. began to assume the proportion of armies. Two rebels, Li
Tsze-ch'Sng and Shang K'o-hi, decided to divide the empire
between them. Li besieged K'ai-fSng Fu, the capital of Ho-nan,
and so long and closely did he beleaguer it that in the consequent
famine human flesh was regularly sold in the markets. At
length an imperial force came to raise the siege, but fearful of
meeting Li's army, they cut through the dykes of the Yellow
River, " China's Sorrow," and flooded the whole country,
including the city. The rebels escaped to the mountains, but
upwards of 200,000 inhabitants perished in the flood, and the
city became a heap of ruins (1642). From K'ai-feng Fu Li
marched against the other strongholds of Ho-nan and Shen-si,
and was so completely successful that he determined to attack
Peking. A treacherous eunuch opened the gates to him, on
being informed of which the emperor committed suicide. When
the news of this disaster reached the general-commanding on the
frontier of Manchu Tatary, he, in an unguarded moment, con-
cluded a peace with the Manchus, and invited them to dispossess
Li Tsze-ch'eng. The Manchus entered China, and after defeating
a rebel army sent against them, they marched towards Peking.
On hearing of the approach of the invaders, Li Tsze-ch'eng,
after having set fire to the imperial palace, evacuated the city,
but was overtaken, and his force was completely routed.
The Chinese now wished the Manchus to retire, but, having
taken possession of Peking, they proclaimed the ninth son of

T'ien-ming emperor of China under the title of Shun-chi,
dynasty? and ad P ted the name of Ta-ts'ing, or " Great Pure,"

for the dynasty (1644). Meanwhile the mandarins
at Nanking had chosen an imperial prince to ascend the throne.
At this most inopportune moment " a claimant " to the throne,
in the person of a pretended son of the last emperor, appeared
at court. While this contention prevailed inside Nanking the
Tatar army appeared at the walls. There was no need for them
to use force. The gates were thrown open, and they took
possession of the city without bloodshed. Following the con-
ciliatory policy they had everywhere pursued, they confirmed
the mandarins in their offices and granted a general amnesty
to all who would lay down their arms. As the Tatars entered the
city the emperor left it, and after wandering about for some
days in great misery, he drowned himself in the Yangtsze-kiang.
Thus ended the Ming dynasty, and the empire passed again under
a foreign yoke. By the Mings, who partly revived the feudal
system by making large territorial grants to members of the
reigning house, China was divided into fifteen provinces; the exist-
ing division into eighteen provinces was made by the Manchus.

AH accounts agree in stating that the Manchu conquerors are
descendants of a branch of the family which gave the Kin dynasty to
the north of China; and in lieu of any authentic account of their
early history, native writers have thrown a cloud of fable over their
origin (see MANCHURIA). In the i6th century they were strong
enough to cope with their Chinese neighbours. Doubtless the Mings
tried to check their ambition by cruel reprisals, but against this must
be put numerous Manchu raids into Liao-tung.

The accession to the throne of the emperor Shun-chi did not restore
peace to the country. In Kiang-si, Fu-kien, Kwang-tung and
Kwang-si the adherents of the Ming dynasty defended themselves
vigorously but unsuccessfully against the invaders, while the pirate
Chng Chi-lung, the father of the celebrated Coxinga, kept up a
predatory warfare against them on the coast. Eventually he was
induced to visit Peking, where he was thrown into prison and died.
Coxinga, warned by his father's example, determined to leave the
mainland and to seek an empire elsewhere. His choice fell on
Formosa, and having driven out the Dutch, who had established
themselves in the island in 1624, he held possession until the reign of
K'ang-hi, when (1682) he resigned in favour of the imperial goyern-
ment. Meanwhile a prince of the house of Ming was proclaimed
emperor in Kwang-si, under the title of Yung-li. The Tatars having
reduced Fu-kien and Kiang-si, and having taken Canton after a
siege of eight months, completely routed his followers, and Yung-li
was compelled to fly to Pegu. Some years later, with the help of
adherents in Yun-nan and Kwei-chow, he tried to regain the throne,
but his army was scattered, and he was taken prisonerand strangled.
Gradually opposition to the new regime became weaker and weaker,
and the shaved head with the pig-tail the symbol of Tatar
sovereignty became more and more adopted. In 1651 died Ama
Wang, the uncle of Shun-chi, who had acted as regent during his
nephew's minority, and the emperor then assumed the government

of the state. He appears to have taken a great interest in science,
and to have patronized Adam Schaal, a German Jesuit, who was at
that time resident at Peking. It was during his reign (1656) that
the first Russian embassy arrived at the capital, but as the envoy
declined to kowtow before the emperor he was sent back without
having been admitted to an audience.

After an unquiet reign of seventeen years Shun-chi died (1661).
and was succeeded by his son K'ang-hi. He came intocollision with
the Russians, who had reached the Amur regions about 1640 and had
built a fort on the upper Amur; but by the Treaty of Nerchinsk, con-
cluded in 1689 (the first treaty made between China and a European
power), the dispute was settled, the Amur being taken as the frontier.
K'ang-hi was indefatigable in administering the affairs of the empire,
and he devoted much of his time to literary and scientific studies
under the guidance of the Jesuits. The dictionary of the Chinese
language, published under his superintendence, proves him to have
been as great a scholar as his conquests over the Eleuths show him
to have been famous as a general. During one of his hunting expe-
ditions to Mongolia he caught a fatal cold, and he died in 1721.
Under his rule Tibet was added to the empire, which extended from
the Siberian frontier to Cochin-China, and from the China Sea to
Turkestan. During his reign there was a great earthquake at Peking,
in which 400,000 people are said to have perished.

K'ien-lung, who began to reign in 1735, was ambitious and warlike.
He marched an army into Hi, which he converted into a Chinese
province, and he afterwards added eastern Turkestan to the empire.
Twice he invaded Burma, and once he penetrated into Cochin-China,
but in neither country were his arms successful. He is accused of
great cruelty towards his subjects, which they repaid by rebelling
against him. During his reign the Mahommedan standard was first
raised in Kan-suh. (Since the Mongol conquest in the I3th century
there had been a considerable immigration of Moslems into western
China; and numbers of Chinese had become converts). But the
Mussulmans were unable to stand against the imperial troops;
their armies were dispersed ; ten thousand of them were exiled ; and
an order was issued that every Mahommedan in Kan-suh above the
age of fifteen should be put to death (1784).

K'ien-lung wrote incessantly, both poetry and prose, collected
libraries and republished works of value. His campaigns furnished
him with themes for his verses, and in the Summer Palace was found
a handsome manuscript copy of a laudatory poem he composed on
the occasion of his war against the Gurkhas. This was one of the
most successful of his military undertakings. His generals marched
70,000 men into Nepal to within 60 miles of the British frontiers,
and having subjugated the Gurkhas they received the submission of
the Nepalese, and acquired an additional hold over Tibet (1792).
In other directions his arms were not so successful. There is no poem
commemorating the campaign against the rebellious Formosans,
nor lament over the loss of 100,000 men in that island, and the last
few years of his reign were disturbed by outbreaks among the Miao-
tsze, hill tribes living in the mountains in the provinces of Kwei-chow
and Kwang-si. In 1795, after a reign of sixty years, K'ien-lung
abdicated in favour of his fifteenth son, who adopted the title of
Kia-k'ing as the style of his reign. K'ien-lung died at the age of
eighty-eight in 1798.

During the reign of K'ien-lung commerce between Europe
and Canton the only Chinese port then open to foreign trade
had attained important dimensions. It was mainly
in the hands of the Portuguese, the British and the
Dutch. The British trade was then a monopoly of the
East India Company. The trade, largely in opium, tea and silk,
was subject to many exactions and restrictions, 1 and many acts
of gross injustice were committed on the persons of Englishmen.
To obtain some redress the British government at length sent
an embassy to Peking (1793) and Lord Macartney was chosen
to represent George III. on the occasion. The mission was treated
as showing that Great Britain was a state tributary to China,
and Lord Macartney was received with every courtesy. But the
concessions he sought were not accorded, and in this sense his
mission was a failure.

Kia-k'ing's reign was disturbed and disastrous. In the
northern and western provinces, rebellion after rebellion broke
out, due in a great measure to the carelessness, incompetency
and obstinacy of the emperor, and the coasts were infested with
pirates, whose number and organization enabled them for a long
time to hold the imperial fleet in check. Meanwhile the condition
of the foreign merchants at Canton had not improved, and to set
matters on a better footing the British government despatched
a second ambassador in the person of Lord Amherst to Peking
in 1816. As he declined to kowtow before the emperor, he was
not admitted to the imperial presence and the mission proved

1 See Morse's Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire,
chap. ix.

HISTORY]

CHINA

199

abortive. Destitute of all royal qualities, a slave to his passions,
and the servant of caprice, Kia-k'ing died in 1820. The event
fraught with the greatest consequences to China which occurred
in his reign (though at the time it attracted little attention) was
the arrival of the first Protestant missionary, Dr R. Morrison
(q.v.), who reached Canton in 1807.

Tao-kwang (1820-1850), the new emperor, though possessed
in his early years of considerable energy, had no sooner ascended
the throne than he gave himself up to the pursuit of pleasure.
The reforms which his first manifestoes foreshadowed never
seriously occupied his attention. Insurrection occurred in
Formosa, Kwang-si, Ho-nan and other parts of the empire, and
the Triad Society, which had originated during the reign of
K'ang-hi, again became formidable.

More important to the future of the country than the internal
disturbances was the new attitude taken at this time towards
China by the nations of Europe. Hitherto the European
missionaries and traders in China had been dependent upon
the goodwill of the Chinese. The Portuguese had been allowed
to settle at Macao (g.v.) for some centuries; Roman Catholic
missionaries since the time of Ricci had been alternately patron-
ized and persecuted; Protestant missionaries had scarcely
gained a foothold; the Europeans allowed to trade at Canton
continued to suffer under vexatious regulations the Chinese
in general regarded Europeans as barbarians, " foreign devils."
Of the armed strength of Europe they were ignorant. They were
now to be undeceived, Great Britain being the first power to
take action. The hardships inflicted on the British merchants
at Canton became so unbearable that when, in 1834, the mono-
poly of the East India Company ceased, the British government
sent Lord Napier as minister to superintend the foreign trade
at that port. Lord Napier was inadequately supported, and the
anxieties of his position brought on an attack of fever, from
which he died at Macao after a few months' residence in China.
The chief cause of complaint adduced by the mandarins was
the introduction of opium by the merchants, and for years
they attempted by every means in their power to put a stop
to its importation. At length Captain (afterwards Admiral
Sir Charjes) Elliot, the superintendent of trade, in 1839 agreed
that all the opium in the hands of Englishmen should be given
up to the native authorities, and he exacted a pledge from the
merchants that they would no longer deal in the drug. On the
3rd of April 20,283 chests of opium were banded over to the
mandarins and were by them destroyed. The surrender of the
War with opium led to further demands by Lin Tze-su, the
Great Chinese imperial commissioner, demands which were
Britain, considered by the British government to amount to
'**' a casus belli, and in 1840 war was declared. In the
same year the fleet captured Chusan, and Li the following year
the Bogue Forts fell, in consequence of which operations the
Chinese agreed to cede Hong-Kong to the victors and to pay
them an indemnity of 6,000,000 dollars. As soon as this news
reached Peking, Ki Shen, who had succeeded Commissioner Lin,
was dismissed from his post and degraded, and Yi Shen, another
Tatar, was appointed in his room. Before the new commissioner
reached his post Canton had fallen into the hands of Sir Hugh
Gough, and shortly afterwards Amoy, Ning-po, Tinghai in
Chusan, Chapu, Shanghai and Chin-kiang Fu shared the same
fate. Nanking would also have been captured had not the
imperial government, dreading the loss of the " Southern
Capital," proposed terms of peace. Sir Henry Pottinger, who
had succeeded Captain Elliot, concluded, in 1842, a treaty with
the imperial commissioners, by which the four additional ports
of Amoy, Fu-chow, Ningpo and Shanghai were declared open to
foreign trade, and an indemnity of 21,000,000 dollars was to be
paid to the British.

On the accession of Hien-fSng in 1850, a demand was laised for
the reforms which had been hoped for under Tao-kwang, but Hien-
Hlen-teng ^ n S possessed in an exaggerated form the selfish and
emperor, tyrannical nature of his father, together with a voluptu-
ary's craving for every kind of sensual pleasure. For some
time Kwang-si had been in a very disturbed state, and when the
people found that there was no hope of relief from the oppression

they endured, they proclaimed a youth, who was said to be the
representative of the last emperor of the Ming dynasty, as emperor,
under the title of T'ien-tfi or " Heavenly Virtue." From Kwang-si
the revolt spread into Hu-peh and Hu-nan, and then languished Irom
want of a leader and a definite political cry. When! however, there
appeared to be a possibility that, by force of arms and the per-
suasive influence of money, the imperialists would re-establish their
supremacy, a leader presented himself in Kwang-si, whose energy of
character, combined with great political and religious enthusiasm,
speedily gained for him the suffrages of the discontented. This was
Hung Siu-ts'uan. He proclaimed himself as sent by heaven to drive
out the Tatars, and to restore in his own person the succession to
China. At the same time, having been converted to Christianity and
professing to abhor the vices and sins of the age. he called on all the
virtuous of the land to extirpate rulers who were standing examples
of all that was base and vile in human nature. Crowds soon flocked
to his standard. T'ien-tS was deserted; and putting himself at the
head of his followers (who abandoned the practice of shaving the
head), Hung Siu-ts'uan marched northwards and captured Wu-
ch'ang on the Yangtsze-kiang, the capital of Hu-peh. Then, moving
down the river, he proceeded to the attack of Nanking. Without
much difficulty Hung Siu-ts'uan in 1853 established himself within
its walls, and proclaimed the inauguration of the T'ai-p'ing dynasty,
of which he nominated himself the first emperor under the title of
T'ien Wang or " Heavenly king." During the next few years his
armies penetrated victoriously as far north as Tientsin and as far east
as Chin-kiang and Su-chow, while bands of sympathizers with his
cause appeared jn the neighbourhood of Amoy. As if still -, , ,.
further to aid him in his schemes, Great Britain declared ' jlTm
war against the Tatar dynasty in 1857, in consequence of '
an outrage known as the "Arrow" affair (see PARKES, SIR HARRY
SMITH). In December 1857 Canton was taken by the British, and a
further blow was struck against the prestige of the Manchu dynasty
by the determination of Lord Elgin, who had been sent as special
ambassador, to go to Peking and communicate directly witn the
emperor. In May 1858 the Taku Forts were taken, and Lord Elgin
went up the Peiho to Tientsin en route for the capital.' At Tientsin,
however, imperial commissioners persuaded him to conclude a treaty
with them on the spot, which treaty it was agreed should be ratified
at Peking in the following^ year. When, however, Sir Frederick
Bruce, who had been appointed minister to the court of Peking,
attempted to pass Taku to carry out this arrangement, the vessels
escorting him were treacherously fired on from the forts and he was
compelled to return. Thereupon Lord Elgin was again sent out with
full powers, accompanied by a large force under the command of Sir
Hope Grant. The French (to seek reparation for the murder of a
missionary in Kwang-si) took part in the campaign, and on the 1st of
August 1860 the allies landed without meeting with any opposition
at Pei-tang, a village 12 m. north of Taku. A few days later the forts
at that place were taken, and thence the allies marched to Peking.
Finding _ further resistance to be hopeless, the Chinese opened
negotiations, and as a guarantee of their good faith surrendered the
An-ting gate of the capital to the allies. On the 24th of October
1860 the treaty of 1858 was ratified by Prince Kung and Lord Elgin,
and a convention was signed under the terms of which the Chinese
agreed to pay a war indemnity of 8,000,000 taels. The right of
Europeans to travei in the interior was granted and freedom guaran-
teed to the preaching of Christianity. The customs tariff then agreed
upon legalized the import of opium, though the treaty of 1858, like
that of 1842, was silent on the subject.

Great Britain and France were not the only powers of Europe with
whom Hien-fSng was called to deal. On the northern border of the
empire Russia began to exercise pressure. Russia had begun to
colonize the_ lower Amur region, and was pressing towards the
Pacific. This was a remote region, only part of the Chinese empire
since the Manchu conquest, and by treaties of 1858 and 1860 China
ceded _to Russia all its territory north of the Amur and between the
Ussuri and the Pacific (see AMUR, province). The Russians in their
newly acquired land founded the port of Vladivostok (q.v.).

Hien-fSng_ died in the summer of the year 1861, leaving the
throne to his son T'ung-chi (1861-1875), a child of five years old,
whose mother, Tsz'e Hsi (1834-1908), had been raised
from the place of favourite concubine to that of Imperial emt
Consort. The legitimate empress, Tsz'e An, was childless, ao ^ a
and the two dowagers became joint regents. The con- emor .
elusion of peace with the allies was the signal for a .

renewal of the campaign against the T'ai-p'ings, and, "
benefiting by the friendly feelings of the British authorities engen-
dered by the return of amicable relations, the Chinese government
succeeded in enlisting Major Charles George Gordon (q.v.) of the
Royal Engineers in their service. In a suprisingiy short space of
time this officer formed the troops, which had rormerly been under
the command of an American named Ward, into a formidable army,
and without delay took the field against the rebels. From that day
the fortunes of the T'ai-p'in^s declined. They lost city after city,
and, finally in July 1864, the imperialists, after an interval of twelve
years, once more gained possession of Nanking. T'ien Wang com-
mitted suicide on the capture of his capital, and with him fell his
cause. Those of his followers who escaped the sword dispersed
throughout the country, and the T'ai-p'ings ceased to be.

2OO

CHINA

[HISTORY

With the measure of peace which was then restored to the country
trade rapidly revived, except in Yun-nan, where the Mahommedan
rebels, known as Panthays, under Suleiman, still kept the imperial
forces at bay. Against these foes the government was careless to
take active measures, until in 1872 Prince Hassan, the adopted son
of Suleiman, was sent to England to gain the recognition of the
queen for his father's government. This step aroused the sus-
ceptibilities of the imperial government, and a large force was
despatched to the scene of the rebellion. Before the year was put
the Mahommedan capital Ta-li Fu fell into the hands of the im-
perialists, and the followers of Suleiman were mercilessly exter-
minated. In February 1 873 the two dowager empresses resigned their
powers as regents. This long-expected time was seized upon by the
foreign ministers to urge their right of audience with the emperor,
and on the zgth of June 1873 the privilege of gazing on the " sacred
countenance " was accorded them.

The emperor T'ung-chi died without issue, and the succession to
the throne, for the first time in the annals of theTs'ing dynasty,
passed out of the direct line. As already stated, the first
1 emperor of the Ts'ing dynasty, Shih-tsu Hwangti, on
MM** gaining possession of the throne on the fall of the Ming,
u, US7S. or Great Bright " dynasty, adopted the title of Shun-
chi for his reign, which began in the year 1644. The legendary
progenitor of these Manchu rulers was Aisin Gioro, whose name is
said to point to the fact of his having been related to the race of
Nii-chih, or Kin, i.e. Golden Tatars, who reigned in northern China
during the I2th and I3th centuries. K'ang-hi (1661-1722) was the
third son of Shun-chi; Yung-chlng (1722-1735) was the fourth son
of K'ang-hi; K'ien-lung (1736-1795) was the fourth son of Yung-
chfing; Kia-k'ing (1796-1820) was the fifteenth son of K'ien-lung;
Tao-Kwang (1821-1850) was the second son of Kia-k'ing; Hien-
flng (18511861) was the fourth of the nine sons who were born to
the emperor Tao-kwang; and T'ung-chi (1862-1875) was the only
son of Hien-fSng. The choice now fell upon Tsai-t'ien (as he was
called at birth), the infant son (born August 2, 1872) of Yi-huan,
Prince Chun, the seventh son of the emperor Tao-kwang and brother
of the emperor Hien-fSng; his mother was a sister of the empress
Tsz'e Hsi, who, with the aid of Li Hung-chang, obtained his adoption
and proclamation as emperor, under the title of Kwang-su, " Suc-
cession of Glory."

In order to prevent the confusion which would arise among the
princes of the imperial house were they each to adopt an arbitrary
Hal name ' the emperor K'ang-hi decreed that each of his
I mil twenty-four sons should have a personal name consisting

"omeacla- ^ two characters, the first of which should be Yung, and
tare and tn ? se < ;orl d should be compounded with the determinative
rank shih, " to manifest," an arrangement which would, as has

been remarked, find an exact parallel in a system by which
the sons in an English family might be called Louis Edward, Louis
Edwin, Louis Edwy, Louis Edgar and so on. This device obtained also
in the next generation, all the princes of which had Hung for their
first name, and the emperor K'ien-lung (1736-1795) extended it into
a system, and directed that the succeeding generations should take
the four characters Yung, Mien Yih and Tsai respectively, as the
first part of their names. Eight other characters, namely, P'u, Yu,
Heng, K'i, Tao, K'ai, Tseng,Kt, were subsequently added, thus provid-
ing generic names for twelve generations. With the generation repre-
sented by Kwang-su the first four characters were exhausted, and
any sons of the emperor Kwang-su would therefore have been called
P'u. By the ceremonial law of the " Great Pure " dynasty, twelve
degrees of rank are distributed among the princes of the imperial
house, and are as follows: (i) Ho-shih Tsin Wang, prince of the
first order; (2) To-lo Keun Wang, prince of the second order;
(3) To-lo Beileh, prince of the third order; (4) Ku-shan Beitsze,
prince of the fourth order; 5 to 8, Kung, or duke (with distinctive
designations) ; 9 to 12, Tsiang-keun, general (with distinctive desig-
nations). The sons of emperors usually receive patents of the first
or second order on their reaching manhood, and on their sons is
bestowed the title of Beileh. A Beileh' s sons become Beitsze; a
Beitsze's sons become Kung, and so on. (R. K. D.; X.)

(D) From 1875 t 1901.

The accession to the throne of Kwang-su in January 1875
attracted little notice outside China, as the supreme power
continued to be vested in the two dowager-empresses
The two |- n e empress Tsz'e An, principal wife of the emperor
Hien-feng, and the empress Tsz'e Hsi, secondary wife
of the same/ emperor, and mother of the emperor
T'ung-chi. Yet there were circumstances connected with the
emperor Kwang-su's accession which might well have arrested
attention. The emperor T'ung-chi, who had himself succumbed
to an ominously brief and mysterious illness, left a young widow
in an advanced state of pregnancy, and had she given birth to a
male child her son would have been the rightful heir to the throne.
But even before she sickened and died of grief, it was officially

stated, at the loss of her imperial spouse the dowager-empresses
had solved the question of the succession by placing Kwang-su
on the throne, a measure which was not only in itself arbitrary,
but also in direct conflict with one of the most sacred of Chinese
traditions. The solemn rites of ancestor-worship, incumbent on
every Chinaman, and, above all, upon the emperor, can only be
properly performed by a member of a younger generation than
those whom it is his duty to honour. The emperor Kwang-su,
being a first cousin to the emperor T'ung-chi, was not therefore
qualified to offer up the customary sacrifices before the ancestral
tablets of his predecessor. The accession of an infant in the
place of T'ung-chi achieved, however, for the time being what
was doubtless the paramount object of the policy of the two
empresses, namely, their undisturbed tenure of the regency, in
which the junior empress Tsz'e Hsi, a woman of unquestionable
ability and boundless ambition, had gradually become the
predominant partner.

The first question that occupied the attention of the govern-
ment under the new reign was one of the gravest importance,
and nearly led to a war with Great Britain. The Indian
government was desirous of seeing the old trade relations
between Burma and the south-west provinces, which had been
interrupted by the Yun-nan rebellion, re-established, and for that
purpose proposed to send a mission across the frontier into China.
The Peking government assented and issued passports
for the party, which was under the command of Colonel M f^ er
Browne. Mr A. R. Margary, a'young and promising Margary.
member of the China consular service, who was told
off to accompany the expedition as interpreter, was treacherously
murdered by Chinese at the small town of Manwyne and almost
simultaneously an attack was made on the expedition by armed
forces wearing Chinese uniform (January 1875). Colonel Browne
with difficulty made his way back to Bhamo and the expedition
was abandoned.

Tedious negotiations followed, and, more than eighteen months
after the outrage, an arrangement was come to on the basis of
guarantees for the future, rather than vengeance for
the past. The arrangement was embodied in the
Chifu convention, dated i3th September 1876. The is76.
terms of the settlement comprised (i) a mission ot
apology from China to the British court; (2) the promulgation
throughout the length and breadth of the empire of an imperial
proclamation, setting out the right of foreigners to travel under
passport, and the obligation of the authorities to protect them;
and (3) the payment of indemnity. Additional articles were
subsequently signed in London relative to the collection of likin
on Indian opium and other matters.

Simultaneously with the outbreak of the Mahommedan
rebellion in Yun-nan, a similar disturbance had arisen
in the north-west provinces of Shen-si and Kan-suh. ^^.*/ n
This was followed by a revolt of the whole of the Asia.
Central Asian tribes, which for two thousand years had
more or less acknowledged the imperial sway. In Kashgaria a
nomad chief named Yakub Beg, otherwise known as the Atalik
Ghazi, had made himself amir, and seemed likely to establish
a strong rule. The fertile province of Kulja or Ili, lying to the
north of the T'ianshan range, was taken possession of by Russia
in 1871 in order to put a stop to the prevailing anarchy, but
with a promise that when China should have succeeded in
re-establishing order in her Central Asian dominions it should be
given back. The interest which was taken in the rebellion in
Central Asia by the European powers, notably by the sultan of
Turkey and the British government, aroused the Chinese to
renewed efforts to recover their lost territories, and, as in the
case of the similar crisis in Yun-nan, they undertook the task
with sturdy deliberation. They borrowed money 1,600,000
for the expenses of the expedition, this being the first appearance
of China as a borrower in the foreign markets, and appointed the
viceroy, Tso Tsung-t'ang, commander-in-chief. By degrees the
emperor's authority was established from the confines of Kan-suh
to Kashgar and Yarkand, and Chinese garrisons were stationed
in touch with the Russian outpost in the region of the Pamirs

HISTORY]

CHINA

201

(December 1877). Russia was now called upon to restore
Kulja, China being in a position to maintain order. China
despatched Chung-how, a Manchu of the highest rank, who had
been notoriously concerned in the Tientsin massacre of 1870,
to St Petersburg to negotiate a settlement. After some months
of discussion a document was signed (September 1879), termed
the treaty of Livadia, whereby China recovered, not
imperial indeed the whole, but a considerable portion of the
disputed territory, on her paying to Russia five million
roubles as the cost of occupation. The treaty was,
however, received with a storm of indignation in China.
Memorials poured in from all sides denouncing the treaty and
its author. Foremost among these was one by Chang Chih-
tung, who afterwards became the most distinguished of the
viceroys, and governor-general of Hu-peh and Hu-nan provinces.
Prince Chun, the emperor's father, came into prominence at this
juncture as an advocate for war, and under these combined
influences the unfortunate Chung-how was tried and condemned
to death (3rd of March 1880). For some months warlike pre-
parations went on, and the outbreak of hostilities was imminent.
In the end, however, calmer counsels prevailed. It was decided
to send the Marquis Tseng, who in the meantime had become
minister in London, to Russia to negotiate. A new treaty
which still left Russia in possession of part of the Hi valley
was ratified on the igth of August 1881. The Chinese govern-
ment could now contemplate the almost complete recovery of
the whole extensive dominions which had at any time owned
the imperial sway. The regions directly administered by the
officers of the emperor extended from the borders of Siberia
on the north to Annam and Burma on the south, and from
the Pacific Ocean on the east to Kashgar and Yarkand on the
west. There was also a fringe of tributary nations which still
kept up the ancient forms of allegiance, and which more or
less acknowledged the dominior of the central kingdom. The
principal tributary nations then were Korea, Lu-chu, Annam,
Burma and Nepal.

Korea was the first of the dependencies to come into notice. In
1866 some Roman Catholic missionaries were murdered, and
about the same time an American vessel was burnt in one of the
rivers and her crew murdered. China refused satisfaction, both
to France and America, and suffered reprisals to be made on
Korea without protest. America and Japan both desired to
conclude commercial treaties for the opening up of Korea, and
proposed to negotiate with China. China refused and
referred them to the Korean government direct, saying
she was not wont to interfere in the affairs of her vassal
states. As a result Japan concluded a treaty in 1876, in which
the independence of Korea was expressly recognized. This was
allowed to pass without protest, but as other nations proceeded
to conclude treaties on the same terms China began to perceive
her mistake, and endeavoured to tack on to each a declaration
by the king that he was in fact a tributary a declaration,
however, which was quietly ignored. Japan, however, was the
only power with which controversy immediately arose. In 1882
a faction fight, which had long been smouldering, broke out,
headed by the king's father, the Tai Won Kun, in the course of
which the Japanese legation was attacked and the whole Japanese
colony had to flee for their lives. China sent troops, and by
adroitly kidnapping the Tai Won Kun, order was for a time
restored. The Japanese legation was replaced, but under the
protection of a strong body of Japanese troops. Further revolu-
tions and riots followed, in which the troops of the two countries
took sides, and there was imminent danger of war. To obviate
this risk, it was agreed in 1885 between Count Ito and Li Hung-
Chang that both sides should withdraw their troops, the king
being advised to engage officers of a third state to put his army
on such a footing as would maintain order, and each undertook
to give the other notice should it be found necessary to send
troops again. In this way a modus vivendi was established
which lasted till 1894.

We can only glance briefly at the domestic affairs of China dur-
ing the period 1875-1882. The years 1877-1878 were marked by

a famine in Shan-si and Shan-tung, which for duration and
intensity has probably never been equalled. It was computed
that 12 or 13 millions perished. It was vainly hoped
that this loss of life, due mainly to defective com-
munications, would induce the Chinese government
to listen to proposals for railway construction.
The Russian scare had, however, taught the Chinese the value
of telegraphs, and in 1881 the first line was laid from Tientsin
to Shanghai. Further construction was continued without
intermission from this date. A beginning also was made in
naval affairs. The arsenal at Fuchow was turning out small
composite gunboats, a training ship was bought and put under
the command of a British officer. Several armoured cruisers
were ordered from England, and some progress was made
with the fortifications of Port Arthur and Wei-hai-wei. Forts
were also built and guns mounted at Fuchow, Shanghai, Canton
and other vulnerable points. Money for these purposes was
abundantly supplied by the customs duties on foreign trade,
and China had learnt that at need she could borrow from the
foreign banks on the security of this revenue.

In 1881 the senior regent, the empress Tsz'e An, was carried
off by a sudden attack of heart disease, and the empress Tsz'e Hsi
remained in undivided possession of the supreme power during
the remainder of the emperor Kwang-su's minority. Li Hung-
Chang, firmly established at Tientsin, within easy reach of the
capital, as viceroy of the home province of Chihli and super-
intendent of northern trade, enjoyed a larger share of his imperial
mistress's favour than was often granted by the ruling Manchus
to officials of Chinese birth, and in all the graver -questions of
foreign policy his advice was generally decisive.

While the dispute with Japan was still going on regarding
Korea, China found herself involved in a more serious quarrel in
respect of another tributary state which lay on the
southern frontier. By a treaty made between France roughing
and Annam in 1874, the Red river or Songkoi, which, Hanoi
rising in south-western China, flows through Tongking,
was opened to trade, together with the cities of Haiphong and
Hanoi situated on the delta. The object of the French was to
find a trade route to Yun-nan and Sze-ch'uen from a base of their
own, and it was hoped the Red river would furnish such a
route. Tongking at this time, however, was infested with bands
of pirates and cut-throats, many of whom were Chinese rebels
or ex-rebels who had been driven across the frontier by the
suppression of the Yun-nan and Taiping rebellions, conspicuous
among them being an organization called the Black Flags.
And when in 1882 France sent troops to Tongking to restore
order (the Annamese government having failed to fulfil its
promises in that respect) China began to protest, claiming that
Annam was a vassal state and under her protection.

France took no notice of the protest, declaring that the claim had
merely an archaeological interest, and that, in any case, China in
military affairs was a quantite negligeable. France found, _ . .
however, that she had undertaken a very serious task in wlf
trying to put down the forces of disorder (see TONGKING). France
The Black Flags were, it was believed, being aided by
money and arms from China, and as time went on, the French were
more and more being confronted with regular Chinese soldiers.
Several forts, well within the Tongking frontier, were known to be
garrisoned by Chinese troops. Operations continued with more or
less success during the winter and spring of 1883-1884. Both sides,
however, were desirous of an arrangement, and in May 1884 a con-
vention was signed between Li Hung-Chang and a Captain Fournier,
who had been commissioned ad hoc, whereby China agreed to with-
draw her garrisons and to open her frontiers to trade, France agreeing,
on her part, to respect the fiction of Chinese suzerainty, and guarantee
the frontier from attack by_ brigands. No date had been fixed in the
convention for the evacuation of the Chinese garrisons, and Fournier
endeavoured to supplement this by a memorandum to Li Hung-
Chang, at the same time announcing the fact to his government. In
pursuance of this arrangement the French troops proceeded to occupy
Langson on the date fixed (2ist June 1884). The Chinese com-
mandant refused to evacuate, alleging, in a despatch which no one
in the French camp was competent to translate, that he had received
no orders, and begged for a short delay to enable him to communicate
with his superiors. The French commandant ordered an attack,
which was repulsed with severe loss. Mutual recriminations ensued.
From Paris there came a demand for a huge indemnity as reparation

202

CHINA

[HISTORY

for the insult. The Peking government offered to carry out the
convention, and to pay a small indemnity for the lives lost through
the misunderstanding. This was refused, and hostilities recom-
menced, or, as the French preferred to call them, reprisals, for the
fiction was still kept up that the two countries were not at war.
Under cover of this fiction the French fleet peaceably entered the
harbour of Fuchow, having passed the forts at the entrance to the
river without hindrance. Once inside, they attacked and destroyed
the much inferior Chinese fleet which was then quietly at anchor,
destroying at the same time a large part of the arsenal which adjoins
the anchorage (23rd August 1 884). _ Retracing its steps, the French
fleet attacked and destroyed with impunity the forts which were
built to guard the entrance to the Min river, and could offer no
resistance to a force coming from the rear. After this exploit the
French fleet left the mainland and continued its reprisals on the coast
of Formosa. Kelung, a treaty port, was bombarded and taken,
October 4th. A similar attempt, however, on the neighbouring port
of Tamsui was unsuccessful, the landing party having been driven
back to their ships with severe loss. The attempt was not renewed,
and the fleet thereafter confined itself to a semi-blockade of the
island, which was prolonged into 1885 but led to no practical results.
Negotiations for peace, however, which had been for some time in
progress through the mediation of Sir Robert Hart, were at this
juncture happily concluded (April 1885). The terms were practically
those of the Fournier convention of the year before, the demand for
an indemnity having been quietly dropped.

China, on the whole, came out of the struggle with greatly
increased prestige. She had tried conclusions with a first-class
European power and had held her own. Incorrect
increased conclusions as to the military strength of China were
consequently drawn, not merely by the Chinese them-
selves which was excusable but by European and
even British authorities, who ought to have been better informed.
War vessels were ordered by China both from England and
Germany, and Admiral Lang, who had withdrawn his services
while the war was going on, was re-engaged together with a
number of British officers and instructors. The completion of
the works at Port Arthur was taken in hand, and a beginning
was made in the construction of forts at Wei-hai-wei as a second
naval base. A new department was created for the control of
naval affairs, at the head of which was placed Prince Chun,
father of the emperor, who since the downfall of Prince Kung
in 1884 had been taking a more and more prominent part in
public affairs.

From 1885 to 1894 the political history of China does not call
for extended notice. Two incidents, however, must be recorded,
(i) the conclusion in 1886 of a convention with Great Britain, in
which the Chinese government undertook to recognize British
sovereignty in Burma, and (2) the temporary occupation of Port
Hamilton by the British fleet (May i88s-February
1887). In 1890 Admiral Lang resigned his command
of the Chinese fleet. During a temporary absence of
Lang's colleague, Admiral Ting, the Chinese second in command,
claimed the right to take charge a claim which Admiral Lang
naturally resented. The question was referred to Li Hung-
Chang, who decided against Lang, whereupon the latter threw
up his commission. From this point the fleet on which so much
depended began to deteriorate. Superior officers again began
to steal the men's pays, the ships were starved, shells filled with
charcoal instead of powder were supplied, accounts were cooked,
and all the corruption and malfeasance that were rampant in
the army crept back into the navy.

The year 1894 witnessed the outbreak of the war with Japan.
In the spring, complications again arose with Japan over Korea,
and hostilities began in July. The story of the war is
told elsewhere (see CHINO- JAPANESE WAR), and it is
unnecessary here to recount the details of the decisive
victory of Japan. A new power had arisen in the
Far East, and when peace was signed by Li Hung-Chang at
Shimonoseki on the 17th of April 1895 it meant the beginning
of a new epoch. The terms included the cession of Liao-tung
peninsula, then in actual occupation by the Japanese troops,
the cession of Formosa, an indemnity of H. taels 200,000,000
(about 30,000,000) and various commercial privileges.

The signature of this treaty brought the European powers on
the scene. It had been for some time the avowed ambition of
Russia to obtain an ice-free port as an outlet to her Siberian

1X85-
1894.

1894.

possessions an ambition which was considered by British states-
men as not unreasonable. It did not, therefore, at all suit her
purposes to see the rising power of Japan commanding
the whole of the coast-line of Korea. Accordingly in ^^^ a "
the interval between the signature and the ratification vent/on,
of the treaty, invitations were addressed by Russia
to the great powers to intervene with a view to its modifica-
tion on the ground of the disturbance of the balance of power,
and the menace to China which the occupation of Port Arthur by
the Japanese would involve. France and Germany accepted the
invitation, Great Britain declined. In the end the three powers
brought such pressure to bear on Japan that she gave up the
whole of her continental acquisitions, retaining only the island of
Formosa. The indemnity was on the other hand increased by
H. taels 30,000,000. For the time the integrity of China seemed
to be preserved, and Russia, France and Germany could pose as
her friends. Evidence was, however, soon forthcoming that
Russia and France had not been disinterested in rescuing
Chinese territory from the Japanese grasp. Russia now obtained
the right to carry the Siberian railway across Chinese territory
from Stryetensk to Vladivostok, thus avoiding a long detour,
besides giving a grasp on northern Manchuria. France obtained,
by a convention dated the 2oth of June 1895, a rectification of
frontier in the Mekong valley and certain railway and mining
rights in Kiang-si and Yun-nan. Both powers obtained con-
cessions of land at Hankow for the purposes of a settlement.
Russia was also said to have negotiated a secret treaty, fre-
quently described as the " Cassini Convention," but more
probably signed by Li Hung-Chang at Moscow, giving her the
right in certain contingencies to Port Arthur, which was to be
refortified with Russian assistance. And by way of further
securing her hold, Russia guaranteed a 4% loan of 15,000,000
issued in Paris to enable China to pay off the first instalment of
the Japanese indemnity. . > v

The convention between France and China of the aoth of June
1895 brought China into sharp conflict with Great Mekong
Britain. China, having by the Burma convention of valley
1886 agreed to recognize British sovereignty over dispute,
Burma, her quondam feudatory, also agreed to a de- I89S ~
limitation of boundaries at the proper time. Effect was given to
this last stipulation by a subsequent convention concluded in
London (ist of March 1894), which traced the boundary line from
the Shan states on the west as far as the Mekong river on the east.
In the Mekong valley there were two semi-independent native
territories over which suzerainty had been claimed in times gone
by both by the kings of Ava and by the Chinese emperors.
These territories were named Meng Lun and Kiang Hung the
latter lying partly on one side and partly on the other of the
Mekong river, south of the point where it issues from Chinese
territory. The boundary line was so drawn as to leave both
these territories to China, but it was stipulated that China should
not alienate any portion of these territories to any other power
without the previous consent of Great Britain. Yielding to
French pressure, and regardless of the undertaking she had
entered into with Great Britain, China, in the convention with
France in June 1895, so drew the boundary line as to cede to
France that portion of the territory of Kiang Hung which lay
on the left bank of the Mekong. Compensation was demanded
by Great Britain from China for this breach of faith, and at the
same time negotiations were entered into with France. These
resulted in a joint declaration by the governments of France and
Great Britain, dated the isth of January 1896, by which it was
agreed as regards boundary that the Mekong from the point of
its confluence with the Nam Huk northwards as far as the
Chinese frontier should be the dividing line between the pos-
sessions or spheres of influence of the two powers. It was also
agreed that any commercial privileges obtained by either power
in Yun-nan or Sze-ch'uen should be open to the subjects of the
other. The negotiations with China resulted in a further agree-
ment, dated the 4th of February 1897, whereby considerable
modifications in favour of Great Britain were made in the
Burma boundary drawn by the 1894 convention.

HISTORY]

CHINA

203

While Russia and France were profiting by what they were
pleased to call the generosity of China, Germany alone had so far

received no reward for her share in compelling the
o^ c ' '' retrocession of Liao-tung; but, in November 1897, she
Arthur, 'proceeded to help herself by seizing the Bay of
Wei-hai- Kiaochow in the province of Shan-tung. The act was

done ostensibly in order to compel satisfaction for the
murder of two German missionaries. A cession was ultimately
made by way of a lease for a term of ninety-nine years Germany
to have full territorial jurisdiction during the continuance of the
lease, with liberty to erect fortifications, build docks, and exercise
all the rights of sovereignty. In December the Russian fleet was
sent to winter in Port Arthur, and though this was at first de-
scribed as a temporary measure, its object was speedily disclosed
by a request made, in January 1898, by the Russian ambassador
in London that two British cruisers, then also anchored at Port
Arthur, should be withdrawn " in order to avoid friction in the
Russian sphere of influence." They left shortly afterwards, and
their departure in the circumstances was regarded as a blow to
Great Britain's prestige in the Far East. In March the Russian
government peremptorily demanded a lease of Port Arthur and
the adjoining anchorage of TalienWan a demand which China
could not resist without foreign support. After an acrimonious
correspondence with the Russian government Great Britain
acquiesced in the fait accompli. The Russian occupation of Port
Arthur was immediately followed by a concession to build a line
of railway from that point northwards to connect with the
Siberian trunk line in north Manchuria. As a counterpoise to the
growth of Russian influence in the north, Great Britain obtained
a lease of Wei-hai-wei, and formally took possession of it on its
evacuation by the Japanese troops in May 1898.

After much hesitation the Chinese government had at last
resolved to permit the construction of railways with foreign
capital. An influential official named Sheng Hsuan-hwai was
appointed director-general of railways, and empowered to enter
into negotiations with foreign capitalists for that purpose.
A keen competition thereupon ensued between syndicates of
different nationalities, and their claims being espoused by their
various governments, an equally keen international rivalry was
set up. Great Britain, though intimating her preference for the

"open door" policy, meaning equal opportunity for

a H> vet found herself compelled to fall in with the
and general movement towards what became known as the

" sp/""* 8 " spheres of influence" policy, and claimed the Yangtsze
fluence." valley as her particular sphere. This she did by the

somewhat negative method of obtaining from the
Chinese government a declaration that no part of the Yangtsze
valley should be alienated to any foreign power. A more formal
recognition of the claim, as far as railway enterprise was con-
cerned, was embodied in an agreement (28th of April 1899)
between Great Britain and Russia, and communicated to the
Chinese government, whereby the Russian government agreed
not to seek for any concessions within the Yangtsze valley,
including all the provinces bordering on the great river, together
with Cheh-kiang and Ho-nan, the British government entering
into a similar undertaking in regard to the Chinese dominions
north of the Great Wall. 1

In 1899 Talienwan and Kiaochow were respectively thrown open
by Russia and Germany to foreign trade, and, encouraged by these
measures, the United States government initiated in September of
the same year a correspondence with the great European powers and
Japan, with a view to securing their definite adhesion to the " open
door " policy. The British government gave an unqualified approval
to the American proposal, and the replies of the other powers,
though more guarded, were accepted at Washington as satisfactory.
A further and more definite step towards securing the maintenance
of the " open door " in China was the agreement concluded in October
1900 between the British and German governments. The signatories,
by the first two articles, agreed to endeavour to keep the ports on the
rivers and littoral free and open to international trade and economic
activity, and to uphold this rule for all Chinese territory as far as (wo

1 A supplementary exchange of notes of the same date excepted
from the scope of this agreement the Shan-hai-kwan-Niu-chwang
extension which had already been conceded to the Hongkong &
Shanghai Bank.

in the German counterpart) they could exercise influence; not to use
the existing complications to obtain territorial advantages in Chinese
dominions, and to seek to maintain undiminished the territorial
condition of the Chinese empire. By a third article they reserved
their right to come to a preliminary understanding for the protection
of their interests in China, should any other power use those compli-
cations to obtain such territorial advantages under any form what-
ever. _ On the submission of the agreement to the powers interested,
Austria, France, Italy and Japan accepted its principles without
express reservation Japan first obtaining assurances that she signed
on the same footing as an original signatory. The United States
accepted the first two articles, but expressed no opinion on the third.
Russia construed the first as limited to ports actually open in regions
where the two signatories exercise " their " influence, and favourably
entertained it in that sense, ignoring the reference to other forms of
economic activity. She fully accepted the second, and observed that
in the contingency contemplated by the third, she would modify her
attitude according to circumstances.

Meanwhile, negotiations carried on by the British minister at
Peking during 1898 resulted in the grant of very important privileges
to foreign commerce. The payment of the second instalment of the
Japanese indemnity was becoming due, and it was much discussed
how and on what terms China would be able to raise the amount.
The Russian government, as has been stated, had made China a loan
of the sum required for the first portion of the indemnity, viz.
15,000,000, taking a charge on the customs revenue as security.
The British government was urged to make a like loan of 16,000,000
botn as a matter of friendship to China and as a counterpoise to the
Russian influence. An arrangement was come to accordingly, on
very favourable terms financially to the Chinese, but at the last
moment they drew back, being overawed, as they said, by the
threatening attitude of Russia. Taking advantage of the position
which this refusal gave him, the British minister obtained from the
Tsung-Li- Yamen, besides the declaration as to the non-alienation ot
the Yangtsze valley above mentioned, an undertaking to throw the
whole of the inland waterways open to steam traffic. The Chinese
government at the same time undertook that the post of inspector-
general of customs (then held by Sir Robert Hart) should always be
held by an Englishman so long as the trade of Great Britain was
greater than that of any other nation. Minor concessions were also
made, but the opening of the waterways was by far the greatest
advance that had been made since 1860.

Of still greater importance were the railway and mining concessions
granted during the same year (1898). The Chinese government had
been generally disposed to railway construction since the conclusion
of the Japanese War, but hoped to be able to retain the control in
their own hands. The masterful methods of Russia and Germany
had obliged them to surrender this control so far as concerned
Manchuria and Shan-tung. In the Yangtsze valley, Sheng, the
director-general of railways, had been negotiating with several
competing syndicates. One of these was a Franco-Belgian syndicate,
which was endeavouring to obtain the trunk line from Hankow to
Peking. A British company was tendering for the same work, and
as the line lay mainly within the British sphere it was considered
not unreasonable to expect it should be given to the latter. At a
critical moment, however, the French and Russian ministers inter-
vened, and practically forced the Yamen to grant a contract in favour
of the Franco-Belgian company. The Yamen had a few days before
explicitly promised the British minister that the contract should not
be ratified without his having an opportunity of seeing it. As a
penalty for this breach of faith, and as a set-off to the Franco-Belgian
line, the British minister required the immediate grant of all the
railway concessions for which British syndicates were then negotiat-
ing, and on terms not inferior to those granted to the Belgian line.
In this way all the lines in the lower Yangtsze, as also the Shan-si
Mining Companies' lines, were secured. A contract for a trunk line
from Canton to Hankow was negotiated in the latter part of 1898 by
an American company.

There can be little doubt that the powers, engrossed in the
diplomatic conflicts of which Peking was the centre, had
entirely underrated the reactionary forces gradually mustering
for a struggle against the aggressive spirit of Western civilization.
The lamentable consequences of administrative corruption and
incompetence, and the superiority of foreign methods which
had been amply illustrated by the Japanese War, had at first
produced a considerable impression, not only upon the more
enlightened commercial classes, but even upon many of the
younger members of the official classes in China. The dowager-
empress, who, in spite of the emperor Kwang-su having nominally
attained his majority, had retained practical control of the
supreme power until the conflict with Japan, had been held,
not unjustly, to blame for the disasters of the war, and even
before its conclusion the young emperor was adjured by some
of the most responsible among his own subjects to shake himself
free from the baneful restraint of " petticoat government,"

204

CHINA

[HISTORY

and himself take the helm. In the following years a reform
movement, undoubtedly genuine, though opinions differ as to
The reform the value of the popular support which it claimed,
move- spread throughout the central and southern pro-
men*, vinces of the empire. One of the most significant
1898. symptoms, was the relatively large demand which
suddenly arose for the translations of foreign works and similar
publications in the Chinese language which philanthropic societies,
such as that " for the Diffusion of Christian and General Know-
ledge amongst the Chinese," had been trying for some time
past to popularize, though hitherto with scant success. Chinese
newspapers published in the treaty ports spread the ferment of
new ideas far into the interior. Fifteen hundred young
men of good family applied to enter the foreign university
at Peking, and in some of the provincial towns the Chinese
themselves subscribed towards the opening of foreign schools.
Reform societies, which not infrequently enjoyed official coun-
tenance, sprang up in many of the large towns, and found
numerous adherents amongst the younger literati. Early in 1898
the emperor, who had gradually emancipated himself from the
dowager-empress's control, summoned several of the reform
leaders to Peking, and requested their advice with regard to
the progressive measures which should be introduced into the
government of the empire. Chief amongst these reformers was
Kang Yu-wei, a Cantonese, whose scholarly attainments, com-
bined with novel teachings, earned for him from his followers
the title of the " Modern Sage." Of his more or less active
sympathizers who had subsequently to suffer with him in the
cause of reform, the most prominent were Chang Yin-huan, a
member of the grand council and of the Tsung-Li-Yamen, who
had represented his sovereign at Queen Victoria's jubilee in
1897; Chin Pao-chen, governor of Hu-nan; Liang Chichao, the
editor of the reformers' organ, Chinese Progress; Su Chiching,
a reader of the Hanlin College, the educational stronghold of
Chinese conservatism; and his son Su In-chi, also a Hanlin
man, and provincial chancellor of public instruction in Hu-nan.

It soon became evident that there was no more enthusiastic
advocate of the new ideas than the emperor himself. Within a
few months the vermilion pencil gave the imperial sanction to
a succession of edicts which, had they been carried into effect,
would have amounted to a revolution as far-reaching as that
which had transformed Japan thirty years previously. The
fossilized system of examinations for the public service was to
be altogether superseded by a new schedule based on foreign
learning, for the better promotion of which a number of temples
were to be converted into schools for Western education; a state
department was to be created for the translation and dissemina-
tion of the standard works of Western literature and science;
even the scions of the ruling Manchu race were to be compelled
to study foreign languages and travel abroad; and last, but not
least, all useless offices both in Peking and in the provinces were
to be abolished. A further edict was even reported to be in
contemplation, doing away with the queue or pigtail, which,
originally imposed upon the Chinese by their Manchu conquerors
as a badge of subjection, had gradually become the most
characteristic and most cherished feature of the national
dress. But the bureaucracy of China, which had battened for
centuries on corruption and ignorance, had no taste for self-
sacrifice. Other vested interests felt themselves equally
threatened, and behind them stood the whole latent force of
popular superstition and unreasoning conservatism.

The dowager-empress saw her opportunity. The Summer
Palace, to which she had retired, had been for some time the
centre of resistance to the new movement, and in the middle of
September 1898 a report became current that, in order to put
an end to the obstruction which hampered his reform policy,
the emperor intended to seize the person of the dowager-empress
and have her deported into the interior. Some colour was given
to this report by an official announcement that the emperor would
hold a review of the foreign-drilled troops at Tientsin, and had
summoned Yuan Shihkai, their general, to Peking in order to
confer with him on the necessary arrangements. But the re-

formers had neglected to secure the goodwill of the army, which
was still entirely in the hands of the reactionaries. During the
night of the 2oth of September the palace of the em- The
peror was occupied by the soldiers, and on the following Empnt*'*
day Kwang-su, who was henceforth virtually a prisoner <Mu f
in the hands of the empress, was made to issue an *""*
edict restoring her regency. Kang Yu-wei, warned at the last
moment by an urgent message from the emperor, succeeded in
escaping, but many of the most prominent reformers were
arrested, and six of them were promptly executed. The Peking
Gazette announced a few days later that the emperor himself was
dangerously ill, and his life might well have been despaired of had
not the British minister represented in very emphatic terms the
serious consequences which might ensue if anything happened to
him. Drastic measures were, however, adopted to stamp out
the reform movement in the provinces as well as in the capital.
The reform edicts were cancelled, the reformers' associations
were dissolved, their newspapers suppressed, and those who did
not care to save themselves by a hasty recantation of their errors
were imprisoned, proscribed or exiled. In October the reaction
had already been accompanied by such a recrudescence of anti-
foreign feeling that the foreign ministers at Peking had to bring
up guards from the fleet for the protection of the legations, and to
demand the removal from the capital of the disorderly Kan-suh
soldiery which subsequently played so sinister a part in the
troubles of June 1900. But the unpleasant impression produced
by these incidents was in a great measure removed by the
demonstrative reception which the empress Tsz'e Hsi gave on
the 1 5th of October to the wives of the foreign representatives
an act of courtesy unprecedented in the annals of the Chinese
court.

The reactionary tide continued to rise throughout the year
1899, but it did not appear materially to affect the foreign
relations of China. Towards the end of the year The Boxer
the brutal murder of Mr Brooks, an English mis- move-
sionary, in Shan-tung, had compelled attention to a
popular movement which had been spreading rapidly
throughout that province and the adjoining one of Chih-li
with the connivance of certain high officials, if not under their
direct patronage. The origin of the " Boxer " movement is obscure.
Its name is derived from a literal translation of the Chinese
designation, " the fist of righteous harmony." Like the kindred
" Big Sword " Society, it appears to have been in the first
instance merely a secret association of malcontents chiefly
drawn from the lower classes. Whether the empress Tsz'e Hsi
and her Manchu advisers had deliberately set themselves
from the beginning to avert the danger by deflecting what
might have been a revolutionary movement into anti-foreign
channels, or whether with Oriental heedlessness they had
allowed it to grow until they were powerless to control it, they
had unquestionably resolved to take it under their protection
before the foreign representatives at Peking had realized its
gravity. The outrages upon native Christians and the threats
against foreigners generally went on increasing. The Boxers
openly displayed on their banners the device: " Exterminate
the foreigners and save the dynasty," yet the representatives
of the powers were unable to obtain any effective measures
against the so-called " rebels," or even a definite condemnation
of their methods. 1

Four months (January- April 1900) were spent in futile inter-
views with the Tsung-Li-Yamen. In May a number of Christian
villages were destroyed and native converts massacred near the
capital. On the 2nd of June two English missionaries, Mr
Robinson and Mr Norman, were murdered at Yung Ching, 40 m.
from Peking. The whole country was overrun with bands of
Boxers, who tore up the railway and set fire to the stations at
different points on the Peking-Tientsin line. Fortunately a

1 The religious aspect of the Boxer movement gave it strength.
Its disciples believed that the spirits which defended China were
incensed by the introduction of Western methods and ideals. Many
of them believed themselves to be invulnerable to any Western
weapon. (See Lord W. Cecil, Changing China, 1910, ch. i.)

HISTORY]

CHINA

205

mixed body of marines and bluejackets of various nationalities,
numbering 18 officers and 389 men, had reached Peking on the
ist of June for the protection of the legations. The whole city
was in a state ot turmoil. Murder and pillage were of daily
occurrence. The reactionary Prince Tuan (grandson of the
emperor Tao-kwang) and the Manchus generally, together with
the Kan-suh soldiery under the notorious Tung-fu-hsiang,
openly sided with the Boxers. The European residents and a
large number of native converts took refuge in the British
legation, where preparations were hastily made in view of a
threatened attack. On the nth the chancellor of the Japanese
legation, Mr Sugiyama, was murdered by Chinese soldiers. On
the night of the i^th most of the foreign buildings, churches and
mission houses in the eastern part of the Tatar city were pillaged
and burnt, and hundreds of native Christians massacred. On
the 2oth of June the German minister, Baron von Ketteler, was
murdered whilst on his way to the Tsung-Li-Yamen. At 4 P.M.
on the afternoon of the 2oth the Chinese troops opened fire
upon the legations. The general direction of the defence was
undertaken by Sir Claude Macdonald, the British minister.

Meanwhile Peking had been completely cut off since the I4th
from all communication with the outside world, and in view of
inter- tne g rav i tv of the situation, naval and military forces
nation*! were being hurried up by all the powers to the Gulf
expedi- of Chih-li. On the loth of June Admiral Sir E. Seymour
had already left Tientsin with a mixed force of 2000
British, Russian, French, Germans, Austrians, Italians, Ameri-
cans and Japanese, to repair the railway and restore communica-
tions with Peking. But his expedition met with unexpectedly
severe resistance, and it had great difficulty in making good
its retreat after suffering heavy losses. When it reached Tientsin
again on the 26th of June, the British contingent of 915 men had
alone lost 124 killed and wounded out of a total casualty list of
62 killed and 218 wounded. The Chinese had in the meantime
made a determined attack upon the foreign settlements at
Tientsin, and communication between the city and the sea
being also threatened, the Taku forts at the mouth of the Pei-ho
were captured by the allied admirals on the I7th. The situation
at Tientsin nevertheless continued precarious, and it was not
till the arrival of considerable reinforcements that the troops
of the allied powers were able to assume the offensive, taking
the native city by storm on July I4th, at a cost, however, of
over 700 killed and wounded. Even in this emergency inter-
national jealousy had grievously delayed the necessary con-
centration of forces. No power was so favourably situated to
take immediate action as Japan, and the British government,
who had strongly urged her to act speedily and energetically,
undertook at her request to sound the other powers with regard
to her intervention. No definite objection was raised, but the
replies of Germany and Russia barely disguised their ill-humour.
Great Britain herself went so far as to offer Japan the assistance
of the British treasury, in case financial difficulties stood in the
way, but on the same day on which this proposal was telegraphed
to Tokyo (6th of July), the Japanese government had decided
to embark forthwith the two divisions which it had already
mobilized. By the beginning of August one of the Indian
brigades had also reached Tientsin together with smaller rein-
forcements sent by the other powers, and thanks chiefly to the
energetic counsels of the British commander, General Sir Alfred
Gaselee, a relief column, numbering 20,000 men, at last set out for
Peking on the4th of August, a British naval brigade having started
up river the previous afternoon. After a series of small engage-
ments and very trying marches it arrived within striking distance
cf Peking on the evening of the I3th. The Russians tried to steal
a march upon the allies during the night, but were checked at the
walls and suffered heavy losses. The'Japanese attacked another
point of the walls the next morning, but met with fierce opposi-
tion, whilst the Americans were delayed by getting entangled in
the Russian line of advance. The British contingent was more
fortunate, and skilfully guided to an unguarded water-gate,
General Gaselee and a party of Sikhs were the first to force
their way through to the British legation. About 2 p.m.

on the afternoon of the I4th of August, the long siege was
raised.

For nearly six weeks after the first interruption of communica-
tions, no news reached the outside world from Peking except a
few belated messages, smuggled through the Chinese
lines by native runners, urging the imperative neces-
sity of prompt relief. During the greater part of that
period the foreign quarter was subjected to heavy rifle
and artillery fire, and the continuous fighting at close quarters
with the hordes of Chinese regulars, as well as Boxers, decimated
the scanty ranks of the defenders. The supply of both ammuni-
tion and food was slender. But the heroism displayed by civilians
and professional combatants alike was inexhaustible. In their
anxiety to burn out the British legation, the Chinese did not
hesitate to set fire to the adjoining buildings of the Hanlin, the
ancient seat of Chinese classical learning, and the storehouse of
priceless literary treasures and state archives. The Fv, or
palace, of Prince Su, separated only by a canal from the British
legation, formed the centre of the international position, and
was held with indomitable valour by a small Japanese force
under Colonel Sheba, assisted by a few Italian marines and
volunteers of other nationalities and a number of Christian
Chinese. The French legation on the extreme right, and the
section of the city wall held chiefly by Germans and Americans,
were also points of vital importance which had to bear the
brunt of the Chinese attack.

Little is known as to what passed in the councils of the Chinese
court during the siege. 1 But there is reason to believe that throughout
that period grave divergences of opinion existed amongst the highest
officials. The attack upon the legations appears tq have received
the sanction of the dowager-empress, acting upon the advice of Prince
Tuan and the extreme Manchu party, at a grand council held during
the night of the iSth/igth June, upon receipt of the news of the
capture of the Taku forts by the international forces. The emperor
himself, as well as Prince Chmg and a few other influential mandarins,
strongly protested against the empress's decision, but it was acclaimed
by the vast majority of those present. Three members of the Tsung-
Li-Yamen were publicly executed for attempting to modify the terms
of an imperial edict ordering the massacre of all foreigners throughout
the provinces, and most of the Manchu nobles and high officials, and
the eunuchs of the palace, who played an important part in Chinese
politics throughout the dowager-empress's tenure of power, were
heart and soul with the Boxers. But it was noted by the defenders
of the legations that Prince Ching's troops seldom took part, or only
in a half-hearted way, in the fighting, which was chiefly conducted by
Tung-f u-hsiang's soldiery and the Boxer levies. The modern artillery
which the Chinese possessed was only spasmodically brought into
play. Nor did any of the attacking parties ever show the fearlessness
and determination which the Chinese had somewhat unexpectedly
displayed on several occasions during the fighting at and around
Tientsin. Nevertheless, the position of the defenders at the end of
the first four weeks of the siege had grown well-nigh desperate.
Mining and incendiarism proved far greater dangers than shot and
shell. Suddenly, just when things were looking blackest, on the i/th
of July the Chinese ceased firing, and a sort of informal armistice
secured a period of respite for the beleaguered Europeans. The
capture of the native city of Tientsin by the allied forces had shaken
the self-confidence of the Chinese authorities, who had hitherto not
only countenanced, but themselves directed the hostilities. 8 De-
sultory fighting, nevertheless, continued, and grave fears were enter-
tained that the approach of the relief column would prove the signal
for a desperate attempt to rush the legations. The attempt was
made, but failed. The relief, however, came not a day too soon.
Of the small band of defenders which, including civilian volunteers,
had never mustered 500, 65 had been killed and 131 wounded.
Ammunition and provisions were almost at an end. Even more
desperate was the situation at the Pei-tang, the Roman Catholic
northern cathedral and mission house, where, with the help of a small
body of French and Italian marines, Mgr Favier had organized an
independent centre of resistance for his community of over 3000
souls. Their rations were absolutely exhausted when, on the

1 The diary of a Manchu noble printed in China under the
Empress Dowager (1910) by J. O. Bland and E. Backhouse throws
light on the subject. It was to Jung-Lu, father-in-law of Prince
Chin, that the legations owed their escape from extermination.

1 It was at this time (July lyth) that the intense anxiety of the
civilized world with regard to the fate of the besieged reached its
culminating point. Circumstantial accounts of the fall of the lega-
tions and the massacre of their inmates were circulated in Shanghai
and found general credence. It was not till near the end of the
month that an authentic message from the American minister
proved these fears to be premature.

206

CHINA

[HISTORY

/ono
order.

of August, a relief party was despatched to their assistance from the
legations.

The ruin wrought in Peking during the two months' fighting
was appalling. Apart from the wholesale destruction of foreign
property in the Tatar city, and of Chinese as well as
European buildings in the vicinity of the legations, the
wealthiest part of the Chinese city had been laid in
ashes. The flames from a foreign drug store fired by the Boxers
had spread to the adjoining buildings, and finally consumed the
whole of the business quarter with all its invaluable stores of
silks, curiosities, furs, &c. The retribution which overtook
Peking after its capture by the international forces was scarcely
less terrible. Looting was for some days almost universal. Order
was, however, gradually restored, first in the Japanese and then
in the British and American quarters, though several months
elapsed before there was any real revival of native confidence.

So unexpected had been the rapid and victorious advance of
the allies, that the dowager-empress with the emperor and the
Flight rest f tne court did not actually leave Peking until
of the the day after the legations had been relieved. But
Chinese the northern and western portions of the Tatar city
court< had not yet been occupied, and the fugitives made
good their escape on the i5th. When the allies some days later
marched through the Forbidden City, they only found a few
eunuchs and subordinate officials in charge of the imperial
apartments. At the end of September, Field Marshal Count von
Waldersee, with a German expeditionary force of over 20,000
men, arrived to assume the supreme command conferred upon
him with the more or less willing assent of the other powers.

The political task which confronted the powers after the occu-
pation of Peking was far more arduous than the military one.
The action of the Russians in Manchuria, even in a
treatv P ort like Niu-chwang, the seizure of the railway
^ ne not on ty to t* 16 nor th of the Great Wall, but also
from Shan-hai-kwan to Peking, by the Russian military
authorities, and the appropriation of an extensive line of river
frontage at Tientsin as a Russian " settlement," were difficult to
reconcile with the pacific assurances of disinterestedness which
Russia, like the rest of the powers, had officially given. Great
anxiety prevailed as to the effect of the flight of the Chinese court
in other parts of the empire. The anti-foreign movement had not
spread much beyond the northern provinces, in which it had had
the open support of the throne and of the highest provincial
officials. But among British and Americans alone, over 200
defenceless foreigners, men, women and children, chiefly mission-
aries, had fallen victims to the treachery of high-placed mandarins
like Yii Hsien, and hundreds of others had had to fly for their
lives, many of them owing their escape to the courageous protec-
tion of petty officials and of the local gentry and peasantry.
In the Yangtsze valley order had been maintained by the energy
of the viceroys of Nanking and Wu-chang, who had acted
throughout the critical period in loyal co-operation with the
British consuls and naval commanders, and had courageously
disregarded the imperial edicts issued during the ascendancy
of the Boxers. After some hesitation, an Indian brigade,
followed by French, German and Japanese contingents, had
been landed at Shanghai for the protection of the settlements,
and though the viceroy, Liu Kun-yi, had welcomed British sup-
port, and even invited the joint occupation of the Yangtsze forts
by British and Chinese troops, the appearance of other European
forces in the Yangtsze valley was viewed with great suspicion. In
the south there were serious symptoms of unrest, especially after
Li Hung-Chang had left Canton for the north, in obedience, as he
alleged at the time, to an imperial edict which, there is reason to
believe, he invented for the occasion. The Chinese court, after
one or two intermediate halts, had retired to Si-gan-fu, one of
the ancient capitals of the empire, situated in the inaccessible
province of Shen-si, over 600 m. S.W. of Peking. The influence
of the ultra-reactionaries, headed by Prince Tuan and General
Tung-fu-hsiang, still dominated its councils, although credentials
were sent to Prince Ching and to Li Hung-Chang, who, after
waiting upon events at Shanghai, had proceeded to Peking,

authorizing them to treat with the powers for the re-establish-
ment of friendly relations.

The harmony of the powers, which had been maintained with
some difficulty up to the relief of the legations, was subjected
to a severe strain as soon as the basis of negotiations
with the Chinese government came to be discussed.
While for various reasons Russia, Japan and the
United States were inclined to treat China with great,
indulgence, Germany insisted upon the signal punishment of
the guilty officials as a conditio sine qua non, and in this she had
the support not only of the other members of the Triple Alliance,
but also of Great Britain, and to some extent even of France,
who, as protector of the Roman Catholic Church in Eastern
countries, could not allow the authors of the atrocities committed
upon its followers to escape effectual punishment. It was not
until after months of laborious negotiations that the demands
to be formally made upon the Chinese government were em-
bodied in a joint note signed by all the foreign ministers on
the 20th and 2ist of December 1900. The demands were sub-
stantially as follows:

Honourable reparation for the murder of von Kctteler and of Mr
Sugiyama, to be made in a specified form, and expiatory monuments
to be erected in cemeteries where foreign tombs had been desecrated.

The most severe punishment befitting their crimes " was to be
inflicted on the personages designated by the decree of the 2ist of
September, and also upon others to be designated later by the
foreign ministers, and the official examinations were to be suspended
in the cities where foreigners had been murdered or ill-treated. An
equitable indemnity, guaranteed by financial measures acceptable
to the powers, was to be paid to states, societies and individuals,
including Chinese who had suffered because of their employment by
foreigners, but not including Chinese Christians who had suffered
only on account of their faith. The importation or manufacture of
arms or materiel was to be forbidden; permanent legation guards
were to be maintained at Peking, and the diplomatic quarter was
to be fortified, while communication with the sea was to be secured
by a foreign military occupation of the strategic points and by the
demolition of the Chinese forts, including the Taku forts, between the
capital and the coast. Proclamations were to be posted throughout
China for two years, threatening death to the members of anti-foreign
societies, and recording the punishment of the ringleaders in the late
outrages: and the viceroys, governors and provincial officials were
to be declared by imperial edict responsible, on pain of immediate
dismissal and perpetual disability to hold office, for anti-foreign
outbreaks or violations of treaty within their jurisdictions. China
was to facilitate commercial relations by negotiating a revision of the
commercial treaties. The Tsung-Li-Yamen was to be reformed and
the ceremonial for the reception of foreign ministers modified as the
powers should demand. Compliance with these terms was declared
to be a condition precedent to the arrangement of a time limit
to the occupation of Peking and of the provinces by foreign troops.

Under instructions from the court, the Chinese plenipoten-
tiaries affixed their signatures on the i4th of January 1901 to a
protocol, by which China pledged herself to accept these terms in
principle, and the conference of ministers then proceeded to
discuss the definite form in which compliance with them was to be
exacted. This further stage of the negotiations proved even more
laborious and protracted than the preliminary proceedings. No
attempt was made to raise the question of the dowager-empress's
responsibility for the anti-foreign movement, as Russia had from
the first set her face against the introduction of what she euphe-
mistically termed " the dynastic question." But even with
regard to the punishment of officials whose guilt was beyond
dispute, grave divergences arose between the powers. The death
penalty was ultimately waived in the case even of such con-
spicuous offenders as Prince Tuan and Tung-fu-hsiang, but the
notorious Yii Hsien and two others were decapitated by the
Chinese, and three other metropolitan officials were ordered to
commit suicide, whilst upon others sentences of banishment,
imprisonment and degradation were passed, in accordance with
a list drawn up by the foreign representatives. The question of
the punishment of provincial officials responsible for the massacre
of scores of defenceless men, women and children was unfor-
tunately reserved for separate treatment, and when it came
up for discussion it became impossible to preserve even the
semblance of unanimity, the Russian minister at once taking
issue with his colleagues, although he had originally pledged
himself as formally as the others to the principle. Count

HISTORY]

CHINA

207

Lamsdorff frankly told the British ambassador at St Petersburg
that Russia took no interest in missionaries, and as the foreigners
massacred in the provinces belonged mostly to that class, she
declined to join in the action of the other powers.

The real explanation of Russia's cynical secession from the
concert of powers on this important issue must be sought in her
anxiety to conciliate the Chinese in view of the separate
Kussia negotiations in which she was at the same time engaged
with China in respect of Manchuria. When the Boxer
movement was at its height at the end of June 1900, the
Chinese authorities in Manchuria had wantonly " declared war "
against Russia, and for a moment a great wave of panic seems to
have swept over the Russian administration, civil and military, in
the adjoining provinces. The reprisals exercised by the Russians
were proportionately fierce. The massacre at Blagovyeshchensk,
where 5000 Chinese men, women and children were flung into
the Amur by the Cossacks, was only one incident in the reign of
terror by which the Russians sought to restore their power and
their prestige. The resistance of the Chinese troops w.s soon
overcome, and Russian forces overran the whole province,
occupying even the treaty port of Niu-chwang. The Russian
government officially repudiated all responsibility for the
proclamations issued by General Gribsky and others, foreshadow-
ing, if not actually proclaiming, the annexation of Chinese
territory to the Russian empire. But Russia was clearly bent on
seizing the opportunity for securing a permanent hold upon
Manchuria. In December 1900 a preliminary agreement was
made between M. Korostovetz, the Russian administrator-
general, and Tseng, the Tatar general at Mukden, by which the
civil and military administration of the whole province was
virtually placed under Russian control. In February 1901
negotiations were opened between the Russian government and
the Chinese minister at St Petersburg for the conclusion of a
formal convention of a still more comprehensive character.
In return for the restoration to China of a certain measure
of civil authority in Manchuria, Russia was to be confirmed
in the possession of exclusive military, civil and commercial
rights, constituting in all but name a protectorate, and she
was also to acquire preferential rights over all the outlying
provinces of the Chinese empire bordering on the Russian
dominions in Asia. The clauses relating to Chinese Turkestan,
Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan and Mongolia were subsequently
stated to have been dropped, but the convention nevertheless
provoked considerable opposition both in foreign countries and
amongst the Chinese themselves. Most of the powers, including
Germany, who, however, denied that the Anglo-German agree-
ment of the i6th of October 1900 applied to Manchuria, 1 advised
the Chinese government not to pursue separate negotiations with
one power whilst collective negotiations were in progress at
Peking, and both Japan and Great Britain pressed for definite
information at St Petersburg with regard to the precise tenor
of the proposed convention. At the same time the two viceroys
of the lower Yangtsze memorialized the throne in the strongest
terms against the convention, and these protests were endorsed
not only by the great majority of Chinese officials of high rank
throughout the provinces, but by popular meetings and influ-
ential guilds and associations. Ultimately the two viceroys,
Chang Chih-tung and Liu Kun-yi, 2 took the extreme step of
warning the throne that they would be unable to recognize the
convention, even if it were ratified, and notwithstanding the
pressure exercised in favour of Russia by Li Hung-Chang, the
court finally instructed the Chinese minister at St Petersburg
to decline his signature. The attitude of Japan, where public

1 In negotiating this agreement Lord Salisbury appears to have
been largely influenced by the aggressive features of Russia's action
in North China, while Germany appears to have been actuated by a
desire to forestall isolated action by Great Britain in the Yangtsze
basin. In Germany the agreement was known as the Yangtsze
Agreement. Great Britain held, however, that it applied equally to
Manchuria. ,

1 Liu Kun-yi died in 1902. In the same year died Tao-mu, the
viceroy of Canton. In these men China lost two of her most capable
and enlightened officials.

feeling ran high, was equally significant, and on the 3rd of April
the Russian' government issued a circular note to the powers,
stating that, as the generous intentions of Russia had been
misconstrued, she withdrew the proposed convention.

The work of the conference at Peking, which had been tem-
porarily disturbed by these complications, was then resumed.
Friction between European troops of different nation-
alities and an Anglo-Russian dispute over the construe- n * ^^
tion of certain roads and railway sidings at Tientsin /po/ "
showed that an international occupation was fraught
with manifold dangers. The question of indemnities, however,
gave rise to renewed friction. Each power drew up its own
claim, and whilst Great Britain, the United States and Japan
displayed great moderation, other powers, especially Germany
and Italy, put in claims which were strangely out of proportion
to the services rendered by their military and naval forces.
It was at last settled that China should pay altogether an in-
demnity of 450 million taels, to be secured (i) on the unhypothe-
cated balance of the customs revenue administered by the im-
perial maritime customs, the import duties being raised forthwith
to an effective 5% basis; (2) on the revenues of the " native "
customs in the treaty ports; (3) on the total revenues of the
salt gabelle. Finally the peace protocol was drawn up in a
form which satisfied all the powers as well as the Chinese court.
The formal signature was, however, delayed at the last moment
by a fresh difficulty concerning Prince Chun's penitential mission
to Berlin. This prince, an amiable and enlightened youth,* son
of the Prince Chun who was the emperor Hien-feng's brother,
and thus himself half-brother to the emperor Kwang-su, had
reached Basel towards the end of August on his way to Germany,
when he was suddenly informed that he and his suite would
be expected to perform kowtow before the German emperor.
The prince resented this unexpected demand, and referred home
for instructions. The Chinese court appear to have remained
obdurate, and the German government perceived the mistake
that had been made in exacting from the Chinese prince a form of
homage which Western diplomacy had for more than a century
refused to yield to the Son of Heaven, on the ground that it was
barbarous and degrading. The point was waived, and Prince
Chun was received in solemn audience by the emperor William at
Potsdam on the 4th of September. Three days later, on the 7th
of September, the peace protocol was signed at Peking.

The articles recorded the steps to be taken to satisfy the
demands of the powers as to commerce. Article n provided
for the amendment of existing treaties of commerce and
navigation, and for river conservancy measures at Tientsin and
Shanghai. The British government appointed a special com-
mission, with Sir J. Mackay, member of the council of India, as
chief commissioner, to proceed to Shanghai to carry on the
negotiations, and a commercial treaty was signed at Shanghai on
the 6th of September 1902, by which existing obstacles to foreign
trade, such as likin, &c., were removed, regulations were made
for facilitating steamer navigation on inland waters, and several
new ports were opened to foreign commerce.

In accordance with the terms of the protocol, all the foreign
troops, except the legation guards, were withdrawn from Peking
on the 1 7th of September, and from the rest of Chih-li, except
the garrisons at the different points specified along the line of
communications, by the 22nd of September. On the 7th of
October it was announced that the Chinese court had left Si-gan-
fu on its way back to the northern capital. A month later (7th
of November) the death of Li Hung-Chang at Peking removed,
if not the greatest of Chinese statesmen, at any rate the one
who had enjoyed the largest share of the empress-dowager's
confidence. (V. C.)

(E) From 1901 to igio.

The events connected with the Boxer rising and its sup-
pression demonstrated even more forcibly than had the war
with Japan in 1894-1895 the necessity for the adoption of

* Prince Chun was born in 1882. He was the first member of the
imperial family to be sent on a foreign mission.

208

CHINA

[HISTORY

Western methods in many departments of life and administra-
tion if China was to maintain the position of a great power.

The necessity for a thorough reform of the adminis-
Awaken- tra (.; on was widely recognized in 1901, and among the
C'IOM." progressive classes of the community much dis-

appointment was manifested because the powers had
failed to insist, in the conditions of peace, on a reorganization of
the machinery of government. The Yangtsze viceroys, the viceroy
at Canton, Yuan Shih-kai and other high mandarins repeatedly
memorialized the throne to grant effective reforms. While at
Si-gan-fu the court did in fact issue several reform decrees, but
at the same time all authority remained in the hands of reac-
tionaries. There had been an awakening in China, but another
lesson afforded a few years later by the Russo-Japanese War
was needed before the reform party was able to gain real power.
For three or four years following the signing of the peace
protocol of 1901 it seemed indeed that there would be little
change in the system of government, though in some directions
a return to the old state of affairs was neither possible nor
desired. On the 7th of January 1902 the court returned to
Peking a step which marked the restoration, more or less, of
normal conditions. The failure of the Boxer movement, in
which, as has been shown, she was deeply implicated, had im-
pressed upon the dowager empress the need for living on better
terms with foreign powers, but the reform edicts issued from
Si-gan-fu remained largely inoperative, though some steps were
taken to promote education on Western lines, to readjust the
land tax, and especially to reorganize the military forces (though
on provincial rather than on a national basis). The building of
railways was also pushed on, but the dowager empress was
probably at heart as reactionary as she had proved in 1808.
The emperor himself from his return to Peking until the day of
his death appeared to have little influence on public affairs.
The most disquieting feature of the situation in the years im-
mediately following the return of the court to Peking was the
continued efforts of Russia to obtain full control of Manchuria
and a predominant influence in north China. The Chinese
government was powerless to stem the advance of Russia, and
the dowager empress herself was credited with indifference to
the fate of Manchuria. It was the menace to other powers,
notably Japan, involved in Russia's action which precipitated
an issue in which the destinies of China were involved. Before
considering the results of that struggle (the Russo-Japanese
War) the chief events of the years 1902-1905 may be outlined.

The dowager empress from the day of her return from Si-gan-fu
set herself to conciliate the foreign residents in Peking. Many
Relations foreign onlookers were gathered on the wall of the
with Tatar city to witness the return of the court, and to

these the dowager empress made a deep bow twice,

an apparently trivial incident which made a lasting
impression. On the ist of February following the dowager
empress received the ladies of the various embassies, when she
bewailed the attack on the legations, entertained her guests to
tea and presented each with articles of jewelry, and from that
time onward, as occasion offered, Tsz'e Hsi exchanged compli-
ments and civilities with the foreign ladies in Peking. Moreover,
Sir Robert Hart after having been nearly forty years in China
was now presented at court, as well as Bishop Favier and others.
Henceforth attacks on foreigners received' no direct encourage-
ment at court. Tung Fu-hsiang, 1 who had been banished
to the remote province of Kan-suh, had at his command there
his old Boxer troops, and his attitude caused anxiety at the end
of 1902. He was said to have received support from Prince
Tuan who had been obliged to retire to Mongolia but events
proved that the power or the intention of these reactionaries to
create trouble had been miscalculated. There were indeed
serious Boxer disturbances in Sze-ch'uen in 1902, but
they were put down by a new viceroy sent from Peking.
Notwithstanding the murder of fifteen missionaries during

1 Tung Fu-hsiang died in 1908. A sum of some 80,000 belonging
to him, and left in the provincial treasury, was appropriated for works
of public utility (see The Times, April 9th, 1910).

1902-1905, there was in general a marked improvement in the
relations between the missionaries, the official classes and the
bulk of the people, and an eagerness was shown in several
provinces to take advantage of their educational work. This
was specially marked in Hu-nan, a province which had been
for long hostile to missionary endeavours. Illustrative of the
attitude of numbers of high officials was the attendance
of the viceroy of Sze-ch'uen, with the whole of his staff, at the
opening in 1905 at Cheng-tu of new buildings of the Canadian
Methodist Mission. This friendly attitude towards the missions
was due in part to the influence of Chinese educated abroad and
also, to a large extent, to the desire to take advantage of Western
culture. The spread of this new spirit was coincident with an
agitation for independence of foreign control and the deter-
mination of the Chinese to use modern methods to attain
their ends. Thus in 1905 there was an extensive boycott of
American goods throughout China, as a retaliatory measure
for the exclusion of Chinese from the United States. Re-
garding, China as a whole the attitude of the people towards
Europeans was held to indicate that the general view was, not
that the Boxer teaching was false, but that the spirits behind
Western religion were more powerful than those behind Boxer-
dom. The spiritual prestige of Christianity and respect for the
power of the foreigner were direct outcomes of the failure of
the Boxers. 2 The British expedition to Tibet in 1904, the
occupation of Lhassa in August of that year, the flight of the
Dalai Lama to Mongolia, gave grave concern to the Chinese
government which showed much persistence in enforcing its
suzerain rights in Tibet but did not, apparently, cause any ill-
feeling towards Great Britain among the Chinese people who
viewed with seeming equanimity the flight of the head of the
Buddhist religion from the headquarters of that faith. The
country generally was peaceful, a rebellion in Kwang-si where
a terrible famine occurred in 1903 being suppressed in 1904
by the forces of the viceroy at Canton.

The expiatory measures required of China in connexion with
the Boxer rising were carried through. China during 1002
recovered possession of the Peking-Tientsin railway and commer-
of the city of Tientsin, which was evacuated by the clai ana
foreign troops in August of that year. The foreign railway
troops were also all withdrawn from Shanghai by pro ***'
January 1903. The conclusion of a new commercial treaty
between Great Britain and China in September 1902 has
already been recorded. The payment of the indemnity instal-
ments occasioned some dispute owing to the fall in silver in
1902, but the rise in the value of the tael in subsequent years
led China to agree to the payment of the indemnity on a gold
basis. The increase in revenue was a notable feature of the
maritime customs in 1903-1905. This result was in part
due to the new arrangements under the commercial treaty
of 1902, and in part to the opening up of the country by
railways. In especial the great trunk line from Peking to
Hankow was pushed on. The line, including a bridge nearly
2 m. long over the Yellow river was completed and opened for
traffic in 1905. The first section of the Shanghai-Nanking
railway was opened in the same year. At this time the Chinese
showed a strong desire to obtain the control of the various
lines. During 1905, for instance, the Canton-Hankow railway
concession was repurchased by the Chinese government from an
American company, while the Pekin Syndicate, a British concern,
also sold their railway in Ho- nan to the Chinese government.

Russia's action regarding Manchuria overshadowed, however,
all other concerns during this period. The withdrawal of the
proposed Russo-Chinese agreement of 1901 has been chronicled.
The Russian government had, however, no intention of abandon-
ing its hold on Manchuria. It aimed not only at effective military
control but the reservation to Russian subjects of mining,
railway and commercial rights. Both the sovereignty of China
and the commercial interests of other nations were menaced.
This led to action by various powers. The preamble of the Anglo-
Japanese treaty of the 3oth of January 1902 declared the main
2 Lord W. Cecil, op. cit. p. 9.

HISTORY]

CHINA

209

motives of the contracting parties to be the maintenance of the
independence and territorial integrity of China and Korea, and

the securing of equal opportunities in those countries
"churia ^ or tne commerce an d industry of all nations, i.e. the

policy of the " open door." Protests were lodged
by Great Britain, Japan and the United States against the
grant of exclusive rights to Russian subjects in Manchuria.
Russia asserted her intention to respect the commercial rights
of other nations, and on the 8th of April 1902 an agreement
was signed at Peking which appeared to show the good faith of
the Russian government, as it provided for the withdrawal of the
Russian troops in Manchuria within eighteen months from that
date. In accordance with this agreement the Shan-hai-kwan-
Niu-chwang railway was transferred to China in October 1902
and the district between Shan-hai-kwan and the Liao river
evacuated by Russia. But it soon appeared that Russia's
hold on the country had not relaxed. Advantage was taken
of the terms of concession granted in August 1896 to the Russo-
Chinese Bank 1 to erect towns for Russian colonists and to plant
garrisons along the line of railway, and to exclude Chinese
jurisdiction altogether from the railway zone. The so-called
evacuation became in fact the concentration of the Russian
forces along the line of railway. Moreover, the maritime customs
at Niu-chwang were retained by the Russo-Chinese Bank despite
protests from the Chinese imperial authorities, and a Russian
civil administration was established at that port. The evacua-
tion of southern Manchuria should have taken place in April
1903, but in that month, instead of fulfilling the conditions of
the 1902 agreement, the Russian charge d'affaires in Peking made
a series of further demands upon China, including the virtual
reservation of the commerce of Manchuria for Russian subjects.
Though Russia officially denied to the British and American
governments that she had made these demands, it was demon-
strated that they had been made. The United States and Japan
thereupon insisted that China should conclude with them com-
mercial treaties throwing open Mukden and two ports on the
Yalu river to foreign trade. The American treaty was signed
on the 8th of October 1903 the day fixed for the complete
evacuation of Manchuria by Russia and the Japanese treaty on
the day following. Both treaties provided that the ports should
be opened after ratifications had been exchanged. From fear
of Russia China, however, delayed the ratification of the treaties.
Meantime, in August 1903, a regular through railway service
between Moscow and Port Arthur was established. In the same
month a Russian Viceroyalty of the Far East was created
which in effect claimed Manchuria as a Russian province. In
September Russia withdrew some of the demands she had made
in April, but her concessions proved illusory. When the 8th of
October passed and it was seen that the Russians had not with-
drawn their troops 2 there issued for a time threats of war
from Peking. Yuan Shih-kai, the viceroy of Chih-li, who had
at his command some 65,000 troops trained by Japanese officers,
pressed on the government the necessity of action. At this point
Japan intervened. Her interests were vitally affected by Russia's
action not only in Manchuria, but in Korea, and seeing that
China was powerless the Japanese government negotiated
directly with St Petersburg. In these negotiations Russia
showed that she would not yield her position in either country
except to force. Japan chose the issue of war and proved
successful.

The Russo-Japanese War did not very greatly alter China's
position in Manchuria. In the southern part of that country
Japan succeeded to the special privileges Russia had wrung

1 This institution was nominally a private concern which financed
the Manchurian railway, but it acted as part of the Russian govern-
ment machinery. The existence of the contract of the 27th of
August 1896 was frequently denied until expressly admitted by the
Russo-Chinese agreement of the 8th of April 1902.

* On the 8th of October the Russian troops had been withdrawn
from Mukden, but they reoccupied the town on the 28th of the
same month, Admiral Alexeiev, the viceroy of the Far East, alleging
that the inertia of the Chinese officials seriously hindered the work of
extending civilization in Manchuria.

from China (including the lease of Port Arthur); in the north
Russia remained in possession of the railway zone. For Japan's
position as at once the legatee of special privileges teMeB4
and the champion of China's territorial integrity of the
and " the open door " see JAPAN, History. How- Ku**o-
ever, the attitude of Japan was more conciliatory
than that of Russia had been; Mukden and other
places were thrown open to foreign trade and Chinese civil admin-
istration was re-established. The important results of the war,
so far as China was concerned, were not to be looked for in
Manchuria, but in the new spirit generated in the Chinese.
They had been deeply humiliated by the fact that in the
struggle between Russia and Japan China had been treated
as a negligible quantity, and that the war had been fought on
Chinese territory. The lesson which the loot of Peking and
the fall of the Boxers in 1900 had half taught was now
thoroughly mastered; the awakening of China was complete.
The war had shown that when an Eastern race adopted
Western methods it was capable of defeating a European
nation.

It was fortunate that among the influential advisers of the
throne at this time (1905-1908) were Prince Chun (the prince
who had visited Germany in 1901), Yuan Shih-kai, the viceroy
of Chih-li, and Chang Chih-tung, the viceroy of Hu-kwang (i.e.
the provinces of Hu-peh and Hu-nan) , all men of enlightened
and strong character. In 1907 both the viceroys named were
summoned to Peking and made members of the grand council,
of which Prince Ching, a man of moderate views, was president.
Yuan Shih-kai was an open advocate of a reform of the civil
service, of the abolition of Manchu privileges, of education and
other matters. He had specially advocated the reconstitution
of the military forces of the empire, and in Chih-li in 1905 he
demonstrated before a number of foreign military attaches the
high efficiency attained by the forces of the metropolitan pro-
vince. The success achieved by Yuan Shih-kai in this direction
incited Chang Chih-tung to follow his example, while a decree
from the throne called upon the princes and nobles of China to
give their sons a military education. The formerly despised
military profession was thus made honourable, and with salutary
effects. The imperial princes sought high commands, officers
were awarded ranks and dignities comparable with those of
civil servants, and the pay of the troops was increased. The new
foreign drilled northern army was called upon to
furnish a large proportion of a force sent under Prince
Su into Mongolia a country which had been on the
point of falling into the hands of Russia, but over which, as one
result of the Russo-Japanese War, China recovered control.
In 1906 a step was taken towards the formation of a national
army by withdrawing portions of the troops from provincial
control and placing them under officers responsible to the
central government, which also took over the charge of the
provincial arsenals. In the years which followed further evidence
was given of the earnestness and success with which the military
forces were being reorganized. Less attention was given to
naval affairs, but in the autumn of 1909 a naval commission under
Tsai Hstin, a brother of the emperor Kwang-su, was sent to
Europe to report on the steps necessary for the re-establishment
of a fleet. Previously (in 1907) societies had been started in
several provinces to collect funds for naval purposes.

The most striking evidence of the change which had occurred
was, however, the appointment (in 1905) of an Imperial Com-
mission, headed by Prince Tsai Tse, to study the administrative
systems of foreign countries with a view to the possible establish-
ment of a representative government in China. The revolu-
tionary nature of this proposal excited indignation among the
adherents to the old order, and a bomb was thrown among the
commissioners as they were preparing to leave Peking. 1 After
visiting Japan, America and Europe the commission returned to

1 The form of outrage, probably the first of its kind in China,
was itself a symptom of the changed times. The bomb injured
Prince Tsai Tse and another commissioner, and the departure of the
commission was consequently delayed some months.

210

CHINA

[HISTORY

Peking in July 1906." A committee over which Prince Ching
presided was appointed to study the commission's report, and
A partta- on tne lst ^ September following an edict was issued
mentary in which the establishment of a parliamentary form
coas</*u- of government was announced, at a date not fixed.
tion -p o gt t ne country for this new form of government

promised. ^j je e( jj ct wen t en to declare) the administration
must be reformed, the laws revised, education promoted and
the finances regulated. This edict, moreover, was but one of
many edicts issued in 1906 and following years which showed
how great a break with the past was contemplated. In
November 1906 two edicts were issued with the object of
reorganizing the central administrative offices. Their effect
was to simplify the conduct of business, many useless posts
being abolished, while an audit board was created to
examine the national accounts. In November 1907 another
edict was promulgated stating that for the present the formation
of Houses of Lords and of Commons to determine all public
questions was not practicable, but that it was proposed, as a
preliminary measure, to create an Imperial Assembly. At the
same time a scheme of provincial councils was ordered to be
prepared. A more definite step followed in 1908 when a decree
(dated the 27th of August) announced the convocation of a
parliament in the ninth year from that date.

One of the changes made in the public offices brought China
into conflict with Great Britain. On the 9th of May 1906 a
The decree appointed Chinese commissioners to control the

control Imperial Maritime Customs. 2 This was the only
of the department of the government under European
Maritime (B r i t j sn ) control, and the only department also against
""' which no charge of inefficiency or corruption could be
brought. The change decreed by China was in accord with the
new national sentiment, but by all the foreign powers interested
it was felt that it would be a retrograde step if the customs
were taken out of the control of Sir Robert Hart (q.v.), who had
been since 1863 inspector-general of the customs. The British
secretary of state for foreign affairs (Sir Edward Grey) at once
protested against the decree of the 6th of May, pointing out
that the continuation of the established system had been
stipulated for in the loan agreements of 1896 and 1898. As a
result of this and other representations the Board of Control of
the Customs was late in 1906 made a department of the Board
of Finance. The Chinese controllers-general continued in
office, and despite the assurances given to Great Britain by
China (in a note of the 6th of June 1906) that the appointment
of the controllers-general was not intended to interfere with
the established system of administration, the absolute authority
of Sir Robert Hart was weakened. 3 Sir Robert Hart returned
to England in 1908 " on leave of absence," Sir Robert Bredon,
the deputy inspector-general, being placed in charge of the
service under the authority of the Board of Control, of which
on the sth of April 1910 it was announced that he had been
appointed a member. This step was viewed with disfavour
by the British government, for, unless Sir Robert Bredon's post
was to be merely a sinecure, it imposed two masters on the
maritime customs. On the aoth of April Sir Robert Bredon
severed his connexion with the Board of Control. At the
same time Mr F. A. Aglen (the Commissioner of Customs at.
Hankow) became acting Inspector General (Sir Robert Hart
being still nominally head of the service). The attempt on
the part of the Chinese to control the customs was evidence

1 In 1907 further commissions were appointed, on the initiative
of Yuan Shih-kai, to study specifically the constitutions of Great
Britain, Germany and Japan.

2 This department was organized at Shanghai in 1854. The
Taiping rebels being in possession of the native city, the collection
of customs dues, especially on foreign ships, was placed in the hands
of foreigners. This developed into a permanent institution, the
European staff being mainly British.

1 The British official view, as stated in parliament on the 27th of
April 1910, was that the changes resulting from the creation of the
Board of Control had, so far, been purely departmental changes of
form, and that the position of the inspector-general remained
unaltered.

of the strength of the " young China " or Recovery of Rights
party the party which aspired to break all the chains, such
as extra-territoriality, which stamped the country as not the
equal of the other great nations. 4

In the steps taken to suppress opium smoking evidence was
forthcoming of the earnestness with which the governing body
in China sought to better the condition of the people.
Opium smoking followed, in China, the introduction of The *"""
tobacco smoking, and is stated to have been introduced
from Java and Formosa in the early part of the I7th
century. The first edict against the habit was issued in 1729.
At that time the only foreign opium introduced was by the
Portuguese from Goa, who exported about 200 chests * a year.
In 1773 English merchants in India entered into the trade, which
in 1781 was taken over by the East India Company the import
in 1790 being over 4000 chests. In 1796 the importation of
foreign opium was declared contraband, and between 1839 and
1860 the central government attempted, without success, to
suppress the trade. It was legalized in 1858 after the second
" opium war " with Great Britain. At that time the poppy
was extensively grown in China, and the bulk ot the opium
smoked was, and continued to be, of home manufacture. But
after 1860 the importation of opium from India greatly in-
creased. Opium was also imported from Persia (chiefly to
Formosa, which in 1895 passed into the possession of Japan).
The total foreign import in 1863 was some 70,000 piculs,' in
1879 it was 102,000 piculs, but in 1905 had fallen to 56,000
piculs. The number of opium smokers in China in the early
years of the 2oth century was estimated at from 25 to 30 millions.
The evil effects of opium smoking were fully recognized, and
Chang Chih-tung, one of the most powerful of the opponents of
the habit, was high in the councils of the dowager-empress. On
the zoth of September 1906 an edict was issued directing that
the growth, sale and consumption of opium should cease in
China within ten years, and ordering the officials to take
measures to execute the imperial will. The measures promul-
gated, in November following, made the following provisions:

(i) The cultivation of the poppy to be restricted annually -by
cne-tenth of its existing area; (2) all persons using opium to be
registered; (3) all shops selling opium to be gradually closed, and
all places where opium is smoked to discontinue the practice within
six months; (4) anti-opium societies to be officially encouraged,
and medicines distributed to cure the opium-smoking habit; (5)
all officials were requested to set an example to the people, and all
officials under sixty were required to abandon opium smoking within
six months or to withdraw from the service of the state.

It was estimated that the suppression of opium smoking
would entail a yearly loss of revenue of over 1,600,000, a loss
about equally divided between the central and provincial govern-
ments. The first step taken to enforce the edict was the closing
of the opium dens in Peking on the last day of 1906.

During 1907 the opium dens in Shanghai, Canton, Fu-chpw and
many other large cities were closed, and restrictions on the issue of
licences were introduced in the foreign settlements; even the eunuchs
of the palace were prohibited from smoking opium under severe
penalties. The central government continued during 1908 and 1909
to display considerable energy in the suppression of the use of opium,
but the provincial authorities were not all equally energetic. It was
noted in 1908 that while in some provinces-^-even in Yun-nan, where
its importance tc trade and commerce and its use as currency seemed
to render it very difficult to do ahytHing effective the governor and
officials were whole-hearted in carrying out the imperial regulations,
in other provinces notably in Kwei-chcw and in the provinces of
the lower Yangtsze valley-^-great supineness was exhibited in dealing
with the subject. Lord William Cecil, however, stated that travelling
in 1909 between Peking and Hankow, through country which in 1907
he had seen covered with the poppy, he could not then see a single
poppy flower, and that going up the Yangtsze he found only one
small patch of poppy cultivation. 7 The Peking correspondent of
The Times, in a journey to Turkestan in the early part of 1910, found
that in Shen-si province the people's desire to suppress the opium
trade was in advance of the views of the government. Every day
trains of opium carts were passed travelling under official protection.
But in the adjoining province of Shan-si there had been complete

4 See The Times oi the 2ist of April and nth of May 1910.
6 A chest contained from 135 ft to 1 60 Ib.

6 A picul = 133! ft.

7 Changing China, p.

118.

HISTORY]

CHINA

211

Educa-

tlon.

suppression of poppy cultivation and in Kan-suh the officials were con-
ducting a very vigorous campaign against the growth of the poppy. 1
In their endeavours to suppress opium smoking the Chinese govern-
ment appealed to the Indian government for help, and in 1907 received
a promise that India would decrease the production of opium
annually by one-tenth for four years and subsequently if China did
likewise. The Indian government also assented to Indian opium
being taxed equally with Chinese opium, but China did not raise the
duty on foreign opium. In 1908 the Indian government undertook
to reduce the amount of opium exported by 5100 chests yearly. In
the same year the opium dens in Hong-Kong were closed. In
February 1909, on the initiative of the United States, an international
conference was held at Shanghai to consider the opium trade and
habit. At this conference the Chinese representative claimed that
the consumption of opium had already been reduced by one-half
a claim not borne out by the ascertained facts. The conference was
unable to suggest any heroic measures, but a number of proposals
were agreed to (including the closing of opium dens in the foreign
settlements), tending to the restriction of the opium trade. The
conference also dealt with another and growing habit in China the
use of morphia. 2 Japan agreed to prohibit the export of morphia to
China, a prohibition to which the other powers had previously agreed.

The attempts to reform the educational system of China on a
comprehensive scale date from the year of the return of the
court to Peking after the Boxer troubles. In 1902
regulations were sanctioned by the emperor which
aimed at remodelling the methods of public instruction.
These regulations provided among other things for the establish-
ment at Peking of a university giving instruction in Western
learning, a technical college, and a special department for
training officials and teachers. A much more revolutionary
step was taken in September 1905 when a decree appeared
announcing as from the beginning of 1906 the abolition of *he
existing method of examinations. The new system was to
include the study of modern sciences, history, geography and
foreign languages, and in the higher grades political economy
and civil and international law. Thousands of temples were
converted to educational purposes. In Canton, in 1907, the old
examination hall was demolished to make way for a college with
every appliance on Western lines. Equal zeal was noticeable
in such conservative cities as Si-gan-fu, and in remote provinces
like Kan-suh. By May 1 906 fifteen so-called universities had been
founded. Moreover, many young Chinese went abroad to acquire
education in Japan alone in 1906 there were 13,000 students.
In the same year primary schools for girls were established. 3
Perhaps the most striking evidence of the new spirit regarding
education was the tenour of a communication to the throne
from the head of the Confucian family. On the 3ist of
December 1906 an imperial edict had appeared raising Con-
fucius to the same rank as Heaven and Earth an action taken
to indicate the desire of the government to emphasize the
value of ethical training. In thanking the throne for the
honour conferred on his ancestor the head of the family urged
that at the new college founded at the birth-place of Confucius
the teaching should include foreign languages, physical culture,
political science and military drill. 4

While China, with the consent of the emperor and the empress-
dowager, and under the guidance of Prince Ching, Yuan Shih-kai
and Chang Chih-tung, was endeavouring to bring about internal
reforms, her attitude to foreign powers was one of reserve
and distrust. This was especially marked in the negotiations
with Japan and with Russia concerning Manchuria, and was
seen also in the negotiations with Great Britain concerning

1 See The Times of 7th and 8th of March and 8th of April 1910.

* The first recorded importation of morphia into China was in
1892, and it is suggested that it was first used as an anti-opium
medicine. Morphia-taking, however, speedily became a vice, and
in 1902 over 195,000 oz. of morphia were imported (enough for some
300,000,000 injections). To check the evil the Chinese government
during 1903 imposed a tax of about 200% ad valorem, with the result
that the imports declared to the customs foil in 1905 to 54 oz. only.
The falling off was explained " not by a diminished demand, but
by smuggling " (Morse's Trade and Administration of the Chinese
Empire, p. 351).

A regulation by the ministry of education, dated the I4th of
January 1910, ordered that no girl should be admitted to school
dressed in foreign clothes or with unnatural (i.e. bound) feet.

4 For the growth of the education movement see The Times, 4th
of September 1909.

Tibet. It was not until April 1908, after four years' negotiations,
that a convention with Great Britain respecting Tibet was
signed, Chinese suzerain rights being respected. In September
the Dalai Lama arrived in Peking from Mongolia and was received
by the emperor, who also gave audience to a Nepalese mission. 6

The emperor Kwang-su had witnessed, without being able
to guide, the new reform movement. In August 1908 an edict
was issued in his name announcing the convocation of
a parliament in nine years' time. In November he '*/,
died. His death occasioned no surprise, as disquieting emperor
reports about his health had been current since July, ""lot the
but the announcement that the dowager empress died *
on the isth of November (the day after that on
which the emperor was officially stated to have died) was
totally unexpected. She had celebrated her birthday on the
3rd of November and appeared then to be in good health.
The empress dowager had taken part in the choice of a suc-
cessor to the throne, Kwang-su's valedictory edict had been
drawn up under her supervision, and it is believed that the
emperor died seme days previous to the date officially given for
his death. Kwang-su died childless and was succeeded by his
infant nephew Pu-Yi (born on the 8th of February 1906), a
son of Prince Chun, who was appointed regent. Prince Chun
himself then only twenty-six years old had exercised con-
siderable influence at court since his mission to Germany in
1901, and was one of the most enlightened of the Manchu princes.
The death of the dowager empress removed a powerful obstacle
to a reformed regime, and with her passed away the last
prominent representative of the old era in China.

The accession to the throne of Pu-Yi, who' was given as
reigning title Hsuan Tung (" promulgating universally"), was
unaccompanied by disturbances, save for an outbreak
at Ngan-king, easily suppressed. Prince Chun had Accession
the support of Yuan Shih-kai and Chang Chih-tung, 6 "*""
the two most prominent Chinese members of the
government at Peking and thus a division between the Manchus
and Chinese was avoided. On the 2nd of December 1908 the
young emperor was enthroned with the usual rites. On the
day following another edict, which, it was stated, had had the
approval of the late dowager empress, was issued, reaffirming
that of the 27th of August regarding the grant of a parlia-
mentary constitution in nine years' time, and urging the people
to prepare themselves for the change. Other edicts sought to
strengthen the position of the regent as de facto emperor.
Yuan Shih-kai and Chang Chih-tung received the title of Grand
Guardians of the Heir, and the year 1908 closed with the chief
Chinese members of the government working, apparently, in
complete harmony with the regent.

On the ist of January 1909, however, the political situation
was rudely disturbed by the dismissal from office of Yuan Shih-
kai. This step led to representations by the British
and American ministers to Prince Ching, the head of
the foreign office, by whom assurances were given that
no change of policy was contemplated by China, while
the regent in a letter to President Taft reiterated the determina-
tion of his government to carry through its reform policy.
The dismissal of Yuan Shih-kai was believed by the Chinese
to be due to his " betrayal " of the emperor Kwang-su in the
1898 reform movement. He had nevertheless refused to go
to extremes on the reactionary side, and in 1900, as governor
of Shan-tuhg, he preserved a neutrality which greatly facilitated
the relief of the Peking legations. During the last years

6 The Dalai Lama left Peking in December 1908 on his return
to Lhassa, which he reached in November 1909. Differences had
arisen between him and the Chinese government, which sought to
make the spiritual as well as the temporal power of the Dalai Lama
dependent on his recognition by the emperor of China. Early in
1910 the Dalai Lama, in consequence of the action of the Chinese
amban in Lhassa, fled from that city and sought refuge in India.

* Chang Chih-tung died in October 1909. He was a man of con-
siderable ability, and one whose honesty and loyalty had never
been doubted. He was noted as an opponent of opium smoking,
and for over thirty years had addressed memorials to the throne
against the use of the drug.

212

CHINA

[HISTORY

of the life of the dowager empress it was his influence which
largely reconciled her to the new reform movement. Yet Kwang-
su had not forgotten the coup d'etat of 1898, and it is alleged
that he left a testament calling upon his brother the prince
regent to avenge the wrongs he had suffered. 1 During the
greater part of the year there was serious estrangement
Agreement Detween china and Japan, but on the 4th of September
a convention was signed which settled most of the
points in dispute respecting Manchuria and Korea. In
Korea the boundary was adjusted so that Chientao, a mountain-
ous district in eastern Manchuria regarded as the ancestral
home of the reigning families of China and Korea, was de-
finitely assigned to China; while in Manchuria, both as to
railways and mines, a policy of co-operation was substituted for
one of opposition. 2 Although Japan had made substantial
concessions, those made by China in return provoked loud
complaints from the southern provinces the self-government
society calling for the dismissal of Prince Ching. In northern
Manchuria the Russian authorities had assumed territorial
jurisdiction at Harbin, but on the 4th of May an agreement was
signed recognizing Chinese jurisdiction. 3

The spirit typified by the cry of " China for the Chinese " was
seen actively at work in the determined efforts made to exclude
foreign capital from railway affairs. The completion
rft * in October 1909 of the Peking-Kalgan railway was

the cause of much patriotic rejoicing. The railway,
a purely Chinese undertaking, is 122 m. long and
took four years to build. It traversed difficult country, piercing
the Nan K'ow Pass by four tunnels, one under the Great Wall
being 3580 ft. long. There was much controversy between foreign
financiers, generally backed by their respective governments, as
to the construction of other lines. In March 1909 the Deutsch-
asiatische Bank secured a loan of 3,000,000 for the construction
of the Canton-Hankow railway. This concession was contrary
to an undertaking given in 1905 to British firms and was with-
drawn, but only in return for the admittance of German capital
in the Sze-ch'uen railway. After prolonged negotiations an
agreement was signed in Paris on the 24th of May 1910 for
a loan of 6,000,000 for the construction of the railway from
Hankow to Sze-cb'uen, in which British, French, German and
American interests were equally represented. In January
1910 the French line from Hanoi to Yunnan-fu was opened; 4
the railway from Shanghai to Nanking was opened for through
traffic in 1909.

The progress of the anti-opium movement and the dispute
over the control of the Imperial Maritime Customs have already
Pro lacial ^ een chronicled- A notable step was taken in 1909
Assemblies by the institution of elected assemblies in each of the
const'- provinces. The franchise on which the members
tuted. were elected was very limited, and the assemblies
A Senate were given consultative powers only. They were
"* opened on the I4th of October (the ist day of the
9th moon). The businesslike manner in which these assemblies
conducted their work was a matter of general comment among
foreign observers in China. 6 In February 1910 decrees ap-
peared approving schemes drawn up by the Commission for
Constitutional Reforms, providing for local government in pre-
fectures and departments and for the reform of the judiciary.
This was followed on the gth of May by another decree sum-
moning the senate to meet for the first time on the ist day of
the 9th moon (the 3rd of October 1910). All the members of the
senate were nominated, and the majority were Manchus. Neither
to the provincial assemblies nor to the senate was any power
of the purse given, and the drawing up of a budget was post-
poned until 1915.'

1 See The Times of the 7th of September 1909.

1 Proposals made early in 1910 by the American secretary of state
for the neutralization of the Manchurian railway received no support.

* By a convention signed on July 4th, 1910, Russia and Japan
agreed to " maintain and respect " the status quo in Manchuria.

4 See the Quinzaine coloniale of the loth of December 1909.

' See The Times of the aoth of January 1910.

'See for the prospects of reform The Times of 3Oth May 1910.

Auti-

dyaastlc

move*

meat*.

Riots In

Hu-aan.

The efforts of the central government to increase the efficiency
of the army and to re-create a navy were continued in 1910.
China was credited with the intention of spending 40,000,000
on the rehabilitation of its naval and military forces. It was
estimated in March 1910 that there were about 200,000 foreign-
trained men, but their independent spirit and disaffection
constituted a danger to internal peace. The danger was accen-
tuated by the mutual jealousy of the central and provincial
governments. The anti-dynastic agitation, moreover, again
seemed to be growing in strength. In April 1910 there was
serious rioting at Changsha, Hu-nan, a town whence a few years
previously had issued a quantity of anti-foreign literature of a
vile kind. The immediate causes of the riots seem to have been
many: rumours of the intention of the foreign powers to dis-
member China, the establishment of foreign firms at Changsha
competing with native firms and exporting rice and
salt at a time when the province was suffering from
famine, and the approach of Halley's comet. Probably
the famine precipitated the outbreak, which was easily
crushed, as was also a rising in May at Yung chow, a
town in the south of Hu-nan. Much mission and mercan-
tile property was wrecked at Changsha, but the only loss of life
was the accidental drowning of three Roman Catholic priests.

An edict of the I7th of August 1910 effected considerable and
unexpected changes in the personnel of the central government.
Tang Shao-yi, a former lieutenant of Yuan Shib-kai, was
appointed president of the Board of Communications, and to him
fell the difficult task of reconciling Chinese and foreign interests
in the development of the railway system. Sheng Kung-pao
regarded as the chief Chinese authority on currency questions,
and an advocate of the adoption of a gold standard, was attached
to the Board of Finance to help in the reforms decreed
by an edict, of May of the same year (see ante, Currency) .
The issue of the edict was attributed to the influence
with the regent of Prince Tsai-tao, who had recently
returned from a tour in Europe, where he had specially studied
questions of national defence. The changes made among the
high officials tended greatly to strengthen the central administra-
tion. The government had viewed with some disquiet the Russo-
Japanese agreement of the 4th of July concerning Manchuria
(which was generally interpreted as in fact lessening the authority
of China in that country); it had become involved in another
dispute with Great Britain, which regarded some of the measures
taken to suppress opium smoking as a violation of the terms
of the Chifu convention, and its action in Tibet had caused
alarm in India. Thus the appointment to high office of men
of enlightenment, pledged to a reform policy, was calculated
to restore confidence in the policy of the Peking authorities.
This confidence would have been greater had not the changes
indicated a struggle for supreme power between the regent and
the dowager empress Lung Yu, widow of Kwang-su.

The strength of the various movements at work throughout
China was at this time extremely difficult to gauge; the in-
tensity of the desire for the acquisition of Western knowledge
was equalled by the desire to secure the independence of the
country from foreign control. The second of these desires gave
the force it possessed to the anti-dynastic movement. At the
same time some of the firmest supporters of reform were found
among the Manchus, nor did there seem to be any reason to
doubt the intention of the regent if he retained power to
guide the nation through the troubled period of transition into
an era of constitutional government and the full development
of the resources of the empire. (X.)

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE. Knowledge of the ancient history of
China is necessarily derived from the native writers on the subject.
Fortunately, the Chinese have always regarded the preservation
of the national records as a matter of supreme importance. Con-
fucius set an example in this respect, and has preserved for us in the
Spring and Autumn Annals and the Shu-king, or Book of History,
records of his country's progress during the past and then present
centuries. The celebrated emperor Shih Hwang-ti, in establishing
the empire, attempted to strengthen his cause by destroying all
works on the national history. But so strongly was the historical
sense inculcated in the people that immediately on the death of the

CHINA

PLATE L

FIG. i. KU K'AI-CHIH. TOILET SCENE.
(British Museum. 4th Cent. A.D.).

FIG. 3. CHAO MENG-FU, AFTER WANG WEI (8th

Cent.). SCENE ON THE WANG CH'UAN.

(Dated 1309. British Museum.)

FIG. 2. ATTRIBUTED TO WU TAOTZU.
SAKYAMUNI. (8th Cent.)

FIG. 6 KIU YING. COURT LADIES.
(British Museum. I5th Cent.)

FIG. 4 HSU HSI. BIRD ON APPLE-BOUGH,
(loth Cent.)

FIG. 5 CHIEN SHUN-CHU. THE
EMPEROR HUAN-YEH. (isth Cent.)

FIG. 7. EAGLE. BY LIN LIANG.
(i5th Cent. British Museum.)

VI. m.

Figs. 2, 4, and 5 are reproduced by permission of the Kokka Company, Tokyo.

PLATE II.

CHINA

FIG. 9. TEMPLE VASE (c. 1200 B.C.). FIG. 10. WINE VASE (c. 1000 B.C.). FIG. u. WINE VASE (c. 600 B.C.).

FIG. 12. INLAID VESSEL
(c. 500 B.C.).

FIG. 13. WINE VESSEL (c. 100 B.C.).

FIG. 14. INLAID VASE (c. 200 A.D.).
In possession of C. J. Holmes.

FIG. 15. VASE (c. 1450 A.D.). FIG. 16. WINE VESSEL (c. 1450 A.D.). FIG. 17. TEMPLE VASE (c. 1700 A.D.).

Figs. 9-13 and 15-17 are from originals in the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington.

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213

tyrant the nation's records were again brought to light, and have
been carefully preserved and edited since that time. Prof. Legge's
translation of the Spring and Autumn Annals and the Shu-king, or
Book of History, in the " Sacred Books of the East " series, have
opened for students the stores of historical knowledge which were
at the command of Confucius, and European writers on Chinese
history have found in the dynastic annals a never-failing source ol
valuable information. It was from these works and epitomes ol
these that de Maillac gathered the facts for his celebrated Histoire
generate de la Chine, and it is from similar sources that all other
writers on Chinese history have drawn their inspiration.

The following works on ancient and modern Chinese history
may be specially mentioned: J. A. de Moyria de Maillac, Histoire
gtntrale de la Chine (1777), &c.; J. B. du Halde, General History of
China (4 vols., 1736); M.deGuignes, Voyages a Peking . . . (3 vols.,
1808); D. Boulger, A History of China (3 vols., 1881); Valentine
Chirol, The Far Eastern Question (1896); E. R. Hue, The Chinese
Empire (2 vols., 1855); T. T. Meadows, The Chinese and their
Rebellions (1856); G. Pauthier, Histoire des relations politiques de
la Chine avec les puissances occidentals depuis les temps les plus
anciens jusqu'a nos jours . . . (1859); Sir George Staunton, Notes
of Proceedings and Occurrences during the British Embassy to Peking
in 1816 (1824); Chinese Expansion historically reviewed, a paper
read before the Central Asian Society by Baron Suyematsu on
January 11, 1905; F. Hirth, Ancient History of China (New York,
1908) ; Prof. Herbert A. Giles's Chinese Biographical Dictionary
(1897) is a storehouse of biographical detail and anecdote.

For Chinese relations with foreign powers see H. Cordier, Histoire
des relations de la Chine avec les puissances occidentales, 1860-1002
(3 vols., Paris, 1901-1902); Hertslet's China Treaties. Treaties, tifc.,
between Great Britain and China, and between China and Foreign
Powers, and Orders in Council, fc., affecting British Interests in China
(yd ed., revised by G. G. P. Hertslet and E. Parkes, London, 1908) ;
J. O. Bland and E. Backhouse, China under the Empress Dowager
([London, 1910). More general works are Sir R. K. Douglas, China,
history since the time of Marco Polo (London, 1899); E. H. Parker,
China; Her History, Diplomacy and Commerce (London, 1901);
China, Past and Present (London, 1903); A. J. Sargent, Anglo-
Chinese Commerce and Diplomacy mainly in the igth century
(Oxford, 1907). For current affairs see the authorities cited in the
footnotes.

VI. CHINESE ART

i. Painting. Painting is the pre-eminent art of China, which
can boast of a succession of great painters for at least twelve
centuries. Though the Chinese have an instinctive gift for har-
monious colour, their painting is above all an art of line. It is
intimately connected with writing, itself a fine art demanding
the same skill and supple power in the wielding of the brush. The
most typical expression of the Chinese genius in painting is the
ink sketch, such as the masters of the Sung dynasty most pre-
ferred and the Japanese from the I5th century adopted for an
abiding model. Utmost vigour of stroke was here combined
with utmost delicacy of modulation. Rich colour and the use
of gold are an integral part of the Buddhist pictures, though
in the masterpieces of the religious painters a grand rhythm
of linear design gives the fundamental character. Exquisite
subdued colour is also found in the " flower and bird pieces " and
still-life subjects of the Sung artists, and becomes more emphatic
and variegated in the decorative artists of the Ming period.

Not to represent facts, but to suggest a poetic idea (often
perfumed, so to speak, with reminiscence of some actual poem),
has ever been the Chinese artist's aim. " A picture is a voiceless
poem " is an old saying in China, where very frequently the artist
was a literary man by profession. Oriental critics lay more
stress on loftiness of sentiment and tone than on technical
qualities. This idealist temper helps to explain tlie deliberate
avoidance of all emphasis on appearances of material solidity
by means of chiaroscuro, &c., and the exclusive use of the light
medium of water-colour. The Chinese express actual dislike
for the representation of relief. Whoever compares the painting
of Europe with that of Asia (and Chinese painting is the central
type for the one continent, as Italian may claim to be for the
other) must first understand this contrast of aim. The limita-
tions of the Chinese are great, but these limitations save them
from mistaking advances in science for advances in art, and from
petty imitation of fact. Their religious painting has great
affinity with the early religious art of Italy (e.g. that of Siena).
But the ideas of the Renaissance, its scientific curiosity, its
materialism, its glorification of human personality, are wholly
missing in China. For Europe, Man is ever the hero and the

foreground hence the dominant study of the nude, and the
tendency to thronged compositions, with dramatic motives of
effort and conflict. The Chinese artists, weak in the plastic,
weak in the architectural sense, paint mostly in a lyric mood,
with a contemplative ideal. Hence the value given to space in
their designs, the semi-religious passion for nature, and the
supremacy of landscape. Beauty is found not only in pleasant
prospects, but in wild solitudes, rain, snow and storm. The life
of things is contemplated and portrayed for its own sake, not
for its uses in the life of men. From this point of view the body
of Chinese painting is much more modern in conception than that
of Western art. Landscape was a mature and free art in China
more' than a thousand years ago, and her school of landscape is
the loftiest yet known to the world. Nor was man ever dis-
sociated from nature. As early as the 4th century Ku K'ai-chih
says that in painting a certain noble character he must give him
a fit background of great peaks and deep ravines. Chinese
painting, in sum, finely complements rather than poorly supple-
ments that of Europe; where the latter is strong, it is weak;
but in certain chosen provinces it long ago found consummate ex-
pression for thoughts and feelings scarcely yet expressed with us.

The origin of Chinese painting is lost in legend, though there
is no reason to doubt its great antiquity. References in ni*toiy-
literature prove that by the 3rd century B.C. it was a Early
developed art. To this period is ascribed the inven- period* (to
tion of the hair-brush, in the use of which as an instru- A '' 6I8> '
ment both for writing and drawing the Chinese have attained
marvellous skill; the usual material for the picture being
woven silk, or, less often and since the ist. century A.D.,
paper. In early times wood panels were employed; and large
compositions were painted on walls prepared with white lime.
These mural decorations have all disappeared. History and
portraiture seem to have been the prevailing subjects; a secular
art corresponding to the social ideals of Confucianism. Yet
long before the introduction of Buddhism (A.D. 67) with its
images and pictures, we find that the two great symbolic figures
of the Chinese imagination, the Tiger and the Dragon typifying
the forces of Nature and the power of the Spirit had been
evolved in art; and to imaginative minds the mystic ideas of
Lao Tzti and the legends of his hermit followers proved a fruitful
field for artistic motives of a kind which Buddhism was still
more to enrich and multiply. Early classifications rank Buddhist
and Taoist subjects together as one class.

With the 2nd century A.D. we come to individual names of
artists and to the beginnings of landscape. Ku K'ai-chih
(4th century) ranks as one of the greatest names of Chinese
art. A painting by him now in the British Museum (Plate I.
fig. i) shows a maturity which has nothing tentative about it.
The dignified and elegant types are rendered with a mastery of
sensitive brush-line which is not surpassed in later art. Ku
K'ai-chih painted all kinds of subjects, but excelled in por-
traiture. During the next century the criticism of painting was
Formulated in six canons by Hsieh Ho. Rhythm, organic or
structural beauty, is the supreme quality insisted on.

During the T'ang dynasty the empire expanded to its utmost
limits, stretching as far as the Persian Gulf. India was
invaded; Buddhism, taught by numbers of Indian
missionaries, became firmly established, and controlled
the ideals and imaginations of the time. The vigorous <:? 6I8 ~
style of a great era was impressed upon the T'ang
art, which culminated in Wu Taotzti, universally acknowledged
as the greatest of all Chinese painters. It is doubtful if any of his
work remains. The picture reproduced (Plate I. fig. 2) was long
attributed to him, but is now thought to be of later date, like
.he two landscapes well known under his name in Japan. Wu
Taotzii seems to have given supreme expression to the central
subject of Buddhist art, the Nirvana of Buddha, who lies serenely
asleep, with all creation, from saints and kings to birds and
>easts, passionately bewailing him. The composition is known
rom Japanese copies; and it is in fact from the early religious
schools of Japan that we can best conjecture the grandeur of
he T'ang style. Wu TaotzU excelled in all subjects: other

214

CHINA

[ART

Sung

masters are best known for some particular one. Han Kan
was famous for his horses, the models for succeeding generations
of painters, both Chinese and Japanese. A specimen of his
brush is in the British Museum; and in the same collection is
a long roll which gives a glimpse of the landscape of this age.
It is a copy by a great master of the Yuen dynasty, Chao MSng-
fu, from a famous painting by Wang Wei, representing scenes
on the Wang Ch'uan, the latter's home (Plate I. fig. 3 shows a
fragment). With the Tang age landscape matured, and two
schools arose, one headed by Wang Wei, the other by Li Ssu-
hsiin. The style of Wang Wei, who was equally famous as a
poet, had a romantic idealist character disdainful of mere fact
which in later developments created the " literary man's picture "
of the Southern school, as opposed to the vigorous naturalism
of the North.

Next come five brief dynasties, memorable less for any cor-
Five porate style or tradition, than for some fine painters

dynasties Like Hsii Hsi, famous for his flowers, and Huang
(A. o. 907- Ch'uan, a great master in a delicate style. Two
pictures by him, fowls and peonies, of extraordinary
beauty, are in the British Museum.

The empire, which had been broken up, was reunited, though
Sung shorn of its outer dependencies, under the house of Sung.
dynasty This was an age of culture in which the freedom of
(A. D. 960' the individual was proclaimed anew; glorious in art
1280). as j n p oe t r y anc j philosophy; the period which
for Asia stands in history as the Periclean age for Europe.

The religious paintings of Li Lung-mien, the grandest of Su
masters, if less forcible than those of T'ang, were unsurpassed in
harmonious rhythm of design and colour. But the most character-
istic painting of this period is in landscape and nature-subjects.
With a passion unmatched in Europe till Wordsworth's day, the
Sung artists portrayed their delight in mountains, mists, plunging
torrents, the night of the wild geese from the reed-beds : the moonlit
reveries of sages in forest solitudes, the fisherman in his boat on lake
or stream. To them also, steeped in the Zen philosophy of con-
templation, a flowering branch was no mere subject for a decorative
study, but a symbol pfthe infinite life of nature. A mere hint to the
spectator's imagination is often all that they rely on; proof of the
singular fulness and reality of the culture of the time. The art of
suggestion has never been carried farther. Such traditional subjects
as Curfew from a Distant Temple " and " The Moon over Raging
Waves " indicate the poetic atmosphere of this art. Ma Yuan, Hsia
Kuei and the emperor Hwei-tsung are among the greatest landscape
artists of this period. They belong to the South Sung school, which
loved to paint the gorges and towering rock-pinnacles of the Yangtsze.
The sterner, less romantic scenery of the Hwang-Ho inspired the
Northern school, of which Kuo Hsi and Li Ch'eng were famous
among many others. Muh Ki was one of the greatest masters of the
ink sketch; Chap Tan Lin was famed for his tigers; Li Ti for his
flowers as for his landscapes; Mao I for still- life: to name a few
among a host.

The Mongol dynasty continues in art the Sung tradition.

Chao Meng-fu, the greatest master of his time, belongs to both

Yuen periods, and ranks with the highest names in Chinese

dynasty painting. A landscape by him, copied from Wang

(A. D. Wei, has been already mentioned as in the British

Museum, which also has two specimens of Yen Hui, a

painter less known in his own country than in Japan.

He painted especially figures of Taoist legend. The portrait by

Ch'ien Shun-chii (Plate I. fig. 5) is a fine example of purity of line

and lovely colour, reminding us of Greek art.

The simplicity of motive and directness of execution which
had been the strength of the Sung art gradually gave way during
flflag the Ming era to complicated conceptions and elaborate
dynasty effects. The high glow of life faded; the lyrical temper
(A, D. and impassioned work of the Sung time were replaced
*t644 ky l ve f ornament and elegance. In this respect

K.iu Ying is typicalof the period.with his richly coloured
scenes from court life (Plate I. fig. 6). None the less, there were
a number of painters who still upheld the grander style of earlier
ages. The greatest of these was Lin Liang (Plate I. fig. 7),
whose brush work, if somewhat coarser, is as powerful as that
of the Sung masters. But though individual painters of the
first rank preserved the Ming age from absolute decline, it cannot
be said that any new development of importance took place in a
vitalizing direction.

The present dynasty prolongs the history of Ming art. The
literary school of the South became more prominent, sending
out offshoots in Japan. There has been no movement rting
of national life to be reflected in art, though a great dynasty
body of admirable painting has been produced, down (front A. D.
to the present day. The four landscape masters I644)f
known as the " four Wangs," Yiin Shou-p'ing and Wu Li are

pre-eminent names.

SOURCES AND AUTHORITIES. While the designs on porcelain,
screens, &c., have long been admired in the West, the paintings of
which these are merely reproductions have been utterly ignored.
Ignorance has gained authority with time, till the very existence of
a great school of Chinese painting has been denied. Materials for
study are scanty. Fires, wars and the recent armed ravages of
Western civilization have left but little. The profound indifference
of the Chinese to European admira'tion has prevented their collec-
tions from being known. The Japanese, always enthusiastic students
and collectors of the continental art, claim (whether justly or not,
is hard to ascertain) that the finest specimens are now in their
country. Many of these are reproduced in the invaluable Tokyo
publications, the Kokka, Mr Tajima's Select Relics, &c., with Japanese
criticisms in English. Of actual paintings the British Museum
possesses a fair number, and the Louvre a few, of real importance.
Copies and forgeries abound.

See H. A. Giles, Introduction to the History of Chinese Pictorial Art
(1905); F. Hirth, Scraps from a Collector's Note-Book (1905), (supple-
ments Giles's work and especially valuable for the art of the Ch'ing
dynasty); S. W. Bushell, Chinese Art, vol. ii. (1906); K. Okakura,
Ideals of the East (1903); M. Paleologue, L'Art chinois (1887);
W. Anderson, Catalogue of Japanese and Chinese Paintings (1886) ;
Sei-ichi Taki, " Chinese Landscape Painting," The Kokka, Nos. 191,
&c. (1906) ; Chinesische Malereien aus der Sammlung Hirth (Cata-
logue of an exhibition held at Dresden) (1897); W. von Seidlitz,
article in Kunstchronik (1896-1897), No. 16.

2. Engraving. According to native historians, the art of
printing from wooden blocks was invented in China in the
6th century A.D., when it was employed for the publication of
texts. The earliest evidence we have for the existence of wood-
cuts made to reproduce pictures or drawings is a passage in a
work by Chang Yen-yuan, from which it appears that these
were not made before the beginning of the T'ang dynasty, under
which that author lived. The method employed was to cut the
design with a knife on the plank of the wood, in the manner
followed by European artists till the end of the' i8th century,
when engraving with a burin on boxwood ousted the older
process. The Japanese borrowed the art from China; and in
Japan a whole school of artists arose who worked specially for
the woodcutters and adapted their designs to the Limitations
of the material employed. In China the art has remained merely
reproductive, and its history is therefore of less interest. Print-
ing in colours was known to the Chinese in the 1 7th century,
and probably earlier. In the British Museum is a set of prints
brought from the East by Kaempfer in 1693, in which eight
colours and elaborate gaufrage are used. Some fine albums of
colour prints have been issued in China, but nothing equal in
beauty to the prints produced in Japan by the co-operation of
woodcutter and designer. Engraving on copper was introduced
to China by the Jesuits, and some well-known sets of prints
illustrating campaigns in Mongolia were made in the i8th
century. But the method has never proved congenial to the
artists of the Far East.

See Sir R. K. Douglas, Guide to the Chinese and Japanese Illustrated
Books (British Museum, 1887) ; W. Anderson, Japanese Wood En-
graving (1895).

3. Architecture. In architecture the Chinese genius has
found but limited and uncongenial expression. A nation of
painters has built picturesquely, but this picturesqueness has
fought against the attainment of the finest architectural qualities.
There has been Little development; the arch, for instance,
though known to the Chinese from very early times, has been
scarcely used as a principle of design, and the cupola has been
undiscovered or ignored; and though foreign architectural
ideas were introduced under the influence of the Buddhist and
Mahommedan religions, these were more or less assimilated
and subdued to the dominant Chinese design. Ruins scarcely
exist, and no building earlier than the nth century A.D. is known;
but we know from records that the forms of architecture still

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CHINA

215

prevalent imitate in essentials those of the 4th and sth centuries
B.C. and doubtless represent an immemorial tradition.

The grand characteristic of Chinese architecture is the pre-
eminent importance of the roof. The I 'ing is the commonest
model of building. Thereof is the main feature; in fact the t'ing
consists of this roof, massive and immense, with recurved edges,
and the numerous short columns on which the roof rests. The
columns are of wood, the straight stems of the nantnu being
specially used for this purpose. The walls are not supports,
but merely fill in, with stone or brickwork, the spaces between
the columns. The scheme of construction is thus curiously
like that of the modern American steel-framed building, though
the external form may be derived from the tent of primitive
nomads. The roof, being the preponderant feature, is that on
which the art of the architect has been concentrated. A double
or a triple roof may be devised; the ridges and eaves may be
decorated with dragons and other fantastic animals, and the
eaves underlaid with carved and lacquered woodwork; the roof
itself is often covered with glazed tiles of brilliant hue. In spite
of efforts, sometimes desperate, to give variety and individual
character by ornament and detail, the general impression is one
of poverty of design. " Chinese buildings are usually one-storeyed
and are developed horizontally as they are increased in size or
number. The principle which determines the plan of projection
is that of symmetry " (Bushell). All important buildings must
face the south, and this uniform orientation increases the
general architectural monotony produced by a preponderance
of horizontal lines.

A special characteristic of Chinese architecture is the pai-lou,
an archway erected only by special authority, usually to com-
memorate famous persons. The pai-lou is commonly made of
wood with a tiled roof, but sometimes is built entirely of stone, as
is the gateway at the avenue of the Ming tombs. A magnificent
example of the pai-lou is that on the avenue leading to Wo Fo
Ssii, the temple of the Sleeping Buddha, near Peking. This is
built of marble and glazed terra-cotta. The pai-lou, like the
Japanese torii, derives its origin from the toran of Indian stupas.
Lofty towers called tai, usually square and of stone, seem to
have been a common type of important building in early times.
They are described in old books as erected by the ancient kings
and used for various purposes. The towers of the Great Wall
are of the same character, and are made of stone, with arched
doors and windows. Stone, though plentiful in most provinces
of the empire, has been singularly little used by the Chinese,
who prefer wood or brick. M. Paleologue attributes this pre-
ference of light and destructible materials to the national
indifference of the Chinese to posterity and the future, their
enthusiasm being wholly devoted to their ancestors and the past.

Temples are designed on the general t'ing model. The Temple
of Heaven is the most imposing of the Confucian temples,
conspicuous with its covering of deep-blue tiles and its triple
roof. Near this is the great Altar of Heaven, consisting of three
circular terraces with marble balustrades. Buddhist temples
are built on the general plan of secular residences, and consist
of a series of rectangular courts with the principal building in
the centre, the lesser at the sides. Lama temples differ little
from these except in the interior decorations and symbolism.
Mahommedan mosques are far simpler and severer in internal
arrangement, but outwardly these also are in the Chinese style.

The pagoda (Chinese too), the type of Chinese architecture
most familiar to the West, probably owes its peculiar form to
Buddhist influence. In the pagoda alone may be found some
trace of a religious imagination such as in Europe made Gothic
architecture so full and splendid an expression of the aspiring
spirit. The most famous pagoda was the Porcelain Tower of
Nanking, destroyed by the T'aip'ing rebels in 1854. This was
covered with slabs of faience coated with coloured glazes. The
ordinary pagoda is built of brick on a stone foundation ; it is
octagonal with thirteen storeys.

No Chinese buildings show more beauty than some of the
graceful stone bridges for which the neighbourhood of Peking
has been famous for centuries.

See M. Paleologue, L'Art chinois (1887): S. W. Bushell, Chinese
Art, vol. i. (1004); J. Fergusson, History of Architecture; Professor
ChQta It6, articles in The Kokka, Nos. 197, 198. (L. B.)

4. Sculpture. Except in the casting and decoration of
bronze vessels the Chinese have not obtained distinction as
sculptors. They have practised sculpture in stone from an
early period, but the incised reliefs of the and century B.C., a
number of which are figured in Professor E. Chavannes's standard
work, 1 while they display a certain spirit, lack the true plastic
sense, and though the power of the Chinese draughtsmen in-
creased rapidly under the T'ang and Sung dynasties, their work
in stone showed no parallel progress. The feeling for solidity,
which in Japan was a natural growth, was always somewhat
exotic in China. With the impulse given to the arts by Buddhism
a school of sculpture arose. The pilgrim Fa Hsien records
sculpture of distinctive Chinese type in the sth century. But
Indian models dominated the art. Colossal Buddhas of stone
were typical of the T'ang era. Little, however, remains of these
earlier times, and such true sculpture in stone, wood or ivory
as we know dates from the I4th and succeeding centuries. The
well-known sculptures on the arch at Chu Yung Kuan (A.D. 1345)
are Hindu in style, though not without elements of breadth and
strength, which seem to promise a greater development than
actually took place. The colossal figures guarding the approach
to the Ming tombs (isth century) show that the national taste
rapidly became conventional and petrified so far as monumental
sculpture was concerned, though occasional examples of devotional
or portrait sculpture on a smaller scale in wood and ivory are
found, which in power, grace, sincerity and restraint can rank
with the work of more gifted nations. Such pieces, however,
are extremely rare, and at South Kensington the ivory " Kwanyin
and Child " (274. 1898) is a solitary example. As a rule the
Chinese sculptor valued his art in proportion to the technical
difficulties it conquered. He thus either preferred intractable
materials like jade or rock-crystal, or, if he wrought in wood, horn
or ivory, sought to make his work curious or intricate rather
than beautiful. There is, nevertheless, beauty of a kind in
Chinese bowls of jade, and there is dignity in some of the pieces
of rock-crystal, but the bulk of the carving done in wood, horn
and ivory does not deserve a moment's serious thought from
the aesthetic point of view. The few fine specimens may be
referred to the earlier part of the Ming dynasty when Chinese
art in general was sincere and simple. After the middle of the
i Sth century there set in the taste for profuse ornament which
injured all subsequent Chinese work, and wholly ruined Chinese
sculpture.

Bronzes. In Chinese bronzes we have a more consistent and
exceptional form of plastic art, which can be traced continuously
for some three thousand years. These bronzes take the form
of ritual or honorific vessels, and the archaic shapes used in the
service of the prehistoric religion of the country are repeated
and copied with slight changes in decoration or detail to the
present day.

The oldest extant specimens, chiefly derived from the sack
of the Summer Palace at Peking, may be referred to the Shang
and Chow dynasties (1766-255 B.C.). These ancient pieces have
a certain savage monumental grandeur of design, are usually
covered with a rich and thick patina of red, green and brown,
and are decorated with simple patterns scrolls, zigzag lines
and a form of what is known as the Greek key-pattern symbol-
izing respectively waves, mountains and storm clouds. The
animal forms used are those of the tao-tieh (glutton), a fabulous
monster (possibly a conventionalized tiger) representing the
powers of the earth, the serpent and the bull. These two last
in later pieces combine to form the dragon, representing the
power of the air. In the Chow dynasty libation vessels were
also made in the form of a deer, a ram or a rhinoceros. These
characteristics are shown in figures 9-17, Plate II. Fig. 9 is a
temple vessel of a shape still in use, but which must date from
before 1000 B.C. With this massive piece may be contrasted

1 La. Sculpture sur pierre en Chine au temps des deux dynasties Han
(Paris, 1893).

CHINA

[LANGUAGE

the flower-like wine vase shown in fig. 10, a favourite shape which
is the prototype of some of the most graceful forms of Chinese
porcelain and Japanese bronze. Its date is about 1000 B.C.
The large wine vase shown in fig. n is some 400 years later.
On the body appears the head of the tao-tieh, on the handles
are superbly modelled serpents. The technique, which in the
previous pieces was somewhat rude, has now become perfect,
yet the menacing majestic feeling remains. We see it no less
clearly in fig. 12, a marvellous vessel richly inlaid with gold and
silver and covered with an emerald-green patina. It may date
from about 500 B.C., and indicates that even in this remote
epoch the Chinese were not only daring and powerful artists
but also master-craftsmen in metal.

It is indeed at this period that the art reaches its climax. The
monumental grandeur of the Shang specimens is often allied
to clumsiness; the later work, if more elaborate, is always less
powerful. Nevertheless, it is to a later period that ninety-nine
out of a hundred Chinese bronzes must be referred, and the
great majority belong either to the Han and succeeding
dynasties (220 B.C.-A.D. 400), or to the Renaissance of the arts
which culminated under the Ming dynasty a thousand years later.

The characteristics of the first of these periods is the free use
of small solid figures of animals as decoration the phoenix, the
elephant, the frog, the ox, the tortoise, and occasionally men;
shapes grow less austere and less significant, as a comparison
between figures n and 13 will indicate; then towards the end
of the 2nd century A.D. the influence of Buddhism is felt in the
general tendency towards suavity of form (fig. 14). This vase
is most delicately though sparingly inlaid with silver and a few
touches of gold. Some small pieces, very richly and delicately
inlaid and covered with a magnificent emerald-green patina,
belonging to this period, form a connecting link between the
inlaid work of the Chow dynasty and that of the Sung and Ming
dynasties. The mirrors with Graeco-Bactrian designs, a con-
clusive proof of the external influences brought to bear upon
Chinese art, are also attributed to the Han epoch.

The troubled period between A.D. 400 and A.D. 960, in spite of the
interval of activity under the T'ang dynasty, produced, it would
seem, but few bronzes, and those few were of no distinct or note-
worthy style. Under the Sung dynasty the arts revived, and to this
time some of the most splendid specimens of inlaid work belong
pieces of workmanship and taste no less perfect than that of the
Japanese, in which the gold and silver of the earlier work are occa-
sionally reinforced with malachite and lapis-lazuli. The coming of
Kublai Khan and the Yuen dynasty (1280-1367) once more brought
the East into contact with the West, and to this time we may assign
certain fine pieces of Persian form such as pilgrim bottles. The
vessels bearing Arabic inscriptions belong to the Ming dynasty
(1368-1644), with which the modern history of Chinese art begins.

The work done while the Ming dynasty was still young provides the
student of Chinese art with many problems, and in one or two cases
even the South Kensington authorities assign topre-Christian times
pieces that are clearly of Ming workmanship. The tendency of the
period was eclectic and archaistic. The products of earlier days were
reproduced with perfect technical command of materials, and with
admirable taste; it is indeed by an excess of these qualities that
archaistic Ming work may be distinguished from the true archaic.
In fig. 15 we see how the Ming bronze worker took an earlier Budd-
histic form of vase and gave it a new grace that amounted almost to
artifice. A parallel might be found among the products of the so-
called art nouveau of to-day, in which old designs are revived with
just "that added suavity or profusion of curvature that robs them of
character. Fig. 16 again might be mistaken almost for a piece of
the Chow dynasty, were not the grandeur of its form modified by just
so much harmony in the curvature of thebodyand neck, and by just
so much finish in the details as to rob the design of the old majestic
vigour and to mark it as the splendid effort of an age of culture, and
not the natural product of a period of strength.

It is, however, in the inlaid pieces that the difference tells most
clearly. Here we find the monstrous forms of the Shang and Chow
dynasties revived by men who appreciated their spirit but could not
help making the revival an excuse for the display of their own
superior skill. The monstrous vases and incense-burners of the past
thus appear once more, but are now decorated with a delicate em-
broidery of inlay, are polished and finished to perfection, but lose
therewith just the rudeness of edge and outline which made the older
work so gravely significant. At times even some grandly planned
vessel will appear with such a festoon of pretty tracery wreathed
about it that the incongruity is little short of ridiculous, and we
recognize we have passed the turning-point to decline.

Decline indeed came rapidly, and to the latter part of the Ming

epoch we must assign those countless bronzes where dragons and
flowers and the stock symbols of happiness, good luck and longevity
sprawl together in interminable convolutions. When once we reach
this stage of contortion, of elaborate pierced and relief work, we come
to the place in history of Chinese bronzes where serious study may
cease, except in so far as the study of the symbols themselves throws
light upon the history of Chinese procelain (see CERAMICS). One
class of bronze alone needs a word of notice, namely, the profusely
decorated pieces which have a Tibetan origin, and are obviously no
older than the end of the Ming period. Of these fig. 17 will serve as
a specimen, and a comparison with fig. 9 will show how the softer
rounded forms and jewelled festoons of Hindu-Greek taste enervated
the grand primitive force of the earlier age, and that neither the added
delicacy of texture and substance nor the vastly increased dexterity of
workmanship can compensate for the vanished majesty. (C. J. H.)

VII. THE CHINESE LANGUAGE

Colloquial. In treating of Chinese, it will be found convenient
to distinguish, broadly, the spoken from the written language
and to deal with each separately. This is a distinction which
would be out of place if we had to do with any European, or
indeed most Oriental languages. Writing, in its origin, is merely
a symbolic representation of speech. But in Chinese, as we shall
see, for reasons connected with the peculiar nature of the script,
the two soon began to move along independent and largely
divergent lines. This division, moreover, will enable us to
employ different methods of inquiry more suited to each. With
regard to the colloquial, it is hardly possible to do more than
consider it in the form or forms in which it exists at the present
day throughout the empire of China. Although Chinese, like
other living languages, must have undergone gradual changes
in the past, so little can be stated with certainty about these
changes that an accurate survey of its evolution is quite out of
the question. Obviously a different method is required when
we come to the written characters. The familiar line, " Litera
scripta manet, volat irrevocabile verbum," is truer perhaps of
Chinese than of any other tongue. We have hardly any clue as
to how Chinese was spoken or pronounced in any given district
2000 years ago, although there are written remains dating from
long before that time; and in order to gain an insight into the
structure of the characters now existing, it is necessary to trace
their origin and development.

Beginning with the colloquial, then, and taking a linguistic
survey of China, we find not one spoken language but a number
of dialects, all clearly of a common stock, yet differing
from one another as widely as the various Romance dialects
languages in southern Europe say, French, Italian
and Spanish. Most of these dialects are found fringing the
coast-line of China, and penetrating but a comparatively short
way into the interior. Starting from the province of Kwangtung
in the south, where the Cantonese and farther inland the Hakka
dialects are spoken, and proceeding northwards, we pass in suc-
cession the following dialects: Swatow, Amoy these two may
almost be regarded as one Foochow, Wenchow and Ningpo.
Farther north we come into the range of the great dialect
popularly known as Mandarin (Kttanhua or" official language "),
which sweeps round behind the narrow strip of coast occupied
by the various dialects above-mentioned, and dominates a
hinterland constituting nearly four-fifths of China proper.
Mandarin, of which the dialect of Peking, the capital since 1421,
is now the standard form, comprises a considerable number of
sub-dialects, some of them so closely allied that the speakers of
one are wholly intelligible to the speakers of another, while
others (e.g. the vernaculars of Yangchow, Hankow or Mid-China
and Ssu-ch'uan) may almost be considered as separate dialects.
Among all these, Cantonese is supposed to approximate most
nearly to the primitive language of antiquity, whereas Pekingese
perhaps has receded farthest from it. But although philologically
and historically speaking Cantonese and certain other dialects
may be of greater interest, for all practical purposes Mandarin,
in the widest sense of the term, is by far the most important.
Not only can it claim to be the native speech of the majority of
Chinamen, but it is the recognized vehicle of oral communication
between all Chinese officials, even in cases where they come from
the same part of the country and speak the same patois. For

LANGUAGE]

CHINA

these reasons, all examples of phraseology in this article will be
given in Pekingese.

So far, stress has been laid chiefly on the dissimilarity of the
dialects. On the other hand, it must be remembered that they
proceed from the same parent stem, are spoken by members of
the same race, and are united by the bond of writing which is the
common possession of all, and cannot be regarded as derived
from one more than from another. They also share alike in the
two most salient features of Chinese as a whole: (i) they are all
monosyllabic, that is, each individual word consists of only
one syllable; and (2) they are strikingly poor in vocables, or
separate sounds for the conveyance of speech. The number of
these vocables varies from between 800 and 90x3 in Cantonese to
no more than 420 in the vernacular of Peking. This scanty
number, however, is eked out by interposing an aspirate between
certain initial consonants and the vowel, so that for instance p'u
is distinguished from pu. The latter is pronounced with little
or no emission of breath, the " p " approximating the farther
north one goes (e.g. at Niuchwang) more closely to a " b."
The aspirated p'u is pronounced more like our interjection
" Pooh!" To the Chinese ear, the difference between the two
is very marked. It will be found, as a rule, that an Englishman
imparts a slight aspirate to his p ? s, t's, k's and ch's, and therefore
has greater difficulty with the unaspirated words in Chinese.
The aspirates are better learned by the ear than by the eye,
but in one way or another it is essential that they be mastered
by any one who wishes to make himself intelligible to the native.

The influence of the Mongolian population, assisted by the
progress of time, has slowly but surely diminished the number
of vocables in Pekingese. Thus the initials Is and k, when fol-
lowed by the vowel i ( with its continental value) have gradually
become softer and more assimilated to each other, and are now
all pronounced ch. Again, all consonantal endings in t and k,
such as survive in Cantonese and other dialects, have entirely
disappeared from Pekingese, and n and ng are the only final
consonants remaining. Vowel sounds, on the other hand, have
been proportionately developed, such compounds as ao, ia, iao,
iu, ie, ua occurring with especial frequency. (It must be under-
stood, of course, that the above are only equivalents, not in all
cases very exact, for the sounds of a non-alphabetic language.)

An immediate consequence of this paucity of vocables fs that
one and the same sound has to do duty for different words.
Reckoning the number of words that an educated man would
want to use in conversation at something over four thousand,
it is obvious that there will be an average of ten meanings to
each sound employed. Some sounds may have fewer meanings
attached to them, but others will have many more. Thus the
following represent only a fraction of the total number of words
pronounced shih (something like the " shi " in shirt) : { " his-
tory," $f " to employ," j^ " a corpse/' fly " a market," fjjjj " an
army/' $$ " a lion," f$ " to rely on," f " to wait on," g
" poetry," B " time," ifc " to know," $ " to bestow," ^ " to
be," ff " solid," &. "to lose," ^ "to proclaim," |g "to look
at," -f- " ten," ^ " to pick up," fi " stone," -JJj; " generation,"
^ "to eat," 1g "a house," % "a clan/' jfe "beginning," p
"to let go," j "to test," ^ "affair," ^," power," - "officer,"
*J " to swear," jg " to pass away," jg " to happen." It would
be manifestly impossible to speak without ambiguity, or indeed
to make oneself intelligible at all, unless there were some means
of supplementing this deficiency of sounds. As a matter of fact,
several devices are employed through the combination of which
confusion is avoided. One of these devices is the coupling of
words in pairs in order to express a single idea. There is a word
If ko which means " elder brother." But in speaking, the sound
ko alone would not always be easily understood in this sense.
One must either reduplicate it and say ko-ko, or prefix ^C (ta,
" great ") and say la-ko. Simple reduplication is mostly con-
fined to family appellations and such adverbial phrases as -g ^
man-man, " slowly." But there is a much larger class of pairs,
in which each of the two components has the same meaning.

2I 7

Examples are : jgj fa k'ung-p'a, " to be afraid," ffi kao-
su, " to tell," } fc shu-mu, " tree," Jg />'-/, " skin,"
$5 S maw -y' w g/' full /'> i*-/M," solitary." Sometimes the
two parts are not exactly synonymous, but together make up
the sense required. Thus in ^ <j i-shang, " clothes," denotes
more particularly clothes worn on the upper part of the body,
and shang those on the lower part, JJ, Qfeng-huang is the name
of a fabulous bird, feng being the male, and Huang the female.
In another very large class of expressions, the first word serves
to limit and determine the special meaning of the second: JJJ ^
"milk-skin," "cream"; fc J| "fire-leg," "ham"; $ fg
" lamp-cage," " lantern " ; jg jig " sea-waist," " strait." There
are, besides, a number of phrases which are harder to classify.
Thus, ffi hu means " tiger." But in any case where ambiguity
might arise, lao-hu, " old tiger," is used instead of the mono-
syllable. $ (another hu) is " fox," and 3g li, an animal belong-
ing to the smaller cat tribe. Together, hu-li, they form the usual
term for fox. jj ^ chih too is literally "to know the way,"
but has come to be used simply for the verb " to know." These
pairs or two-word phrases are of such frequent occurrence,
that the Chinese spoken language might almost be described as
bi-syllabic. Something similar is seen in the extensive use of
suffixes or enclitics, attached to many of the commonest nouns.
-fc nil is the word for "girl," but in speech -fc ^f- nii-tzu or -r fa
nu-'rh is the form used. -~p and fa both mean child, and must
originally have been diminutives. A fairly close parallel is
afforded by the German suffix chen, as in Madchen. The suffix
fa, it may be remarked, belongs especially to the Peking ver-
nacular. Then, the use of so-called numeratives will often
give some sort of clue as to the class of objects in which a sub-
stantive may be found. When in pidgin English we speak of
" one piecee man " or " three piecee dollar," the word piecee is
simply a Chinese numerative in English dress. Even in ordinary
English, people do not say " four cattle " but " four head of
cattle." But in Chinese the use of numeratives is quite a dis-
tinctive feature of the language. The commonest of them, fl]| ko,

can be used indifferently in connexion with almost any class of
things, animal, vegetable or mineral. But there are other
numeratives at least 20 or 30 in everyday use which are
strictly reserved for limited classes of things with specific attri-
butes. % met, for instance, is the numerative of circular
objects such as coins and rings ; f^ Ko of small globular objects
pearls, grains of rice, &c. ; fj k'ou classifies things which have
a mouth bags, boxes and so forth ; jzj: Men is used of all kinds
of affairs ; chang of chairs and sheets of paper ; ^ chih
(literally half a pair) is the numerative for various animals,
parts of the body, articles of clothing and ships ; ft; pa for things
which are grasped by a handle, such as fans and knives.

This by no means exhausts the list of devices by which the
difficulties of a monosyllabic language are successfully overcome.
Mention need only be made, however, of the system of " tones,"
which, as the most curious and important of all, has been kept
for the last.

The tones may be defined as regular modulations of the voice
by means of which different inflections can be imparted to the

same sound. They may be compared with the half- _

, j . .. .. , Thttoaes.

involuntary modulations which express emotional

feeling in our words. To the foreign ear, a Chinese sentence
spoken slowly with the tones clearly brought out has a certain
sing-song effect. If we speak of the tones as a " device "
adopted in order to increase the number of vocables, this must
be understood rather as a convenient way of explaining their
practical function than as a scientific account of their origin.
It is absurd to suppose the tones were deliberately invented in
order to fit each written character with a separate sound. A
tone may be said to be as much an integral part of the word to
which it belongs as the sound itself; like the sound, too, it is not
fixed once and for all, but is in a constant, though very gradual,
state of evolution. This fact is proved by the great differences of

218

CHINA

[LANGUAGE

intonation in the dialects. Theoretically, four tones have been
distinguished the even, the rising, the sinking and the entering
each of which falls again into an upper and a lower series. But
only the Cantonese dialect possesses all these eight varieties of
tone (to which a ninth has been added), while Pekingese, with
which we are especially concerned here, has no more than four:
the even upper, the even lower, the rising and the sinking. The
history of the tones has yet to be written, but it appears that
down to the 3rd century B.C. the only tones distinguished

were the 3* "even," Jl "rising" and A "entering." Between
that date and the 4th century A.D. the =% sinking tone was
developed. In the nth century the even tone was divided into
upper and lower, and a little later the entering tone finally dis-
appeared from Pekingese. The following monosyllabic dialogue
gives a very fair idea of the quality of the four Pekingese tones
ist tone: Dead (spoken in a raised monotone, with slightly
plaintive inflection); 2nd tone: Dead? (simple query); yd
tone: Dead? (an incredulous query long drawn out); 4th tone:
Dead! (a sharp and decisive answer). The native learns the
tones unconsciously and by ear alone. For centuries their exist-
ence was unsuspected, the first systematic classification of them
being associated with the name of Shen Yo, a scholar who
lived A.D. 441-513. The Emperor Wu Ti was inclined to be
sceptical, and one day said to him: " Come, tell me, what are
these famous four tones?" " They are 1%. -$ i8? ^ whatever
your Majesty pleases to make them," replied Shen Yo, skilfully
selecting for his answer four words which illustrated, and in the
usual order, the four tones in question. Although no native is
ever taught the tones separately, they are none the less present
in the words he utters, and must be acquired consciously or
unconsciously by any European who wishes to be understood.
It is a mistake, however, to imagine that every single word in
a sentence must necessarily be given its full tonic force. Quite
a number of words, such as the enclitics mentioned above, are
not intonated at all. In others the degree of emphasis depends
partly on the tone itself, partly on its position in the sentence.
In Pekingese the 3rd tone (which is really the second in the
ordinary series, the ist being subdivided into upper and lower)
is particularly important, and next to it in this respect comes
the 2nd (that is, the lower even, or 2nd division of the ist).
It may be said, roughly, that any speaker whose second and third
tones are correct will at any rate be understood, even if the ist
and 4th are slurred over.

It is chiefly, however, on its marvellous script and the rich
treasures of its literature that the Chinese language depends for

its unique fascination and charm. If we take a page
characters. f printed Chinese or carefully written manuscript

and compare it with a page, say, of Arabic or Sanskrit,
the Chinese is seen at once to possess a marked characteristic
of its own. It consists of a number of wholly independent units,
each of which would fit into a small square, and is called a
character. These characters are arranged in columns, beginning
on the right-hand side of the page and running from top to
bottom. They are words, inasmuch as they stand for articulate
sounds expressing root-ideas, but they are unlike our words in
that they are not composed of alphabetical elements or letters.
Clearly, if each character were a distinct and arbitrarily con-
structed symbol, only those gifted with exceptional powers of
memory could ever hope to read or write with fluency. This,
however, is far from being the case. If we go to work synthetic-
ally and first see how the language is built up, it will soon appear
that most Chinese characters are susceptible of some kind of
analysis. We may accept as substantially true the account
of native writers who tell us that means of communication other
than oral began with the use of knotted cords, similar to the
quippus of ancient Mexico and Peru, and that these were dis-
placed later on by the practice of notching or scoring rude marks
on wood, bamboo and stone. It is beyond question that the
first four numerals, as written with simple horizontal strokes,
date from this early period. Notching, however, carries us but
a little way on the road to a system of writing, which in China,

as elsewhere, must have sprung originally from pictures.
In Chinese writing, especially, the indications of such an origin
are unmistakable, a few characters, indeed, even in
their present form, being perfectly recognizable as pic-
tures of objects pure and simple. Thus, for " sun " the
ancient Chinese drew a circle with a dot in it : Q, now modified
into H ; for "moon" J^, now >f ; for "God" they drew the
anthropomorphic figure %, which in its modern form appears
as ^ ; for " mountains " ftj^, now tfj ; f or child " &; now ^ ;
for " fish " Q, now fa ; for " mouth " a round hole, now p ;
for "hand" ^, now ^ ; for "well" :Q, now written without the
dot. Hence we see that while the origin of all writing is picto-
graphic, in Chinese alone of living languages certain pictures
have survived, and still denote what they had denoted in the
beginning. In the script of other countries they were gradually
transformed into hieroglyphic symbols, after which they either
disappeared altogether or became further conventionalized into
the letters of an alphabet. These picture-characters, then,
accumulated little by little, until they comprised all the common
objects which could be easily and rapidly delineated sun, moon,
stars, various animals, certain parts of the body, tree, grass
and so forth, to the number of two or three hundred. The next
step was to a few compound pictograms which would naturally
suggest themselves to primitive man : | the sun just above the
horizon = " dawn " ; jjjj; trees side by side = " a forest " ; =g- a
mouth with something solid coming out of it= " the tongue ";
6 a mouth with vapor or breath coming out of it= " words."
But a purely pictographic script has its limitations. The more
complex natural objects hardly come within its scope; still less
the whole body of abstract ideas. While writing was
still in its infancy, it must have occurred to the Chinese ovtfcam*
to join together two or more pictorial characters in pounds.
order that their association might suggest to the mind
some third thing or idea. " Sun " and " moon " combined in
this way make the character $J, which means " bright "; woman
and child make p " good "; " fields " and " strength " (that
is, labour in the fields) produce the character j "male";
two " men " on " earth " ^ signifies " to sit "before chairs
were known; the "sun" seen through "trees" 5|t designates
the east; %. has been explained as (i) a " pig " under a " roof,' 1
the Chinese idea, common to the Irish peasant, of home, and
also (2) as " several persons " under " a roof," in the same
sense ; a " woman " under a " roof " makes the character T
" peace " ; " words " and " tongue " |j naturally suggest
" speech " ; two hands (^, in the old formgj) indicate friend-
ship ; " woman " and " birth " j =" born of a woman," means

"clan-name," showing that the ancient Chinese traced through
the mother and not through the father. Interesting and in-
genious as many of these combinations are, it is clear that their
number, too, must in any practical system of writing be severely
limited. Hence it is not surprising that this class of characters,
correctly called ideograms, as representing ideas and not objects,
should be a comparatively small one. Up to this point there
seemed to be but little chance of the written language reaching
a free field for expansion. It had run so far on lines sharply
distinct from those of ordinary speech. There was nothing in
the character per se which gave the slightest clue to the sound of
the word it represented. Each character, therefore, had to be
learned and recognized by a separate effort of memory. The
first step in a new, and, as it ultimately proved,
the right direction, was the borrowing of a char-
acter already in use to represent another word
identical in sound, though different in meaning. Owing to the
scarcity of vocables noted above, there might be as many as
ten different words in common use, each pronounced fang.
Out of those ten only one, we will suppose, had a character
assigned to it namely ^ " square " (originally said to be a

LANGUAGE]

CHINA

219

picture of two boats joined together). But among the other nine
was/ang, meaning " street " or " locality," in such common use
that it became necessary to have some means of writing it.
Instead of inventing an altogether new character, as they might
have done, the Chinese took ~}j " square " and used it also in
the sense of " locality." This was a simple expedient, no doubt,
but one that, applied on a large scale, could not but lead to
confusion. The corresponding difficulty which presented itself
in speech was overcome, as we saw, by many devices, one of
which consisted in prefixing to the word in question another
which served to determine its special meaning. A native does
not say fang simply when he wishes to speak of a place, but
li-fang " earth-place." Exactly the same device was now
adopted in writing the character. To fang " square " was added
another part meaning " earth," in order to show that the fang
in question had to do with location on the earth's surface. The
whole character thus appeared as 5fa. Once this phonetic prin-
ciple had been introduced, all was smooth sailing, and writing
progressed by leaps and bounds. Nothing was easier now
than to provide signs for the other words pronounced fang.
" A room " was ffi dooT-fang; " to spin " was &fj silk-/ong;
" fragrant " was 3? herbs-/ag; " to inquire " was jj words-
fang; " an embankment," and hence " to guard against," was
K? mound-/ag; " to hinder " was J& woman-/og. This last
example may seem a little strange until we remember that man
must have played the principal part in the development of
writing, and that from the masculine point of view there is some-
thing essentially obstructive and unmanageable in woman's
nature. It may be remarked, by the way, that the element
" woman " is often the determinative in characters that stand
for unamiable qualities, e.g. $P " jealous," $f " treacherous,"^
" false " and # " uncanny." This class of characters, which
constitutes at least nine-tenths of the language, has received the
convenient name of phonogramf. It must be added that the
formation of the phonogram or phonetic compound did not
always proceed along such simple lines as in the examples given
above, where both parts are pictorial characters, one. the
" phonetic," representing the sound, and the other, commonly
known as the " radical," giving a clue to the sense. In the first
place, most of the phonetics now existing are not simple picto-
grams, but themselves more or less complex characters made up
in a variety of ways. On analysing, for instance, the word 2i
hsun, " to withdraw," we find it is composed of the phonetic
combined with the radical i_, an abbreviated form of 4^ " to
walk." But %$ sun means " grandson," and is itself a suggestive
compound made up of the two characters -f " a son " and Jk
" connect." The former character is a simple pictogram, but
the latter is again resolvable into the two elements ./ " a down
stroke to the left " and jfo " a strand of silk," which is here
understood to be the radical and appears in its ancient form as
ff5, a picture of cocoons spun by the silkworm. Again, the
sound is in most cases given by no means exactly by the so-called
phonetic, a fact chiefly due to the pronunciation having under-
gone changes which the written character was incapable of record-
ing. Thus, we have just seen that the phonetic of 'M is not hsun
but sun. There are extreme cases in which a phonetic provides
hardly any clue at all as to the sound of its derivatives. The
character fa, for example, which by itself is pronounced clt'ien,
appears in combination as the modern phonetic of JA k'an,
Iffcjuan, ffiyin and Vfc. ch'ui; though in the last instance it was
not originally the phonetic but the radical of a character which
was analysed as fa Mien, " to emit breath " from d " the
mouth," the whole character being a suggestive compound
rather than an illustration of radical and phonetic combined.
In general, however, it may be said that the " final " or rhyme
is pretty accurately indicated, while in not a few cases the pho-
netic does give the exact sound for all its derivatives. Thus, the
characters in which the element jjjf enters are pronounced Men,
cliien, hsien and lien; but ^ and its derivatives are all i. A

considerable number of phonetics are nearly or entirely obsolete
as separate characters, although their family of derivatives may
be a very large one. EX, for instance, is never seen by itself, yet
2, 9R, and y^ are among the most important characters in the
language. Objections have been raised in some quarters to
this account of the phonetic development of Chinese. It is
argued that the primitives and sub-primitives, whereby is meant
any character which is capable of entering into combination
with another, have really had some influence on the meaning,
and do not merely possess a phonetic value. But insufficient
evidence has hitherto been advanced in support of this view.

The whole body of Chinese characters, then, may conveniently
be divided up, for philological purposes, into pictograms, ideo-
grams and phonograms. The first are pictures of objects, the
second are composite symbols standing for abstract ideas, the
third are compound characters of which the more important
element simply represents a spoken sound. Of course, in a strict
sense, even the first two classes do not directly represent either
objects or ideas, but rather stand for sounds by which these
objects and ideas have previously been expressed. It may, in
fact, be said that Chinese characters are " nothing but a number
of more or less ingenious devices for suggesting spoken words to
a reader." This definition exposes the inaccuracy of the popular
notion that Chinese is a language of ideographs, a mistake which
even the compilers of the Oxford English Dictionary have not
avoided. Considering that all the earliest characters are pictorial,
and that the vast majority of the remainder are constructed on
phonetic principles, it is absurd to speak of Chinese characters as
" symbolizing the idea of a thing, without expressing the name
of it."

The Chinese themselves have always been diligent students of
their written language, and at a very early date (probably many
centuries B.C.) evolved a sixfold classification of char-
acters, the so-called /^J liu shu, very inaccurately script*."
translated by the Six Scripts, which may be briefly
noticed:

i- $f 2fJ chih shih, indicative or self-explanatory characters.
This is a very small class, including only the simplest numerals
and a few others such as K " above " and "f " below."

2. 'ifc. 7& hsiang hsing, pictographic characters.

3. T& hsing shtng or fa 3$ hsieh sheng. phonetic com-
pounds.

4- "it 3 hui i, suggestive compounds based on a natural
association of ideas. To this class alone can the term "ideo-
graphs " be properly applied.

5- $$ chuan chu. The meaning of this name has been much
disputed, some saying that it means " turned round "; e.g.
<33> mu " eye " is now written Q. Others understand it as com-
prising a few groups of characters nearly related in sense, each
character consisting of an element common to the group, together
with a specific and detachable part; e.g. 3, :% , and ^, all of
which have the meaning " old." This class may be ignored
altogether, seeing that it is concerned not with the origin of
characters but only with peculiarities in their use.

6. *Hx. fef chia chieh, borrowed characters, as explained above,
that is, characters adopted for different words simply because
of the identity of sound.

The order of this native classification is not to be taken as in
any sense chronological. Roughly, it may be said that the
development of writing followed the course previously traced
that is, beginning with indicative, signs, and going on with
pictograms and ideograms, until finally the discovery of the
phonetic principle did away with all necessity for other devices
in enlarging the written language. But we have no direct
evidence that this was so. There can be little doubt that phonetic
compounds made their appearance at a very early date, probably
prior to the invention of a large number of suggestive compounds,
and perhaps even before the whole existing stock of pictograms
had been fashioned. It is significant that numerous words of
daily occurrence, which must have had a place in the earliest

220

CHINA

[LANGUAGE

Styles Of
writing.

stages of human thought, are expressed by phonetic characters
We can be fairly certain, at any rate, that the period o
" borrowed characters " did not last very long, though it i
thought that traces of it are to be seen in the habit of writinj
several characters, especially those for certain plants anc
animals, indifferently with or without their radicals. Thu
$$ M 1 " a tadpole " is frequently written ffl ^, without th
part meaning "insect" or "reptile."

In the very earliest inscriptions that have come down to us, ih
so-called^ ^ &tt-o'<?nor"ancientfigures,"alltheabove-mentione(
forms occur. None are wholly pictorial, with one or two
unimportant exceptions. These early inscriptions are
found on bronzes dating from the half-legendary perioc
extending from the beginning of the Shang dynasty in the i8th
century B.C., or possibly earlier, down to a point in the reign of King
Hsiian of the Chou dynasty, generally fixed at 827 B.C. They havt
been carefully reproduced and for the most part deciphered by pains
taking Chinese archaeologists, and form the subject of many volumin-
ous works. The following may be taken as a specimen, in which it
will be noticed that only the last character is unmistakably pictorial
This is read : t f j| Jfj{ "Shin made [this;
precious ting." These ancient bronzes, whicl
mainly take the shape of bells, cauldrons anc
sacrificial utensils, were until within the last
decade our sole source of information concerning
the origin and early history of Chinese writing.
But recently a large number of inscribed bone
fragments have been excavated in the north of
China, providing new and unexpected matter for investigation.
The inscriptions on these bones have already furnished a list of nearly
2500 separate characters, of which not more than about 600 have
been so far identified. They appear to be responses given by pro-
fessional soothsayers to private individuals who came to them
seeking the aid of divination in the affairs of their daily life. It is
difficult to fix their date with much exactitude. The script, though
less archaic than that of the earlier bronzes, is nevertheless of an
exceedingly free and irregular type. Judging by the style of the in-
scriptions alone, one would be inclined to assign them to the early
years of the Chou dynasty, say noo B.C. But Mr L. C. Hopkins
thinks that they represent a mode of writing already obsolete at the
time of their production, and retained of set purpose by the diviners
from obscurantist motives, much as the ancient hieroglyphics were
employed by the Egyptian priesthood. He would therefore date
them about 500 years later, or only half a century before the birth of
Confucius. If that is so, they are merely late specimens of the
" ancient figures " appearing long after the latter had made way for a
new and more conventionalized form of writing. This new writing
is called in Chinese 3& chuan, which is commonly rendered by the
word Seal, for the somewhat unscientific reason that many ages after-
wards it was generally adopted for use on seals. Under the Chou
dynasty, however, as well as the two succeeding it, the meaning of
the word was not " seal," but " sinuous curves," as made in writing.
It has accordingly been suggested that this epoch marks the first
introduction into China of the brush in place of the bamboo or
wooden pencil with frayed end which was used with some kind of
colouring matter or varnish. There are many arguments both for
and against this view; but it is unquestionable, at any rate, that the
introduction of a supple implement like the brush at the very time
when the forms of characters were fast becoming crystallized and
fixed, would be sufficient to account for a great revolution in the
style of writing. Authentic specimens of the ^ gj to chuan, older or
Greater Seal writing, are exceedingly rare. But it is generally
believed that the inscriptions on the famous stone drums, now at
Peking, date from the reign of King Hsiian, and they may therefore
with practical certainty be cited as examples of the Greater Seal
in its original form. These " drums " are really ten roughly chiselled
mountain boulders, which were discovered in the early part of the
7th century, lying half buried in the ground near Feng-hsiang Fu in
the province of Shensi. On them are engraved ten odes, a complete
ode being cut on each drum, celebrating an Imperial hunting and
fishing expedition in that part of the country. A facsimile of one of
these, taken from an old rubbing and reproduced in Dr Bushell's
Handbook of Chinese Art, shows that great strides had been made in
this writing towards symmetry, compactness and conventionalism.
The vogue of the Greater Seal appears to have lasted until the reign
of the First Emperor, 221-210 B.C. (see History), when a further
modification took place. For many centuries China had been split
up into a number of practically independent states, and this circum-
stance seems to have led to considerable variations in the styles of
writing. Having succeeded in unifying the empire, the First
Emperor proceeded, on the advice of his minister Li Ssu, to standard-
ize its script by ordaining that only the style in use in his own state of
Ch'm should henceforward be employed throughout China. It is
clear, then, that this new style of writing was nothing more than the
Greater Seal characters in the form they had assumed after several

centuries of evolution, with numerous abbreviations and modifica-
tions. It was afterwards known as the /h 3jt hsiao chuan, or Lesser
Seal, and is familiar to us from the Shuo Win dictionary (see Litera-
ture). Though a decided improvement on what had gone before, the
Lesser Seal was destined to have but a short career of undisputed
supremacy. Reform was in the air; and something less cumbrous
was soon felt to be necessary by the clerks who had to supply the
immense quantity of written reports demanded by the First Emperor
Thus it came about that a yet simpler and certainly more artistic
form of writing was already in use, though not universally so, not
long after the decree abolishing the Greater Seal. This M ^F It shu,
or " official script," as it is called, shows a great advance on the Seal
character; so much so that one cannot help suspecting the traditional
account of its invention. It is perhaps mere likely to have been
directly evolved from the Greater Seal. If the Lesser Seal was the
script of the semi-barbarous state of Ch'in, we should certainly expect
to find a more highly developed system of writing in some of the other
states. Unlike the Seal, the li shu is perfectly legible to one acquainted
only with the modern character, from which indeed it differs but in
minor details. How long the Lesser Seal continued to exist side by
side with the K shu is a question which cannot be answered with
certainty. It was evidently quite obsolete, however, at the time of
the compilation of the Shuo Wen, about a hundred years after the
Christian era. As for the Greater Seal and still earlier forms of
writing, they were not merely obsolete but had fallen into utter
oblivion before the Han Dynasty was fifty years old. When a
number of classical texts were discovered bricked up in old houses
about 150 B.C., the style of writing was consideied so singular by the
literati of the period that they refused to believe it was the ordinary
ancient character at all, and nicknamed- it k'o-t'ou shu, "tadpole
character," from some fancied resemblance in shape. The theory
that these tadpole characters were not Chinese but a species of cunei-
form script, in which the wedges might possibly suggest tadpoles,
must be dismissed as too wildly improbable for serious considera-
tion ; but we may advert for a moment to a famous inscription in
which the real tadpole characters of antiquity are said to appear.
This is on a stone tablet alleged to have been erected on Mount Heng
in the modern Hupeh by the legendary Emperor Yii, as a record of
his labours in draining away the great flood which submerged part of
China in the 2yd century B.C. After more than one fruitless search,
the actual monument is said to have been discovered on a peak of
the mountain in A.D. 1212, and a transcription was made, which may
be seen reproduced as a curiosity in Legge's Classics, vol. iii. For
several reasons, however, the whole affair must be regarded as a
gross imposture.

Out of the " official script " two other forms were soon developed,
namely the 3jL ^f ts'ao shu, or " grass character," which so curtails
the usual strokes as to be comparable to a species of shorthand,
requiring special study, and the fa ^ Using shu or running hand,
used in ordinary correspondence. Some form of grass character is
mentioned as in use as early as 200 B.C. or thereabouts, though how
nearly it approximated to the modern grass hand it is hard to say;
the running hand seems to have come several centuries later. The
Rnal standardization of Chinese writing was due to the great calli-
graphist Wang Hsi-chih of the 4th century, who gave currency to the
graceful style of character known as $| fl k'ai shu, sometimes
referred to as the " clerkly hand." When block-printing was invented
some centuries later, the characters were cut on this model, which still
survives at the present day. It is no doubt owing to the early intro-
duction of printing that the script of China has remained practically
unchanged ever since. The manuscript rolls of the T'ang and pre-
ceding dynasties, recently discovered by Dr Stein, in Turkestan,
f urnish direct evidence of this fact, showing as they do a style of writ-
ng not only clear and legible but remarkably modern in appearance.

The whole history of Chinese writing, then, is characterized by a
slow progressive development which precludes the idea of sharply-
marked divisions between one period and another. The Chinese
themselves, however, have canonized quite a series of alleged in-
ventors, starting from Fu Hsi, a mythical emperor of the third
millennium B.C., who is said to have developed a complete system
>f written characters from the markings on the back of a dragon-
lorse; hence, by the way, the origin of the dragon as an Imperial
emblem. As a rule, the credit of the invention of the art of writing is
liven to Ts'ang Chieh, a being with fabulous attributes, who con-
ceived the idea of a written language from the markings of birds'
-laws upon the sand. The diffusion of the Greater Seal script is
raced to a work in fifteen chapters published by Shih Chou, historio-
grapher in the reign of King Hsiian. The Lesser Seal, aga;n, is often
ascribed to Li Ssu himself, whereas the utmost he can have done in
he matter was to urge its introduction into common use. Likewise,
Ch'gng Mo, of the 3rd century B.C., is supposed to have invented
he li shu while in prison, and one account attributes the Lesser Seal
o him as well ; but the fact is that the whole history of writing, as
t stands in Chinese authors, is in hopeless confusion.

Grammar. When about to embark on the study of a foreign
anguage, the student's first thought is to provide himself with

LANGUAGE]

CHINA

221

two indispensable aids a dictionary and a grammar. The
Chinese have found no difficulty in producing the former (see
Literature). Now what as to the grammar? He might reason-
ably expect a people so industrious in the cultivation of their
language to have evolved some system of grammar which to
a certain degres would help to smooth his path. And yet the
contrary is the case. No set of rules governing the mutual
relations of words has ever been formulated by the Chinese,
apparently because the need of such rules has never been felt.
The most that native writers have done is to draw a distinction
between Jf ^p and ^1^ " full " and " empty words," respec-
tively, the former being subdivided into SS ^ " living words "
or verbs, and JB ^? " dead words " or noun-substantives. By
" empty words " particles are meant, though sometimes the
expression is loosely applied to abstract terms, including verbs.
The above meagre classification is their nearest approach to a
conception of grammar in our sense. This in itself does not
prove that a Chinese grammar is impossible, nor that, if con-
structed, it might not be helpful to the student. As a matter
of fact, several attempts have been made by foreigners to deduce
a grammatical system which should prove as rigid and binding
as those of Western languages, though it cannot be said that
any as yet has stood the test of time or criticism. Other writers
have gone to the other extreme, and maintained that Chinese
has no grammar at all. In this dictum, exaggerated as it sounds,
there is a very substantial amount of truth. Every Chinese
character is an indivisible unit, representing a sound and standing
for a root-idea. Being free from inflection or agglutination of
any kind, it is incapable of indicating in itself either gender,
number or case, voice, mood, tense or person. Of European
languages, English stands nearest to Chinese in this respect,
whence it follows that the construction of a hybrid jargon like
pidgin English presents fewer difficulties than would be the
case, for instance, with pidgin German. For pidgin English
simply consists in taking English words and treating them like
Chinese characters, that is, divesting them of all troublesome
inflections and reducing them to a set of root-ideas arranged in
logical sequence. " You wantchee my no wantchee " is nothing
more nor less than literally rendered Chinese : fij; fi& sfi 35

" Do you want me or not? " But we may go further,
and say that no Chinese character can be definitely regarded
as being any particular part of speech or possessing any particular
function absolutely, apart from the general tenor of its context.
Thus, taken singly, the character _fc, conveys only the general

idea "above" as opposed to "below." According to its place
in the sentence and the requirements of common sense, it may
be a noun meaning " upper person " (that is, a ruler) ; an
adjective meaning " upper," " topmost " or " best "; an
adverb meaning "above"; a preposition meaning "upon";
and finally a verb meaning " to mount upon," or " to go'to."
X is a character that may usually be translated " to enter "
as in ^ J 31 ! " to enter a door " ; yet in the locution ^ jfc
" enter wood," the verb becomes causative, and the meaning
is " to put into a coffin." It would puzzle grammarians to deter-
mine the precise grammatical function of any of the words in
the following sentence, with the exception of {Sf (an interroga-
tive, by the way, which here happens to mean " why " but in
other contexts is equivalent to "how," "which" or "what"):
$ M IJ& ifr " Affair why must ancient," or in more idiomatic
English, "Why necessarily stick to the ways of the ancients in such
matters?" Ortakeaproverbialsayinglike/J? Bf M ^ 0f M,
which may be correctly rendered " The less a man has seen,
the more he has to wonder at." It is one thing, however, to
translate it correctly, and another to explain how this translation
can be inferred from the individual words, of which the bald
equivalents might be given as: " Few what see, many what
strange." To say that " strange " is the literal equivalent of g
does not mean that j can be definitely classed as an adjective.
On the other hand, it would be dangerous even to assert that
the word here plays the part of an active verb, because it would

be equally permissible to translate the above " Many things
are strange to one who has seen but little."

Chinese grammar, then, so far as it deals with the classification of
separate words, may well be given up as a bad job. But there still
remains the art of syntax, the due arrangement of words to form
sentences according to certain established rules. Here, at any rate,
we are on somewhat firmer ground ; and for many years the dictum
that " the whole of Chinese grammar depends upon position " was
regarded as a golden key to the written language of China. It is
perfectly true that there are certain positions and collocations of
words which tend to recur, but when one sits down to formulate a
set of hard-and-fast rules governing these positions, it is soon found
to be a thankless task, for the number of qualifications and exceptions
which will have to be added is so great as to render the rule itself
valueless. ,B| __ means "on a horse," J^ Jl| "to get on a horse."
But it will not do to say that a preposition becomes a verb when
placed before the substantive, as many other prepositions come
before and not after the words they govern. If we meet such a
phrase as S jjg, literally " warn rebels," we must not mentally label
^ as a verb and ^ as a substantive, and say to ourselves that in
Chinese the verb is followed immediately by its object Otherwise,
we might be tempted to translate, " to warn the rebels," whereas a
little reflection would show us that the conjunction of "warning"
and " rebels " naturally leads to the meaning " to warn (the populace
or whoever it may be) against the rebels." After all our adventurous
incursions into the domain of syntax, we are soon brought back to
the starting-point and are obliged to confess that each particular
passage is best interpreted on its own merits, by the logic of the
context and the application of common sense. There is no reason
why Chinese sentences shoujd not be dissected, by those who take
pleasure in such operations, into subject, copula and predicate, but
it should be early impressed upon the beginner that the profit
likely to accrue to him therefrom is infinitesimal. As for fixed rules
of grammatical construction, so far from being a help, he will find
them a positive hindrance. It should rather be his- aim to free his
mind from such trammels, and to accustom himself to look upon
each character as a root-idea, not a definite part of speech.

The Book Language. Turning now to some of the more
salient characteristics of the book language, with the object of
explaining how it came to be so widely separated from common
speech, we might reasonably suppose that in primitive times the
two stood in much closer relation to each other than now. But
it is certainly a striking fact that the earliest literary remains of
any magnitude that have come down to us should exhibit a style
very far removed from any possible colloquial idiom. The
speeches of the Book of History (see Literature) are more mani-
festly fictitious, by many degrees, than the elaborate orations in
Thucydides and Livy. If we cannot believe that Socrates
actually spoke the words attributed to him in the dialogues of
Plato, much less can we expect to find the ipsissima verba of
Confucius in any of his recorded sayings. In the beginning, all
characters doubtless represented spoken words, but it must very
soon have dawned on the practical Chinese mind that there was
no need to reproduce in writing the bisyllabic compounds of
common speech. Chien " to see," in its written form H, . could
not possibly be confused with any other Men, and it was there-
fore unnecessary to go to the trouble of writing ^tf Jt< k'an-chien
" look-see," as in colloquial. There was a wonderful outburst
of literary activity in the Confucian era, when it would seem that
the older and more cumbrous form of Seal character was still in
vogue. If the mere manual labour of writing was so great, we
cannot wonder that all superfluous particles or other words that
could be dispensed with were ruthlessly cut away. So it came
about that all the old classical works were composed in the
tersest of language, as remote as can be imagined from the
speech of the people. The passion for brevity and conciseness
was pushed to an extreme, and resulted more often than not in
such obscurity that detailed commentaries on the classics were
found to be necessary, and have always constituted an important
branch of Chinese literature. After the introduction of the
improved style of script, and when the mechanical means of
writing had been simplified, it may be supposed that literary
diction also became freer and more expansive. This did happen
to some extent, but the classics were held in such veneration as
to exercise the profoundest influence over all succeeding schools
of writers, and the divorce between literature and pooular speech
became permanent and irreconcilable. The book language

222

CHINA

[LITERATURE

absorbed all the interest and energy of scholars, and it was
inevitable that this elevation of the written should be accom-
panied by a corresponding degradation of the spoken word.
This must largely account for the somewhat remarkable fact
that the art of oratory and public speaking has never been deemed
worthy of cultivation in China, while the comparatively low
position occupied by the drama may also be referred to the same
cause. At the same time, the term " book language," in its
widest sense, covers a multitude of styles, some of which differ
from each other nearly as much as from ordinary speech. The
department of fiction (see Literature), which the lettered China-
man affects to despise and will not readily admit within the
charmed circle of " literature," really constitutes a bridge
spanning the gulf between the severer classical style and the
colloquial; while an elegant terseness characterises the higher-
class novel, there are others in which the style is loose and
shambling. Still, it remains true that no book of any first-rate
literary pretensions would be easily intelligible to any class of
Chinamen, educated or otherwise, if read aloud exactly as printed.
The public reader of stories is obliged to translate, so to speak,
into the colloquial of his audience as he goes along. There is no
inherent reason why the conversation of everyday life should not
be rendered into characters, as is done in foreign handbooks for
teaching elementary Chinese; one can only say that the Chinese
do not think it worth while. There are a few words, indeed,
which, though common enough in the mouths of genteel and
vulgar alike, have positively no characters to represent them.
On the other hand, there is a vast store of purely book words
which would never be used or understood in conversation.

The book language is not only nice in its choice of words, it
also has to obey special rules of construction. Of these, perhaps
the most apparent is the carefully marked antithesis between
characters in different clauses of a sentence, which results in a
kind of parallelism or rhythmic balance. This parallelism is
a noticeable feature in ordinary poetical composition, and
may be well illustrated by the following four-line stanza:

" Q fJ {& ill 2si The bright sun completes its course behind
the mountains ; 35 M A. $$ $ The yellow river flows away
into the sea. ^ $ ^ J| g Would you command a pros-
pect of a thousand It ? !? _fc, ^ |H Climb yet one storey
higher." In the first line of this piece, every single character
is balanced by a corresponding one in the second : j white by
^ yellow, fj sun by JgJ river, and so on. In the 3rd and 4th
lines, where more laxity is generally allowed, every word again
has its counterpart, with the sole exception of :gjj " wish " and
g " further."

The question is often asked: What sort of instrument is
Chinese for the expression of thought? As a medium for the
conveyance of historical facts, subtle emotions or abstruse
philosophical conceptions, can it compare with the languages
of the Western world? The answers given to this question have
varied considerably. But it is noteworthy that those who most
depreciate the qualities of Chinese are, generally speaking,
theorists rather than persons possessing a profound first-hand
knowledge of the language itself. Such writers argue that want
of inflection in the characters must tend to make Chinese hard
and inelastic, and therefore incapable of bringing out the finer
shades of thought and emotion. Answering one a priori argu-
ment with another, one might fairly retort that, if anything,
flexibility is the precise quality to be predicated of a language
in which any character may, according to the requirements of the
context, be interpreted either as noun, verb or adjective. But
all such reasoning is somewhat futile. It will scarcely be con-
tended that German, being highly inflected, is therefore superior
in range and power to English, from which inflections have
largely disappeared. Some of the early Jesuit missionaries,
men of great natural ability who steeped themselves in Oriental
learning, have left very different opinions on record. Chinese
appeared to them as admirable for the superabundant richness
of its vocabulary as for the conciseness of its literary style.

And among modern scholars there is a decided tendency to accept
this view as embodying a great deal more truth than the other.

Another question, much debated years ago, which time itself
is now satisfactorily answering, was whether the Chinese language
would be able to assimilate the vast stock of new terminology
which closer contact with the West would necessarily carry with
it. Two possible courses, it seemed, were open: either fresh
characters would be formed on the radical-phonetic principle, or
the new idea might be expressed by the conjunction of two or
more characters already existing. The former expedient had
been tried on a limited scale in Japan, where in the course of
time new characters were formed on the same principle as of old,
which were yet purely Japanese and find no place in a Chinese
dictionary. But although the field for such additions was
boundless, the Chinese have all along been chary of extending
the language in this way, probably because these modern
terms had no Chinese sound which might have suggested some
particular phonetic. They have preferred to adopt the other
method, of which ^- P$ tH (rise-descend-machine) for " lift,"
and fil C HU f| (discuss -govern -country -assembly) for
" parliament " are examples. Even a metaphysical abstraction
like The Absolute has been tentatively expressed by fS 1$
(exclude-opposite); but in this case an equivalent was already
existing in the Chinese language.

A very drastic measure, strongly advocated in some quarters,
is the entire abolition of all characters, to be replaced by their
equivalent sounds in letters of the alphabet. Under this scheme
J^ would figure as jSn or ren, J^ as ma, and so on. But the pro-
posal has fallen extremely flat. The vocables, as we have seen,
are so few in number that only the colloquial, if even that, could
possibly be transcribed in this manner. Any attempt to trans-
literate classical Chinese would result in a mere jumble of sounds,
utterly unintelligible, even with the addition of tone-marks.
There is another aspect of the case. The characters are a potent
bond of union between the different parts of the Empire with
their various dialects. If they should ever fall into disuse,
China will have taken a first and most fatal step towards internal
disruption. Even the Japanese, whose language is not only free
from dialects, but polysyllabic and therefore more suitable for
romanization, have utterly refused to abandon the Chinese script,
which in spite of certain disadvantages has hitherto triumphantly
adapted itself to the needs of civilized intercourse.

See P. Premare, Notitiae Linguae Sinicae (1831); Ma Kien-chung,
Ma shih wen t'ung (1899) ; L. C. Hopkins, The Six Scripts (1881) and
The Development of Chinese Writing (1910); H. A. Giles, A Chinese-
English Dictionary (2nd ed., 1910). (H. A. Gl. ; L. Gl.)

VIII. CHINESE LITERATURE

The literature of China is remarkable (i) for its antiquity,
coupled with an unbroken continuity down to the present day;
(2) for the variety of subjects presented, and for the exhaustive
treatment which, not only each subject, but also each sub-
division, each separate item, has received, as well as for the
colossal scale on which so many literary monuments have been
conceived and carried out; (3) for the accuracy of its historical
statements, so far as it has been possible to test them; and
further (4) for its ennobling standards and lofty ideals, as well
as for its wholesome purity and an almost total absence of
coarseness and obscenity.

No history of Chinese literature in the Chinese language has
yet been produced; native scholars, however, have adopted,
for bibliographical purposes, a rough division into four great
classes. Under the first of these, we find the Confucian Canon,
together with lexicographical, philological, and other works
dealing with the elucidation of words. Under the second,
histories of various kinds, officially compiled, privately written,
constitutional, &c.; also biography, geography and bibliography.
Under the third, philosophy, religion, e.g. Buddhism; the arts
and sciences, e.g. war, law, agriculture, medicine, astronomy,
painting, music and archery; also a host of general works,
monographs, and treatises on a number of topics, as well as
encyclopaedias. The fourth class is confined to poetry of all

LITERATURE]

CHINA

223

descriptions, poetical critiques, and works dealing with the all-
important rhymes.

Poetry. Proceeding chronologically, without reference to
Chinese classification, we have to begin, as would naturally be
expected, with the last of the above four classes. Man's first
literary utterances in China, as elsewhere, took the form of
verse; and the earliest Chinese records in our possession are the
national lyrics, the songs and ballads, chiefly of the feudal age,
which reaches back to over a thousand years before Christ.
Some pieces are indeed attributed to the i8th century B.C.;
the latest bring us down to the 6th century B.C. Such is the
collection entitled Shih Ching (or She King), popularly known as
the Odes, which was brought together and edited by Confucius,
551-479 B.C., and is now included among the Sacred Books,
forming as it does an important portion of the Confucian Canon.
These Odes, once over three thousand in number, were reduced
by Confucius to three hundred and eleven; hence they are
frequently spoken of as " the Three Hundred." They treat of
war and love, of eating and drinking and dancing, of the virtues
and vices of rulers, and of the misery and happiness of the people.
They are in rhyme. Rhyme is essential to Chinese poetry;
there is no such thing as blank verse. Further, the rhymes of
the Odes have always been, and are still, the only recognized
rhymes which can be used by a Chinese poet, anything else
being regarded as mere jingle. Poetical licence, however, is
tolerated; and great masters have availed themselves freely
of its aid. One curious result of this is that whereas in many
instances two given words may have rhymed, as no doubt they
did, in the speech of three thousand years ago, they no longer
rhyme to the ear in the colloquial of to-day, although still
accepted as true and proper rhymes in the composition of verse.

It is noticeable at once that the Odes are mostly written in lines
of four words, examples of lines consisting of any length from a
single word to eight, though such do exist, being comparatively rare.
These lines of four words, generally recognized as the oldest measure
in Chinese poetry, are frequently grouped as quatrains, in which the
first, second and fourth lines rhyme; but very often only the second
and fourth lines rhyme, and sometimes there are groups of a larger
number of lines in which occasional lines are found without any rhyme
at all. A few stray pieces, as old as many of those found among the
Odes, have been handed down and preserved, in which the metre
consists of two lines of three words followed by one line of seven
words. These three lines all rhyme, but the rhyme changes with
each succeeding triplet. It would be difficult to persuade the English
reader that this is a very effective measure, and one in which many a
gloomy or pathetic tale has been told. In order to realise how a few
Chinese monosyllables in juxtaposition can stir the human heart to
its lowest depths, it is necessary to devote some years to the study of
the language.

At the close of the 4th century B.C., a dithyrambic measure,
irregular and wild, was introduced and enjoyed considerable vogue.
It has indeed been freely adopted by numerous poets from that early
date down to the present day; but since the 2nd century B.C. it
has been displaced from pre-eminence by the seven-word and five-
word measures which are now, after much refinement, the accepted
standards for Chinese poetry. The origin of the seven-word metre
is lost in remote antiquity; the five- word metre was elaborated under
the master-hand of Mei Shine, who died 140 B.C. Passing over seven
centuries of growth, we reach the T'ang dynasty, A.D. 618-905, the
most brilliant epoch in the history of Chinese poetry. These three
hundred years produced an extraordinarily large number of great
poets, and an output of verse of almost incredible extent. In 1707
an anthology of the T'ang poets was published by Imperial order;
it ran to nine hundred books or sections, and contained over forty-
eight thousand nine hundred separate poems. A copy of this work
is in the Chinese department of the University Library at Cambridge.

It was under the T'ang dynasty that a certain finality was reached
in regard to the strict application of the tones to Chinese verse.
For the purposes of poetry, all words in the language were ranged
under one or the other of two tones, the even and the oblique, the
former now including the two even tones, of which prior to the iith
century there was only one, and the latter including the rising,
sinking and entering tones of ordinary speech. The incidence of
these tones, which may be roughly described as sharps and flats,
finally became fixed, just as the incidence of certain feet in Latin
metres came to be governed by fixed rules. Thus, reading down-
ward from right to left, asjn Chinese, a_five-word_stanza may run:

Sharp
sharp
flat

flat
sharp

Flat

flat

sharp

sharp
flat

Flat

flat

o ,

sharp
sharp

Sharp
sharp
sharp

flat
flat

A seven-word stanza may run:

Flat
flat
sharp
sharp

flat
flat
sharp

Sharp
sharp
flat
flat

Flat
flat
sharp
sharp

flat
flat
sharp

sharp flat

sharp sharp

flat sharp r

The above are only two metres out ot many, but enough perhaps
to give to any one who will read them with a pause or quasi-caesura,
as marked by in each specimen, a fair idea of the rhythmic lilt of
Chinese poetry. To the trained car, the effect is most pleasing;
and when this scansion, so to speak, is united with rhyme and choice
diction, the result is a vehicle for verse, artificial no doubt, and
elaborate, but admirably adapted to the genius of the Chinese
language. Moreover, in the hands of the great poets this artificiality
disappears altogether. Each word seems to slip naturally into its
place ; and so far from having been introduced by violence for the
ends of prosody, it appears to be the very best word that could have
been chosen, even had there been no trammels of any kind, so effect-
ually is the art of the poet concealed by art. From the long string
of names which have shed lustre upon this glorious age of Chinese
poetry, it may suffice for the present purpose to mention the follow-
ing, all of the very first rank.

M6ng Hao-jan, A.D. 689-740, failed to succeed at the public
competitive examinations, and retired to the mountains where he
led the life of a recluse. Later on, he obtained an official post;
but he was of a timid disposition, and once when the emperor,
attracted by his fame, came to visit him, he hid himself under the
bed. His hiding-place was revealed by Wang Wei, a brother poet
who was present. The latter, A.D. 699-759, ln addition to being a
first-rank poet, was also a landscape-painter of great distinction.
He was further a firm believer in Buddhism ; and after losing his
wife and mother, he turned his mountain home into a Buddhist
monastery. Of all poets, not one has made his name more widely
known than Li Po, or Li T'ai-po, A.D. 705762, popularly known
as the Banished Angel, so heavenly were the poems he dashed off,
always under the influence of wine. He is said to have met his
death, after a tipsy frolic, by leaning out of a boat to embrace the
reflection of the moon. Tu Fu, A.D. 712-770, is generally ranked
with Li Po, the two being jointly spoken of as the chief poets of their
age. The former had indeed such a high opinion of his own poetry
that he prescribed it for malarial fever. He led a chequered and
wandering life, and died from the effects of eating roast beef and
drinking white wine to excess, immediately after a long fast. Po
Chu-i, A.D. 772-846, was a very prolific rx>et. He held several high
official posts, but found time for a considerable output of some of
the finest poetry in the language. His poems were collected by
Imperial command, and engraved upon tablets of stone. In one
of them he anticipates by eight centuries the famous ode by
Malherbe, A Du Perrier, sur la mart de sa fille.

The T'ang dynasty with all its glories had not long passed away
before another imperial house arose, under which poetry flourished
again in full vigour. The poetsof the Sung dynasty, A.D. 960-1260,
were many and varied in style; but their work, much of it of the
very highest order, was becoming perhaps a trifle more formal and
precise. Life seemed to be taken more seriously than under the gay
and pleasure-loving T'angs. The long list of Sung poets includes
such names as Ssu-ma Kuang, Ou-yang Hsiu and Wang An-shih,
to be mentioned by and by, the first two as historians and the last
as political reformer. A still more familiar name in popular estima-
tion is that of Su Tung-p'o, A.D. 1031-1101, partly known for his
romantic career, now in court favour, now banished to the wilds,
but still more renowned as a brilliant poet and writer of fascinating
essays.

The Mongols, A.D. 1260-1368, who succeeded the Sungs, and the
Mings who followed the Sungs and bring us down to the year 1644,
helped indeed, especially the Mings, to swell the volume of Chinese
verse, but without reaching the high level of the two great poetical
periods above-mentioned. Then came the present dynasty of Manchu
Tatars, of whom the same tale must be told, in spite of two highly-
cultured emperors, K'ang Hsi and Ch'ien Lung, both of them poets
and one of them author of a collection containing no fewer than
33,950 pieces, most of which, it must be said, are but four-line
stanzas, of no literary value whatever. It may be stated in this
connexion that whereas China has never produced an epic in verse,
it is not true that all Chinese poems are quite short, running only to
ten or a dozen lines at the most. Many pieces run to several hundred
lines, though the Chinese poet does not usually affect length, one of
his highest efforts being the four-line stanza, known as the " stop-
short," in which " the words stop while the sense goes on," ex-
panding in the mind of the reader by the suggestive art of the poet.
The " stop-short " is the converse of the epigram, which ends in_a
satisfying turn of thought to which the rest of the composition is
intended to lead up; it aims at producing an impression which, so
far from being final, is merely the prelude to a long series of visions
and of feelings. The last of the four lines is called the " surprise
line " ; but the revelation it gives is never a complete one : the words
stop, but the sense goes on. Just as in the pictorial art of China,

224

CHINA

[LITERATURE

so in her poetic art is suggestiveness the great end and aim of the
artist. Beginners are taught that the three canons of verse com-
position are lucidity, simplicity and correctness cf diction. Yet
some critics have boldly declared for obscurity of expression, alleging
that the piquancy of a thought is enhanced by its skilful conceal-
ment. For the foreign student, it is not necessary to accentuate
the obscurity and difficulty even of poems in which the motive is
simple enough. The constant introduction of classical allusions,
often in the vaguest terms, and the almost unlimited licence as to
the order of words, offer quite sufficient obstacles to easy and rapid
comprehension. Poetry has been denned by one Chinese writer as
" clothing with words the emotions which surge through the heart."
The chief moods of the Chinese poet are a pure delight in the vary ing
phenomena of nature, and a boundless sympathy with the woes and
sufferings of humanity. Erotic poetry is not absent, but it is not a
feature proportionate in extent to the great body of Chinese verse ;
it is- always restrained, and never lapses from a high level of purity
and decorum. In his love for hill and stream which he peoples
with genii, and for tree and flower which he endows with sentient
souls, the Chinese poet is perhaps seen at his very best ; his views of
life are somewhat too deeply tinged with melancholy, and often
loaded with an overwhelming sadness " at the doubtful doom of
human kind." In his lighter moods he draws inspiration, and in his
darker moods consolation from the wine-cup. Hard-drinking, not
to say drunkenness, seems to have been universal among Chinese
poets, and a considerable amount of talent has been expended upon
the glorification of wine. From Taoist.'and especially from Buddhist
sources, many poets have obtained glimpses to make them less
forlorn; but it cannot be said that there is any definitely religious
poetry in the Chinese language.

History. One of the labours undertaken by Confucius was
connected with a series of ancient documents that is, ancient
in his day now passing under a collective title as Shu Ching
(or Shoo King), and popularly known as the Canon, or Book,
of History. Mere fragments as some of these documents are, it
is from their pages of unknown date that we can supplement
the pictures drawn for us in the Odes, of the early civilization of
China. The work opens with an account of the legendary em-
peror Yao, who reigned 2357-2255 B.C., and was able by virtue
of an elevated personality to give peace and happiness to his
" black-haired " subjects. With the aid of capable astronomers,
he determined the summer and winter solstices, and calculated
approximately the length of the year, availing himself, as
required, of the aid of an intercalary month. Finally, after a
glorious reign, he ceded the throne to a man of the people,
whose only claim to distinction was his unwavering practice of
filial piety. Chapter ii. deals with the reign, 2255-2205 B.C.,
of this said man, known in history as the emperor Shun. In
accordance with the monotheism of the day, he worshipped God
in heaven with prayer and burnt offerings; he travelled on
tours of inspection all over his then comparatively narrow
empire; he established punishments, to be tempered with
mercy; he appointed officials to superintend forestry, care of
animals, religious observances, and music; and he organized a
system of periodical examinations for public servants. Chapter
iii. is devoted to details about the Great Yu, who reigned
2205-2197 B.C., having been called to the throne for his
engineering success in draining the empire of a mighty inunda-
tion which early western writers sought to identify with Noah's
Flood. Another interesting chapter gives various geographical
details, and enumerates the articles, gold, silver, copper, iron,
steel, silken fabrics, feathers, ivory, hides, &c., &c., brought in
under the reign of the Great Yii, as tribute from neighbouring
countries. Other chapters include royal proclamations, speeches
to troops, announcements of campaigns victoriously concluded,
and similar subjects. One peculiarly interesting document is
the Announcement against Drunkenness, which seems to have
been for so many centuries a national vice, and then to have
practically disappeared as such. For the past two or three
hundred years, drunkenness has always been the exception
rather than the rule. The Announcement, delivered in the
1 2th century B.C., points out that King Wen, the founder of the
Chou dynasty, had wished for wine to be used only in connexion
with sacrifices, and that divine favours had always been liberally
showered upon the people when such a restriction had been
observed. On the other hand, indulgence in strong drink had
invariably attracted divine vengeance, and the fall and dis-

ruption of states had often been traceable to that cause. Even
on sacrificial occasions, drunkenness is to be condemned.
" When, however, you high officials and others have done your
duty in ministering to the aged and to your sovereign, you may
then eat to satiety and drink 1 to elevation." The Announcement
winds up with an ancient maxim, " Do not seek to see yourself
reflected in water, but in others," whose base actions should
warn you not to commit the same; adding that those who
after a due interval should be unable to give up intemperate
habits would be put to death. It is worth noting, in concluding
this brief notice of China's earliest records, that from first to
last there is no mention whatever of any distant country from
which the " black-haired people " may have originally come;
no vestige of any allusion to any other form of civilization, such
as that of Babylonia, with its cuneiform script and baked-clay
tablets, from which an attempt has been made to derive the
native-born civilization of China. A few odd coincidences
sum up the chief argument in favour of this now discredited
theory.

The next step lands us on the confines, though scarcely in the
domain, of history properly so called. Among his other literary
labours, Confucius undertook to produce the annals of
Lu, his native state; and beginning with the year 722
B.C., he carried the record down to his death in 479, after
which it was continued for a few years, presumably by
Tso-ch'iu Ming, the shadowy author of the famous Commentary, to
which the text is so deeply indebted for vitality and illumination.
The work of Confucius is known as the Ch'un Ch'iu, the Springs and
Autumns, q.d. Annals. It consists of a varying number of brief
entries under each year of the reign of each successive ruler of Lu.
The feudal system, initiated more than four centuries previously,
and consisting of a number of vassal states owning allegiance to a
central suzerain state, had already broken hopelessly down, so far
as allegiance was concerned. For some time, the object of each
vassal ruler had been the aggrandizement of his own state, with a
view either to independence or to the hegemony, and the result was
a state of almost constant warfare. Accordingly, the entries in the
Ch'un Ch'iu refer largely to covenants entered into between con-
tracting rulers, official visits from one to another of these rulers,
their births and deaths, marriages, invasions of territory, battles,
religious ceremonies, &c., interspersed with notices of striking natural
phenomena such as eclipses, comets and earthquakes, and of im-
portant national calamities, such as floods, drought and famine.
For instance, Duke We~n became ruler of Lu in 625 B.C., and under
his I4th year, 612 B.C., we find twelve entries, of which the following
are specimens :

2. In spring, in the first month, the men of the Chu State invaded

our southern border.

3. In summer, on the I-hai day of the fifth mo'nth, P'an, Marquis

of the Ch'i State, died.

5. In autumn, in the seventh month, there was a comet, which
entered Pei-tou (0/875 in Ursa Major).

9. In the ninth month, a son of the Duke of Ch'i murdered his

ruler.

Entry 5 affords the earliest trustworthy instance of a comet in China.
A still earlier comet is recorded in what is known as The Bamboo
Annals, but the genuineness of that work is disputed.

It will be readily admitted that the Ch'un Ch'iu, written through-
out in the same style as the quotations given, would scarcely
enable one to reconstruct in any detail the age it professes to record.
Happily we are in possession of the Tso Chuan, a so-called com-
mentary, presumably by some one named Tso, in which the bald
entries in the work of Confucius are separately enlarged upon to
such an extent and with such dramatic brilliancy that our com-
mentary reads more like a prose epic than "a treatise consisting of a
systematic series of comments or annotations on the text of a literary
work." Under its guidance we can follow the intrigues, the alliances,
the treacheries, the ruptures of the jealous states which constituted
feudal China; in its picture pages we can see, as it were with our
own eyes, assassinations, battles, heroic deeds, flights, pursuits and
the sufferings of the vanquished from the retribution exacted by
the victors. Numerous wise and witty sayings are scattered through-
out the work, many of which are in current use at the present day.

History as understood in Europe and the west began in China with
the appearance of a remarkable man. Ssu-ma Ch'ien, who flourished
145-87 B.C., was the son of an hereditary grand astrologer,
also an eager student of history and the actual planner of
the great work so successfully carried out after his death. '
By the time he was ten years of age, Ssu-ma Ch'ien was " econl -
already well advanced with his studies; and at twenty he set forth
on a round of travel which carried him to all parts of the empire.
Entering the public service, he was employed upon a mission of
inspection to the newly-conquered regions of Ssuch'uan and Yunnan ;
in 1 10 B.C. his father died, and he stepped into the post of grand
astrologer. After devoting some time and energy to the reformation

LITERATURE]

CHINA

225

of the calendar, he took up the work which had been begun by his
father and which was ultimately given to the world as the Shih Chi,
or Historical Record. This was arranged under five great headings,
namely, (l) Annals of Imperial Reigns, (2) Chronological Tables, (3)
Monographs, (4) Annals of Vassal Princes, and (5) Biographies.

The Historical Record begins with the so-called Yellow Emperor,
who is said to have come to the throne 2698 B.C. and to have reigned
a hundred years. Four other emperors are given, as belonging to
this period, among whom we find Yao and Shun, already mentioned.
It was China's Golden Age, when rulers and ruled were virtuous alike,
and all was peace and prosperity. It is discreetly handled in a few
pages by Ssu-ma Ch'ien, who passes on to the somewhat firmer but
still doubtful ground of the early dynasties. Not, however, until the
Chou dynasty, 1122-255 B.C., had held sway for some three hundred
years can we be said to have reached a point at which history begins
to separate itself definitely from legend. In fact, it is only from the
8th century before Christ that any trustworthy record can be safely
dated. With the 3rd century before Christ, we are introduced to one
of the feudal princes whose military genius enabled him to destroy
beyond hope of revival the feudal system which had endured for
eight hundred years, and to make himself master of the whole of the
China of those days. In 221 B.C. he proclaimed himself the " First
Burning Emperor," a title by which he has ever since been known.
ifthe Everything, including literature, was to begin with his
Books. reign ; and acting on the advice of his prime minister, he
issued an order for the burning of all books, with the excep-
tion only of works relating to medicine, divination and agriculture.
Those who wished to study law were referred for oral teaching to
such as had already qualified in that profession. To carry out the
scheme effectively, the First Emperor made a point of examining
every day about 120 Ib weight of books, in order to get rid of such
as he considered to be useless; and he further appointed a number of
inspectors to see that his orders were carried out. The result was
that about four hundred and sixty scholars were put to death for
having disobeyed the imperial command, while many others were
banished for life. This incident is known as the Burning of the
Books; and there is little doubt that, but for the devotion of the
literati, Chinese literature would have had to make a fresh start in
212 B.C. As it was, books were bricked up in walls and otherwise
widely concealed in the hope that the storm would blow over; and
this was actually the case when the Ch'in (Ts'in) dynasty collapsed
and the House of Han took its place in 206 B.C. The Confucian books
were subsequently recovered from their hiding-places, together with
many other works, the loss of which it is difficult now to contemplate.
Unfortunately, however, a stimulus was provided, not for the recovery,
but for the manufacture of writings, the previous existence of which
could be gathered either from tradition or from notices in the various
works which had survived. Forgery became the order of the day;
and the modern student is confronted with a considerable volume of
literature which has to be classified as genuine, doubtful, or spurious,
according to the merits of each case. To the first class belongs the
bulk, but not all, of the Confucian Canon; to the third must be
relegated such books as the Tao Te Cluing, to be mentioned later on.

Ssu-ma Ch'ien, dying in 87 i.e., deals of course only with the
opening reigns of the Han dynasty, with which he brings to a close
the first great division of his history. The second division consists of
chronological tables; the third, of eight monographs on the following
topics: (i) Rites and Ceremonies, (2) Music, (3) Natural Philosophy,
(4) The Calendar, (5) Astronomy, (6) Religion, (7) Water-ways, and
(8) Commerce. On these eight a few remarks may not be out of
place. (l) The Chinese seem to have been in possession, from very
early ages, of a systematic code of ceremonial observances, so that it
is no surprise to find the subject included, and taking an important
place, in Ssu-ma Ch'ien's work. The Li Chi, or Book of Rites, which
now forms part of the Confucian Canon, is however a comparatively
modern compilation, dating only from the 1st century B.C. (2) The
extraordinary similarities between the Chinese and Pythagorean
systems of music force the conclusion that one of these must neces-
sarily have been derived from the other. The Jesuit Fathers jumped
to the conclusion that the Greeks borrowed their art from the Chinese ;
but it is now common knowledge that the Chinese scale did not exist
in China until two centuries after its appearance in Greece. The fact
is that the ancient Chinese works on music perished at the Burning
of the Books; and we are told that by the middle of the 2nd century
B.C. the hereditary Court music-master was altogether ignorant of
his art. What we may call modern Chinese music reached China
through Bactria, a Greek kingdom, founded by Diodotus in 256 B.C.,
with which intercourse had been established by the Chinese at an
early date. (3) The term Natural Philosophy can only be applied
by courtesy to this essay, which deals with twelve bamboo tubes of
varying lengths, by means of which, coupled with the twenty-eight
zodiacal constellations and with certain calendaric accords, divine
communication is established with the influences of the five elements
and the points of the compass corresponding with the eight winds.
(4) In this connexion, it is worth noting that in 104 B.C. the Chinese
first adopted a cycle of nineteen years, a period which exactly brings
together the solar and the lunar years; and further that this very
cycle is said to have been introduced by Meton, 5th century B.C.,
and was adopted at Athens about 330 B.C., probably reaching China,
via Bactria, some two centuries afterwards. (5) This chapter deals

specially with the sun, moon and five planets, which are supposed to
aid in the divine government of mankind. (6) Refers to the solemn
sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, as performed by the emperor upon
the summit of Mt. T'ai in Shan-tung. (7) Refers to the management
of the Hoang Ho, or Yellow river, so often spoken of as " China's
Sorrow," and also of the numerous canals with which the empire is
intersected. (8) This chapter, which treats of the circulation of
money, and its function in the Chinese theory of political economy,
is based upon the establishment in 1 10 B.C. of certain officials whose
business it was to regularize commerce. It was their duty to buy up
the chief necessaries of life when abundant and when pnces were in
consequence low, and to offer these for sale when there was a shortage
and when prices would otherwise have risen unduly. Thus it was
hoped that a stability in commercial transactions would be attained,
to the great advantage of the people. The fourth division of the
Shih Chi is devoted to the annals of the reigns of vassal princes, to
be read in connexion with the imperial annals of the first division.
The final division, which is in many ways the most interesting of all,
gives biographical notices of eminent or notorious men and women,
from the earliest ages downwards, and enables us to draw conclusions
at which otherwise it would have been impossible to arrive. Con-
fucius and Mencius, for instance, stand out as real personages who
actually played a part in China's history; while all we can gather
from the short life of Lao Tzu, a part of which reads like an inter-
polation by another hand, is that he was a more or less Legendary
individual, whose very existence at the date usually assigned to
him, 7th and 6th centuries B.C., is altogether doubtful. Scattered
among these biographies are a few notices of frontier nations; e.g.
of the terrible nomads known as the Hsiung-nu, whose identity with
the Huns has now been placed beyond a doubt.

Ssu-ma Ch'ien's great work, on which he laboured for so many
years and which ran to five hundred and twenty-six thousand five
hundred words, has been described somewhat at length for the
following reason. It has been accepted as the model for all subse-
quent dynastic histories, of which twenty-four have now been pub-
lished, the whole being produced in 1747 in a uniform edition, bound
up (in the Cambridge Library) in two hundred and nineteen large
volumes. Each dynasty has found its historian in the dynasty
which supplanted it; and each dynastic history is notable for the
extreme fairness with which the conquerors have dealt with the
vanquished, accepting without demur such records of their prede-
cessors as were available from official sources. The T'ang dynasty,
A.D. 618-906, offers in one sense a curious exception to the general
rule. It possesses two histories, both included in the above series.
The first of these, now known as the Old T'ang History, was ultimately,
set aside as inaccurate and inadequate, and a New T'ang History was
compiled by Ou-yang Hsiu, a distinguished scholar, poet and states-
man of the 1 1 th century. Nevertheless, in all cases, the scheme of
the dynastic history has, with certain modifications, been that which
was initiated in the 1st century B.C. by Ssu-ma Ch'ien.

The output of history, however, does not begin and end with the
voluminous records above referred to, one of which, it should be
mentioned, was in great part the work of a woman. rfte
History has always been a favourite study with the Chinese, Mirror of
and innumerable histories of a non-official character, long History.
and short, complete and partial, political and constitu-
tional, have been showered from age to age upon the Chinese reading
world. Space would fail for the mere mention of a tithe of such
works; but there is one which stands out among the rest and is
especially enshrined in the hearts of the Chinese people. This is the
T'ung Chien, or Mirror of History, so called because " to view
antiquity as though in a mirror is an aid in the administration of
government." It was the work of a statesman of the nth century,
whose name, by a coincidence, was Ssu-ma Kuang. He had been
forced to retire from office, and spent nearly all the last sixteen years
of his life in historical research. The Mirror of History embraces a
period from the 5th century B.C. down to A.D. 960. It is written in a
picturesque style; but the arrangement was found to be unsuited to
the systematic study of history. Accordingly, it was subjected to
revision, and was to a great extent reconstructed by Chu Hsi, the
famous commentator, who flourished A.D. 1130-1200, and whose
work is now regarded as the standard history of China.

Biography. In regard to biography, the student is by no
means limited to the dynastic histories. Many huge biographical
collections have been compiled and published by private in-
dividuals, and many lives of the same personages have often
been written from different points of view. There is nothing
very much by which a Chinese biography can be distinguished
from biographies produced in other parts of the wot Id. The
Chinese writer always begins with the place of birth, but he is
not so particular about the year, sometimes leaving that to be
gathered from the date of death taken in connexion with the age
which the person may have attained. Some allusion is usually
made to ancestry, and the steps of an official career, upward by
promotion or downward by disgrace, are also carefully noted.

Geography and Travel. There is a considerable volume of

VT. 8

226

CHINA

[LITERATURE

FaHslea.

Chinese literature which comes under this head; but if we
exclude certain brief notices of foreign countries, there remains
nothing in the way of general geography which had been produced
prior to the arrival of the Jesuit Fathers at the close of the i6th
century. Up to that period geography meant the topography
of the Chinese empire; and of topographical records there is
a very large and valuable collection. Every prefecture and
department, some eighteen hundred in all, has each its own
particular topography, compiled from records and from tradition
with a fullness that leaves nothing to be desired. The buildings,
bridges, monuments of archaeological interest, &c., in each
district, are all carefully inserted, side by side with biographical
and other local details, always of interest to residents and of ten
to the outside public. An extensive general geography of the
empire was last published in 1745; and this was followed by a
chronological geography in 1794.

The Chinese have always been fond of travel, and hosts of
travellers have published notices, more or less extensive, of the

different parts of the empire, and even of adjacent

nations, which they visited either as private individuals
or, in the former case, as officials proceeding to distant posts.
With Buddhism came the desire to see the country which was
the home of the Buddha; and several important pilgrimages
were undertaken with a view to bring back images and sacred
writings to China. On such a journey the Buddhist priest, Fa
Hsien, started in A.D. 399; and after practically walking the
whole way from central China, across the desert of Gobi, on to
Khoten, and across the Hindu Kush into India, he visited many
of the chief cities of India, until at length reaching Calcutta he
took ship, and after a most adventurous voyage, in the course
of which he remained two years in Ceylon, he finally arrived
safely, in A.D. 414, with all his books, pictures, and images, at
a spot on the coast of Shantung, near the modern German port
of Kiao-chow.

Another of these adventurous priests was Hsiian Tsang
(wrongly, Yuan Chwang), who left China on a similar mission in

629, and returned in 645, bringing with him six
Tsang. hundred and fifty-seven Buddhist books, besides many

images and pictures, and one hundred and fifty relics.
He spent the rest of his life in translating, with the help of other
learned priests, these books into Chinese, and completed in 648
the important record of his own travels, known as the Record of
Western Countries.

Philosophy. Even the briefest resum6 of Chinese philosophical
literature must necessarily include the name of Lao Tzii, al-
Lao Tzu though his era, as seen above, and his personality are

both matters of the vaguest conjecture. A number of
his sayings, scattered over the works of early writers, have been
pieced together, with the addition of much incomprehensible
jargon, and the whole has been given to the world as the work
of Lao Tzii himself, said to be of the 6th century B.C., under
the title of the Too TB Ching. The internal evidence against this
book is overwhelming; e.g. one quotation had been detached
from the writer who preserved it, with part of that writer's
text clinging to it of course by an oversight. Further, such a
treatise is never mentioned in Chinese literature until some time
after the Burning of the Books, that is, about four centuries
after its alleged first appearance. Still, after due expurgation, it
forms an almost complete collection of such apophthegms of Lao
Tzu as have come down to us, from which the reader can learn
that the author taught the great doctrine of Inaction Do
nothing, and all things will be done. Also, that Lao Tzii
anticipated the Christian doctrine of returning good for evil, a
sentiment which was highly reprobated by the practical mind
of Confucius, who declared that evil should be met by justice.
Among the more picturesque of his utterances are such paradoxes
as, " He who knows how to shut, uses no bolts; yet you cannot
open. He who knows how to bind uses no ropes; yet you cannot
untie "; " The weak overcomes the strong; the soft overcomes
the hard," &c.

These, and many similar subtleties of speech, seem to have fired
the imagination of Chuang Tzu, 4th and 3rd centuries B.C., with the

result that he put much time and energy into the glorification of Lao
Tzu and his doctrines. Possessed of a brilliant style and a master of
irony, Chuang Tzu attacked the schools of Confucius and _.
Mo Ti (see below) with so much dialectic skill that the ?"*
ablest scholars of the age were unable to refute his
destructive criticisms. His pages abound in quaint anecdotes and
allegorical instances, arising as it were spontaneously out of the
questions handled, and imparting a lively interest to points which
might otherwise have seemed dusty and dull. He was an idealist
with all the idealist's hatred of a utilitarian system, and a mystic
with all the mystic's contempt for a life of mere external activity.
Only thirty-three chapters of his work now remain, though so many
as fifty-three are known to have been still extant in the 3rd century ;
and even of these, several complete chapters are spurious, while in
others it is comparatively easy to detect here and there the hand of
the interpolator. What remains, however, after all reductions, has
been enough to secure a lasting place for Chuang Tzu as the most
original of China's philosophical writers. His book is of course under
the ban of heterodoxy, in common with all thought opposed to the
Confucian teachings. His views as mystic, idealist, moralist and
social reformer have no weight with the aspirant who has his way to
make in official life ; but they are a delight, and even a consolation, to
many of the older men, who have no longer anything to gain or to lose.
Confucius, 551-475) B.C., who imagined that his Annals of the Lu
State would give him immortality, has always been much more
widely appreciated as a moralist than as an historian. c~ a f a ^ us
His talks with his disciples and with others have been
preserved for us, together with some details of his personal and
private life; and the volume in which these are collected forms one
of the Four Books of the Confucian Canon. Starting from the
axiomatic declaration that man is born good and only becomes evil
by his environment, he takes filial piety and duty to one's neighbour
as his chief themes, often illustrating his arguments with almost
Johnsonian emphasis. He cherished a shadowy belief in a God,_but
not in a future state of reward or punishment for good or evil actions
in this world. He rather taught men to be virtuous for virtue's sake.
The discourses of Mencius, who followed Confucius after an interval
of a hundred years, 372-289 B.C., form another of the Four Books,
the remaining two of which are short philosophical Meaclus
treatises, usually ascribed to a grandson of Confucius.
Mencius devoted his life to elucidating and expanding the teachings
of the Master; and it is no doubt due to him that the Confucian
doctrines obtained so wide a vogue. But he himself was more a
politician and an economist (see below) than a simple preacher of
morality; and hence it is that the Chinese people have accorded to-
him the title of The Second Sage. He is considered to have .. _,
effectually " snuffed out " the heterodox school of Mo Ti,
a philosopher of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. who propounded a
doctrine of " universal love " as the proper foundation for organized
society, arguing that under such a system all the calamities that men
bring upon one another would altogether disappear, and the Golden
Age would be renewed. At the same time Mencius exposed Vaair ctla
the fallacies of the speculations of Y^ing Chu, 4th century g
B.C., who founded a school of ethical egoism as opposed to the
exaggerated altruism of Mo Ti. According to Mencius, Yang Chu
would not have parted with one hair of his body to save the whole
world, whereas Mo Ti would have sacrificed all. Another early
philosopher is Hsun Tzu, 3rd century B.C. He main- a ^ a Tz ^
tained, in opposition to Mencius, who upheld the Confucian
dogma, and in conformity with Christian doctrine, that the nature
of man at his birth is evil, and that this condition can only be changed
by efficient moral training. T^.en came Yang Hsiung, 53-18 B.C.,
who propounded an ethical criterion midway between the Yang
rival positions insisted on by Mencius and Hsun Tzti, tislunr
teaching that the nature of man at birth is neither good
nor evil, but a mixture of both, and that development in either
direction depends wholly upon circumstances.

There is a voluminous and interesting work, of doubtful age, which
passes under the title of Huai-nan Tzii, or the Philosopher of Huai-
nan. It is attributed to Liu An, prince of Huai-nan, who Haal . aaa
died 122 B.C., and who is further said to have written on f ^
alchemy; but alchemy was scarcely known in China at
the date of his death, being introduced about that time_from Greece.
The author, whoever he may have been, poses as a disciple of Lao
Tzu; but the speculations of Lao Tzu, as glorified by Chuang Tzu,
were then rapidly sinking into vulgar efforts to discover the elixir of
life. It is very difficult in many cases of this kind to decide what
books are, and what books are not, partial or complete forgeries.
In the present instance, the aid of the Shuo Win, a dictionary of the
1st century A.D. (see below), may be invoked, but not in quite so
satisfactory a sense as that in which it will be seen lower down to
have been applied to the Too Tt Ching. The Shuo Wen contains a
quotation said to be taken from Huai-nan Tzii ; but that quotation
cannot be found in the work under consideration. It may be argued
that the words in question may have been taken from another work
by the same author; but if so, it becomes difficult to believe t
a book, more than two hundred years old, from which the auth<
of the Shuo Win quoted, should have been allowed to pen
without leaving any trace behind. China has produced its Bentleys

LITERATURE]

CHINA

227

in considerable numbers; but almost all of them have given their
attention to textual criticism of the Confucian Canon, and few have
condescended to examine critically the works of heterodox writers.
The foreign student therefore finds himself faced with many knotty
points he is entirely unable to solve.

Of Wang Ch'ung, a speculative and materialistic philosopher,
A.D. 27~97i banned by the orthodox for his attacks on Confucius

and Mencius, only one work has survived. It consists
%*."* of eighty-four essays on such topics as the nature of

things, destiny, divination, death, ghosts, poisons,
miracles, criticisms of Confucius and Mencius, exaggeration, sacrifice
and exorcism. According to Wang Ch'ung, man, endowed at birth
sometimes with a good and sometimes with an evil nature, is informed
with a vital fluid, which resides in the blood and is nourished by
eating and drinking, its two functions being to animate the body
and keep in order the mind. It is the source of all sensation, passing
through the blood like a wave. When it reaches the eyes, ears and
mouth, the result is sight, hearing and speech respectively. Disturb-
ance of the vital fluid leads to insanity. Without the fluid, the body
cannot be maintained; without the body, the fluid loses its vitality.
Therefore, argues Wang Ch'ung, when the body perishes and the
fluid loses its vitality, each being dependent on the other, there
remains nothing for immortality in a life beyond the grave. Ghosts
he held to be the hallucinations of disordered minds, and miracles to
be natural phenomena capable of simple explanations. His indict-
ments of Confucius and Mencius are not of a serious character;
though, as regards the former, it must be borne in mind that the
Chinese people will not suffer the faintest aspersion on the fair fame
of their great Sage. It is related in the Lun Yu that Confucius paid
a visit to the notoriously immoral wife of one of the feudal nobles,
and that a certain disciple was " displeased " in consequence, where-
upon the Master swore, saying," If I have done any wrong, may the
sky fall and crush me!" Wang Ch'ung points out that the form of
oath adopted by Confucius is unsatisfactory and fails to carry con-
viction. Had he said, " May I be struck dead by lightning! " his
sincerity would have been more powerfully attested, because people
are often struck dead by lightning; whereas the fall of the sky is
too remote a contingency, such a thing never having been known to
happen within the memory of man. As to Mencius, there is a passage
in his works which states that a thread of predestination runs
through all human life, and that those who accommodate themselves
will come off better in the end than those who try to oppose ; it is in
fact a statement of the ofoc bvkp libpov principle. On this Wang
Ch'ung remarks that the will of God is consequently made to depend
on human actions; and he further strengthens his objection by
showing that the best men have often fared worst. For instance,
Confucius never became emperor; Pi Kan, the patriot, was dis-
embowelled; the bold and faithful disciple, Tzu Lu, was chopped
into small pieces.

But the tale of Chinese philosophers is a long one. It is a depart-
ment of literature in which the leading scholars of all ages have

mostly had something to say. The great Chu Hsi,

A.D. 11301200, whose fame is chiefly perhaps that of a

commentator and whose monument is his uniform
exegesis of the Confucian Canon, was also a voluminous writer on
philosophy. He took a hand in the mystery which surrounds the
I Ching (or Yih King), generally known as the Book of Changes,
which is held by some to be the oldest Chinese work and which forms
part of the Confucian Canon. It is ascribed to King Wn, the virtual
founder of the Chou dynasty, 1122-249 B.C., whose son became the
first sovereign and posthumously raised his father to kingly rank.
It contains a fanciful system of divination, deduced originally from
eight diagrams consisting of triplet combinations of a line and a
broken line, either one of which is necessarily repeated twice, and in two
cases three times, in the same combination. Thus there may be three
lines ^=E, or three broken lines ==, and other such combinations
as =H and 55. Confucius declared that he would like to give another
fifty years to the elucidation of this puzzling text. Shao Yung,
A.D. 1011-1077, sought the key in numbers; Ch'eng I., A.D. 1033-
1107, in the eternal fitness of things. " But Chu Hsi alone," says a
writer of the I7th century, " was able to pierce through the meaning
and appropriate the thoughts of the inspired man who composed it."
No foreigner, however, has been able quite to understand what Chu
Hsi did make of it, and several have gone so far as to set all native
interpretations aside in favour of their own. Thus, the / Ching has
been discovered by one to be a calendar of the lunar year; by another,
to contain a system of phallic worship; and by a third, to be a
vocabulary of the language of a tribe, whose very existence had to be
postulated for the purpose.

Political Economy. This department of literature has been by no
means neglected by Chinese writers. So early as the 7th century B.C.

we find Kuan Chung, the prime minister of the Ch'i state,
" aa devoting his attention to economic problems, and thereby

making that state the wealthiest and the strongest of all
the feudal kingdoms. Beginning life as a merchant, he passed into
the public service, and left behind him at death a large work, parts
of which, as we now possess it, may possibly have come direct from
his own hand, the remainder being written up at a later date in
accordance with the principles he inculcated. His ideal State was
divided into twenty-one parts, fifteen of which were allotted to

Boot of
Changes.

officials and agriculturists, and six to manufacturers and traders.
His great idea was to make his own state self-contained ; and
accordingly he fostered agriculture in order to be independent in
time of war, and manufactures in order to increase his country's
wealth in time of peace. He held that a purely agricultural popula-
tion would always remain poor; while a purely manufacturing
population would risk having its supplies of raw material cut off in
time of war. He warmly encouraged free imports as a means of
enriching his countrymen, trusting to their ability, under these
conditions, to hold their own against foreign competition. He pro-
tected capital, in the sense that he considered capitalists to be
necessary for the development of commerce in time of peace, and
for the protection of the state in time of war.

Mencius (see above) was in favour of heavily taxing merchants
who tried to engross for the purpose of regrating, that is, to buy up
wholesale for the purpose of retailing at monopoly prices; he was in
fact opposed to all trusts and corners in trade. He was in favour of a
tax to be imposed upon such persons as were mere consumers, living
upon property which had been amassed by others and doing no wort
themselves. No tax, however, was to be exacted from property-
owners who contributed by their personal efforts to the general
welfare of the community. The object of the tax was not revenue,
but the prevention of idleness with its attendant evil consequences
to the state.

Wang An-shih, the Reformer, or Innovator, as he has been called,
flourished A.D. 1021-1086. In 1069 he was appointed state councillor,
and forthwith entered upon a series of startling reforms ,
which have given him a unique position in the annals of '"^

China. He established a state monopoly in commerce,
under which the produce of a district was to be used first for the
payment of taxes, then for the direct use of the district itself, and
the remainder was to be purchased by the government at a cheap
rate, either to be held until there was a rise in price, or to be trans-
ported to some other district in need of it. The people were to profit
by fixity of prices and escape from further taxation ; and the govern-
ment, by the revenue accruing in the process of administration.
There was also to be a system of state advances to cultivators of
land ; not merely to the needy, but to all alike. The loan was to be
compulsory, and interest was to be paid on it at the rate of 2 % per
month. The soil was to be divided into equal areas and taxed accord-
ing to its fertility in each case, without reference to the number of
inhabitants contained in each area. All these, and other important
reforms, failed to find favour with a rigidly conservative people, and
Wang An-shih lived long enough to see the whole of his policy reversed.

Military Writers. Not much, relatively speaking, has been written
by the Chinese on war in general, strategy or tactics. There is,
however, one very remarkable work which has come down

to us from the 6th century B.C., as to the genuineness of s "" m '*6-
which there now seems to be no reasonable doubt. A biographical
notice of the author, Sun Wu, is given in the Shih Chi (see above),
from which we learn that " he knew how to handle an army, and was
finally appointed General." His work, entitled the Art of War, is a
short treatise in thirteen chapters, under the following headings:
" Laying Plans," " Waging War," " Attack by Stratagem, " Tactical
Dispositions," " Energy," " Weak Points and Strong," " Manoeuvr-
ing," " Variation of Tactics," " The Army on the March,"" Terrain,"
" The Nine Situations," " The Attack by Fire," and " The Use of
Spies." Although the warfare of Sun Wu's day was the warfare of
bow and arrow, of armoured chariots and push of pike, certain
principles inseparably associated with successful issue will be found
enunciated in his work. Professor Mackail, in his Latin Literature
(p. 86), declares that Varro's Imagines was " the first instance in
history of the publication of an illustrated book." But reference to
the Art Section of the history of the Western Han dynasty, 206 B.C.-
A.D. 25, will disclose the title of fifteen or sixteen illustrated books,
one of which is Sun Wu's Art of War.

Agriculture. In spite of the high place accorded to agriculturists,
who rank second only to officials and before artisans and traders,
and in spite of the assiduity with which agriculture has been practised
in all ages, securing immunity from slaughter for the ploughing ox
what agricultural literature the Chinese possess may be said to belong
entirely to modern times. Ch'Sn Fu of the I2th century A.D. was the
author of a smajl work in three parts, dealing with agriculture, cattle-
breeding and silkworms respectively. There is also a well-known
work by an artist of the early I3th century, with forty-six woodcuts
illustrating the various operations of agriculture and weaving. This
book was reprinted under the emperor K'ang Hsi, 1662-1723, and
new illustrations with excellent perspective were provided by Chiao
Ping-chSn, an artist who had adopted foreign methods as introduced
by the famous Jesuit, Matteo Ricci. The standard work on agricul-
ture, entitled Nung Cheng Ch'uan Shu, was compiled by
Hsu Kuang-ch'i, 1562-1634, generally regarded as the
only influential member of the mandarinate who has ever .
become a convert to Christianity. It is in sixty sections,
the first three of which are devoted to classical references. Then
follow two sections on the division of land, six on the processes of
husbandry, none on hydraulics, four on agricultural implements,
six on planting, six on rearing silkworms, four on trees, one on
breeding animals, one on food and eighteen on provision against a
time of scarcity.

228

CHINA

[LITERATURE

Medicine and Therapeutics. The oldest of the innumerable
medical works of all descriptions with which China has been flooded
from time immemorial is a treatise which has been credited to the
Yellow Emperor (see above), 2698-2598 B.C. It is entitled Plain Ques-
tions of the Yellow Emperor, or Su Wen for short, and takes the form of
questions put by the emperor and answered by Earl Ch'i, a minister,
who was himself author of the Nei Ching, a medical work no longer in
existence. Without accepting the popular attribution of the Su
Wen, it is most probable that it is a very old book, dating back to
several centuries before Christ, and containing traditional lore of a
still more remote period. The same may be said of certain works
on cautery and acupuncture, both of which are still practised by
Chinese doctors; and also of works on the pulse, the variations of
which have been classified and allocated with a minuteness hardly
credible. Special treatises on fevers, skin-diseases, diseases of the
feet, eyes, heart, &c., are to be found in great quantities, as well as
veterinary treatises on the treatment of diseases of the horse and
the domestic buffalo. But in the whole range of Chinese medical
literature there is nothing which can approach the Pen Ts'ao, or
Pta Ts'ao Materia Medico,, sometimes called the Herbal, a title (i.e.
Pen Ts'ao) which seems to have belonged to some book of
the kind in pre-historic ages. The work under consideration was
compiled by Li Shih-che'n, who completed his task in 1578 after
twenty-six years' labour. No fewer than eighteen hundred and
ninety-two species of drugs, animal, vegetable and mineral, are dealt
with, arranged under sixty-two classes m sixteen divisions; and eight
thousand one hundred and sixty prescriptions are given in con-
nexion with the various entries. The author professes to quote from
the original Pen Ts'ao, above mentioned; and we obtain from his
extracts an insight into some curious details. It appears that formerly
the number of recognized drugs was three hundred and sixty-five in
all, corresponding with the days of the year. One hundred and
twenty of these were called sovereigns (cf. a sovereign prescription);
and were regarded as entirely beneficial to health, taken in any
quantity or for any time. Another similar number were called
ministers; some of these were poisonous, and all had to be used with
discretion. The remaining one hundred and twenty-five were
agents', all very poisonous, but able to cure diseases if not taken in
over-doses. The modern Pen Ts'ao, in its sixteen divisions, deals with
drugs classed under water, fire, earth, minerals, herbs, grain, veget-
ables, fruit, trees, clothes and utensils, insects, fishes, Crustacea,
birds, beasts and man. In each case the proper name of the drug is
first given, followed by its explanation, solution of doubtful points,
correction of errors, means of identification by taste, use in prescrip-
tions, &c. The work is fully illustrated, and there is an index to the
various medicines, classed according to the complaints for which they
are used.

Divination, &c. The practice of divination is of very ancient
date in China, traceable, it has been suggested, back to the Canon of
Changes (see above), which is commonly used by the lettered classes
for that purpose. A variety of other methods, the chief of which is
astrology, have also been adopted, and have yielded a considerable
bulk of literature. Even the officially-published almanacs still mark
certain days as suitable for certain undertakings, while other days are
marked in the opposite sense. The spirit of Zadkiel pervades the
Chinese empire. In like manner, geomancy is a subject on which
many volumes have been written; and the same applies to the
pseudo sciences of palmistry, physiognomy, alchemy (introduced
from Greek sources) and others.

Painting. Calligraphy, in the eyes of the Chinese, is just as much
a fine art as painting; the two are, in fact, considered to have come
into existence together, but as might be expected the latter occupies
the larger space in Chinese literature, and forms the subject of
numerous extensive works. One of the most important of these is
the Hsiian Ho Hua P'u, the author of which is unknown. It contains
information concerning two hundred and thirty-one painters and the
titles of six thousand one hundred and ninety-two of their pictures,
all in the imperial collection during the dynastic period Hsiian Ho,
A.D. 1119-1126, from which the title is derived. The artists are
classified under one of the following ten headings, supposed to
represent the line in which each particularly excelled: Religion,
Human Figures, Buildings, Barbarians (including their Animals),
Dragons and Fishes, Landscape, Animals, Flowers and Birds, The
Bamboo, Vegetables and Fruits.

Music. The literature of music does not go back to a remote period.
The Canon of Music, which was formerly included in the Confucian
Canon, has been lost for many centuries; and the works now avail-
able, exclusive of entries in the dynastic histories, are not older than
the gth century A.D., to which date may be assigned the Chieh Ku
Lu, a treatise on the deerskin drum, said to have been introduced into
China from central Asia, and evidently of Scythian origin. There are
several important works of the l6th and I7th centuries, in which the
history and theory of music are fully discussed, and illustrations of
instruments are given, with measurements in each case, and the
special notation required.

Miscellaneous. Under this head may be grouped a vast number
of works, many of them exhaustive, on such topics as archaeology,
seals (engraved) , numismatics, pottery, ink (the miscalled ' ' I ndian ' ) ,
mirrors, precious stones, tea, wine, chess, wit and humour,
even cookery, &c. There is, indeed, hardly any subject, within

reasonable limits, which does not find some corner in Chinese
literature.

Collections. Reprints of miscellaneous books and pamphlets in a
uniform edition, the whole forming a " library," has long been a
favourite means of disseminating useful (and other) , ,,, .
information. Of these, the Lung Wei Pi Shu may be taken Pl s * u
as a specimen. In bulk it would be about the equivalent
of twenty volumes, 8vo, of four hundred pages to each. Among its
contents we find the following. A handbook of phraseology, with
explanations; a short account of fabulous regions to the N., S., E.
and W. ; notes on the plants and trees of southern countries; bio-
graphical sketches of ninety-two wonderful personages; an account
of the choice of an empress, with standard measurements of the
height, length of limb, &c., of the ideal woman; " Pillow Notes "
(a term borrowed by the Japanese), or jottings on various subjects,
ranging from the Creation to an account of Fusang, a country where
the trees are thousands of feet high and of vast girth, thus supporting
the California, as opposed to the Mexico, identification of Fusang ;
critiques on the style of various poets, and on the indebtedness of
each to earlier writers; a list of the most famous bronze vessels cast
by early emperors, with their dimensions, inscriptions, &c. ; a treatise
on the bamboo; a list of famous swords, with dates of forging and
inscriptions; an account of the old Mongol palace, previous to its
destruction by the first Ming emperor; notes on the wild tribes of
China; historical episodes; biographical notices of one hundred and
four poets of the present dynasty; notes on archaeological, super-
natural and other topics, first published in the 9th century; notes
for bibliophiles on the care of books, and on paper, ink, pictures and
bric-a-brac; a collection of famous criminal cases; night thoughts
suggested by a meteor. Add to the above, numerous short stories
relating to magic, dreams, bilocation, and to almost every possible
phase of supernatural manifestation, and the reader will have some
idea of what he may expect in an ordinary " library " of a popular
character. It must always be remembered that with the Chinese,
style is of paramount importance. Documents, the subject-matter of
which would be recognized to be of no educative value, would still be
included, if written in a pleasing style, such as might be serviceable
as a model.

Individual A uthors. I n a similar manner it has always been custom-
ary for relatives or friends, sometimes for the trade, to publish the
"complete works" of important and often unimportant writers;
usually, soon after death. And as literary distinction has hitherto
almost invariably led to high office under the state, the collected
works of the great majority of authors open with selected Memorials
to the Throne and other documents of an official character. The
public interest in these may have long since passed away ; but they
are valued by the Chinese as models of a style to be imitated, and the
foreign student occasionally comes across papers on once burning
questions arising out of commercial or diplomatic intercourse with
western nations. Then may follow the order is not always the
same the prefaces which the author contributed from time to time
to the literary undertakings of his friends. Preface-writing is almost
a department of Chinese literature. No one ever thinks of publishing
a book without getting one or more of his capable associates to pro-
vide prefaces, which are naturally of a laudatory character, and
always couched in highly-polished and obscure terms, the difficulty of
the text being often aggravated by a fanciful and almost illegible
script. Prefaces written by emperors, many examples of which may
be seen, are of course highly esteemed, and are generally printed in
coloured ink. The next section may comprise biographical notices
of eminent men and women, or of mere local celebrities, who happened
to die in the author's day. Then will follow Records, a title which
covers inscriptions carved on the walls of new buildings, or on
memorial tablets, and also notes on pictures which the author may
have seen, places which he may have visited, or allegorical incidents
which he may have imagined. Then come disquisitions, or essays
on various subjects; researches, being short articles of archaeo-
logical interest; studies or monographs; birthday congratulations
to friends or to official colleagues; announcements, as to deities, a
cessation of whose worship is threatened if the necessary rain or lair
weather be not forthcoming; funeral orations, letters of condolence,
&c. The above items will perhaps fill half a dozen volumes; the
remaining volumes, running to twenty or thirty in all, as the case
may be, will contain the author's poetry, together with his longer
and more serious works. The essential of such a collection is, in
Chinese eyes, its completeness.

Fiction. Although novels are not regarded as an integral
part of literature proper, it is generally conceded that some
novels may be profitably studied, if for no other
reason, from the point of view of style. With the ch " h- "'
novel, however, we are no longer on perfectly safe
ground in regard to that decency which characterizes, as has
been above stated, the vast mass of Chinese literature. Chinese
novels range, in this sense, from the simplest and most un-
affected tale of daily life, down to low not the lowest depths
of objectionable pornography. The San Kuo Chih, an historical
romance based upon a period of disruption at the close of the

LITERATURE]

CHINA

229

2nd century A.D., is a delightful book, packed with episodes ol
battle, heroism, self-sacrifice, skilful strategy, and all that goes
to make up a stirring picture of strenuous times. Its author,
who might almost have been Walter Scott, cannot be named for
certain; but the work itself probably belongs to the I3th
century, a date at which the novel begins to make its appearance
in China. Previous to that time, there had been current an
immense quantity of stories of various kinds, but nothing like a
novel, as we understand the term. From the I3th century
onwards, the growth of the novel was continuous; and finally,
in the I7th century, a point was reached which is not likely to
be surpassed. The Hung Lou Meng, the author of which took
pains, for political reasons, to conceal his identity,
j^/ g ' is a creation of a very high order. Its plot is intricate
and original, and the denouement startlingly tragic.
In the course of the story, the chief clue of which is love, woven
in with intrigue, ambition, wealth, poverty, and other threads
of human life, there occur no fewer than over four hundred
characters, each one possessed of a distinctive personality drawn
with marvellous skill. It contains incidents which recall the
licence tolerated in Fielding; but the coarseness, like that of
Fielding, is always on the surface, and devoid of the ulterior
suggestiveness of the modern psychological novel. But perhaps
no work of fiction has ever enjoyed such vogue among literary
LiaoChai men as a co ^ ect i n f stories, some graceful, some
weird, written in 1679 by P'u Sungling, a dis-
appointed candidate at the public examinations. This collection,
known as the Liao Chai, is exceedingly interesting to the foreign
student for its sidelights on folklore and family life; to the
native scholar, who professes to smile at the subject-matter as
beyond the pale of genuine literature, it is simply invalu-
able as an expression of the most masterly style of which his
language is capable.

Drama. Simultaneously with the appearance of the novel,
stage-plays seem to have come into existence in China. In
the earliest ages there were set dances by trained performers,
to the accompaniment of music and singing; and something of
the kind, more or less ornate as regards the setting, has always
been associated with solemn and festive occasions. But not until
the days of the Mongol rule, A.D. 1 260-1368, can the drama proper
be said to have taken root and flourished in Chinese soil. The
probability is that both the drama and the novel were intro-
duced from Central Asia in the wake of the Mongol conquerors;
the former is now specially essential to the everyday happiness
of the Chinese people, who are perhaps the most confirmed
playgoers in the world. There is an excellent collection of one
hundred plays of the Mongol dynasty, with an illustration to
each, first published in 1615; there is also a further large
collection, issued in 1845, which contains a great number of
plays arranged under sixty headings, according to the style and
HsiHslaa P ur P ort ^ eac ^> besides many others. There is one
cft/< famous play of the Mongol period which deals largely

in plot and passion, and is a great favourite with the
educated classes. It is entitled Hsi Hsiang Chi, or the Story of
the Western Pavilion; and as if there was a doubt as to the
reception which would be accorded to the work, a minatory
sentence was inserted in the prolegomena: " If any one
ventures to call this book indecent, he will certainly have his
tongue torn out in hell." So far as the written play is con-
cerned, its language is altogether unobjectionable; on the stage,
by means of gag and gesture, its presentation is often unseemly
and coarse. What the Chinese playgoer delights in, as an
evening's amusement, is a succession of plays which are more
of the nature of sketches, slight in construction and generally
weak in plot, some of them based upon striking historical
episodes, and others dealing with a single humorous incident.

Dictionaries. The Erh Ya, or Nearing the Standard, is commonly
classed as a dictionary, and is referred by native scholars generally
to the 1 2th century B.C. The entries are arranged under nineteen
heads, to facilitate reference, and explain a large number of words and
phrases, including names of beasts, birds, plants and fishes. The
work is well illustrated in the large modern edition ; but the actual
date of composition is an entirely open question, and the insertion of

woodcuts must necessarily belong to a comparatively late age (see
Military Writers).

With the Shuo Win, or Explanation of Written Words, we begin the
long list of lexicographical works which constitute such a notable
feature in Chinese literature. A scholar, named HsUShfin, ... ..
who died about A.D. 120, made an effort to bring together
and analyse all the characters it was possible to gather from the written
language as it existed in his own day. He then proceeded to arrange
these characters about ten thousand in all on a system which
would enable a student to find a given word without having possibly
to search through the whole book. To do this, he simply grouped
together all such as had a common part, more or less indicative of the
meaning of each, much as though an English dictionary were to
consist of such groups as

Dog-days
Dog-kennel
Dog-collar
Dog- meat
Dog-nap
and so on.

Horse-collar
Horse-flesh
Horse-back
Horse-fly
Horse-chestnut
and so on.

Hsu Shgn selected five hundred and forty of these common parts,
or Radicals (see Language), a number which, as will be seen later
on, was found to be cumbrously large; and under each Radical he
inserted all the characters belonging to it, but with no particular
order or arrangement, so that search was still, in many-cases, quite
a laborious task. The explanations given were chiefly intended to
establish the pictorial origin of the language; but whereas no one
now disputes this as a general conclusion, the steps by which Hsu
ShSn attempted to prove his theory must in a large number of
instances be dismissed as often inadequate and sometimes ridiculous.
Nevertheless, it was a great achievement ; and the Shuo Wen is still
indispensable to the student of the particular script in vogue a
century or two before Christ. It is also of value in another sense.
It may be used, with discretion, in testing the genuineness of an
alleged ancient document, which, if an important or well-known
document before the age of Hsil ShSn, would not be likely to contain
characters not given in his work. Under this test the Too Te Ching,
for instance, breaks down (see Huai-nan Tzu).

Passing over a long series of dictionaries and vocabularies which
appeared at various dates, some constructed on Hsu Shen's plan,
with modifications and improvements, and others, known as phonetic
dictionaries, arranged under the finals according to the Tones, we
come to the great standard lexicon produced under the auspices,
and now bearing the name of the emperor K'ang Hsi, A.D. 1662-1723.
But before proceeding, a rough attempt may be made to exhibit in
English terms the principle of the phonetic as compared with the
radical dictionary described above. In the spoken language
there would occur the word light, the opposite of dark,
and this would be expressed in writing by a certain
symbol. Then, when it became necessary to write down
light, the opposite of heavy, the result would be precisely what we
see in English. But as written words increased, always with a
limited number of vocables (see Language), this system was found
to be impracticable, and Radicals were inserted as a means of dis-
tinguishing one kind of light from another, but without altering the
original sound. Now, in the phonetic dictionary the words are no
longer arranged in such groups as

Sun-light
Sun-beam
Sun-stroke
Sun-god, &c.
according to the Radicals, but in such groups as
Sun-light
Moon-light
Foot-light
Gas-lignt, &c.

according to the phonetics, all the above four being pronounced .
simply light, without reference to the radical portion which guides
towards the limited sense of the term. So, in a phonetic dictionary,
we should have such a group as

Brass-bound
Morocco-bound
Half-bound
Spell-bound
Homeward-bound
Wind-bound

and so on, all the above six being pronounced simply bound. To
return to " K'ang Hsi," as the lexicon in question is familiarly
styled, the total number of characters given therein K> aax nsi
amounts to over forty-four thousand, grouped no longer
under the five hundred and forty Radicals of Hsu She'n, but under
the much more manageable number of two hundred and fourteen,

230

CHINA

[LITERATURE

as already used in earlier dictionaries. Further, as the groups of
characters would now be more than four times as large as in the Shuo
Win, they were subdivided under each Radical according to the
number of strokes in the other, or phonetic part of the character.
Thus, adopting letters as strokes, for the_ purpose of illustration, we
should
strokes
under

hundred and fourteen Radicals are themselves arranged in groups
according to the number of strokes; so that it is not a very arduous
task to turn up ordinary characters in a Chinese dictionary. Finally,
although Chinese is a monosyllabic and non-alphabetic language,
a method has been devised, and has been in use since the 3rd century
A.D., by which the sound of any word can be indicated in a dictionary
otherwise than by simply quoting a word of similar sound, which of
course may be equally unknown to the searcher. Thus, the sound
of a word pronounced ching can be exhibited by selecting two words,
one having the initial ch, and the other a final ing. E.g. the sound
ching is given as Men ling; that is ch[ien l\ing = ching.

The Concordance. Considering the long unbroken series of years
during which Chinese literature has always, in spite of many losses,
been steadily gaining in bulk, it is not astonishing to find that
classical, historical, mythological and other allusions to personages
or events of past times have also grown out of all proportion to the
brain capacity even of the most brilliant student. Designed especi-
ally to meet this difficulty, there are several well-known handbooks,
elementary and advanced, which trace such allusions to their source
and provide full and lucid explanations; but even the most extensive
of these is on a scale incommensurate with the requirements of the
scholar. Again, it is due to the emperor K'ang Hsi that we possess
one of the most elaborate compilations of the kind ever planned and
carried to completion. The P'ei Wen Yiin Fu, or Concordance to
Literature, is a key, not onlv to allusions in general, but to all phrase-
ology, including allusions, idiomatic expressions and other obscure
combinations of words, to be found in the classics, in the dynastic
histories, and in all poets, historians, essayists, and writers of recog-
nized eminence in their own lines. No attempt at explanation is
given; but enough of the passage, or passages, in which the phrase
occurs, is cited to enable the reader to gather the meaning required.
The trouble, of course, lies with the arrangement of these phrases in
a non-alphabetic language. Recourse has been had to the Rhymes
and the five Tones (see Language) ; and all phrases which end with
the same word form one of a number of groups which appear under
the same Rhyme, the Rhymes themselves being distributed over five
Tones. Thus, to find any phrase, the first point is to discover what is
its normal Rhyme; the next is to ascertain the Tone of that Rhyme.
Then, under this Tone-group the Rhyme-word will be found, and
under the Rhyme-word group will be found the final word of the
phrase in question. It will now only remain to run through this last
group of phrases, all of which have this same final word, and the
search so vast is the collection will usually yield a satisfactory
result. The P'ei Wen Yiin Fu runs of course to many volumes; a
rough estimate shows it to contain over fifteen million words.

Encyclopaedias. In their desire to bring together condensed, yet
precise, information on a large variety of subjects, the Chinese may
be said to have invented the encyclopaedia. Though not the earliest
work of this kind, the T'ai P'ing Yu Lan is the first of any great im-
portance. It was produced towards the close of the loth century
A.D., under the direct supervision of the emperor, who is said to have
examined three sections every day for about a year, the total number
of sections being one thousand in all, arranged under fifty-five
headings. Another similar work, dealing with topics drawn from the
lighter literature of China, is the T'ai P'ing Kuang Chi. which was
issued at about the same date as the last-mentioned. Both of these,
and especially the former, have passed through several editions.
They help to inaugurate the great Sung dynasty, which for three
centuries to follow effected so much in the cause of literature.
Other encyclopaedias, differing in scope and in plan, appeared from
time to time, but it will be necessary to concentrate attention upon
Yung Lo two on ' v> The third emperor of the Ming dynasty, known
Ta Tien, as Yung Lo, A.D. 1403-1425, issued a commission for the
production of a work on a scale which was colossal even
for China. His idea was to collect together all that had ever been
written in the four departments of (i) the Confucian Canon, (2)
History, (3) Philosophy and (4) General Literature, including
astronomy, geography, cosmogony, medicine, divination, Buddhism,
Taoism, arts and handicrafts; and in 1408 such an encyclopaedia
was laid before the Throne, received the imperial approval and was
named Yung Lo Ta Tien, or The Great Standard of Yung Lo. To
achieve this, 3 commissioners, with 5 directors, 20 sub-directors and a
staff of 2141 assistants, had laboured for the space of five years.
Its contents ran to no fewer than 22,877 separate sections, to which
must be added an index filling 60 sections. Each section contained
about 20 leaves, making a total of 917,480 pages for the whole work.
Each page consisted of sixteen columns of characters averaging
twenty-five to each column, or a total of 366,992,000 characters, to
which, in order to bring the amount into terms of English words,
about another third would have to be added. This extraordinary
work was never printed, as the expense would have been too great,
although it was actually transcribed for that purpose; and later on,

two more copies were made, one of which was finally stored in Peking
and the other, with the original, in Nanking. Both the Nanking
copies perished at the fall oT the Ming dynasty; and a similar fate
overtook the Peking copy, with the exception of a few odd volumes,
at the siege of the legations in 1000. The latter was bound up in
1 1,100 volumes, covered with yellow silk, each volume being I ft.
8 in. in length by I ft. in breadth, and averaging over J in. in thick-
ness. This would perhaps be a fitting point to conclude any notice .
of Chinese encyclopaedias, but for the fact that the work of Yung Lo
is gone while another encyclopaedia, also on a huge scale, designed
and carried out some centuries later, is still an important work of
reference.

The T'u Shu Chi Ch'dng was planned, and to a great extent made
ready, under instructions from the emperor K'ang Hsi (see above),
and was finally brought out by his successor, Yung ChSng,
1723-1736. Intended to embrace all departments of Tit Shu.
knowledge, its contents were distributed over six leading categories,
which for want of better equivalents may be roughly rendered by
(i) Heaven, (2) Earth, (3).Man, (4) Arts and Sciences, (5) Philosophy
and (6) Political Science. _ These were subdivided into thirty-two
classes; and in the voluminous index which accompanies the work
a further attempt was made to bring the searcher into still closer
touch with the individual items treated. Thus, the category Heaven
is subdivided into four classes, namely ^again, for want of better
terms (a) The Sky and its Manifestations, (6) The Seasons, (c)
Astronomy and Mathematics and (d) Natural Phenomena. Under
these classes come the individual items; and here it is that the
foreign student is often at a loss. For instance, class a includes
Earth, in its cosmogonic sense, as the mother of mankind ; Heaven,
in its original sense of God; the Dual Principle in nature; the Sun,
Moon and Stars; Wind; Clouds; Rainbow; Thunder and Light-
ning; Rain; Fire, &c. But Earth is itself a geographical category;
and all strange phenomena relating to many of the items under class
a are recorded under class d. Category No. 6, marked as Political
Science, contains such classes as Ceremonial, Music and Administra-
tion of Justice, alongside of Handicrafts, making it essential to study
the arrangement carefully before it is possible to consult the work
with ease. Such preliminary trouble is, however, well repaid, the
amount of information given on any particular subject being practic-
ally coextensive with what is known about that subject. The
method of presenting such information, with variations to suit the
nature of the topics handled, is to begin with historical excerpts,
chronologically arranged. These are usually followed by sometimes
lengthy essays dealing with the subject as a theme, taken from the
writings of qualified authors, and like all the other entries, also
chronologically arranged. Then come elegant extracts in prose and
verse, in all of which the subject may be simply mentioned and not
treated as in the essays. After these follow minor notices of incidents,
historical and otherwise, and all kinds of anecdotes, derived from a
great variety of sources. Occasionally, single poetical lines are
brought together, each contributing some thought or. statement
germane to the subject, expressed in elegant or forcible terms; and
also, wherever practicable, biographies of men and women are
inserted.

Chronological and other tables are supplied where necessary, as
well as a very large number of illustrations, many of these being
reproductions of woodcuts from earlier works. It is said that the
T'u Shu Chi Ch'eng was printed from movable copper type cast by
the Jesuit Fathers employed by the emperor K'ang Hsi at Peking;
also that only a hundred copies were struck off, the type being then
destroyed. An 8vo edition of the whole encyclopaedia was issued at
Shanghai in 1889; this is bound up in sixteen hundred and twenty-
eight handy volumes of about two hundred pages each. A copy of
the original edition stands on the shelves of the British Museum, and
a translation of the Index has recently been completed.

Manuscripts and Printing. At the conclusion of this brief
survey of Chinese literature it may well be asked how such an
enormous and ever-increasing mass has been handed down
from generation to generation. According to the views put forth
by early Chinese antiquarians, the first written records were
engraved with a special knife upon bamboo slips and wooden
tablets. The impracticability of such a process, as applied to
books, never seems to have dawned upon those writers; and
this snoivball of error, started in the 7th century, long after the
knife and the tablet had disappeared as implements of writing,
continued to gather strength as time went on. Recent
researches, however, have placed it beyond doubt that when the
Chinese began to write in a literary sense, as opposed to mere
scratchings on bones, they traced their characters on slips of
bamboo and tablets of wood with a bamboo pencil, frayed at one
end to carry the coloured liquid which stood in the place of ink.
The knife was used only to erase. So things went on until about
200 B.C., when it would appear that a brush of hair was sub-
stituted for the bamboo pencil; after which, silk was called into
requisition as an appropriate vehicle in connexion with the more

CHINA CHINCHEW

231

delicate brush. But silk was expensive and difficult to handle,
so that the invention of paper in A.D. 105 by a eunuch, named
Ts'ai Lun, came as a great boon, although it seems clear that a
certain kind of paper, made from silk floss, was in use before his
date. However that may be, from the ist century onwards the
Chinese have been in possession of the same writing materials
that are in use at the present day.

In A.D. 170, Ts'ai Yung, who rose subsequently to the highest
offices of state, wrote out on stone in red ink the authorized text
of the Five Classics, to be engraved by workmen, and thus
handed down to posterity. The work covered forty-six huge
tablets, of which a few fragments are said to be still in existence.
A similar undertaking was carried out in 837, and the later
tablets are still standing at a temple in the city of Hsi-an Fu,
Shensi. With the T'ang dynasty, rubbings of famous inscriptions,
wherein the germ of printing may be detected, whether for the
style of the composition or for the calligraphic excellence of the
script, came very much into vogue with scholars and collectors.
It is also from about trie same date that the idea of multiplying
on paper impressions taken from wooden blocks seems to have
arisen, chiefly in connexion with religious pictures and prayers.
The process was not widely applied to the production of books
until the loth century, when in A.D. 932 the Confucian Canon
was printed for the first time. In 981 orders were issued for the
Tai P'ing Kuang Chi, an encyclopaedia extending to many
volumes (see above) to be cut on blocks for printing. Movable
types of baked clay are said to have been invented by an
alchemist, named Pi Sheng, about A.D. 1043 ; and under the Ming
dynasty, 1368-1644, these were made first of wood, and later
of copper or lead, but movable types have never gained the
favour accorded to block-printing, by means of which most of
China's great typographical triumphs have been achieved. The
process is, and always has been, the same all over China. Two
consecutive pages of a book, separated by a column containing
the title, number of section, and number of leaf, are written out
and pasted face downwards on a block of wood (Lindera tzu-mu,
Hemsl.). This paper, where not written upon, is cut away with
sharp tools, leaving the characters in relief, and of course back-
wards, as in the case of European type. The block is then inked,
' and an impression is taken off, on one side of the paper only.
This sheet is then folded down the middle of the separating
column above mentioned, so that the blank halves come
together, leaving two pages of printed matter outside; and when
enough sheets have been brought together, they are stabbed at
the open ends and form a volume, to be further wrapped in
paper or pasteboard, and labelled with title, &c. It is almost
superfluous to say that the pages of a Chinese book must not be
cut. There is nothing inside, and, moreover, the column bearing
the title and leaf-number would be cut through. The Chinese
newspapers of modern times are all printed from movable types,
an ordinary fount consisting of about six to seven thousand
characters.

See J. Legge, The Chinese Classics (1861-1872); A. Wylie, Notes
on Chinese Literature (1867); E. Chavannes, Memoires historiques
(1895-1905) ; H. A. Giles, Chuang Tzu (1889), A Chinese Biographical
Dictionary (1898), and A History of Chinese Literature (1901); A.
Forke, Lun-Heng (1907); F. Hirth, The Ancient History of China
(1908) ; L. Giles, Sun Tzu (1910). (H. A. Gi.)

CHINA, the common name for ware made of porcelain, given
because it came from China, where the first vitrified, translucent,
white ware was produced. The Portuguese or Italians gave it
the name of " porcelain " (q.v.). English usage was influenced
by India and the East, where the Persian chlni was widely
prevalent as the name of the ware. This is seen also in some
of the earlier forms and pronunciations, e.g. chiney, cheney, and
later chancy (see CERAMICS; and for " china-clay " KAOLIN).

CHINANDEGA, or CHINENDEGA, the capital of the department
of Chinandega in western Nicaragua, 10 m. N.N.E. of the seaport
of Corinto by the Corinto-Managua railway. Pop. (1900) about
12,000. Chinandega is the centre of a fertile corn-producing
district, and has a large transit trade owing to its excellent situa-
tion on the chief Nicaraguan railway. Its manufactures include

coarse cloth, pottery and Indian feather ornaments. Cotton,
sugar-cane and bananas are cultivated in the neighbourhood.

CHI-NAN FU, the capital of Shan-tung, China, in 36 40' N.,
117 i' E. Pop. about 100,000. It is situated in one of the
earliest settled districts of the Chinese empire. The city,
which lies in the valley of the present channel of the Yellow
river (Hwang-Ho), and about 4 m. south of the river, is
surrounded by a triple line of defence. First is the city wall,
strongly built and carefully guarded, outside this a granite wall,
and beyond this again a mud rampart. Three springs outside
the west gate throw up streams of tepid water to a height of
about 2 fc. This water, which is highly prized for its healing
qualities, fills the moat and forms a fine lake in the northern
quarter of the city.

Chi-nan Fu was formerly famous for its manufacture of silks
and of imitation precious stones. It is now the chief commercial
entrepfit of Western Shan-tung but no longer a manufacturing
centre. A highway connects it with the Yellow river, and it is
joined by a railway 280 m. long to Kiaochow. The city has a
university for instruction on Western lines, and an efficient
military school. American Presbyterians began mission work
in the city in 1873; it is also the see of a Roman Catholic
bishop.

CHINCHA ISLANDS, three small islands in the Pacific Ocean,
about 12 m. from the coast of Peru (to which country they
belong), opposite the town of Pisco, and 106 m. distant from
Callao, in 13 38' S., 76 28' W. The largest of the group,
known as the North Island or Isla del Norte, is only four-fifths
of a mile in length, and about a third in breadth. They are of
granitic formation, and rise from the sea in precipitous cliffs,
worn into countless caves and hollows, which furnish convenient
resting-places for the sea-fowl. Their highest points attain an
elevation of 113 ft. The islands have yielded a few remains of
the Chincha Indian race. They were formerly noted for
vast deposits of guano, and its export was begun by the Peruvian
government in 1840. The supply, however,- was exhausted in
1874. In 1853-1854 the Chincha Islands were the chief object in
a contest known as the Guano War between President Echenique
and General Castilla; and in April 1864 they were seized by the
Spanish rear-admiral Pinzon in order to bring the Peruvian
government to apologize for its treatment of Spanish immigrants.

CHINCHEW, or CHINCHU, the name usually given in English
charts to an ancient and famous port of China in the province
of Fu-kien, of which the Chinese name is Ch'ilanchow-fu or
Ts'iianchow-fu. It stands in 24 57' N., 118 35' E. The walls
have a circuit of 7 or 8 m., but embrace much vacant ground.
The chief exports are tea and sugar, tobacco, china-ware, nan-
keens, &c. There are remains of a fine mosque, founded by the
Arab traders who resorted thither. The English Presbyterian
Mission has had a chapel in the city since about 1862. Beyond
the northern branch of the Min (several miles from the city)
there is a suburb called Loyang, approached by the most
celebrated bridge in China.

Ch'iianchow, owing to the obstruction of its harbour by sand
banks, has been supplanted as a port by Amoy, and its trade is
carried on through the port of Nganhai. It is still, however, a
large and populous city. It was in the middle ages the great port
of Western trade with China, and was known to the Arabs and to
Europeans asZaiiun orZayton, the name under which it appears in
Abulfeda's geography and in the Mongol history of Rashiddudin,
as well as in Ibn Batuta,Marco Polo and other medieval travellers.
Some argument has been alleged against the identity of Zayton
with Ch'iianchow, and in favour of its being rather Changchow
(a great city 60 m. W.S.W. of Ch'iianchow), or a port on the river
of Changchow near Amoy. " Port of Zayton " may have
embraced the great basin called Amoy Harbour, the chief part
of which lies within the Fu or department of Ch iianchow; but
there is hardly room for doubt that the Zayton of Marco Polo and
Abulfeda was the Ch'iianchow of the Chinese. Ibn Batuta in-
forms us that a rich silk texture made here was called Zaituniya;
and there can be little doubt that this is the real origin of the
word " Satin," Zettani in medieval Italian, Aceytuni in Spanish.

232

CHINCHILLA CHINESE PAVILLON

CHINCHILLA, a small grey hopping rodent mammal (Chin-
chilla lanigera), of the approximate size of a squirrel, inhabiting
the eastern slopes of the Andes in Chile and Bolivia, at altitudes
between 8000 and 12,000 ft. It typifies not only the genus
Chinchilla, but the family Chinchillidae, for the distinctive
features of which see RODENTIA. The ordinary chinchilla is
about 10 in. in length, exclusive of the long tail, and in the form
of its head -somewhat resembles a rabbit. It is covered with a
dense soft fur f in. long on the back and upwards of an inch in
length on the sides, of a delicate French grey colour, darkly
mottled on the upper surface and dusky white beneath; the ears
being long, broad and thinly covered with hair. Chinchillas
live in burrows, and these subterranean dwellings undermine
the ground in some parts of the Chilean Andes to such an extent
as to cause danger to travellers on horseback. They associate
in communities, forming their burrows among loose rocks, and
coming out to feed in the early morning and towards sunset.
They feed chiefly on roots and grasses, in search of which they
often travel considerable distances; and when eating they sit on
their haunches, holding their food in their fore-paws. The
Indians in hunting them employ the grison (Galictis vittala), a
member of the weasel family, which is trained to enter the
crevices of the rocks where the chinchillas He concealed during
the day. The fur (q.v.) of this rodent was prized by the ancient
Peruvians, who made coverlets and other articles with the skin,
and at the present day the skins are exported in large numbers
to Europe, where they are made into muffs, tippets and trim-
mings. That chinchillas have not under such circumstances
become rare, if not extinct, is owing to their extraordinary
fecundity, the female usually producing five or six young twice
a year. They are docile in disposition, and thus well fitted for
domestication. The Peruvian chinchilla (C. brevicaudala) is
larger, with relatively shorter ears and tail; while still larger
species constitute the genus Lagidium, ranging from the Andes
to Patagonia, and distinguished by having four in place of five
front-toes, more pointed ears, and a somewhat differently formed
skull. (See also VISCACHA). (R. L.*)

CHINDE, a town of Portuguese East Africa, chief port for the
Zambezi valley and British Central Africa, at the mouth of the
Chinde branch of the Zambezi, in 18 40' S., 36 30' E. Pop.
(1907) 2790, of whom 218 were Europeans. Large steamers are
unable to cross the bar, over which the depth of water varies from
10 to 1 8 ft. Chinde owes its existence to the discovery in 1889
that the branch of the river on the banks of which it is built is
navigable from the ocean (see ZAMBEZI). The Portuguese in
1891 granted on lease for 99 years an area of 5 acres subse-
quently increased to 25 to the British government, on which
goods in transit to British possessions could be stored duty
free. This block of land is known as the British Concession, or
British Chinde. The prosperity of the town largely depends
on the transit trade with Nyasaland and North East Rhodesia.
There is also a considerable export from Portuguese districts,
sugar, cotton and ground nuts being largely cultivated in the
Zambezi valley, and gold and copper mines worked.

CHINDWIN, a river of Burma, the largest tributary of the
Irrawaddy, its entire course being in Burmese territory. It is
called Ningthi by the Manipuris. The Chindwin is formed by the
junction of the Tanai, the Tawan and the Taron or Turong,
but it is still uncertain which is the main stream. The Tanai
has hitherto been looked on as the chief source. It rises in about
25 30' N. and 97 E., on the Shwedaung-gyi peak of the Kumon
range, 12 m. N. of Mogaung, and flows due N. for the first part
of its course until it reaches the Hukawng valley, when it turns
to the W. and flows through the middle of the plain to the end
of the valley proper. There it curves round to the S., passes
through the Tar6n or Turong valley, takes the name of the
Chindwin, and maintains a general southerly course until it
enters the Irrawaddy, after flowing through the entire length
of the Upper and Lower Chindwin districts, in about 21 30' N.
and 95 15' E. Its extreme outlets are 22 m. apart, the interval
forming a succession of long, low, partially populated islands.
The most southerly mouth of the Chindwin is, according to

tradition, an artificial channel, cut by one of the kings of Pagan.
It was choked up for many centuries, until in 1824 it was opened
out by an exceptional flood. The Tanai (it is frequently called
Tanaikha, but kha is merely the Kachin word for river), as long
as it retains that name, is a swift, clear river, from 50 to 300 yds.
wide and from 3 to 15 ft. deep. The river is navigated by native
boats in the Hukawng valley, but launches cannot come up
from the Chindwin proper because of the reefs below Taro.

The Tarfin, Tur&ng or Towang river seems to be the real main
source of the Chindwin. It flows into the Hukawng valley from the
north, and has a swift current with a succession of rapids. Its sources
are in the hills to the south of Sadiya, rising from 10,000 to 11,000 ft.
above sea-level. It flows through a deep valley, with a general E.
and W. direction, as far as its junction with the Loglai. It then
turns S., and after draining an intricate system of hills, breaks into
the Hukawng valley a few miles N. of Saraw, and joins or receives
the Tanai about 10 m. above Kintaw village. Except the Tanai,
the chief branches of the Upper Chindwin rise in mountains that are
covered at least with winter snows. Below the Hukawng valley the
Chindwin is interrupted at several places by fails or transverse reefs.
At the village of Haksa there is a fall, which necessitates tranship-
ment from large boats to canoes. Not far below this the Uyu river
comes in on the left bank at Homalin, and from this point down-
wards the steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company ply for the
greater part of the year. The Uyu flows through a fertile and well-
cultivated valley, and during the rainy season it is navigable for a
distance of 150 m. from its mouth by steamers of light draught.
Ordinarily regular steam communication with Homalin ceases in
the dry weather, but from Kindat, nearly 150 m. below it, there are
weekly steamers all the year round. Below Kindat the only con-
siderable affluent of the Chindwin is the Myit-tha, which receives
the Chin hills drainage. The Chindwin rises considerably during the
rains, but in March and April it is here and there so shallow as to
make navigation difficult even for small steam launches. Whirlpools
and narrows and shifting sandbanks also give some trouble, but
much has been done to improve navigation since the British annexa-
tion. Kindat, the headquarters of the Upper Chindwin district, and
M6nywa of the Lower, are on the banks of the river. (J. G. Sc.)

CHINDWIN, UPPER and LOWER, two districts in the
Sagaing division of Upper Burma. Upper Chindwin has an
area of 19,062 sq. m., and a population, according to the census
of 1901, of 154,551. Lower Chindwin has an area of 3480 sq. m.,
and a population of 276,383. Upper Chindwin lies to the north
of the lower district, and is bounded on the N. by the Chin, Naga
and Kachin hills; on the E. they are bounded by the Myitkyina,
Katha and Shwebo districts; Lower Chindwin is bounded on
the S. by the Pakokku and Sagaing districts; and both districts
are bounded on the W. by the Chin hills, and by Pakdkku on
the southern stretch. The western portion of both districts is
hilly, and the greater part of Upper Chindwin is of the same
character. Both have valuable teak forests. The total rainfall
averages in Lower Chindwin 27 and in Upper Chindwin 60 in.
Coal exists in extensive fields, but these are not very accessible.
Rice forms the great crop, but a certain amount of til-seed and
of indigo is also cultivated. Kindat, a mere village, is the head-
quarters of the upper district, and Monywa, with a population
of 7869, of the lower. Both are on the Chindwin river, and are
served by the steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company. Alon ,
close to Monywa, and formerly the headquarters, is the terminus
of the railway from Sagaing westwards, which was opened in 1900.

CHINESE PAVILLON, TURKISH CRESCENT, TURKISH JINGLE,
or JINGLING JOHNNY (Fir. chapeau chinois; Get. liirkischer
Halbmond, Schellenbaum; Ital. cappello Chinese), an instrument
of percussion of indefinite sonorousness, i.e. not producing definite
musical tones. The chapeau chinois was formerly an adjunct
in military bands, but never in the orchestra, where an instru-
ment of somewhat similar shape, often confused with it and
known as the Glockenspiel (q.v.), is occasionally called into
requisition. The Chinese pavilion consists of a pole about 6 ft.
high terminating in a conical metal cap or pavilion, hung with
small jingling bells and surmounted by a crescent and a star.
Below this pavilion are two or more metal bands forming a
fanciful double crescent or squat lyre, likewise furnished with
tiny bells. The two points of the crescent are curved over,
ending in fanciful animal heads from whose mouths hang low
streaming tails of horse-hair. The Chinese pavilion is played by
shaking or waving the pole up and down and jingling the bells, a
movement which can at best be but a slow one repeated once or

CHINGFORD CHINO-JAPANESE WAR

at most twice in a bar to punctuate the phrases and add brilliancy
to the military music. The Turkish crescent or " jingling Johnny,"
as it was familiarly called in the British army bands, was intro-
duced by the Janissaries into western Europe. It has fallen into
disuse now, having been replaced by the glockenspiel or steel
harmonica. Edinburgh University possesses two specimens. 1
In the i8th century at Bartholomew Fair one of the chief bands
hired was one well known as playing in London on winter
evenings in front of the Spring-Garden coffee house and opposite
Wigley's. This band consisted of a double drum, a Dutch organ
(see BARREL-ORGAN), a tambourine, a violin, pipes and the
Turkish jingle. 2 (K. S.)

CHINGFORD, an urban district in the Epping parliamentary
division of Essex, England, loj m. N. of London (Liverpool
Street station) by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1001) 4373.
It lies between the river Lea and the western outskirts of Epping
Forest. The church of All Saints has Early English and Per-
pendicular remains. Queen Elizabeth's or Fair Mead hunting
lodge, a picturesque half-timbered building, is preserved under
the Epping Forest Preservation Act. A majestic oak, one of
the finest trees in the Forest, stands near it. Buckhurst Hill
(an urban district; pop. 4786) lies to the N.E.

CHINGLEPUT, or CHENGALPAT, a town and district of British
India, in the Madras presidency. The town, situated 36 m. by
rail from Madras, had a population in 1901 of 10,551. With
Chandragiri in North Arcot, Chingleput was once the capital -of
the Vijayanagar kings, after their overthrow by the Mussulmans
at Talikota in 1565. In 1639 a chief, subject to these kings,
granted to the East India Company the land on which Fort St
George now stands. The fort built by the Vijayanagar kings in
the 1 6th century was of strategic importance, owing to its
swampy surroundings and the lake that flanked its side. It was
taken by the French in 1751, and was retaken in 1752 by Clive,
after which it proved invaluable to the British, especially when
Lally in his advance on Madras left it unreduced in his rear.
During the wars of the British with Hyder Ali it withstood his
power, and afforded a refuge to the natives; and in 1780, after
the defeat of Colonel W. Baillie, the army of Sir Hector Munro
here found refuge. The town is noted for its manufacture of
pottery, and carries on a trade in rice.

The DISTRICT OF CHINGLEPUT surrounds the city of Madras,
stretching along the coast for about 115 m. The administrative
headquarters are at Saidapet. Area, 3079 sq. m. Pop. (1901)
1,312,122, showing an increase of 9% in the decade. Salt is
extensively manufactured all along the coast. Cotton and silk
weaving is also largely carried on, and there are numerous indigo
vats, tanneries and an English cigar factory.

CHIN HILLS, a mountainous district of Upper Burma. It lies
on the border between the Lushai districts of Eastern Bengal and
Assam and the plains of Burma, and has an area of 8000 sq. m.
It is bounded N. by Assam and Manipur, S. by Arakan, E. by
Burma, and W. by Tippera and the Chittagong hill tracts. The
Chins, Lushais and Kukis are to the north-east border of India
what the Pathan tribes are to the north-west frontier. In 1895
the Chin Hills were declared a part of the province of Burma,
and constituted a scheduled district which is now administered
by a political officer with headquarters at Falam. The tract
forms a parallelogram 250 m. from N. to S. by 100 to 1 50 m. wide.
The country consists of a much broken and contorted mass of
mountains, intersected by deep valleys. The main ranges run
generally N. to S., and vary in height from 5000 to 9000 ft.,
among the most important being the Letha or Tang, which is
the watershed between the Chindwin and Manipur rivers; the
Imbukklang, which divides the Sokte tribe from the Whenchs
and sheds the water from its eastern slopes into Upper Burma
and that from its western slopes into Arakan; and the Rong-
klang, which with its prolongations is the main watershed of the
southern hills, its eastern slopes draining into the Myittha and
thus into the Chindwin, while the western fall drains into the

1 See Captain C. R. Day. Descriptive Catalogue of Musical Instru-
tents (London, 1891), p. 233.
1 See Hone's Everyday Book, i. 1248.

233

Boinu river, which winding through the hills discharges itself
eventually in the Bay of Bengal. The highest peak yet dis-
covered is the Liklang, between Rawywa and Lungno, some 70 m.
S. of Haka (nearly 10,000 ft.).

It is supposed that the Kukis of Manipur, the Lushais of Bengal
and Assam, and the Chins originally lived in Tibet and are of the same
stock; their form of government, method of cultivation, manners
and customs, beliefs and traditions all point to one origin. The slow
speech, the serious manner, the respect for birth and the knowledge
of pedigrees, the duty of revenge, the taste for and the treacherous
method of warfare, the curse of drink, the virtue of hospitality, the
clannish feeling, the vice of avarice, the filthy state of the body,
mutual distrust, impatience under control, the want of power of
combination and of continued effort, arrogance in victory, speedy
discouragement and panic in defeat, are common traits. The Chins,
Lushais and Kukis were noted for the secrecy of their plans, the
suddenness of their raids, and their extraordinary speed in retreating
to their fastnesses. After committing a raid they have been known
to march two days and two nights consecutively without cooking a
meal or sleeping, so as to escape from any parties which might follow
them. The British, since the occupation of Upper Burma, nave been
able to penetrate the Chin-Lushai country from both sides at once.
The pacification of the Chin Hills is a triumph for British administra-
tion. Roads, on which Chin coolies now readily work, have been con-
structed in all directions. The rivers have been bridged ; the people
have taken up the cultivation of English vegetables, and the indigen-
ous districts have been largely developed. The Chin Hills had a
population (1901 census) of 87,189, while the Chins in Burma totalled
179,292. The Pak6kku Chin Hills, which form a separate tract, have
an area of 2260 sq. m. ; pop. (1901) 13,116. (J. G. Sc.)

CHINKIANG, or CHEN-KiANG-Fu, a treaty port of China, in
the province of Kiang-su, on the Yangtsze-kiang above Shanghai,
from which it is distant 160 m. It is in railway communication
both with Shanghai and Nanking (40 m. distant), 'and being at
the point where the Grand Canal running N. and S. intersects
the Yangtsze, which runs E. and W., is peculiarly well situated
to be a commercial entrep6t. The total value of exports and
imports for 1904 was 4,632,992; estimated pop. 168,000. In the
war of 1842 it yielded to the British only after a desperate
resistance. It was laid waste by the T'aip'ing rebels in 1853,
and was recaptured by the imperial forces in 1858.

CHINO-JAPANESE WAR (1894-95). The causes of this
conflict arose out of the immemorial rivalry of China and Japan
for influence in Korea. In the i6th century a prolonged war in
the peninsula had ended with the failure of Japan to make good
her footing on the mainland a failure brought about largely by
lack of naval resources. In more modern times (1875, 1882, 1884)
Japan had repeatedly sent expeditions to Korea, and had fostered
the growth of a progressive party in Seoul. The difficulties of
1884 were settled between China and Japan by the convention of
Tientsin, wherein it was agreed that in the event of future
intervention each should inform the other if it were decided to
despatch troops to the peninsula. Nine years later the occasion
arose. A serious rebellion induced the Korean government to
apply for military assistance from China. Early in June 1894
a small force of Chinese troops were sent to Asan, and Japan,
duly informed of this action, replied by furnishing her minister
at Seoul with an escort, rapidly following up this step by the
despatch of about 5000 troops under Major-General Oshima.
A complicated situation thus arose. Chinese troops were present
in Korea by the request of the government to put down rebellion.
The Japanese controlled the capital, and declined to recognize
Korea as a tributary of China. But she proposed that the
two powers should unite to suppress the disturbance and to
inaugurate certain specified reforms. China considered that the
measures of reform must be left to Korea herself. The reply was
that Japan considered the government of Korea " lacking in
some of the elements which are essential to responsible inde-
pendence." By the middle of July war had become inevitable
unless the Peking government were willing to abandon all claims
over Korea, and as Chinese troops were already in the country by
invitation, it was not to be expected that the shadowy suzerainty
would be abandoned.

At Seoul the issue was forced by the Japanese minister, who
delivered an ultimatum to the Korean government on the 2oth of
July. On the 23rd the palace was forcibly occupied. Meanwhile
China had despatched about 8000 troops to the Yalu 'river.

234

The outbreak of war thus found the Japanese in possession of
Seoul and ready to send large forces to Korea, while the Chinese
occupied Asan (about 40 m. south of the capital), and had a
considerable body of troops in Manchuria in addition to those
despatched to the Yalu river. To Japan the command of the
sea was essential for the secure transport and supply of her
troops. Without it the experience of the war of the i6th century
would be repeated. China, too, could only utilize overland routes
to Korea by submitting to the difficulties and delays entailed.
To both powers the naval question was thus important.

By the time war was finally declared (August i) hostilities had
already begun. On the 25th of July Oshima set out from Seoul to
attack the Chinese at Asan. On the 29th he won a victory at Song-
hwan, but the Chinese commander escaped with a considerable part
of his forces by a detour to Ping- Yang (Phyong-Yang). Meanwhile
a portion of the Japanese fleet had encountered some Chinese war-
ships and transports off Phung-Tao, and scored an important success,
sinking, amongst other vessels, the transport " Kowshing " (July 25).
The loss of more than 1000 Chinese soldiers in this vessel materially
lightened Oshima's task. The intention of the Chinese to crush
their enemies between their forces at Asan and Ping- Yang was
completely frustrated, and the Japanese obtained control of all
southern Korea.

Reinforcements from Japan were now pouring into Korea, in spite
.of the fact that the rival navies had not yet tried conclusions, and
General Nozu, the senior Japanese officer present, soon found him-
self in a position to move on Ping- Yang. Three columns converged
upon the place on the isth of September, and in spite of its strong
walls carried it, though only after severe fighting.

Nearly all the troops on either side had been conveyed to the
scene of war by sea, though the decisive contest for sea supremacy
was still to be fought. The Chinese admiral Ting with the Northern
Squadron (which alone took part in the war) had hitherto remained
inactive in Wei-hai-wei, and on the other side Vice-Admiral Itp's
fleet had not directly interfered with the hostile transports which
were reinforcing the troops on the Yalu. But two days after the
battle of Ping- Yang, Ting, who had conveyed a large body of
troops to the mouth of the Yalu, encountered the Japanese fleet on
his return journey off Hai-Yang-Tao on the I7th of September.
The heavy battleships " Chen- Yuen " and " Ting-Yuen " constituted
the strongest element of the Chinese squadron, for the Japanese,
superior as they were in every other factor of success, had no vessels
which could compare with these in the matter of protection. Ting
advanced in a long irregular line abreast; the battleships in the
centre, the lighter vessels on the wings. Ito's fast cruisers steamed
in line ahead against the Chinese right wing, crushing their weaker
opponents with their fire. In the end the Chinese fleet was defeated
and scattered, but the two heavy battleships drew off without
serious injury. This battle of the Yalu gave Japan command of
the sea, but Ito continued to act with great caution. The remnants
of the vanquished fleet took refuge in Port Arthur, whence after
repairs Ting proceeded to Wei-hai-wei.

The victory of Ping- Yang had cleared Korea of the Chinese troops,
but on the lower Yalu their own frontier large forces threatened
a second advance. Marshal Yarnagata therefore took the offensive
with his 1st army, and on the 24th and 25th of October, under great
difficulties though without serious opposition from the enemy
forced the passage of the river and occupied Chiulien-cheng. Part
of the Chinese force retired to the north-east, part to Feng-hwang-
cheng and Hsiu-yuen (Siu-Yen). The Japanese 1st army advanced
several columns towards the mountains of Manchuria to secure its
conquests and prepare for a future advance. General Tachimi's
brigade occupied Feng-hwang-cheng on the 2gth of October. On
the 7th of November a column from the Yalu took Takushan, and
a few days later a converging attack from these two places was made
upon Hsiu-yuen, which was abandoned by the Chinese. Meanwhile
Tachimi, skirmishing with the enemy on the Mukden and Liao-
Yang roads, found the Chinese in force. A simultaneous forward
move by both sides led to the action of Tsao-ho-ku (November 30),
after which both sides withdrew the Ch nese to the line of the
mountains covering Hai-cheng, Liao-Yang and Mukden, with the
Tatar general Ikotenga's force, 14,000 strong, on the Japanese right
north-east of Feng-hwang-cheng; and the Japanese to Chiulien-
cheng, Takushan and Hsiu-yuen. The difficulties of supply in the
hills were almost insurmountable, and no serious advance was
intended by the Japanese until January 1895, when it was to be made
in co-operation with the 2nd army. This army, under Marshal
Oyama, had been formed in September and at first sent to Chemulpo
as a support to the forces under Yamagata; but its chief task was
the siege and capture of the Chinese fortress, dockyard and arsenal
of Port Arthur.

The Liao-Tong peninsula was guarded by the walled city of
Kinchow and the forts of Ta-lien-wan (Dalny under the Russian
regime, and Tairen under the Japanese) as well as the fortifications
around_ Port Arthur itself. On the 24th of October the disem-
barkation of the 2nd army began near Pi-tsze-wo, and the successive
columns of the Japanese gradually moved towards Kinchow, which

CHINO-JAPANESE WAR

was carried without difficulty on the 6th of November. Even less
resistance was offered by the modern forts of Ta-lien-wan. The
Japanese now held a good harbour within a few miles of the main
fortress. Here they landed siege artillery, and on the 17th of
November the advance was resumed. The attack was made on the
igth at dawn. Yamaji's division (Nogi's and Nishi's brigades)
after a trying night march assaulted and carried the western defences
and moved upon the town. Hasegawa in the centre, as soon as
Yamaji began to appear in rear of his opponents in the northern
forts, pushed home his attack with equal success, and by 3 P.M.
practically all resistance was at an end. The Japanese paid for
this important success with but 423 casualties. Meanwhile the
Chinese general Sung, who had marched from Hai-cheng to engage
the 2nd army, appeared before Kinchow, where he received on the
22nd a severe repulse at the hands of the Japanese garrison. Marshal
Oyama subsequently stationed his advanced guard towards Hai-
cheng, the main body at Kinchow, and a brigade of infantry at Port
Arthur. Soon after this overtures of peace were made by China;
but her envoy, a foreigner unfurnished with credentials, was not
received by the Tokyo government.

The Japanese 1st army (now under General Nozu) at Antung
and Feng-hwang-cheng prepared, in spite of the season, to move
across the mountains, and on the 3rd of December General Katsura
left Antung for Hai-cheng. His line of march was by Hsi-mu-cheng,
and strong flank guards followed parallel routes on either side.
The march was accomplished safely and Hai-cheng occupied on the
I3th of December. In the meantime Tachimi had moved northward
from Feng-hwang-cheng, in order to distract the attention of the
Chinese from Hai-cheng, and there were some small engagements
between this force and that of Ikotenga, who ultimately retired
beyond the mountains to Liao-Yang. Sung had already left Kai-
pi.ng to secure Hai-cheng when he heard of the fall of that place;
his communications with Ikotenga being now severed, he swerved
to the north-west and established a new base at Niu-chwang. Once
on his new line Sung moved upon Hai-cheng. As it was essential
that he should be prevented from joining forces with Ikotenga,
General Katsura marched out of Hai-cheng to fight him. At Kang-
wang-tsai (December igth) the Chinese displayedunusual steadiness,
and it cost the Japanese some 343 casualties to dislodge the enemy.
The victors returned to Hai-cheng exhausted with their efforts, but
secure from attack for some time to come. The advanced troops of
the 2nd army (Nogi's brigade) were now ready to advance, and only
the Kai-ping garrison (left behind by Sung) barred their junction
with Katsura. At Kai-ping (January loth) the resistance of the
Chinese was almost as steady as at Kang-wang-tsai, and the Japanese
lost 300 killed and wounded in their successful attack. In neither
of these actions was the defeated force routed, nor did it retire very
far. On the I7th of January and again on the 22nd Ikotenga
attacked Hai-cheng from the north, but was repulsed.

Meanwhile the 2nd army, still under Oyama, had undertaken
operations against Wei-hai-wei, the second great fortress and dock-
yard of northern China, where Admiral Ting's squadron had been
refitting since the battle of the Yalu; and it was hoped that both
armies would accomplish their present tasks in time to advance in
the summer against Peking itself. On the i8th of January a naval
demonstration was made at Teng-chow-fu, 70 m. west of Wei-hai-
wei, and on the 1 9th the Japanese began their disembarkation at
Yung-cheng Bay, about 12 m. from Wei-hai-wei. The landing was
scarcely opposed, and on the 26th the Japanese advance was begun.
The south-eastern defences of Wei-hai-wei harbour were carried by
the 6th division, whilst the 2nd division reached the inner waters
of the bay, driving the Chinese before them. The fleet under Ito
co-operated effectively. On the night of the 4th-5th of February
the Chinese squadron in harbour was attacked by ten torpedo
boats. Two boats were lost, but the armour-clad " Ting- Yuen "
was sunk. On the following night a second attack was made, and
three more vessels were sunk. On the 9th the " Ching-Yuen "
was sunk by the guns in one of the captured forts.. On the I2th
Admiral Ting wrote to Admiral Ito offering to surrender, and then
took poison, other officers following his example. Wei-hai-wei was
then dismantled by the Japanese, who recovered the remnant of the
Chinese squadron, including the " Chen Yuen," and the 2nd army
concentrated at Port Arthur for the advance on Peking.

While this campaign was in progress the Chjnese despatched a
second peace mission, also with defective credentials. The Japanese
declined to treat, and the mission returned to China. In February
the Chinese made further'lunsuccessful attacksjon Hai-cheng. Yamaji
near Kai-ping fought a severe action on the 2ist, 22nd and 23rd of
February at Taping-shan against a part of Sung's army under
General Ma-yu-kun. This action was fought with 2 ft. of snow on
the ground, the thermometer registering zero F., and no less than
1500 cases of frost-bite were reported. It was the intention of
General Nozu, after freeing the Hai-cheng garrison from Ikotenga,
to seize Niu-chwang port. Two divisions converged on An-shan-
chan, and the Chinese, threatened in front and_flank, retired to
Liao-Yang. Meanwhile two more attacks on Hai-cheng had been
repulsed. The 3rd and 5th divisions then moved on Niu-chwang,
and Yamaji's 1st division at Kai-ping joined in the advance. The
column from An-shan-chan stormed Niu-chwang, which was
obstinately defended, and cost the stormers nearly 400 men. All

CHINON CHIOGGIA

235

three divisions converged on Niu-chwang port (Ying-kow), and the
final engagement took place at Tien-chwang-tai, which was captured
on the 9th of March. The Chinese forces in Manchuria being
thoroughly broken and dispersed, there was nothing to prevent
the Japanese from proceeding to the occupation of Peking, since
they could, after the break-up of the ice, land and supply large
forces at Shan-hai-kwan, within 170 m. of the capital. Two more
Japanese divisions were sent out, with Prince Komatsu as supreme
commander. Seven divisions were at Port Arthur ready to embark,
when negotiations were reopened. Li Hung-Chang proceeded to
Shimonoseki, where the treaty was signed on the I7tn of April 1895.
An expedition was sent towards the end of March to the Pescadores,
and later the Imperial Guard division was sent to Formosa.

It is impossible to estimate the Chinese losses in the war. The
Japanese lost 4177 men by death in action or by sickness, and
56,862 were wounded or disabled by sickness, exclusive of the
losses in the Formosa and Pescadores expeditions. Nearly two-
thirds of these losses were incurred by the 1st army in the trying
winter campaign in Manchuria.

The most important works dealing with the war are: Vladimir,
China- Japan War (London, 1896); Jukichi Inouye, The Japan-
China War (Yokohama, &c., 1896); du Boulay, Epitome of the
China-Japanese War (London, 1896), the official publication of the
British War Office; Atteridge, Wars of the Nineties, pp. 535-636
(London, 1899); von Kunowski and Fretzdorff, Der japanisch-
chinesische Krieg (Leipzig, 1895) ; von Miiller, Der Kriee zwischen
China und Japan (Berlin, 1895); Bujac, Precis de quetques cam-
pagnes contemporaines: II. La Guerre sino-japonaise (Paris and
Limoges).

CHINON, a town of western France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Indre-et-Loire, on the right bank of the
Vienne, 32 m. S.W. of Tours on the State railway. Pop. (1906)
4071. Chinon lies at the foot of the rocky eminence which is
crowned by the ruins of the famous castle. Its narrow, winding
streets contain many houses of the 1 5th and i6th centuries. The
oldest of its churches, St Mexme, is in the Romanesque style, but
only the facade and nave are left. The church of St Etienne dates
from the 1 5th century, that of St Maurice from the 1 2th, 1 5th and
1 6th centuries. The castle, which has undergone considerable
modern restoration, consists of three portions. That to the east,
the Chateau de St Georges, built by Henry II. of England, has
almost vanished, only the foundation of the outer wall remaining.
The Chiteau du Milieu (nth to isth centuries) comprises the
keep, the Pavilion de 1'Horloge and the Grand Logis, in the
principal apartment of which the first meeting between Joan of
Arc and Charles VII. took place. Of the Chateau du Coudray,
which is separated by a moat from the Chateau du Milieu, the
chief remains are the Tour du Moulin (loth century) and two less
ancient towers. A statue of Rabelais, who was born in the
vicinity of the town, stands on the river-quay. Chinon has
trade in wheat, brandy, red wine and plums. Basket and rope
manufacture, tanning and cooperage are among its industries.
Chinon (Caino) existed before the Roman occupation of Gaul,
and was from early times an important fortress. It was occupied
by the Visigoths, and subsequently, after forming part of the
royal domain, came to the counts of Touraine and from them
to the counts of Anjou. Henry II. often resided in the castle,
and died there. The place was taken by Philip Augustus in
1205 after a year's siege.

CHINOOK, a tribe of North American Indians, dwelling at the
mouth of the Columbia river, Washington. They were fishermen
and traders, and used huge canoes of hollowed cedar trunks.
The tribe is practically extinct, but the name survives in the trade
language known as " Chinook jargon." This has been analysed
as composed of two-fifths Chinook, two-fifths other Indian
tongues, and the rest English and Canadian French; but the
proportion of English has tended to increase. The Chinookan
linguistic family includes a number of separate tribes.

The name CHINOOK is also applied to a wind which blows from
W. or N. over the slopes of the Rocky Mountains, where it
descends as a dry wind warm in winter and cool in summer (cf.
Fohri). It is due to a cyclone passing northward, and continues
from a few hours to several days. It moderates the climate of the
eastern Rockies, the snow melting quickly on account of its
warmth and vanishing on account of its dryness, so that it is said
to " lick up " the snow from the slopes.

See Gill, Dictionary of Chinook Jargon (Portland, Ore., 1891);
Boas, " Chinook Texts, in Smithsonian Report, Bureau of Ethno-

logy (Washington, 1894) ; J. C. Pilling, " Bibliography of Chinookan
Languages," Smithsonian Report, Bureau of Ethnology (Washington,
'893); Horatio Hale, Manual of Oregon Trade Language (London,
iSgol; G. C. Shaw, The Chinook Jargon (Seattle, 1909); Handbook
of American Indians (Washington, 1907).

CHINSURA, a town of British India, on the Hugli river, 24 m.
above Calcutta, formerly the principal Dutch settlement in
Bengal. The Dutch erected a factory here in 1656, on a healthy
spot of ground, much preferable to that on which Calcutta is
situated. In 1759 a British force under Colonel Forde was
attacked by the garrison of Chinsura on its march to Chander-
nagore, but in less than half an hour the Dutch were entirely
routed. In 1795, during the Napoleonic wars, the settlement was
occupied by a British garrison. At the peace of 1814 it was
restored to the Dutch. It was among the cessions in India
made by the king of the Netherlands in 1825 in exchange for
the British possessions in Sumatra. Hugli College is maintained
by government; and there are a number of schools, several of
which are carried on by Scottish Presbyterian missionaries.
Chinsura is included in the Hugli municipality.

CHINTZ, a word derived from the Hindu chlnt, spotted or
variegated. This name was given to a kind of stained or painted
calico produced in India. It is now applied to a highly glazed
printed calico, commonly made in several colours on a light
ground and used for bed hangings, covering furniture, &c.

CHIOGGIA, a town and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, in the
province of Venice, from which it is 182 m. S. by sea. Pop.
(1901) 21,384 (town), 31,218 (commune). It is inhabited mostly
by fishermen, and is situated upon an island at the S. end of the
lagoons. It is traversed by one main canal, La Vena. The
peculiar dialect and customs of the inhabitants still survive to
some extent. It is of earlier origin than Venice, and indeed is
probably identical with the Roman Portus Aedro, or Ebro,
though its name is derived from the Roman Fossa Claudia,
a canalized estuary which with the two mouths of the Meduacus
(Brenta) went to form the harbour. In 672 it entered the
league of the cities of the lagoons, and recognized the authority
of the doge. In 809 it was almost destroyed by Pippin, but
in i no was made a city, remaining subject to Venice, whose
fortunes it thenceforth followed. It was captured after a deter-
mined resistance by the Genoese in 1379, but recovered in 1380.
Chioggia is connected by rail with Rovigo, 35 m. to the south-
west. (T. As.)

Naval War of Chioggia (1378-80). The naval war of 1378-
1380, carried on by Venice against the Genoese and their allies,
the lord of Carrara and the king of Hungary, is of exceptional
interest as one in which a superior naval power, having suffered
disaster in its home waters, and having been invaded, was yet
able to win in the end by holding out till its squadrons in distant
seas could be recalled for its defence.

When the war began in the spring of 1378, Venice was mainly
concerned for the safety of its trading stations in the Levant and
the Black Sea, which were exposed to the attacks of the Genoese.
The more powerful of the two fleets which it sent out was despatched
into the eastern Mediterranean under Carlo Zeno, the bailiff and
captain of Negropont. A smaller force was sent to operate against
the Genoese in the western Mediterranean, and was placed under the
command of Vettor Pisani. The possessions of Venice on the main-
land, which were then small, were assailed by Francesco Carrara and
the Hungarians. Her only ally in the war, Bernab6 Visconti of
Milan, gave her little help on this side, but his mercenaries invaded
the territory of Genoa. The danger on land seemed trifling to Venice
so long as she could keep the sea open to her trade and press the
war against the Genoese in the Levant.

During the first stage of the war the plans of the senate were
carried out with general success. While Carlo Zeno harassed the
Genoese stations in the Levant, Vettor Pisani brought one of their
squadrons to action on the 3Oth of May 1378 off Punta di Anzio to
the south of the Tiber, and defeated it. The battle was fought in
a gale by 10 Venetian against n Genoese galleys. The Genoese
admiral, Luigi de' Fieschi, was taken with 5 of his galleys, and others
were wrecked. Four of the squadron escaped, and steered for
Famagusta in Cyprus, then held by Genoa. If Pisani had directed
his course to Genoa itself, which was thrown into a panic by the
defeat at Anzio, it is possible that he might have dictated peace,
but he thought his squadron too weak, and preferred to follow the
Genoese galleys which had fled to Famagusta. During the summer
of 1378 he was employed partly in attacking the enemy in Cyprus,

236

CHIOS

but mainly in taking possession of the Istrian and Dalmatian towns
which supported the Hungarians from fear of the aggressive ambition
of Venice. He was ordered to winter on the coast of Istria, where
his crews suffered from exposure and disease. Genoa, having
recovered from the panic caused by the disaster at Anzio, decided to
attack Venice at home while the best of her ships were absent with
Carlo Zeno. She sent a strong fleet into the Adriatic under Luciano
Doria. Pisani had been reinforced early in the spring of 1378, but
when he was sighted by the Genoese fleet of 25 sail off Pola in Istria
on the 7th of May, he was slightly outnumbered, and his crews were
still weak. The Venetian admiral would have preferred to avoid
battle, and to check an attack on Venice itself, by threatening the
Genoese fleet from his base on the Istrian coast. He was forced into
battle by the commissioner (proveditore) Michael Steno, who as
agent of the senate had authority over the admiral. The Venetians
were defeated with the loss of all their galleys except six. Luciano
Doria fell in the battle, and the Genoese, who had suffered severely,
did not at once follow up their success. On the arrival of his suc-
cessor, Pietro Doria, with reinforcements, they appeared off the
Lido, the outer barrier of the lagoon of Venice, in July, and in
August they entered on a combined naval and military attack on the
city, in combination with the Carrarese and the Hungarians. The
Venetians had closed the passages through the outer banks except
at the southern end, at the island of Brondolo, and the town of
Chioggia. The barrier here approaches close to the mainland, and
the position facilitated the co-operation of the Genoese with the
Carrarese and Hungarians, but Chioggia is distant from Venice,
which could only be reached along the canals across the lagoon. The
Venetians had taken up the buoys which marked the fairway, and
had placed a light squadron on the lagoon. The allies, after occupy-
ing the island of Brondolo, attacked, and on the 1 3th of August
took the town of Chioggia with its garrison of 3000 men.

There appeared to be nothing to prevent the enemy from advanc-
ing to the city of Venice except the difficult navigation of the lagoon.
The senate applied for peace, but when the Genoese replied that
they were resolved to " bit and bridle the horses of Saint Mark "
the Venetians decided to fight to the end. Vettor Pisani, who had
been imprisoned after the defeat at Pola, but who possessed the
confidence of the people and the affection of the sailors, was released
and named commander-in-chief against the wish of the aristocracy.
Under his guidance the Venetians adopted a singularly bold and
ingenious policy of offensive defence. The heavy Genoese vessels
were much hampered by the shallow water and intricate passages
through the lagoon. By taking advantage of their embarrassment
and his own local knowledge, Pisani carried out a series of move-
ments which entirely turned the tables on the invaders. Between
the 23rd and 25th of August he executed a succession of night
attacks, during which he sank vessels laden with stores not only in
the canals leading through the lagoon to Venice, but in the fairways
leading from Chioggia to the open sea round both ends of the island
of Brondolo. The Genoese were thus shut in at the very moment
when they thought they were about to besiege Venice. Pisani
stationed the galleys under his command in the open sea outside
Brondolo, and during the rest of the year blockaded the enemy
closely. The distress of the Venetians themselves was great, but the
Doge Andrea Contarini and the nobles set an example by sharing the
general hardships, and taking an oath not to return to Venice till
they had recovered Chioggia. Carlo Zeno had long since been
ordered to return, but the slowness and difficulty of communication
and movement under I4th century conditions delayed his reappear-
ance. The besiegers of Chioggia were at the end of their powers of
endurance, and Pisani had been compelled to give a promise that
the siege would be raised, when Zeno s fleet reached the anchorage
off Brondolo on the 1st of January 1380. The attack on Chioggia
was now pressed with vigour. The Genoese held out resolutely in
the hope of relief from home. But the resources of Genoa had been
taxed to fit out the squadrons she had already sent to sea. It was
not until the I2th of Msy 1380 that her admiral, Matteo Maruffo,
was able to reach the neighbourhood of Brondolo with a relieving
force. By this time the Venetians had recovered the island, and their
fleet occupied a fortified anchorage from which they refused to be
drawn. Maruffo could do nothing, and on the 24th of June 1380
the defenders of Chioggia surrendered. The crisis of the war was
past. Venice, being now safe at home, recovered the command of the
sea, and before the close of the year was able to make peace as a
conqueror.

AUTHORITIES. S. Romanin, Storia documentaia di Venezia (Venice,
1855); W. C. Hazlitt, History of the Venetian Republic (London,
1860); Horatio F. Brown, Venice (London, 1893). (D. H.)

CHIOS, an island on the west coast of Asia Minor, called by the
Greeks Chios (Xioj, 'a rr\ Xto) and by the Turks Saki Adasi;
the soft pronunciation of X before i in modern Greek, approxi-
mating to sh, caused Xio to be Italianized as Scio. It forms,
with the islands of Psara, Nikaria, Leros, Calymnus and Cos,
a sanjak of the Archipelago vilayet. Chios is about 30 m. long
from N. to S., and from 8 to 15 m. broad; pop. 64,000. It well
deserves the epithet " craggy " (irauraXoso-o-o.) of the Homeric
hymn. Its figs were noted in ancient times, but wine and gum

mastic have always been the most important products. The
climate is healthy; oranges, olives and even palms grow freely.
The wine grown on the N.W. coast, in the district called by
Strabo Ariusia, was known as vinum Arvisium. Early in the
yth century B.C. Glaucus of Chios discovered the process of
welding iron (icoXXijcris: see J. G. Frazer's Pausanias, note
on x. 16. i, vol. v. pp. 313-314), and the iron stand of a large
crater whose parts were all connected by this process was
constructed by him, and preserved as one of the most interesting
relics of antiquity at Delphi. The long line of Chian sculptors
(see GREEK ART) in marble bears witness to the fame of Chian
art. In literature the chief glory of Chios was the school of
epic poets called Homeridae, who helped to create a received
text of Homer and gave the island the reputation of being the
poet's birthplace. The chief town, Chios (pop. 16,000), is on
the E. coast. A theatre and a temple of Athena Poliuchus
existed in the ancient city. About 6 m. N. of the city there is a
curious monument of antiquity, commonly called " the school
of Homer "; it is a very ancient sanctuary of Cybele, with an
altar and a figure of the goddess with her two lions, cut out
of the native rock on the summit of a hill. On the west coast
there is a monastery of great wealth with a church founded by
Constantine IX. Monomachus (1042-1054). Starting from the
city and encompassing the island, one passes in succession the
promontory Posidium; Cape Phanae, the southern extremity
of Chios, with a harbour and a temple of Apollo; Notium,
probably the south-western point of the island; Laii, opposite
the city of Chios, where the island is narrowest; the town
Bolissus (now Volisso), the home of the Homerid poets; Melaena,
the north-western point; the wine-growing district Ariusia;
Cardamyle (now Cardhamili); the north-eastern promontory
was probably named Phlium, and the mountains that cross
the northern part of the island Pelinaeus or Pellenaeus.

The history of Chios is very obscure. According to Pherecydes,
the original inhabitants were Leleges, while according to other
accounts Thessalian Pelasgi possessed the island before it became
an Ionian state. The name Aethalia, common to Chios and Lemnos
in very early times, suggests the original existence of a homogeneous
population in these and other neighbouring islands. Oenopion, a
mythical hero, son of Dionysus or of Rhadamanthus, was an early
king of Chios. His successor in the fourth generation, Hector, united
the island to the Ionian confederacy (Pausan. vii. 4), though Strabo
(xiv. p. 633) implies an actual conquest by Ionian settlers. The regal
government was at "a later time exchanged for an oligarchy or a
democracy. The names of two tyrants, Amphiclus and Polytecnus,
are mentioned. The products of the island were largely exported on
the ships of Miletus, with which city Chios formed a close mercantile
alliance in opposition to the rival league of Fhocaea and Samos.
Similar commercial considerations determined the Chians in their
attitude towards the Persian conquerors: in 546 they submitted to
Cyrus as eagerly as Phocaea resisted him; during the Ionian revolt
their fleet of 100 sail joined the Milesians in offering a desperate
opposition at Lade (494). The island was subsequently punished
with great rigour by the Persians. The Chian ships, under the tyrant
Strattis, served in the Persian fleet at Salamis. After its liberation
in 479 Chios joined the Delian League and long remained a firm ally
of the Athenians, who allowed it to retain full autonomy. But in 413
the island revolted, and was not recaptured. After the Peloponnesian '
War it took the first opportunity to renew the Athenian alliance,
but in 357 again seceded. As a member of the Delian League it had
regained its prosperity, being able to equip a fleet of 50 or 60 sail.
Moreover, it was reputed one of the best-governed states in Greece,
for although it was governed alternately by oligarchs and democrats
neither party persecuted the other severely. It was not till late in
the 4th century that civil dissension became a danger to the state,
leaving it a prey to Idrieus, the dynast of Caria (346), and to the
Persian admiral Memnon (333). During the Hellenistic age Chios
maintained itself in a virtually independent position. It supported
the Romans in their Eastern wars, and was made a " free and allied
state." Under Roman and Byzantine rule industry and commerce
were undisturbed, its chief export at this time being the Arvisian
wine, which had become very popular. After temporary occupations
by the Seljuk Turks (1089-1092) and by the Venetians (1124-1125,
1172, 1204-1225), it was given in fief to the Genoese family of
Zaccaria, and in 1346 passed definitely into the hands of a Genoese
maona, or trading company, which was organized in 1362 under the
name of " the Giustiniani." This mercantile brotherhood, formerly
a privileged class, alone exploited the mastic trade; at the same time
the Greeks were allowed to retain their rights of self-government
and continued to exercise their industries. In 1415 the Genoese
became tributary to the Ottomans. In spite of occasional secessions

CHIPPENDALE

237

which brought severe punishment upon the island (1453. 1479)' tne
rule of the Giustiniani was not abolished till 1566. Under the Otto-
man government the prosperity of Chios was hardly affected. But
the Hand underwent severe periods of suffering after its capture and
reconquest from the Florentines (1595) and the Venetians (1604-
1695)? which greatly reduced the number of the Latins. Worst of all
were the massacres of 1822, which followed upon an attack by some
Greek insurgents executed against the will of the natives. In 1881
Chios was visited by a very severe earthquake in which over 5600
persons lost their lives and more than half the villages were seriously
damaged. The island has now recovered its prosperity. There is a
harbour at Castro, and steam flour-mills, foundries and tanneries
have been established. Rich antimony and calamine mines are
worked by a French undertaking, and good marble is quarried by an
Italian company.

AUTHORITIES. Strabo xiv. pp. 632 f.; Athenaeus vi. 265-266;
Herodotus i. 160-165, vi. 15-31; Thucydides viii. 14-61; Corpus
Inscr Atticarum, iv. (2), pp. 9, 10; H. Houssaye in Revue des deux
mondes, xlvi. (1876), pp. I ff.; T. Bent in Historical Review (1889),
pp. 467-480; Fustel de Coulanges, L'lle de Chio (ed. Jullian, Paris,
1893); for coinage, B. V. Head, Historic, numorum (Oxford, 1887),
pp. 513-515, and NUMISMATICS: Greek. (E. GR. ; M. O. B. C.)

CHIPPENDALE, THOMAS (d. 1779), the most famous of
English cabinetmakers. The materials for the biography of
Chippendale are exceedingly scanty, but he is known to have been
the son of Thomas Chippendale I., and is believed to have been
the father of Thomas Chippendale III. His father was a cabinet-
maker and wood-carver of considerable repute in Worcester
towards the beginning of the i8th century, and possibly he
originated some of the forms which became characteristic of
his son's work. Thus a set of chairs and settees was made,
apparently at Worcester, for the family of Bury of Knateshill,
at a period when the great cabinetmaker could have been no
more than a boy, which are practically identical with much of the
work that was being turned out of the family factory as late
as the 'sixties of the i8th century. Side by side with the Queen
Anne or early Georgian feeling of the first quarter of the i8th
century we find the interlaced splats and various other details
which marked the Chippendale style. By 1 7 2 7 the elder Chippen-
dale and his son had removed to London, and at the end of 1749
the younger man his father was probably then dead estab-
lished himself in Conduit Street, Long Acre, whence in 1753 he
removed to No. 60 St Martin's Lane, which with the addition of
the adjoining three houses remained his factory for the rest of
his life. In 1755 his workshops were burned down; in 1760 he
was elected a member of the Society of Arts; in 1766 his partner-
ship with James Ranni was dissolved by the latter's death.

It has always been exceedingly difficult to distinguish the work
executed in Chippendale's factory and under his own eye from
that of the many copyists and adapters who throughout the
second half of the i8th century the golden age of English
furniture plundered remorselessly. Apart from his published
designs, many of which were probably never made up, we have to
depend upon the very few instances in which his original accounts
enable us to earmark work which was unquestionably his. For
Claydon House, the seat of the Verneys in Buckinghamshire, he
executed much decorative work, and the best judges are satis-
fied that the Chinese bedroom there was designed by him. At
Harewood House, the seat of the earl of Harewood in Yorkshire,
we are on firmer ground. The house was furnished between
1765 and 1771, and both Robert Adam and Chippendale were
employed upon it. Indeed, there is unmistakable evidence to
show that certain work, so closely characteristic of the Adams
that it might have been assigned to them without hesitation, was
actually produced by Chippendale. This may be another of the
many indications that Chippendale was himself an imitator, or it
may be that Adam, as architect, prescribed designs which Chip-
pendale's cabinetmakers and carvers executed. Chippendale's
bills for this Adam work are still preserved. Stourhead,
the famous house of the Hoares in Wiltshire, contains much
undoubted Chippendale furniture, which may, however, be
the work of Thomas Chippendale III.; at Rowton Castle,
Shropshire, Chippendale's bills as well as his works still exist.

Our other main source of information is The Gentleman and
Cabinet Maker's Director, which was published by Thomas
Chippendale in 1754. This book, the most important collection

of furniture designs issued up to that time in England, contains
one hundred and sixty engraved plates, and the list of subscribers
indicates that the author had acquired a large and distinguished
body of customers. The book is of folio size; there was a
second edition in 1759, and a third in 1762.

In the rather bombastic introduction Chippendale says that he
has been encouraged to produce the book " by persons of distinc-
tion and taste, who have regretted that an art capable of so
much perfection and refinement should be executed with so
little propriety and elegance." He has some severe remarks
upon critics, from which we may assume that he had already
suffered at their hands. Perhaps, indeed, Chippendale may have
been hinted at in the caustic remarks of Isaac Ware, surveyor to
the king, who bewailed that it was the misfortune of the world in
his day " to see an unmeaning scrawl of C's inverted and looped
together, taking the place of Greek and Roman elegance even in
our most expensive decorations. It is called French, and let
them have the praise of it ! The Gothic shaft and Chinese bell
are not beyond nor below it in poorness of imitation." It is the
more likely that these barbs were intended for Chippendale,
since he was guilty not only of many essays in Gothic, but of a
vast amount of work in the Chinese fashion, as well as in the
flamboyant style of Louis XV. The Director contains examples
of each of the manners which aroused the scorn of the king's
surveyor. Chippendale has even shared with Sir William
Chambers the obloquy of introducing the Chinese style, but
he appears to have done nothing worse than " conquer," as
Alexandre Dumas used to call it, the ideas of other people. Nor
would it be fair to the man who, whatever _his occasional
extravagances and absurdities, was yet a great designer and a
great transmuter, to pretend that ah 1 his Chinese designs were
contemptible. Many of them, with their geometrical lattice-
work and carved tracery, are distinctly elegant and effective.
Occasionally we find in one piece of furniture a combination of
the three styles which Chippendale most affected at different
periods Louis XV., Chinese and Gothic and it cannot
honestly be said that the result is as incongruous as might have
been expected. Some of his most elegant and attractive work is
derived directly from the French, and we cannot doubt that the
inspiration of his famous ribbon-backed chair came directly from
some of the more artistic performances in rococo.

The primary characteristic of his work is solidity, but it is a
solidity which rarely becomes heaviness. Even in his most
lightsome efforts, such as the ribbon-backed chair, construction is
always the first consideration. It is here perhaps that he differs
most materially from his great successor Sheraton, whose ideas of
construction were eccentric in the extreme. It is indeed in the
chair that Chippendale is seen at his best and most characteristic.
From his hand, or his pencil, we have a great variety of chairs,
which, although differing extensively in detail, may be roughly
arranged in three or four groups, which it would sometimes be
rash to attempt to date. He introduced the cabriole leg,
which, despite its antiquity, came immediately from Holland;
the claw and bah 1 foot of ancient Oriental use; the straight,
square, uncompromising early Georgian leg; the carved lattice-
work Chinese leg; the pseudo-Chinese leg; the fretwork leg,
which was supposed to be in the best Gothic taste; the inelegant
rococo leg with the curled or hoofed foot; and even occasionally
the spade foot, which is supposed to be characteristic of the
somewhat later style of Hepplewhite. His chair-backs were very
various. His efforts in Gothic were sometimes highly successful;
often they took the form of the tracery of a church window, or
even of an ovalled rose window. His Chinese backs were dis-
tinctly geometrical, and from them he would seem to have
derived some of the inspiration for the frets of the glazed book-
cases and cabinets which were among his most agreeable work.
The most attractive feature of Chippendale's most artistic chairs
those which, originally derived from Louis Quinze models,
were deprived of their rococo extravagances is the back, which,
speaking generally, is the most elegant and pleasing thing that
has ever been done in furniture. He took the old solid or
slightly pierced back, and cut it up into a light openwork design

CHIPPENHAM CHIPPING NORTON

exquisitely carved for Chippendale was a carver before every-
thing in a vast variety of designs ranging from the elaborate
and extremely elegant, if much criticized, ribbon back, to a
comparatively plain but highly effective splat. His armchairs,
however, often had solid or stuffed backs. Next to his chairs
Chippendale was most successful with settees, which almost
invariably took the shape of two or three conjoined chairs, the
arms, backs and legs identical with those which he used for single
seats. He was likewise a prolific designer and maker of book-
cases, cabinets and escritoires with doors glazed with fretwork
divisions. Some of those which he executed in the style which in
his day passed for Gothic are exceedingly handsome and effective.
We have, too, from his hand many cases for long clocks, and a
great number of tables, some of them with a remarkable degree
of Gallic grace. He was especially successful in designing small
tables with fretwork galleries for the display of china. His
mirrors, which were often in the Chinese taste or extravagantly
rococo, are remarkable and characteristic. In his day the
cabinetmaker still had opportunities for designing and con-
structing the four-post bedstead, and some of Chippendale's
most graceful work was lavished upon the woodwork of the
lighter, more refined and less monumental four-poster, which,
thanks in some degree to his initiative, took the place of the
massive Tudor and the funereally hung Jacobean bed. From an
organ case to a washhand-stand, indeed, no piece of domestic
furniture came amiss to this astonishing man, and if sometimes he
was extravagant, grotesque or even puerile, his level of achieve-
ment is on the whole exceedingly high.

Since the revival of interest in his work he has often been
criticized with considerable asperity, but not always justly.
Chippendale's work has stood the supreme test of posterity
more completely than that of any of his rivals or successors; and,
unlike many men of genius, we know him to have been warmly
appreciated in his lifetime. He was at once an artist and
a prosperous man of business. His claims to distinction are
summed up in the fact that his name has by general consent been
attached to the most splendid period of English furniture.

Chippendale was buried on the I3th of November 1779,
apparently at the church of St Martin-in-the-Fields, and
administration of his intestate estate was granted to his widow
Elizabeth. He left four children, Thomas Chippendale III., John,
Charles and Mary. He was one of the assignees in bankruptcy of
the notorious Theresa Cornelys of Soho Square, of whom we read
in Casanova and other scandalous chronicles of the time. Thomas
Chippendale III. succeeded to the business of his father and
grandfather, and for some years the firm traded under the style
of Chippendale & Haig. The factory remained in St Martin's
Lane, but in 1814 an additional shop was opened at No. 57
Haymarket, whence it was in 1821 removed to 42 Jermyn Street.
Like his father, Thomas Chippendale III. was a member of the
Society of Arts; and he is known to have exhibited five pictures
at the Royal Academy between 1784 and 1801. He died at the
end of 1822 or the beginning of 1823. (j. P.-B.)

CHIPPENHAM, a market town and municipal borough in the
Chippenham parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 94 m.
W. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 5074.
Chippenham is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
councillors. Area, 361 acres. It lies in a hollow on the south
side of the Upper Avon, here crossed by a picturesque stone
bridge of 21 arches. St Andrew's church, originally Norman of
the 1 2th century, has been enlarged in different styles. A paved
causeway running for about 4 m. between Chippenham Cliff and
Wick Hill is named after Maud Heath, said to have been a
market-woman, who built it in the i5th century, and bequeathed
an estate for its maintenance. After the decline of its woollen
and silk trades, Chippenham became celebrated for grain and
cheese markets. There are also manufactures of broadcloth,
churns, condensed milk, railway-signals, guns and carriages;
besides bacon-curing works, flour mills, tanneries and large
stone quarries. Bowood, the seat of the marquess of Lansdowne,
is 3^ m. S.E. of Chippenham. Lanhill barrow, or Hubba's Low,
a| m. N.W., is an ancient tomb containing a kistvaen or sepulchral

chamber of stone; it is probably British, though tradition makes
it the grave of Hubba, a Danish leader.

Chippenham (Chepeham, Chippeham) was the site of a royal
residence where in 853 jEthelwulf celebrated the marriage
of his daughter jEthelswitha with Burhred, king of Mercia. The
town also figured prominently in the Danish invasion of the gth
century, and in 933 was the meeting-place of the witan. In the
Domesday Survey Chippenham appears as a crown manor and is
not assessed in hides. The town was governed by a bailiff in the
reign of Edward I., and returned two members to parliament
from 1295, but it was not incorporated until 1553, when a
charter from Mary established a bailiff and twelve burgesses and
endowed the corporation with certain lands for the maintenance
of two parliamentary burgesses and for the repair of the bridge
over the Avon. In 1684 this charter was surrendered to Charles
II., and in 1685 a new charter was received from James II., which
was shortly abandoned in favour of the original grant. The
Representation Act of 1868 reduced the number of parliamentary
representatives to one, and the borough was disfranchised by
the Redistribution Act of 1885. The derivation of Chippenham
from cyppan, to buy, implies that the town possessed a market
in Saxon times. When Henry VII. introduced the clothing
manufacture into Wiltshire, Chippenham became an important
centre of the industry, which has lapsed. A prize, however,
was awarded to the town for this commodity at the Great
Exhibition of 1851.

CHIPPEWA 1 FALLS, a city and the county-seat of Chippewa
county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the Chippewa river, about 100 m.
E. of St Paul, Minnesota, and 1 2 m. N.E. of Eau Claire, Wisconsin.
Pop. (1890) 8670; (1900) 8094; (1910, census) 8893. It is served
by the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie, the Chicago &
North- Western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways,
and by the electric line to Eau Claire. The first settlement on
the site was made in 1837; and the city was chartered in 1870.

CHIPPING CAMPDEN, a market town in the northern parlia-
mentary division of Gloucestershire, England, on the Oxford and
Worcester line of the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1542.
It is picturesquely situated towards the north of the Cotteswold
hill-district. The many interesting ancient houses afford
evidence of the former greater importance of the town. The
church of St James is mainly Perpendicular, and contains a
number of brasses of the isth and i6th centuries and several
notable monumental tombs. A ruined manor house of the i6th
century and some almshouses complete, with the church, a
picturesque group of buildings; and Campden House, also of
the 1 6th century, deserves notice.

Apart from a medieval tradition preserved by Robert de
Brunne that it was the meeting-place of a conference of Saxon
kings, the earliest record of Campden (Campedene) is in Domesday
Book, when Earl Hugh is said to hold it, and to have there fifty
villeins. The number shows that a large village was attached to
the manor, which in 1173 passed to Hugh de Gondeville, and
about 1204 to Ralph, earl of Chester. The borough must have
grown up during the I2th century, for both these lords granted
the burgesses charters which are known from a confirmation of
1 247, granting that they and all who should come to the market of
Campedene should be quit of toll, and that if any free burgess of
Campedene should come into the lord's amerciament he should be
quit for i2d. unless he should shed blood or do felony. Probably
Earl Ralph also granted the town a portman-mote, for the
account of a skirmish in 1273 between the men of the town and
the county mentions a bailiff and implies the existence of some
sort of municipal government. In 1605 Campedene was incor-
porated, but it never returned representatives to parliament.
Camden speaks of the town as a market famous for stockings,
a relic of that medieval importance as a mart for wool that had
given the town the name of Chipping.

CHIPPING NORTON, a market town and municipal borough in
the Banbury parliamentary division of Oxfordshire, England, 26
m. N.W. of Oxford by a branch of the Great Western railway.

1 For the Chippewa Indians see OJIBWAY, of which the word is a
popular adaptation.

CHIQUITOS CHIROPTERA

239

Pop. (1901) 3780. It lies on the steep flank of a hill, and consists
mainly of one very wide street. The church of St Mary the
Virgin, standing on the lower part of the slope, is a fine building
of the Decorated and Perpendicular periods, the hexagonal
porch and the clerestory being good examples of the later style.
The town has woollen and glove factories, breweries and an
agricultural trade. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and
12 councillors. Area, 2456 acres. Chipping Norton (Chepyng-
norton) was probably of some importance in Saxon times. At
the Domesday Survey it was held in chief by Ernulf de Hesding;
it was assessed at fifteen hides, and comprised three mills. It
returned two members to parliament as a borough in 1302 and
1304-1305, but was not represented after this date, and was not
considered to be a borough in 1316. The first and only charter
of incorporation was granted by James I., in 1608; it established
a common council consisting of 2 bailiffs and 12 burgesses; a
common clerk, 2 justices of the peace, and 2 serjeants-at-mace;
and a court of record every Monday. In 1205 William Fitz-Alan
was granted a four days' fair at the feast of the Inven-
tion of the Cross; and in 1276 Roger, earl of March,
was granted a four days' fair at the feast of St Bar-
nabas. In the reign of Henry VI. the market was held
on Wednesday, and a fair was held at the Translation
of St Thomas Becket. These continued to be held in
the reign of James I., who annulled the former two
fairs, and granted fairs at the feasts of St Mark, St
Matthew, St Bartholomew, and SS. Simon and Jude.

CHIQUITOS (Span, "very small"), a group of
tribes in the province of Santa Cruz de la Sierra,
Bolivia, and between the head waters of the rivers
Mamore and Itenez. When their country was first
invaded they fled into the forests, and the Spaniards,
coming upon their huts, the doorways of which are
built excessively low, supposed them to be dwarfs:
hence the name. They are in fact well formed and
powerful, of middle height and of an olive com-
plexion. They are an agricultural people, but made
a gallant resistance to the Spaniards for nearly two
centuries. In 1691, however, they made the Jesuit
missionaries welcome, and rapidly became civilized.
The Chiquito language was adopted as the means
of communication among the converts, who soon
numbered 50,000, representing nearly fifty tribes.
Upon the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 the Chiquitos
became decadent, and now number short of 20,000.
Their houses, regularly ranged in streets, are built of
adobes thatched with coarse grass. They manufacture
copper boilers for making sugar and understand
several trades, weave ponchos and hammocks and
make straw hats. They are fond of singing and
dancing, and are a gentle-mannered and hospitable folk.
The group is now divided into forty tribes.

CHIROMANCY (from Gr. xtp, hand, and fiavrda, divination),
the art of telling the character or fortune of persons by studying
the lines of the palms of the hands (see PALMISTRY).

CHIRON, or CHEIRON, in Greek mythology, one of the Centaurs,
the son of Cronus and Philyra, a sea nymph. He dwelt at the
foot of Mount Pelion, and was famous for his wisdom and
knowledge of the healing art. He offers a remarkable contrast
to the other Centaurs in manners and character. Many of the
most celebrated heroes of Greece were brought up and instructed
by him (Apollodorus iii. 10. 13). Accidentally pierced by a
poisoned arrow shot by Heracles, he renounced his immortality
in favour of Prometheus, and was placed by Zeus among the
stars as the constellation Sagittarius (Apollodorus ii. 5; Ovid,
Fasti, v. 414). In a Pompeian wall-painting he is shown
teaching Achilles to play the lyre.

See articles in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie and W. H.
Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie; W. Mannhardt, Wold- und
Feldkulte (1904).

CHIROPODIST (an invented word from Gr. x*lp, hand, and
iroDs, foot), properly one who treats the ailments of the hands

and feet, or is consulted as to keeping them in good condition;
the use of the word is now restricted, however, to the care of
the toes, " manicurist " having been invented for the correspond-
ing attentions to the fingers. The word was first introduced
in 1785, by a " corncutter " in Davies Street, London.

CHIROPTERA (Greek for " hand- wings "), an order of
mammals containing the bats, all of which are unique in the
class in possessing the power of true flight, and have their fore-
limbs specially modified for this purpose.

The mammals comprised in this order are at once distinguished
by the possession of true wings; this peculiarity being accom-
panied by other modifications of bodily structure having relation
to aerial locomotion. Thus, in direct contrast to all other
mammals, in which locomotion is chiefly effected by action
from behind, and the hind-limbs consequently greatly pre-
ponderate in size over the fore, in the Chiroptera the fore-limbs,
being the agents in propelling the body forward during flight,
immensely exceed the short and weak hinder extremities. The

FIG. I. Skeleton and Wing-Membranes of the Noctule Bat
(Pipistrellus noclula). X J

ph l , First phalanx.

ph*, Second phalanx.

ph 3 , Third phalanx.

am, Antebrachial membrane.

/, Femur.

/, Tibia.

fb, Fibula. [femoral membrane.

c, Calcar supporting im, the inter-

pcl, Post-calcaneal lobe.

c. Clavicle.

h, Humerus.

r, Radius.

u, Ulna.

d l , First digit.

d 2 , d 3 , d*, d 6 , Other digits of the fore-limb
supporting wm, the wing-mem-
brane.

m,m, Metacarpal bones.

thorax, giving origin to the great muscles which sustain flight,
and containing the proportionately large lungs and heart, is
remarkably capacious; and the ribs are flattened and close
together; while the shoulder-girdle is greatly developed in
comparison with the weak pelvis. The fore-arm (fig. i) consists
of a rudimentary ulna, a long curved radius, and a carpus of
six bones supporting a thumb and four elongated fingers, between
which, the sides of the body, and the hinder extremities a thin
expansion of skin, the wing-membrane, is spread. The knee
is directed backwards, owing to the rotation of the hind-limb,
outwards by the wing-membrane; an elongated cartilaginous
process (the calcar), rarely rudimentary or absent, arising from
the inner side of the ankle-joint, is directed inwards, and supports
part of the posterior margin of an accessory membrane of flight,
extending from the tail or posterior extremity of the body to
the hind-limbs, and known as the inter-femoral membrane.
The penis is pendent; the testes are abdominal or inguinal;
the teats, usually two in number, thoracic; the uterus is simple
or with more or less long cornua; the placenta discoidal and
deciduate; and the smooth cerebral hemispheres do not extend
backwards over the cerebellum. The teeth comprise incisors,
canines, premolars and molars; and the dental formula never

240

CHIROPTERA

exceeds '. f, c. \, p. f , m. | ; total 38. Despite the forward
position of the teats, which is merely an adaptive feature, bats
are evidently mammals of low organization, and are most
nearly related to the Insectivora.

In consequence of the backward direction of the knee, a bat,
when placed on the ground, rests on all fours, having the knees
directed upwards, while the foot is rotated forwards and inwards
on the ankle. Walking is thus a kind of shuffle; but, notwith-
standing a general belief, bats can take wing from the walking
posture.

The bones of the skeleton are characterized by their slender-
ness and the great size of the medullary canals in those of the
extremities. The vertebral column is short, and the vertebrae
differ but slightly in number and form throughout the group.
The general number of dorso-lumbar vertebrae is 17, whereof
13 are dorsal; the cervical vertebrae are broad, but short.
Except in fruit-bats (Pleropodidae), the vertebrae, from the
third cervical backwards, are devoid of spinous processes. From
the first dorsal to the last lumbar the vertebral column forms
a single curve, most pronounced in the lumbar region. The
bodies of the vertebrae are but slightly movable on each other,
and in old individuals become partially welded. The caudal
vertebrae are cylindrical bones without processes; their number
and length varying in allied species. The development of these
vertebrae is correlated with habits, the long tail in the insecti-
vorous species supporting and controlling the position of the
interfemoral membrane which aids bats in their doubling motions
when in pursuit of insects by acting as a rudder, and assists them
in the capture of the larger insects. In the fruit-bats this is
not required, and the tail is rudimentary or absent. In all bats
the presternum has a prominent keel for the attachment of the
great pectoral muscles.

The shape of the skull varies greatly; but post-orbital pro-
cesses are developed only in some Pleropodidae and a few Nycleri-
dae and Emballonuridae; in Pier opus leucopterus alone does a
process from the zygomatic arch meet the post-orbital so as
to complete the orbital ring. Zygomatic arches, though slender,
are present in all except in some of the species of Phyllostomalidae.

The milk-teeth differ from those of all other mammals in that
they are unlike those of the permanent series. They are slender,
with pointed recurved cusps, and are soon shed, but exist for
a short time with the permanent teeth. In the Rhinolophidae
the milk-teeth are absorbed before birth. The permanent
teeth exhibit great variety, sometimes even in the same family,
as in Phylloslomatidae, whilst in other families, as Rhinolophidae,
the resemblance between the dentition of species differing in
many respects is remarkable. In all they are provided with
well-developed roots, and their crowns are acutely tuberculate,
with more or less well-defined' W- sna P e< l cusps, in the insecti-
vorous species, or variously hollowed out or longitudinally
grooved in the frugivorous kinds.

The shoulder-girdle varies but slightly, the clavicle being
long, strong and curved; and the scapula large, oval and tri-
angular, with a long curved coracoid process. The humerus,
though long, is scarcely two-thirds the length of the radius;
and the rudimentary ulna is welded with the radius. A sesamoid
bone exists in the tendon of the triceps muscle. The upper row
of the carpus consists of the united scaphoid, lunar and cuneiform
bones.

The " hand " has five digits, the first, fourth and fifth of which
consist each of a metacarpal and two phalanges; but in the
second and third the number of phalanges is different in certain
families. The first digit terminates in a claw, most developed in
the frugivorous species, in most of which the second digit is also
clawed, although in other bats this and the remaining digits
are unarmed.

In the weak pelvis the ilia are long and narrow, while in most
species the pubes of opposite sides are loosely united in front in
males, and widely separated in females; in the Rhinolophidae
alone they form a symphysis. Only in the Molossinae is there
a well-developed fibula; in the rest this bone is either very
slender or cartilaginous and ligamentous in its upper third, or

reduced to a small bony process above the heel, or absent.
The foot consists of a short tarsus, and of slender, laterally
compressed toes, with much-curved claws.

Although the brain is of a low type, probably no animals
possess so delicate a sense of touch as Chiroptera. In ordinary
bats tactile organs exist, not only in the bristles on the sides of the
muzzle, but in the sensitive structures forming the wing-mem-
branes and ears, while in many species leaf-like expansions
surrounding the nasal apertures or extending backwards behind
them are added. These nose-leaves are made up partly of the
extended and thickened integument of the nostrils, and partly of
the glandular eminences occupying the sides of the muzzle, in
which in other bats the sensitive bristles are implanted.

In no mammals are the ears so developed or so variable in
form; in most insectivorous species they are longer than the
head, while in the long-eared bat their length nearly equals
that of the head and body. The form is characteristic in each
of the families; in most the " earlet," or tragus, is large, in
some cases extending nearly to the outer margin of the conch;
its office appears to be to intensify and prolong the waves of
sound by producing undulations in them. In the Rhinolophidae,
the only family of insectivorous bats wanting the tragus, the
auditory bullae reach their greatest size, and the nasal appendages
their highest development. In frugivorous bats the ear is simple
and but slightly variable. In all bats the ears are extremely
mobile, each independently at will.

The oesophagus is narrow, especially in blood-sucking vampires.
The stomach presents two types of structure, corresponding
respectively to the two divisions of the order, Megachiroptera
and Microchiroptera; in the former the pyloric extremity is, with
one exception, -elongated and folded upon itself, in the latter
simple; an exceptional type is met with in the blood-suckers,
where the cardiac extremity is elongated, forming a long
appendage. The intestine is comparatively short, varying from
one and a half to four times the length of the head and body;
longest in the frugivorous, shortest in the insectivorous species.
In Rhinopoma and Megaderma a small caecum has been found.
The liver is characterized by the great size of the left lateral lobe,
which occasionally equals half that of the whole organ; the right
and left lateral fissures are usually very deep; in Megachiroptera
the spigelian lobe is, with one exception, ill defined or absent, and
the caudate is generally large; but in Microchiroptera the former
lobe is large, while the caudate is small. The gall-bladder is
generally well developed.

In most species the hyoids are simple, consisting of a chain of
slender, long, cylindrical bones connecting the basi-hyoid with
the skull, while the pharynx is short, and the larynx shallow with
feebly developed vocal cords, and guarded by a short pointed
epiglottis. In the African epauletted bats, Epomophorus, the
pharynx is long and capacious, the aperture of the larynx far
removed from the fauces, and, opposite to it, opens a canal,
leading from the nasal chambers, and extending along the back
of the pharynx; the laryngeal cavity is spacious and its walls
are ossified; the hyoids are unconnected, except by muscle
with the skull; while the cerato-hyals and epi-hyals are cartila-
ginous and expanded, entering into the formation of the walls of
the pharynx, and (in males of some species) supporting the orifices
of a pair of air-sacs communicating with the pharynx (fig. 2).

The extent and shape of the wings generally depend on the
form of the bones of the fore-limbs, and on the presence or
absence of the tail. The wings consist of an " antebrachial
membrane," which extends from the point of the shoulder along
the humerus and more or less of the fore-arm to the base of the
thumb, the metacarpal bcne of which is partially or wholly
included in it; the " wing-membrane " spread out between
the elongated fingers, and extending along the sides of the body
to the posterior extremities, generally reaching to the feet;
and the " interfemoral membrane," the most variable of all,
which is supported between the extremity of the body, the legs
and the calcar (fig. i). The antebrachial and wing membranes
are most developed in species fitted only for aerial locomotion
which when at rest hang with the body enveloped in,the wings;

CHIROPTERA

241

but in the Emballonuridae, and also in the Mo'ossinae, which
are the best fitted for terrestrial progression, the antebrachial
membrane is reduced to a small size, and not developed along
the fore-arm, leaving the thumb quite free, while the wing-

,
rSSJbSL'

FIG. 2. Head and Neck of Epomophorus frangueti (adult male).
From Dobson. The anterior (a.ph.s) and posterior (p.ph.s) pharyngeal
sacs are opened from without, the dotted lines indicating the points
where they communicate with the pharynx; s, thin membranous
partition in middle line between the anterior pharyngeal sacs of
opposite sides; s.m, sterno-mastoid muscle separating the anterior
from the posterior sac.

membrane is narrow and folded in repose under the fore-?.rm.
The relative development of the interfemoral membrane has been
referred to in connexion with the caudal vertebrae. Its small
size in the frugivorous and blood-sucking species, which do not

require it, is easily under-
stood. Scent-glands and
pouches opening on the sur-
face of the skin are developed
in many species, but in most
cases more so in males than
in females (fig. 3). As a
rule, bats produce only a

, F ?:r!;T F j OI l ta l Sa i- a !?i I -^ _ s S" L o a ! sin ? le offspring at a birth,

which for some time is carried
about by the female parent
clinging to the fur of her breast; but certain North American
bats commonly give birth to three or four young ones at a
time, which are carried about in the same manner.

Bats are divisible into two suborders, Megachiroptera and
Microchiroptera.

Megachiroptera.

The first of these comprises the fruit-eating species, which are
generally of large size, with the crowns of the check-teeth smooth
and marked with a longitudinal groove. The bony palate
is continued behind the last molar, narrowing slowly
backwards; there are three phalanges in the index
finger, the third phalange being terminated generally by
a claw; the sides of the ear form a ring at the base; the tail, when
present, is inferior to (not contained in) the interfemoral membrane;
the pyloric extremity of the stomach is generally much elongated ;
and the spigelian lobe of the liver is ill-defined or absent, while the
caudate is well developed. This group is limited to the tropical and
sub-tropical parts of the Eastern Hemisphere.

All the members of this suborder are included in the single family
Pteropodidae, the first representatives of which are the African
epauletted bats, forming the genus Epomophorus. In this the dental
formula is i. j (or J), c. \, p. f, m. J. Tail short or absent, when
present free from -the interfemoral membrane ; second finger with a
claw; premaxillae united in front. The species are strictly limited
to Africa south of the Sahara, and are distinguished by the large and
long head, expansible and often folded lips, and the white tufts of
hair on the margins of the ears. The males are provided with
glandular pouches, situated in the skin of the side of the neck near
the point of the shoulder, which are rudimentary or absent in

FruM-
eallng
bat*.

females. In the males they are lined with glandular membrane,
from which long coarse yellowish hairs project to lorm conspicuous
epaulet-like tufts on the, shoulders. The males often have a pair of
air-sacs extending outwards on each side from the pharynx beneath
the integument of the neck, in the position shown in fig. 2. These
bats appear to live principally on figs, the juicy contents of which
their voluminous lips and capacious mouths enable them to swallow
without loss. The huge and ugly West African hammer-headed bat,
Hypsignathus momtrosus, represents an allied genus distinguished
by the absence of shoulder-
pouches, and the presence
of leaf-like expansions of
skin on the front of the
muzzle, and of distinct cusps
on the outer sides of the
cheek-teeth. The great
majority of the bats of this
group, commonly known as .
" flying-foxes," are included
in the typical genus Ptero-
pus, of which the dental
formula is i. f, c. }, p. |,
m. \. All are of large size,
and the absence of a tail,
the long pointed muzzle,
and the woolly fur covering Flo. 4. Head of a Flying-Fox or
the neck render their recog- Fruit-Bat (Pleropuspersonatus). From
nition easy. One of the Gray,
species, P. edulis, inhabiting

Java, measures 5 ft. across the fully extended wings, and is the
largest member of the order.

The range of the genus extends from Madagascar through the
Seychelles to India, 'Ceylon, Burma, the Malay Archipelago, Japan,
New Guinea, Australia and Polynesia. Although two species in-
habit the Comoro Islands, scarcely 200 m. from the mainland, not
one is found in Africa; while the common Indian species is closely
allied to the Mada_gascar flying-fox. The Malay Archipelago and
Australia form the neadquarters of these bats, which in some places
occur in countless multitudes. The colonies exhale a strong musky
odour, and when awake the occupants utter a loud incessant chatter.
Wallace's fruit-bat of Celebes and Macassar has been made the type
of a separate genus, as Styloctcnium wallacei. In Roussettus (or
Cynonycteris) the dentition is as in Pteropus, but the tail is short, and
the fur of the nape of the neck not different from that of the back:
its distribution accords with that of Pteropus, except that it includes
Africa and does not reach farther east than New Ireland. R.
aegyptiacus inhabits the chambers of the Great Pyramid and other
deserted buildings in Egypt, and is probably the species figured in
Egyptian frescoes. Boneta, with two species, from Celebes, differs
in having only two upper incisors. Harpyionycteris and Scotonycteris,
respectively from the Philippines and West Africa, are represented
by a single species each; buy of Cynoplerus, which is mainly confined
to the Indo-Malay countries, there are some half-score different

kinds. The dentition is *'. , c. \, p. j, m. I, the muzzle is

shorter than ;n Roussettus, with the upper lip grooved in front as in
Pteropus, while the tail and fur resemble those of the former genus.
These bats are extremely voracious, a specimen of the Indian C.
marginatus having eaten a banana twice its own weight in three
hours. Among several Austro-Malay genera, such as Ptenochirus
and Balicnycleris, the tube-nosed bats of the genus Gelasinvs (or
Harpyia) are remarkable for the conformation of the nostrils (fig. 5).
Cephalotes, with one
species, ranging from
Celebes to the Solomon
group, has the dentition
. }, c. \, p. \, m. I, pre-
maxillae not united in
front, nostrijs simple,
muzzle short, index finger
without a claw, tail short.
As in Gelasinus, the wing-
membrane arises from the
middle line of the back, to
which it is attached by a FIG. 5. Head of Papuan Tube-Nosed
longitudinal thin process Bat (Gelasinus major). From G. E.
of skin; the wings are Dobson.
naked, but the back

covered with hair. Leipenyx is an allied West African genus with
one species.

The foregoing belong to the typical subfamily Pteropodince, while
the remainder represent a second group, Car pony cterinae (or Macro-
glossinae), characterized by having the facial part of the skull pro-
duced, the molar teeth narrow, and scarcely raised above the gum,
and the tongue exceedingly long, attenuated in the anterior third,
and armed with long recurved papillae near the tip. The single
representative of the first genus, Notopteris macdonaldi, inhabiting
Fiji, New Guinea and the New Hebrides, is distinguished from other
bats of this family by the length of its tail, which is nearly as long

242

CHIROPTERA

as the forearm. The dentition is . f , c. \, p. f , m. |, while the index
finger has no claw, and the wings arise from the spine. Eonycteris,
with the dentition i. J, c. \, p. I, m. , is also represented by a single
species, E. spelaea, fromTenasserim, Burma, and the Malay Peninsula
and Islands, which has somewhat the appearance of a Roussettus,
but the absence of a claw in the index finger and the presence of the
characteristic tongue and teeth at once distinguish it. Carponycteris
(Macroglossus) and Melonycteris, the former with several and the
latter with a single species, are closely allied Indo-Malay and Papuan
genera, the index finger in both having a claw, but the number of
the teeth being the same as in Eonycteris. C. minimus is the smallest
known species of the suborder, much smaller than the serotine bat
of Europe, with the fore-arm scarcely longer than that of the long-
eared bat. It is nearly as common in certain parts of Burma as
Cynopterus marginatus, and extends eastwards through the Malay
Archipelago as far as New Ireland, where it is associated with
Melonycteris melanops, distinguished by its larger size and the total
absence of the tail. An allied small Carpopycteris inhabits India.
Trygenycteris (Megaloglossus) woermanni, of West Africa, is the only
member of the group occurring west of the Himalaya. Callinyctens
of Celebes, with the dentition i. |, c. \, p. |, m.f , has a short tail and
no index-claws, while Nesonycteris of the Solomons, with the den-
tition i. f , c. \, p. |, m. |, differs by the absence of the tail.

Microchir optera.

The second and larger suborder, the Microchiroptera, includes
all the insectivorous species, the majority of which are of relatively
Insect- small size as compared with the Megachiroptera. In these
eftlmr bats, with a few specialized exceptions, the crowns of the
cheek-teeth are surmounted by sharp cusps, divided by
transverse grooves. In the skull the bony palate narrows
abruptly and is not continued backwards laterally behind the last
molar; there is one rudimentary phalange (rarely two or none) in the
index finger, which is never terminated by a claw; the outer and
inner sides of the ear commence inferiorly from separate points of
origin; the tail, when present, is contained in the interfemoral
membrane, or appears on its upper surface; the stomach, except in
the blood-sucking group, is simple; and the spigelian lobe of the
liver large, and the caudate generally small.

The bats included in this suborder are so numerous in genera (to
say nothing of species) that only some cf the more important types
can be mentioned).

Brief references have already been made to the manner in which
in many or most of these bats the tail aids in the capture of prey.
From the observations of C. Oldham, it appears that these bats,
when walking, carry the tail downwards and forwards, so that the
membrane connecting this organ with the hind-legs forms a kind of
pouch or bag. If a large insect be encountered the bat seizes it with
a snatch, and slightly spreading its folded wings and pressing them
on the ground in order to steady itself, brings its feet forwards so
as to increase the capacity of the tail-pouch, into which, by bending
its neck and thrusting its head beneath the body, it pushes the
insect. Although the latter, especially if large, will often struggle
violently, when once in the pouch it but rarely escapes, from which
it is subsequently extracted and devoured. It is assumed that the
same method of capture is employed when on the wing; and a
naturalist who has observed the long-eared bat picking moths off
willows states that the bat always hovers when taking off the moth,
and bends up the tail so as to form a receptacle for the insect as it
drops.

In the Rhinolophidae, Horse-shoe and Leaf-nosed bats of the Old
World, the nose-leaf is developed and surrounds the nasal apertures,
which are situated in a depression on
the upper surface of the muzzle so as to
look upwards; the ears are large and
generally separate, without trace of a
tragus or earlet; the premaxillae are
rudimentary, suspended from the nasal
cartilages, and support a single pair of
small incisors; the molars have acute
W-shaped cusps; the skull is large, and
the nasal bones which support the nose-
leaf much expanded vertically and later-
ally. In females a pair of teat-like
appendages are found in front of the
pubis; and the long tail extends to the

FIG. 6. Head of Mitred margin of the interfemoral membrane.
Horseshoe Bat (Rhino- The middle finger has two phalanges, but
lophus mitratus). From the index is rudimentary. The fibula is
Dobson. rudimentary.

The Rhinolophidae are the most highly

organized of insectivorous bats, in which the osseous and cutaneous
systems reach the fullest development. Compared with theirs, the
bones of the extremities and the wings of other bats appear coarsely
formed, and their teeth seem less perfectly fitted to crush the hard
bodies of insects. The complicated nasal appendages reach their
highest development, and the differences in their form afford
characters in the discrimination of the species, which resemble one
another closely in dentition and the colour of the fur.

In the first subfamily, Rhinolophinae, the first toe has two, and the

other toes three phalanges each; and the ilio-pectineal spine is not
connected by bone with the antero-inferior surface of the ilium. In
the horseshoe bats, Rhinolophus, the dentition is i. J, c. \, p. \,m. |,
the nose-leaf has a central process behind and between the nasal
orifices, with the posterior extremity lanceolate, and the antitragus
large. Among the numerous forms R. luctus is the largest, and in-
habits elevated hill-tracts in India, and Malaysia; R. hipposiderus
of Europe, extending into south England and Ireland, is one of the
smallest; and R. ferrum-equinum represents the average size of the
species, which are mainly distinguished from one another by the
form of the nose-leaf. The last-named species extends from England
to Japan, and southward to the Cape of Good Hope, but is represented
by a number of local races. When sleeping, the horseshoe bats, at
least in some instances, suspend
themselves head downwards, with
the wings wrapped round the body
after the manner of fruit bats. The
posture of ordinary bats is quite
different, and while the lesser horse-
shoe (R. hipposiderus) alights from
the air in an inverted position,
other bats, on first coming to
rest, do so with the head up-
wards, and then reverse their
position.

In the second subfamily, Hippo- p IG . 7. Head of Squirrel
siderinae (formerly called Phyl- Leaf-Bat (Phyllorhinacalcarata).
lorhinae), the toes are equal and From Dobson.
include two phalanges each, while

the ilio-pectineal spine is united by a bony isthmus with a process
derived from the antero-inferior surface of the ilium. Hipposiderus,
Cloeotis, Rhinonycteris, Triaenops, Anthops and Coelops represent
this subfamily. Hipposiderus (Phyllorhina), with many species,
ranging over Asia, Africa and Australasia, and the dental formula
i. J, c. {, p. f , or i, m. f , differs from Rhinolophus in the form of the
nose-leaf, which is not lanceolate behind (fig. 6), and is unprovided
with a central process covering the nostrils; the largest species, H.
armiger, appears to be the most northerly, having been taken at
Amoy in China, and in the Himalaya at an elevation of 5500 ft.
Many are provided with a frontal sac behind the nose-leaf, rudi-
mentary in females (see fig. 7), which can be everted at pleasure;
the sides of this sac secrete a
waxy substance, and its ex-
tremity supports a tuft of
straight hairs. Rhinonycteris,
represented by R. aurantia |
from Australia, and Triaenops, \
by T. persicus from Persia and
other species from Africa and
Madagascar, are closely allied
genera. Triaenops (fig. 8) is
characterized by the remark-
able Form of its nasal appen-
dages and ears, and the pres-
ence of a bony projection from
the upper extremity of the
second phalange of the fourth
finger. Coelops (C. Frithi),
from the Bengal Sanderbans,
Java and Siam. is distinguished
by the peculiar form of its
nose-leaf and the length of the
metacarpal bone of the index finger, as well as by the shortness of
the calcar and interfemoral membrane. Cloeotis is represented by a
single East African species, and Anthops by one from the Solomon
Islands characterized by the nose-leaf covering the whole front of
the face.

The next family, Nycteridae, which is also Old World, is a small
one, nearly allied to the last, in which it is included by Prof.
Max Weber as a subfamily under the name of Myader- p-j..
matinae. It differs by the presence of a small tragus in vluno , re .
the ears, which are united at their bases; and by the
nasal chamber not being inflated. The premaxillae are either small
and separated in front, or rudimentary; and the first phalange
of the middle finger when in repose is laid back on the metacarpus.
There are only pectoral teats.

Of the two genera, Megaderma, as represented by the five species
of false vampires, is distinguished by the absence of ossified pre-
maxillae and upper incisors \i. , p. 2 or M , the cylindrical narrow

muzzle surmounted by an erect nose-leaf the base of which conceals
the nasal orifices, the immense joined ears with large bifid tragus,
and the great extent of the interfemoral membrane, in the base of
which the short tail is concealed. M. gigas (fig. 9), from central
Queensland, is the largest species of the genus, and of the suborder.
M. lyra, common in India (fore-arm 2-7 in.), has been caught in the
act of sucking the Wood, while flying, from a_small bat which it
afterwards devoured. The range of the genus includes Africa, the
Indo-Malay countries and Australasia. Nycteris, which is common

FIG. 8. Head of Persian Leaf-
Bat (Triaenops persicus).
From Dobson.

X 2.

CHIROPTERA

243

to Africa and the Malay Peninsula and Islands, has ossified pre-
maxillae and upper incisors (*'. f, *. i), and a long tail, but lacks a
nose-leaf. As in Megaderma, the Frontal bones are deeply hollowed
and expanded laterally, the muzzle presents a similar cylindrical
form, and the lower jaw also projects; but, instead of a nose-leaf,
the face is marked by a deep longitudinal sharp-edged groove ex-

FIG. 9. The False Vampire (Megaderma gigas). X i- From Dobson.

tending from the nostrils to the band connecting the base of the large
ears; the sides of this depression being margined as far back as the
eyes by small horizontal cutaneous appendages. With the exception
of N. javanica, the species are limited to Africa.

According to the classification followed by Dr G. E. Dobson, the
extensive family of New World bats known as Phyllostomatidae was
v . widely sundered from the two preceding groups; but in
Prof. Max Weber's system they are placed next one
another an arrangement which has the great advantage of bringing
together all the bats furnished with nose-leaves. It is indeed
probable that the vampires, as the members of the present family
may be collectively termed, are the New World representatives of the
Old World Rhinolophidae and Nycteridae.

The Phyllostomatidae are characterized by the presence of a nose-
leaf, or of lappets on the chin, but the nostrils are not directed
upwards. The ethmoturbinal bones of the nasal cavity form simple
plates (much as in the two preceding families). The premaxillae are
always well developed, with their palatal portions forming a suture
and defining the boundaries of distinct palatine foramina (in place
of being rudimentary, as in Nycteridae and Rhinolophidae). The
large ears have a tragus. The middle finger has three phalanges, and
the index one. There is an incomplete fibula. The tail may be
either long orshort. Generally the dentition is *.f, c. \, p. f m. .
All the bats of this family may be readily recognized by the
of a well-developed third phalange in the middle finger,

associated either with a
distinct nose-leaf,
with central upper in-
cisors, or with both.
Unlike the Rhinolo-
phidae, their eyes are
generally large and the
tragus is well developed,
maintaining almost the
same form throughout
the species, however
much the other parts
of the body may vary.

FIG. 10. Head of Blainville's Vampire Their fur is of a dull
(Mormops blainvillei). From Dobson. colour, and the face and

back are often marked
with white streaks. A few species, probably all those with the
tail and interfemoral membrane well developed, feed principally
on insects, while the greater number of the species of the groups
Vampyreae and Glossophageae appear to live on a mixed diet
of insects and fruits, and the Desmodonteae, of which two species
are known, are true blood-suckers, and have their teeth and intestina
tract specially modified in accordance with their habits. The group
is practically limited to the tropical and subtropical parts of Centra
and South America, although one species of Otopterus reaches Cali-

presence

ornia. In the first subfamily, Mormopsinae (Lobostominae), the
nosrtils open by simple apertures at the extremity of the muzzle in
"ront, not margined by a distinct nose-leaf; while, in compensation,
;he chin is furnished with expanded leaf-like appendages. The tail
s short. It includes two genera. In ChUonycteris the crown of the
lead is moderately elevated above the face-line, and the basi-cranial
axis is almost in the same plane as the facial, while in Mormops (fig.
10) the crown of the head is greatly elevated above the face-line, and
:he basi-cranial axis is nearly at right angles to the facial; i. f, p. i,
n both genera. As regards the species of ChUonycteris, the most
striking feature is the occurrence of a rufous and a dark brown phase
n each. In some the two phases are very marked, but in others they
are connected by intermediate shades. Here may be mentioned the
two species of tropical American hare-lipped bats, forming the genus
Noctilio, which presents characters common to this and the following
'amily, to which latter it is often referred. The typical N. leporinus
is a bat of curious aspect, with strangely folded lips, erect skin-
Drocesses on the chin, and enormous feet and claws. The two middle
ncisors are close together, and so large as to conceal the small outer
ones, while in the lower jaw there are but two small incisors; the
aremolars numbering J. These bats live near the coast, and feed on
small crabs and fishes.

Most of the remaining members of .the family are included in the
subfamily Phyllostomatinae, characterized by the presence of a
distinct nose-leaf and the warty chin. The clitoris is imperforate,
whereas it is perforated in the Mormopsinae. The incisors are gener-
ally f (occasionally f), and the molars well developed. The sub-
Family is divided into a number of groups or sections. The first of
them, the Vampyreae, is characterized as follows: Muzzle long and
narrow in front, the distance between the eyes generally less than
(rarely equal to) that from the eye to the extremity of the muzzle;
nose-leaf horseshoe-shaped in front, lanceolate behind; interfemoral
membrane well developed; tail generally distinct, rarely absent;
inner margin of the lips not fringed; i. f or f, p. f or ; molars with
W-shaped cusps, usually well developed.

Nearly all the Vampyreae appear to be insectivorous, so that the
term cannot be considered indicative of habits; but a few, if not
all, probably supplement their insect-diet with fruit. Vampyrus
spectrum (the largest bat in the New World) is said to be wholly
frugivorous, and Otopterus waterhousei appears to prey occasionally
on smaller bats. The genera may be arranged in two subgroups ac-
cording as the tail is produced to the margin of the interfemoral
membrane or perforates it to appear on its upper surface. In the
first division are included three genera, Lonchorhina, Otopterus (or
Macrotus) and Dolichophyllum (orMacrophyllum),the first represented
by L. aurita, characterized by an extraordinary long nose-leaf, and
peculiarly large ears and tragus. In the second subsection are in-
cluded Vampyrus, Chrotopterus, Tonatia (Lophostoma) Micronycteris,
Glyphonycteris, Trachyops, Phylloderma, Phyllostoma, Anthorhina
(Tylostoma),Mimon, Hemiderma (Carollia) and Rhinophylla ; all, with
the exception of the last, distinguished chiefly by the form of the skull
and the presence or absence of the second lower premolar. Phyllostoma
haslatum, next in point of size to Vampyrus spectrum, is a well-
known species in South America; P. elongatum (fig. 11) differs in its
smaller size and larger nose-leaf. Hemiderma brevicauda, a small
species, closely resembles Glossophaga soricina, and forms a connect-
ing link between this and the next group. Rhinophylla pumilio is the
smallest species of the family ; further
distinguished by the absence of a tail,
the narrowness of its molars, which
do not form W-shaped cusps, and the
small size of the last upper molar,
characters connecting it and the group
with the Stenodermateae. Both in
Hemiderma and Rhinophylla the zygo-
matic arch is incomplete.

The next subsection, Glossophageae,
presents the following distinctive
features: Muzzle long and narrow;
tongue long and extensible, attenu-
ated towards the tip, and beset with

front margined by small warts;
nose-leaf small; tail short or none;
*' f i P- f or I or f i f or f or f ; teeth narrow ; molars with narrow
W-shaped cusps, sometimes indistinct or absent; lower incisors
small or deciduous. The species included in this group represent
some ten genera, distinguished principally by differences in the form
and number of the teeth, and the presence or absence of the zygom.itic
arch of the skull. In Glossophaga and Phyllonycteris the upper
incisors form a continuous row between the canines. In Mono-
phyllus and Leptonycteris (Ischnoglossa) they are separated into pairs
by a narrow interval in front; while in Lonchoglossa, Glossonycteris
and Ghoeronycteris they are widely separated and placed in pairs near
the canines. In the first four of these genera the lower incisors are
present (at least to a certain age), in the last three they are deciduous
even in youth. The zygomatic arch is wanting in Phyllonycteris,
Glossonycteris and Choeronycteris. The typical species is Glossophaga
soricina, which, as already mentioned, closely resembles Hemiderma

244

CHIROPTERA

brevicauda, both in form and dentition. Its long brush-tipped tongue
(which it possesses in common with other species of the group) is
used to lick out the pulpy contents of fruits having hard rinds. The
food of the species of this group appears to consist of both fruit and
insects, and the long tongue may be used for extracting the latter
from the deep corollas of flowers. Other genera are Lonchophylla,
Rhithronyctens, Hylonycteris and Lychonycteris, each with a single

species (in 1904)-

The third group, Stenodermateae, presents the following character-
istics: Muzzle very short and generally broad in front, the distance
between the eyes nearly always exceeding (rarely equalling) the
distance from the eye to the extremity of the muzzle ; nose-leaf

short, horseshoe-
shaped in front,
lanceolate behind
(except in Brachy-
phylla and Centurio) ;
, interfemoral mem-
I brane concave be-
hind ; tail none ;
inner margin of the
lips fringed with
conical papillae;

FIG. 12. Head of Long-tongued Vampire i. % or f , p. f , m. ji
(Choeronycteris mexicana), showing brush- or f or ; cheek-
tipped tongue. From Dobson. teeth broad (except

in Sturnira), molars

with concave or flat crowns margined externally by raised cutting-
edges. Although the Stenodermateae are generally easily dis-
tinguished from the __ Vampyreae by the shortness and breadth of
the muzzle and the form of the cheek-teeth, certain species of the
latter resemble the former in external appearance, agreeing almost
absolutely in the form of the nose-leaf, the ears and the tragus, and
the warts on the chin. These resemblances show that, while the form
of the teeth and jaws has become modified to suit the food, the
external characters have remained much the same, and indicate the
common origin of the two sections. The food of these bats appears to
be wholly or in great part fruit. The species are divided into some
eleven genera, mostly distinguished by the form of the skull and teeth.
Artibeus includes the frugiyorous A. perspicillatus. Stenoderma
achradophilum, found in Jamaica and Cuba, with the last, from which
it is scarcely distinguishable externally except by its much smaller
size, differs m the absence of the horizontal plate of the premaxillae
on the palate. Sturnira lilium, while agreeing with these in the form
of the nose-leaf and ears, differs from all the species of the family in
its longitudinally-grooved molars, which resemble those of the
Pteropodidae more closely than those of any other bats; and the
presence of tufts of long differently-coloured hairs over glands in the
sides of the neck is another character in common with that group.
Centurio senex (fig. 13) is the type of a small genus distinguished from
Stenoderma and other genera of this group by the absence of a d'stinct
nose-leaf. Some naturalists make this genus the type of a distinct
subgroup, Centurioneae. Up to 1 904 the genera, exclusive of Centurio,
included in the Stenodermateae were Artibeus (with several sub-
genera), Vampyrops (also with subgenera), Mesophylla, Chiroderma,
Stenoderma (with 3 subgenera), Ectophylla, Ametrida (with 2 sub-
genera), Pygoderma, Sturnira and Brachyphylla.

The third subfamily, Desmodontieae, is represented only by the
blood-sucking bats, and distinguished by having i. J, of which the

upper pair are cutting, the rudimentary
molars, the very short interfemoral
membrane, and the blood-sucking
habit. They are further characterized
as follows: Muzzle short and conical;
nose-leaf distinct; p. f, m. \ or jj;
upper incisors occupying the whole
space between the canines; premolars
narrow, with sharp-edged longitudinal
crowns ; molars rudimentary or absent ;
stomach elongated, and mtestiniform.
There are two genera, Desmodus, with-
senex). out calcar or molars, and Diphylla,
with a short calcar and a single rudi-
mentary molar on each side re-
stricted to Central and South America. Desmodus rufus, the com-
moner species, is a little larger than the noctule bat, and abundant
in certain parts of South America, where it is troublesome owing to
its attacks upon domestic animals, sucking their blood and leaving
them weakened from repeated bleedings. (See VAMPIRE.)

The fourth family of bats, unlike any of the three previous ones,
has a cosmopolitan distribution. These free-tailed bats, as they are
p ne . conveniently called, constituting the family Emballo-

tailed nuridae, present the following distinctive features. The

6a<s. nostrils are of normal form and without a nose-leaf. The

premaxillae have their palatal portion imperfectly de-
veloped, and united by a slender process with the maxillae. The
ears are large, with a small tragus. The middle finger has two
phalanges, and the index generally a single one. The fibula is in-
complete. The tail is generally short, and always partly free from
the interfemoral membrane. There is generally only a single pair of

FIG. 13. Head of Masked
Vampire (Centurio
From Dobson.

upper incisors, separated by gaps from the canines, and from one
another in the middle line.

The distinctive feature of these bats is the free tail-tip, which
pierces the interfemoral membrane to appear on its upper surface,
and may project beyond its margin. As a rule, these bats may also
be recognized by the peculiar form of the muzzle, which is obliquely
truncated, the nostrils projecting more or less in front beyond the
lower lip, by the first phalange of the middle finger being folded in
repose forwards on the upper surface of the metacarpal bone, and by
the upper incisors. Although cosmopolitan, these bats rarely extend
north or south of the thirtieth parallels of latitude.

The family may be divided into two subfamilies, of which the
Emballonurinae is characterized by the incomplete premaxillae, the
presence of only one phalange in the index finger, and the short tail.
The dental formula is generally i. J (sometimes f or ), c. \, p. f , m. \.
This subfamily may be further subdivided
into subgroups or sections of which the
first, Emballonurae, is characterized by the
slender tail perforating the interfemoral
membrane, so as to appear on its upper
surface; the legs long, with a slender
fibula; the incisors weak; and the pre-
molars f . The typical genus Emballonura
presents the following features: i. f,
extremity of the muzzle more or less
produced beyond the lower lip, forehead FIG. 14. Ear of
flat. The genus contains several species, Emballonura raff rayana.
inhabiting islands from Madagascar From Dobson.
through the Malay Archipelago and Siam

to the Navigator Islands. Coleura, with i. }, the extremity
of the muzzle broad, and the forehead concave, has two species
from East Africa and the Seychelles. Khynchonycteris is distin-
guished from Coleura by the produced extremity of the muzzle.
The single species, R. naso, from Central and South America, is
common in the vicinity of streams, where it is usually found during
the day resting on the vertical faces of rocks, or on trunks of trees
growing over water; it escapes notice owing to the greyish colour of
the fur of the body and of small tufts on the antebrachial membrane
counterfeiting the weathered surfaces of rocks and bark. As evening
approaches it appears on the wing, flying close to the water. Saccop-
teryx has i. $, and the antibrachial membrane with a pouch opening
on its upper surface; it contains several species from Central and
South America. This sac is developed only in the male and in the
female is rudimentary. In adult males a valvular longitudinal
opening occupies the upper surface of the membrane leading into a
small pouch, the interior of which is lined with a glandular membrane
secreting an unctuous reddish substance with a strong ammoniacal
odour. Allied genera are the tropical American Peropteryx and the
Brazilian Cormura. The various species of tomb-bats (Taphozous)
inhabit the tropical and subtropical parts of all the eastern hemi-
sphere except Polynesia, and are distinguished by the cartilaginous
premaxillanes, the deciduous pair of upper incisors, and the presence
of only two pairs of lower incisors. Most of the species have a
glandular sac (fig. 15) between the angles of the lower jaw, more
developed in males than in females, in some species absent in the

FIG. 15. Heads of Tomb-Bat (Taphozous longimanus), showing
relative development of throat-sacs in male and female. From
Dobson.

latter. An open throat-sac Is wanting in T. melanopogon, but about
its position are the openings of small pores, the secretion from which
probably causes the hairs to grow long, forming the black beard
found in many males. The three tropical American white bats,
Diclidurus, with i. \, c. }, p. 8, m. jj, resemble Taphozous in the form
of the head and ears, but, besides other characters, differ from all
other bats in possessing a pouch, opening off the centre of the
interior surface of the interfemoral membrane; the extremity of the
tail enters this, and perforates its base.

The second subfamily of the Emballonuridae, Rhinopomaiinae, is
represented only by the genus Rhinopoma, with several species
ranging from Egypt through Arabia to India, Burma and Sumatra.
The premaxillae (fig. 16) are complete; the index finger has two
phalanges; the tail is very long and mouselike; and the dental
formula i. i, c. \, p. , m. \. Dr G. E. Dobson has remarked that
these mouse-tailed bats might be elevated to the rank of a family, for
it is difficult to determine their affinities, a kind of cross relationship
attaching them to the Nycteridae on the one hand and to the Em-
ballonuridae on the other. These 'bats, distinguished from all other
Microchiroptera by the presence of two phalanges in the index finger,

CHIROPTERA

245

Typical
Bats,

and the long and slender tail projecting far beyond the narrow inter-
femoral membrane, inhabit the subterranean tombs in Egypt and
deserted buildings generally from north-east Africa to Burma and
Sumatra.

The last group, according to the system adopted by Prof. Max
Weber, is that of the Vespertilionidae, which includes such typical
bats as the pipistrelle, the noctule, and the long-eared
species. By Mr G. S. Miller l the first section of the
family Natalinae is regarded as of family rank, while
the last section, or Molossinae, is included by Dr G. E. Dobson in the
Emballonuridae, from the typical forms of which its members differ

widely in tail-structure. In this
extended sense the family, which
has a cosmopolitan distribution,
may be defined as follows: The
nostrils are normal and without a
nose-leaf. The ethmoturbinal bones
of the nasal chamber are involuted.
The palatine processes of the pre-
maxillae do not form a suture. The

FIG. 1 6. Skull of Mouse- a . r is m stlv lar ^- with . a ***&*
tailed Bat (Rhinopoma micro- J, he }. e fi "S er ^ c fP l ln T}l E~
phyllum). X2. (From Dobson.) #f?> . has 7 Phalanges. The

' fibula is usually rudimentary. The

tail is long and does not perforate the interfemoral membrane.
The incisors are generally 3 or J, but may be reduced to } in the
Molossinae.

In the first subfamily, Natalinae, which is exclusively tropical
American, the other upper incisors are separated from one
another and from the canines; palatine processes of the pre-
maxillae are at least partially developed; and the dental formula

is i. I, c. {, p.

m. \. In general appearance these bats recall

the more typical Vespertilionidae, although the form of the muzzle is
suggestive of the Mormopsinae among the Phyllostomatidae. Again,

while the form of the skull is
vespertilione, the relation of
the vomer to the front end
of the premaxillae is of the
phyllostomine type. The
molars and incisors are like-
wise vespertilione, whereas the
premolars are as distinctly
phyllostomine. Finally, while
the third, or middle, finger
normally has two phalanges,
as in typical Vespertilionidae,
the second of these is elon-
FIG. 17. Head of Chilonalalus gated and in Thyroptera
micropm. x 2. (From Dobson.) divided into two, as in Phyllo-
stomatidae.

The first two genera, Furipterus and Amorphochilus, each have a
single species, the latter being distinguished from the former by the
wide separation of the nostrils and the backward prolongation of the
palate. In both the crown of the head is elevated, the thumb and
first phalange of the middle finger are very short, and the premolars
are f. The same elevation of the crown characterizes the genera
Natalus and Chilonatalus (fig. 17), in which the premolars are |: in

FIG. 18. Suctorial Disks in Thyroptera tricolor, a, side, and b,
concave surface, of thumb disk; c, foot with disk, and calcar with
projections (all much enlarged). (From Dobson.)

general appearance these bats are very like the Old World vesper-
tilionine genus Cerivoula, except for the short triangular tragus.
Lastly, Thyroptera includes two species distinguished by an additional
phalange in themiddle finger, and by accessory clinging-otgansattached
to the extremities. In Thyroptera tricolor, i. 'f, p. , from Brazil,
these have the appearance of small, circular, stalked, hollow disks
(fig. 18), resembling miniature sucking-cups of cuttle-fishes, and are
attached to the inferior surfaces of the thumbs and the soles of the
feet. By their aid the bat is able to maintain its hold when creeping
over smooth vertical surfaces.

The second or typical subfamily, Vespertilioninae, includes all the
remaining members of the family with the exception of the aberrant
Molossinae. The upper incisors are in proximity to the canines; the

1 Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. vol. xii. (1899).

premaxillae widely separated ; the ears medium or large; the dental
formula is i. (or J), c. \, p. j(?, f , or J), m. I ; and the fibula very
small and imperfect. All the members of this large cosmopolitan
group are closely allied, and differ chiefly by external characters.
They may be divided into subgroups. In the first of these, the
Plecoteae, of which the long-eared bat (Plecotus auritus) is the type,
the crown of the head is but slightly raised above the face-line,
the upper incisors are close to the canines, and the nostrils are
margined behind by grooves on the upper surface of the muzzle, or
by rudimentary nose-leaves; the ears being generally very large and
united. Of the six genera, Plecotus, with '. f, p. f, has three species:
cne the long-eared European bat referred to above; P. macrotis,
restricted to North America, is distin-
guished by the great size of the glandular
prominences of the sides of the muzzle,
which meet in the centre above and behind
the nostrils; the third species being also
American. The second, Barbastella, with
* f> P- i. distinguished by its dentition
and by the outer margin of the ear being
carried forwards above the mouth and in
front of the eye, includes the European ,-
barbastelle bat, B. barbastellus, and B. dar- c "2k ., I9 '~
jelingensis from the Himalaya. Otonycteris, Scotophdusemarginatus.
i. i pm. i, connecting this group with the (From Dobson -)
Vespertilioneae, is represented by O. hemprichii, from North Africa
and the Himalaya, and an Arabian species. The next two genera are
distinguished by the presence of a rudimentary nose-leaf: Nycto-
philus, i. \, p. \, with three species from Australasia; and Antrozous,
i. J, p. i, distinguished from all the other members of the subfamily
by having but two lower incisors, and from other Plecoteae by the
separate ears; the two species inhabit California. The sixth genus,
Euderma, is also represented by a Californian species.

The second group Vespertilioneae, with about thirteen genera,
includes the great majority of the species; and a large number of
these may be classed under Vespertilio, which is divisible into sub-
genera, differing from one another in the number of premolars, and
often ranked as separate genera. One group is represented by
V. (Histiotus) magellanicus, a species remarkable for its extreme
southern range, its relatives being also South American. A second
group, with p. J, includes the British serotine, V. (Eptesicus) serotinus,
of Europe and northern Asia, and represented in North America by
the closely allied V. (E.) fuscus. In the typical group, which includes
the Old World V. murinus, one species, V. borealis, ranges to the
Arctic circle. The European noctule, V. (Pterygistes) noctula, and
Leisler's bat, V. (P.) leisleri, represent another group; and the
common pipistrelle, V. (Pipistrellus) pipistrellus, yet another, with
p. | . The only other group that need be mentioned is one represented
by the North American V. (Lasionycteris) noctivagans, with p. \.
The African Lciephotes, the Chinese la, and the Papuan Philetor are
allied genera, each with a single species. Chalinolobus and Glau-
conycteris have the same general dental character as Vespertilio,
but are distinguished by the presence of a lobe projecting from the
lower lip near the gape; the former, with p. f , is represented by five
Australasian species, one of which extends into New Zealand ; while
the latter, with p. J, is African. The species of Glauconycteris are
noticeable for their peculiarly thin membranes traversed by distinct
reticulations and parallel lines. Scotophilus, with i, J, p. J, includes
several species, restricted to the tropical and subtropical regions of
the eastern hemisphere,
though widely distri-
buted within these
limits. These bats,
though approaching cer-
tain species of Vespertilio
in many points, are dis-
tinguished by the single
(in place of two) pair
of unicuspidate upper
incisors separated by a
wide space and placed

close to the canines, by the small transverse first lower premolar
crushed in between the canine and second premolar, and, generally,
by theirconical, nearly naked, muzzles and thick leathery membranes.
5. temmincki is the commonest bat in India, and appears often before
the sun has touched the horizon. 5. gigas, from equatorial Africa, is
the largest species. Nycticejus, with the same dental formula as
Scotophilus, is distinguished by the first -lower premolar not being
crushed in between the adjoining teeth, and the comparatively
greater size of the last upper molar. It includes only the North
American N. humeralis (crepuscularis), a bat scarcely larger than the
pipistrelle. The hairy-membraned bats of the genus Lasiurus
(Atalapha), with i. J, p. | or J, are also limited to the New World,
and generally characterized by the interfemoral membrane being
more or less covered with hair and by the peculiar form of the tragus,
which is expanded above and abruptly curved inwards. In those
species which have two upper premolars the first is extremely small
and internal to the tooth-row. The genus, which is divided into
Lasiurus proper and Dasypterus, is further characterized by the
presence of four teats in the female, and by the general production

FIG. 20. Head of Cerivoula hardwickei.
(From Dobson.)

246

CHIROPTERA

of three or four offspring at a birth. Rhogeessa and Tomopeas are
allied tropical American types. Murina, with the subgenus Harpio-
ccphalus, has i. f , p. f , and includes several small bats distinguished
by the prominent tube-like nostrils and hairy interfemoral membrane.
M. suttla, from Java, the Malay and neighbouring islands, is a well-
known species, and the closely allied M. hilgendorfi is from Japan.
The remaining species are from the Himalaya, Tibet and Ceylon;
and apparently restricted to the hill-tracts of the countries in which
they are found. Next to Vespertilio the genus Myotis (divisible into
several subgenera), with i. , p. |, includes the largest number of
species, and has rather a wider geographical distribution in both
hemispheres, one species being recorded from the Navigator Islands.
The species may be recognized by the peculiar character of the pairs
of upper incisors on each side, the cusps of which diverge from each
other, by the large number of premolars, of which the second upper
is always small, and by the oval elongated ear and narrow tragus.
The British M. bechsteini and M . nattereri are examples of this group.
Cerivoida (Kerivoula), which also has p. i, is distinguished by the
parallel upper incisors and the large second upper premolar. There
are numerous African and Indo-Malayan species, of which C. picta,
from India and Indo-Malay, is characterized by its brilliant orange
fur, and membranes variegated with orange and black. The genus
includes delicately formed insectivorous, tropical, forest-haunting
bat?, whose colouring approximates them to the ripe bananas among
which they often pass the daytime.

Another subgroup, Minioptereae, is represented solely by the genus
Miniopterus, with i. , p. . The incisors are separated from one
another in front and from the canines; the first phalange of the
middle finger is very short, the crown of the head elevated, and the
tail long. The genus is represented by some half-dozen Old World
species, among which the typical M. schreibersi ranges from Europe,
southern Asia, and Africa to Japan and Australasia.

The last subfamily is that of the Molossinae, included by Dobson
in the family Emballonuridae. In this group the premaxillae- are in
contact or but very slightly separated; the ears are large, with the
tragus small; the dental formula is i.\ ($ or i), c. t, p. % (f), m. jf;
and the fibula is strongly developed. In their blunt muzzles and
many other features these bats undoubtedly resemble the Emballonu-
ridae, from the typical members of which they differ by the pro-
duction of the thick tail far beyond the margin of the interfemoral
membrane. They are further characterized by their broad and
stout feet, in which the first, and in most cases also the fifth, toe is
thicker than the rest, and furnished with long bent hairs; and by
the presence of callosities at the base of the thumbs, and a single
pair of large upper incisors occupying the centre of the space between
the canines. The feet are free from the wing-membrane, which
folds up under the fore-arm and legs; the interfemoral membrane
is retractile, being movable backwards and forwards along the tail;
this power of varying its superficial extent confers on these bats
great dexterity in changing the direction of flight. All are able to
walk or crawl well, and spend much of their time on trees. The
genus Chiromeles, with i. \, c. \, p. 5, m, |, the first hind-toe much
larger than and separate from the others, and the widely sundered
ears, is represented by C. torquata, a large bat of peculiar aspect,
inhabiting the Indp-Malay countries. This species is nearly naked,
a collar only of thinly spread hairs half surrounding the neck, and
is remarkable for its enormous throat-sac and nursing-pouches.
The former consists of a semicircular fold of skin forming a pouch
round the neck beneath, concealing the orifices of subcutaneous
pectoral glands which discharge an oily fluid of offensive smell. The
nursing-pouch is formed on each side by an extension of a fold of
skin from the side of the body to the inferior surfaces of the humerus
and femur. In the anterior part of this pouch the teat is placed.
The typical genus Molossus (fig. 21) includes the mastiff-bats,
characterized by the dental formula *'. \ or J, p. \ or f ; and by the

FIG. 2i. Head of Mastiff -bat FIG. 22. Head of Nyc-

(Molossus glaucinus). (From tinomops macrotis. (From
Dobson.) Dobson.)

upper incisors being close together in front. The genus is restricted
to the tropical and subtropical regions of the New World. M.
obscurus, a small species common in tropical America, inhabits the
hollow trunks of palms and other trees and the roofs of houses.
The males and females live apart (as is the case in most if not all
bats). In West Africa the mastiff-bats are represented by Eomops,

with one species; while Nyctinomops includes a number of tropical
American species more nearly related to the next genus, in which
some of them (fig. 22) were formerly included. The widely spread
Nyctinomus, with i. J or f , p. f or J, and the upper incisors separate
in front, includes numerous species inhabiting the tropical and
subtropical parts of both hemispheres. The lips of the bats of this
genus are even more expansible than in Molossus, in many of the
species (fig. 22) showing vertical wrinkles. N. toeniotis (or cestonii),
one of the largest species, alone extends into Europe, as far north
as Switzerland. N. johorensis, from the Malay Peninsula, is re-
markable for the extraordinary form of its ears. N. brasiliensis
is common in tropical America, and extends as far north as California.
Here may be conveniently noticed two very rare and aberrant
bats, Myzopoda (or Myxopoda) aurita of Madagascar, and Mystacops
(or Mystacina) tuberculatus of New Zealand, the latter ..
of which is believed to be well-nigh, if not entirely, exter- %
minated. Their systematic position and affinities are Myttacooi
somewhat uncertain; but in the opinion of O. Thomas 1
the former should typify a separate family, Myzopodidae, in which
the latter may also find a place. From all other bats Myzopoda is
distinguished by the presence of a peculiar mushroom-shaped organ

FIG. 23. Thumb and leg and foot of New Zealand bat (Mystacops
tuberculatus), enlarged. (From Dobson.)

at the base of the large ear, and by the union of the tragus with the
latter, on the inner base of which it forms a small projection. There
are three phalanges in the middle finger; and the whole inferior
surface of the thumb supports a large sessile horseshoe-shaped
adhesive pad, with the circular margin directed forwards and
notched along its edge, while a smaller pad occupies part of the sole
of the hind-foot. Mr Thomas regards this bat as related on the one
hand to the subfamily Mormopsinae of the Phyllostomatidae, and on
the other to the Natalinae among the Vespertilionidae; both these
groups being regarded by him as of family rank.

Mystacops resembles Myzopoda in having three phalanges to the
middle finger, but differs in that the tail perforates the interfemoral
membrane to appear on its upper surface in the manner characteristic
of the Emballonuridae. The greater part of the wing-membrane is
exceedingly thin, but a narrow portion along the fore-arm, the sides
of the body, and the legs, is thick and leathery, and beneath this
thickened portion the wings are folded. Other peculiarities of
structure are found in the form of the claws of the thumbs and toes,
each of which has a small heel projecting from its concave surface
near the base, also in the sole of the foot and inferior surface of the
leg, as shown in fig. 23. The plantar surface, including the toes, is
covered with soft and very lax, deeply wrinkled skin, and each toe
is marked by a central longitudinal groove with short grooves at
right angles to it. The lax wrinkled integument is continued along
the inferior flattened surface of the ankle and leg. These peculiarities
appear to be related to climbing habits in the species.

Extinct Bats.

Palaeontology tells us nothing with regard to the origin of
the Chiroptera, all the known fossil species, some of which date
back to the Oligocene, being more or less closely allied to existing
types, and therefore of comparatively little interest. The origin
of the order from primitive insectivorous mammals must have
taken place at least as early as the Lower Eocene. It is, however,
noteworthy that several of the earlier extinct species appear
to be related to the Rhinolophidae, which is the most generalized
family of the order. Remains of Pteropodidae belonging to
existing genera occur in the caves of tropical countries in the
eastern hemisphere; and the skeleton of an extinct generic
type, Archaeopteropus, has been obtained from the Miocene
lignite of Italy, which indicates a form to a certain extent
transitional in character between typical fruit-bats and the
insectivorous bats. The tail, for instance, which in most mcdern
fruit-bats is rudimentary, with only three or four vertebrae, in
the fossil has eight complete vertebrae; while the teeth of the
1 Proc. Zool. Soc. (London, 1904), vol. ii.

CHIRU CHITON

247

extinct form are distinctly cusped. Whether, however, the tail
is longer than in the existing Notopteris of Fiji and New Guinea,
or whether the molars are more distinctly cusped than is the
case with the Solomon Island Pteropus (Pleralopex), is not
stated. Still, the fact that the Miocene fruit-bat does show
certain signs of approximation to the insectivorous (and more
generalized) section of the order is of interest. Of the Oligocene
forms, Pseudorhinolophus of Europe is apparently a member of
the Rhinolophidae; but the affinities of Alastor and Vesperti-
liavus, which are likewise European, are more doubtful, although
the latter may be related to Taphozous. The North American
Vespertilio (Vesperugo) anemophilus and the European V.
aquensis and V. parisiensis are, on the other hand, members of
the VespertUionidae, the last being apparently allied to the
serotine (V. serotinus).

AUTHORITIES. The above article is based to some extent on the
article in the 9th edition of this work by G. E. Dobson, whose
British Museum " Catalogue " is, however, now obsolete. Professor
H. Winge's " Jordfundae og nulevende Flagermus (Chiroptera),"
published in E. Mus. Lundi (Copenhagen, 1892), contains much
valuable information; and for Pteropodidae Dr P. Matschie's
Megachiroptera (Berlin, 1899), should be consulted. For the rest the
student must refer to numerous papers by G. M. Allen, K. Andersen,
F. A. Jentink, G. S. Miller, T. S. Palmer, A. G. Rehn, O. Thomas and
others, in various English and American zoological serials, all of
which are quoted in the volumes of the Zoological Record. (R. L. *)

CHIRU, a graceful Tibetan antelope (Pantholops Hodgsoni),
of which the bucks are armed with long, slender and heavily-
ridged horns of an altogether peculiar type, while the does are
hornless. Possibly this handsome antelope may be the original
of the mythical unicorn, a single buck when seen in profile
looking exactly as if it had but one long straight horn. Although
far from uncommon, chiru are very wary, and consequently
difficult to approach. They are generally found in small parties,
although occasionally in herds. They inhabit the desolate
plateau of Tibet, at elevations of between 13,000 and 18,000 ft.,
and, like all Tibetan animals, have a firm thick coat, formed in
this instance of close woolly hair of a grey fawn-colour. The most
peculiar feature about the chiru is, however, its swollen, puffy
nose, which is probably connected with breathing a highly rarefied
atmosphere. A second antelope inhabiting the same country
as the chiru is the goa (Gazella piclicaudata) , a member of the
gazelle group characterized by the peculiar form of the horns
of the bucks and certain features of coloration, whereby it is
markedly distinguished from all its kindred save one or two
other central Asian species. The chiru, which belongs to the
typical or antilopine section of antelopes, is probably allied to
the saiga. (R. L.*)

CHIRURGEON, one whose profession it is to cure disease by
operating with the hand. The word in its original form is now
obsolete. It derives from the Mid. Eng. cirurgien or sirurgien,
through the Fr. from the Gr. x.tipovpybs, one who operates with
the hand (from \eip, hand, Zpjov, work) ; from the early form
is derived the modern word " surgeon." " Chirurgeon " is a
i6th century reversion to the Greek origin. (See SURGERY.)

CHISEL (from the O. Fr. cisel, modern ciseau, Late Lat. cisellum,
a cutting tool, from caedere, to cut), a sharp-edged tool for cutting
metal, wood or stone. There are numerous varieties of chisels
used in different trades; the carpenter's chisel is wooden-
handled with a straight edge, transverse to the axis and bevelled
on one side; stone masons' chisels are bevelled on both sides,
and others have oblique, concave or convex edges. A chisel with
a semicircular blade is called a " gouge." The tool is worked
either by hand-pressure or by blows from a hammer or mallet.
The " cold chisel " has a steel edge, highly tempered to cut
unheated metal. (See TOOL.)

CHISLEHURST, an urban district in the Sevenoaks parlia-
mentary division of Kent, England, nj m. S.E. of London,
by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 7429.
It is situated 300 ft. above sea-level, on a common of furze
and heather in the midst of picturesque country. The church
of St Nicholas (Perpendicular with Early English portions, but
much restored) has a tomb of the Walsingham family, who had
a lease of the manor from Elizabeth; Sir Francis Walsingham,

the statesman, being born here in 1536. Another statesman
of the same age, Sir Nicholas Bacon, was born here in 1510.
Near the church is an ancient cockpit. The mortuary chapel
attached to the Roman Catholic church of St Mary was built
to receive the body of Napoleon III., who died at Camden
Place in 1873; and that of his son was brought hither in 1879.
Both were afterwards removed to the memorial chapel at
Farnborough in Hampshire. Camden Place was built by
William Camden, the antiquary, in 1609, and in 1765 gave'
the title of Baron Camden to Lord Chancellor Pratt. The house
was the residence not only of Napoleon III., but of the empress
Eugenie and of the prince imperial, who is commemorated by a
memorial cross on Chislehurst Common. The house and grounds
are now occupied by a golf club. There are many villa residences
in the neighbourhood of Chislehurst.

CHISWICK, an urban district in the Ealing parliamentary
division of Middlesex, England, suburban to London, on the
Thames, 7 m. W. by S. of St Paul's cathedral. Pop. (1901)
29,809. The locality is largely residential, but there are breweries,
and the marine engineering works of Messrs Thornycroft on the
river. Chiswick House, a seat of the duke of Devonshire, is
surrounded by beautiful grounds; here died Fox (1806) and Can-
ning (1827). The gardens near belonged till 1903 to the Royal
Horticultural Society. The church of St Nicholas has ancient
portions, and in the churchyard is the tomb of William Hogarth
the painter, with commemorative lines by David Garrick.
Hogarth's house is close at hand. Chiswick Hall, no longer
extant, was formerly a country seat for the masters and sana-
torium for the scholars of Westminster school. He"re in 1811 the
Chiswick Press was founded by Charles Whittingham the elder,
an eminent printer (d. 1840).

CHITA, a town of east Siberia, capital of Transbaikalia, on
the Siberian railway, 500 m. E. of Irkutsk, on the Chita river,
half a mile above its confluence with the Ingoda. Pop. (1883)
12,600; (1897) 11,480. The Imperial Russian Geographical
Society has a museum here. Several of the palace revolution-
aries, known as Decembrists, were banished to this place from
St Petersburg in consequence of the conspiracy of December 1825.
The inhabitants support themselves by agriculture and by trade
in furs, cattle, hides and tallow bought from the Burials, and
in manufactured wares imported from Russia and west Siberia.

CHITALDRUG, a district and town in the native state of
Mysore, India. The district has an area of 4022 sq. m. and a
population (1901) of 498,795. It is distinguished by its low
rainfall and arid soil. It lies within the valley of the Vedavati
or Hagari river, mostly dry in the hot season. Several parallel
chains of hills, reaching an extreme height of 3800 ft., cross the
district; otherwise it is a plain. The chief crops are cotton and
flax; the chief manufactures are blankets and cotton cloth.
The west of the district is served by the Southern Mahratta
railway. The largest town in the district is Davangere (pop.
10,402). The town of CHITALDRUG, which is the district head-
quarters (pop. 1901, 5792), was formerly a military cantonment,
but this was abandoned on account of its unhealthiness. It
has massive fortifications erected under Hyder Ali and Tippoo
Sahib towards the close of the i8th century; and near it on the
west are remains of a city of the 2nd century A.D.

CHITON, the name l given to fairly common littoral animals
of rather small size which belong to the phylum Mollusca, and,
in the possession of a radula in the buccal cavity, resemble more
especially the Gastropoda. Their most important characteristic
in comparison with the latter is that they are, both in external
and internal structure, bilaterally symmetrical. The dorsal
integument or mantle bears, not a simple shell, but eight cal-
careous plates in longitudinal series articulating with each other.
The ventral surface forms a flat creeping " foot," and between
mantle and foot is a pallial groove in which there is on each side
a series of gills. Originally the Chitons were placed with the
limpets, Patella, in Cuvier's Cydobranchia, an order of the
Gastropoda. In 1876 H. von Jhering demonstrated the affinities

1 The Gr. \iT&n> was a garment in the shape of a loose tunic,
varying at different periods: see COSTUME: Greek.

248

CHITON

of Neomenia and Chaetoderma, vermiform animals destitute of
shell, with the Chitons, and placed them all in a division of worms
which he named Amphineura. The discovery by A. A. W.
Hubrecht in 1 88 1 of a typical molluscan radula and odontophore
in a new genus Proneomenia, allied to Neomenia, showed that
the whole group belonged to the Mollusca. E. Ray Lankester
(Ency. Brit., Qth ed., 1883) placed them under the name Isopleura
as a subclass of Gastropoda. Paul Pelseneer (1906) raised the
group to the rank of a class of Mollusca, under von Jhering's
name Amphineura.

The Amphineura are divided into two orders: (i) the Poly-
placophora, or Chitons; (2) the Aplacophora, or forms without
shells, Neomenia, Chaetoderma and their allies.

Order I. POLYPLACOPHORA

Each of the eight valves of the shell is made up of two distinct
calcareous layers: (a) an outer or upper called the tegmentum,
which is visible externally; (6) a deeper layer called articula-

FIG. i. Three views of Chiton.

A. Dorsal view of Chiton Wps-

nessenksii, Midd., showing
the eight shells. (After
Middendorf.)

B. View from the pedal surface

of a species of Chiton from
the Indian Ocean, p, foot;
o, mouth (at the other end
of the foot is seen the anus
raised on a papilla) ; kr,
oral fringe; br, the numer-
ous ctenidia (branchial
plumes) ; spreading beyond

these, and all round the
animal, is the mantle-skirt.
(After Cuvier.)

C. The same species of Chiton,
with the shells removed and
the dorsa' integument re-
flected, b, buccal mass; m,
retractor muscles of the
buccal mass; m, ovary;
od, oviduct; i, coils of in-
testines; ao, aorta; c', left
auricle; c, ventricle.

mentum which is porcellaneous, quite compact, and entirely
covered by the tegmentum. In the lower forms the two layers
are coextensive and have smooth edges, but in the higher forms

FIG. 2. Pallial eye and aesthetes of Acanthopleura spiniger
(Moseley).

the articulamentum projects laterally beyond and beneath the
tegmentum into the substance of the mantle. These projections

are termed insertion plates; they are usually slit or notched to
form teeth, the edges of which may be smooth and sharp, or may
be crenulated. The anterior margin of each valve except the
first is provided with two projections called sutural laminae
which underlie the posterior margin of the preceding valve.
The tegmentum is formed by the fold of mantle covering the

From Lankester, Treatise on Zoology.

FIG. 3. Ventral aspect of three species of Polyplacophora showing
position of gills.

A. Lepidopleurus benthus. mouth; pa, mantte; pa',

B. Boreochilon cinereus. anal lobe of mantle; ps,

C. Schizochiton incisus. a, pallia! slit; le, pallia!

anus; /, foot; g, gills; m, tentacles.

edge of the articulamentum, and extends over the latter from the
sides. It is the first part of the shell formed in development.
The tegmentum is much reduced in Acanthochiton, and absent
in the adult Cryplochiton.
The tegmentum is pierced
by numerous vertical rami-
fied canals which contain
epithelial papillae of the
epidermis. These papillae
form pallial sense-organs,
containing nerve-end
bulbs, covered by a dome
of cuticle, and innervated
from the pallial nerve-
cords. They are termed
according to their size,
micraesthetes and mega-
laesthetes. In the common
species of Chiton and many
others of the family
Chilonidae the megalaes-
thetes are developed into
definite eyes, the most
complicated of which have
retina, pigment within the
eye, cornea and crystalline
lens (mtra-pigmental eyes)
(fig. 2). The eyes are
arranged in rows running
diagonally from tha median

anterior beak of each valve
to its lateral borders
There may be only one
such row on either side, or
many rows. In some species
the total number present
amounts to thousands.

FIG. 4. Diagrams of the alimentary
canal of Amphineura (from Hubrecht).

A. Neomenia, and Proneomenia.

B. Chaetoderma.

C. Chiton,
o, Mouth,
a, Anus.

d. Alimentary canal.

/, Liver (digestive gland).

Branchiae. The series of
gills may extend the whole
length of the body in the pallial groove, or may be confined to the
posterior end. Each gill has the structure of a typical molluscan
ctenidium, consisting of an axis bearing an anterior and posterior
row of filaments or lamellae. The gills are thus metamerically
repeated; there may be from four to eighty pairs, but there is

CHITON

249

often a numerical asymmetry on the two sides. The largest pair of
branchiae is placed immediately behind the renal openings and
corresponds to the single pair of other molluscs, the organs being
repeated anteriorly only (Metamacrobranchs) or anteriorly and
posteriorly (Mesomacrobranchs).

Intestine. The digestive tube in the Polyplacophora, which are
herbivorous, is longer than the body, and thrown into a few coils,
the anus being median and posterior. The mouth leads into the
buccal cavity, on the ventral side of which opens the radular caecum.
Each transverse row of teeth of the radula contains 17 teeth, one of
which is median, while the second and the fifth on each side are
enlarged. Two pairs of glands open into the buccal cavity, and at
the junction of pharynx and oesophagus is another pair called the
sugar glands. The stomach is surrounded by the liver or digestive

FIG.

5. Diagrams of the excretory and reproductive organs of
Amphineura (after Hubrecht).

A, Chaetoderma.

B, Neomenia.

C, Proneomenia.

D, Chiton.
O, Ovary.

P, Pericardium.

N, Nephridium.

v, External aperture of neph-
ridium.

g, External aperture of the
genital duct of Chiton.

r. Rectum.

Cl, Cloacal or pallial chamber
of Neomemae and Chaeto-
derma.

Br, Ctenidia (branchial
plumes).

gland, consisting of two lobes which are symmetrical in the young
animals, but in the adult the right lobe is anterior and smaller.

Coelom, Gonads and Excretory Organs. As in other molluscs the
coelom is represented by a large pericardial cavity, situated above
the intestine posteriorly, and a generative sac which is single and
median and situated in front of the pericardium, except in the
Nuttalochiton hyadesi, where the gonads are in a similar position, but
are paired. The excretory organs are coelomoducts with an internal
ciliated opening into the pericardium and an opening to the exterior.
Both tha openings are close together, the external opening being
just in front of the principal gill near the posterior end of the body.
The renal tube is doubled on itself, its middle part where the bend
occurs being situated more or less anteriorly. The excretory surface
is increased by numerous ramified caeca which extend beneath the
body wall laterally and ventrally, and open into the tube (fig. 6).
The sexes are distinct, and the ovary is frequently greenish in colour,
the testis red. The gonad is transversely wrinkled and lies between
the aorta and the intestine, extending from the pericardium to the
anterior end of the body. A simple gonaduct on each side arises

from the gonad near its posterior end and passes first forwards,
then backwards, and lastly outwards to the external opening in the
pallial groove, anterior to the renal aperture. There may be from
one to nine gills between the genital and renal pores.

Heart and Vascular System. The heart is enclosed in the peri-
cardium, and consists of a median elongated ventricle and a pair of
lateral auricles, so that the structure somewhat resembles that in
the Lamellibranchiata. The openings of the auricles into the
ventricle vary in different forms. In many of the lower forms
(Lepidopleuridae, Mopalidae, Ischnochitontdae) the opening pn each
side is single and anterior. In the true Chitonidae there are generally
two apertures on each side, and in two species three or four, another
instance of the tendency to metamenc repetition in the group.
The auricles are connected with one another posteriorly behind the
ventricle. The ventricle leads into a single anterior median aorta.
As in other molluscs, the arteries do not extend far, but lead into
inter-visceral blood-spaces. The venous blood is conducted from
the tissues to a large sinus on either side above the pallial groove,
and from this sinus passes to the gills by an afferent vessel in each
gill on the internal or pedal margin of the axis. The oxygenated
blood is carried from each gill by an efferent vessel on the external
or pallial side of the axis to another longitudinal vessel which leads
to the auricle on each side.

Nervous System. There are no well-marked specialized ganglia
in the central nervous system, nerve-cells being distributed uni-
formly along the cords. There
are two pairs of longitudinal
cords, a pedal pair situated
ventrally and united beneath
the intestine by numerous
commissures, and a pallial
pair situated laterally and
continuous with one another
above the rectum (fig. 7).
The four cords are all con-
nected anteriorly with the
cerebral commissure which
lies above the buccal mass
anteriorly. From the points
where the cords meet the
cerebral commissure, arise on
each an anterior labial com-
missure and a stomatogastric
commissure. The letter bears
two ganglion swellings, the
buccal ganglia. The labial
commissure gives off a subra-
dular commissure which also
bears two ganglia, these being
in close relation to a special
sense-organ called the subra-
dular organ, an epithelial pro-
jection with nerve-endings,
lying in front of the radula
and probably gustatory in
function. One osphradium
or branchial olfactory organ
is usually present on each side,
on either side of the anus on
the inner wall of the mantle, After Hallet (ArbcUen zoo/. InM.), Vienna,
near the bast of the last gill. l882 -

In Lepidopleuridae an osphra- FlG- 6. Dissection of the renal
dium occurs at the base of organs (nephridia) of Chiton iiculus.
each gill. 1 he sense organs p Foot

of the shell- valves have L \ Edgeof the mantle not removed
already been described. in ^ front part of the sp eci men .

Development. The eg_gs i-0-i Oesophagus.
of, Anus.

may be laid separately in-
vested by a chitinous en- gg> VJCllllai uuwl .
velope or as in IschnocUton go> Externa i opening of the same.
magdalenensis they may form eg< stem of the nephridium leading
strings containing nearly to nOj its externa i aperture.

200,000 eggs, or the ova may nk Reflected oortion ofthe neph-
be retained in the pallial
groove and undergo develop-
ment there, as in Chiton palii
and Hemiarthrum setulosum.
One species Callistochiton
viviparus is viviparous and its
ova develop without a larval
stage in the maternal oviduct. Segmentation is total and at first
regular, and is followed by invagination, the blastopore passing to the
position of the future mouth. By the development of a ciliated ring
just in front of the mouth the embryo becomes a trochosphere. In
the centre of the praeoral lobe is a tuft of cilia. Just behind the
ciliated ring is a pair of larval eyes which disappear in the adult;
these correspond to the cephalic eyes of Lamellibranchs. An
ectpdemic invagination forms a large mucous gland on the foot,
which is more or less atrophied in adult life. The gonads originate
by proliferation of the anterior wall of the pericardium. The shell-

Genital duct.

ridial stem.
Fine caeca of the nephridium,
which are seen ramifying trans-
versely over the whole inner
surface of the pedal muscular
mass.

250

CHITON

valves arise as transverse thickenings of the dorsal cuticle behind the
ciliated ring, the tegmentum being the first part formed.

Classification.

Suborder I. EOPLACOPHORA, Pilsbry. Tegmentum coextensive
with articulamentum, or the latter projecting in smooth unslit
plates.

Fam. I. Lepidopleuridae. Terminal margins of end valves never
elevated ; form oval or oblong. Lepidopleurus cancellatus, Sow.
North Atlantic and Mediterranean; various abyssal species.
Hanleya hanleyi, Bean, north Atlantic. Hemiarthrum Microplax.

The extinct Gryptochi-
tonidae, Pilsbry, with
other Palaeozoic genera,
narrow and elongated in
form with terminal
margins of end valves
elevated, belong to this
group.

Suborder II. MESOPLACO-
PHORA, Pilsbry. Insertion
plates well developed and
slit.

Fam. 2. Ischnochitonidae.
All the valves with
slits, and the inner layer
well covered by the
youter.

Subfam. I. Ischnochito-
ninae. No shell-eyes :
sutural laminae sepa-
rated ; slits in the valves
1-7 do not correspond
with the ribs of the
tegmentum. Ishcno-
chilon, Trachydermon,
Chaetopleura, Stenoplax,
Stenoradsia.

Alter Hubrecht, lac. at.

FIG. 7. Diagrams of the nervous
system of Amphineura.

A, Proneomenia.

B, Neomenia.

C, Chaetoderma.

D, Chiton.

c, Cerebral ganglia.
s, Sublingual ganglia.
v, Pedal (ventral) nerve-cord.
/, Visceral (lateral) nerve-cord.
pc, Post-anal junction of the visceral
nerve-cords.

From Gegenbaur, Elements of Comp.
Anatumy.

FIG. 8. Anterior part of the
nervous system of Chiton cin-
ereus, in more detail.

B, Buccal ganglia (concerned

with the odontophore).

C, Cerebral nerve-mass.

P, Pedal ganglion and com-
mencement of pedal
nerve-cord.

pi, Visceral nerve-cord. The
sublingual ganglia are not
lettered.

Subfam. 2. Callochitoninae. With shell-eyes and united sutural

laminae. Callochiton laevis, North Atlantic and Mediterranean.

Subfam. 3. Callistoplacinae. No shell-eyes, slits in the valves 1-7

corresponding with the ribs of the tegmentum. Callistochiton

(viviparous). Nuttalochiton.

Fam. 3. Mopaliidae. Each intermediate valve with a single slit;

girdle hairy. Mopalia, Placiphorella, Plaxiphora, Placo-

phoropsis.
Fam. 4. Acanthochitonidae. Valves immersed in the girdle, with

small tegmentum. Acanthochiton (A.fascicularis, North Atlantic

and Mediterranean. Spongiochiton, Kaiharina, Amicula, Crypto-

chiton (C. stelleri, arctic).
Fam. 5. Cryptoplacidae. Vermiform, with thick girdle and small

valves; insertion and sutural plates strongly drawn forward,

sharp and smooth. Cryptoplax, Choneplax.
Suborder III. TELEOPLACOPHORA, Pilsbry. All the valves, or at

least the seven anterior, with insertion plates cut into teet!
by slits.

Fam. 6. Chitonidae. Characters of the suborder.
Subfam. I. Chitoninae. No extra-pigmental eyes; insertion
plates with pectinations between the fissures. Chiton, Ettdoxo-
chilon, Trachyodon, Radsia.

Subfam. 2. Toniciinae. Extra-pigmental shell-eyes. Tonicia,
Acanthopleura, Enoplochiton, Onithochiton, Schizochiton,
Lorica, Loricella, Liolophura.

Order 2. APLACOPHORA, von Jhering.

Chaetoderma was first described by S. Loven, in 1841, and was
for a long time believed to be a Gephyrean worm. Neomenia,
mentioned first by Michael Sars in 1868 under the name Soleno-
pus, was afterwards included among the Opisthobranchs by
J. Koren and D. C. Danielssen. C. Gegenbaur placed the two
genera in a division of Vermes which he called Solenogastres.

The chief points in which the Aplacophora differ from the
Polyplacophora are: (i) they are worm-like in shape; (2) there is
no distinct foot, and the mantle bears no shell-valves, but only
numerous calcareous spicules; (3) the digestive tube is straight.

Neomenia and its allies are marine animals living at depths
of 15 to 800 fathoms on soft muddy ground; they are found
crawling on corals and hydrozoa, on which they feed. The
British genera are: Neomenia, Rhopalomenia and Myzomenia.
They have been taken in nearly all seas except the South Atlantic
and S.E. and N.W. Pacific. About forty species are known.
Chaetoderma, of which nine species have been described, has
similar habits and distribution, but feeds chiefly on Protozoa.
The order Aplacophora is divided into two suborders.

Suborder I. NEOMENIOMORPHA. Aplacophora with a distinct
longitudinal ventral groove; bisexual with paired genital glands
and no disti.ict liver. The whole of the skin except the ventral groove
corresponds to the mantle of Chiton. The cuticle, in some species
very thick, contains numerous spicules which are long, hollow and
calcified; they are secreted by epithelial papillae. In some species
there are also sensory papillae comparable to the aesthetes of Chitons.
A small longitudinal projection in the ventral groove represents the

C D

FIG. 9. Neomenia carinata, Tullberg (after Tullberg).

A, Lateral view. a, Anterior.

B, Ventral view. b, Posterior extremity.

C, Dorsal view. c, Furrow, in which the narrow

D, Ventral view of a more ex- foot is concealed.

tended specimen.

foot. Into the groove open mucous glands, a large one anteriorly
and another opening into a posteriorly cloacal, branchial cavity.

Branchiae. In Neomeniidae and most of the Parameniidae there
is a circlet of gills on the inner walls of the cloacal chamber. These
gills are simple folds or laminae of the body wall. In other species
they are absent.

Intestine. The mouth opens into a muscular pharynx lined by
a thick cuticle. Into the pharyngeal cavity open salivary glands
and radular sac. The former are paired and ventral, and open on
a subradular prominence. In some species there is a second dorsal
pair. Neomenia and other genera have no salivary glands.

The radula when present comprises several transverse rows of
teeth, and each transverse row may have several teeth (polystichous),
two teeth (distichous), or one tooth (monostichous). It is a curious
fact that in the_original type Neomenia the radula is entirely absent,
as it likewise is in several genera of Proneomeniidae. The oesophagus
is short and leads into a long, straight stomach, provided with
numerous symmetrical lateral caeca. The stomach opens into a
short straight rectum which opens into the branchial chamber.

Coelom, Gonads and Excretory Organs. The coelom differs from
that of the Chitons in the fact that the cavities of the genital organs
are continuous with it, and in the fact that there is only one pair of
coelomoducts resembling the renal organs of Chitons, but serving
also as genital ducts. The gonads are paired and hermaphrodite,
they form a pair of anterior prolongations of the pericardium,
extending nearly to the anterior end of the body. Ova are developed
on the median, spermatozoa on the outer wall of each genital tube.
The pericardium is ciliated internally on its dorsal and lateral walls.
The urino-genital tubes arise from the posterior angles of the peri-
cardium, pass first forwards, then backwards, and unite to open
by a common opening into the cloaca below the anus except in

CHITRAL

251

Slrophomenia, where the openings are separate. Usually each tube
is provided with caecal appendages on its proximal portion, and these
serve as vesiculae seminales, while the distal portion is enlarged
and glandular and secretes the egg-shell.

H$art and Vascular System. There is a heart in the pericardium
consisting of a median ventricle attached, except in Neomenia, to
the dorsal wall of the pericardium, and in Neomenia a pair of auricular
ducts returning blood from the gills to the ventricle. The aorta is
not independent as in Chitons, but is a sinus like the other channels
of the circulation. A single median ventral sinus passes backwards
to the gills or cloaca. The blood is coloured red by haemoglobin in
blood corpuscles.

Nervous System. Ganglionic enlargements are more conspicuous
than in the Chitons. In front of the buccal mass is a median cere-
bral ganglion. From this pass off two pairs of cords, the pleural
and pedal, in Proneomenia separate from their origin, in Neomenia
united at first and diverging at a pleural ganglion. The pedal cords
anteriorly form a pair of pedal ganglia united by a thick commissure.
The supra-rectal commissure may be present and bear an ovoid
ganglion; or may be wanting. With regard to sense organs the
epithelial papillae of the mantle have been mentioned. There is
also in some genera a median retractile sensory papilla on the dorsal
posterior surface above the rectum, not covered by the cuticle.

Development has only been described in Myzomenia banyulensis,
by G. Pruvot. It closely resembles in the early stages that of
Chitons. The external surface of the trochosphere is formed of a
number of ciliated test-cells. The ectoderm behind the ciliated ring
develops spicules, and the post-oral region of the larva elongates.
Later the ciliated ring or velum disappears and seven imbricated
calcareous plates, made up of flattened spicules, are formed on the
dorsal surface. This appears to indicate that the Neomeniomorpha
are descended from Owton-like ancestors, and that they have lost
their shell valves.

Classification of the NEOMENIOMORPHA. Fam. I. Lepidomeniidae.
Slender, tapering behind, with subventral cloacal orifice; thin
cuticle without papillae; flattened spicules; no gills. Lepido-
menia, Ismenia, Ichthyodes, Stylomenia, Dondersia, Nematomenia,
Myzomenia, M. banyulensis, Mediterranean and Plymouth.
Fam. 2. Neomeniidae. Short, truncate in front and behind;
cloacal orifice transverse; gills present; rather thin cuticle;
no radula. Neomenia (N. carinata, N. Atlantic and N. and
N.W. Scotland), Hemimenia.

Fam. 3. Proneomeniidae. Elongated, cylindrical, rounded at both
ends; thick cuticle with acicular spicules; radula polystichous
or wanting. Proneomenia, Amphimenia, Echinomenia, Rho-
palomenia (R. aglaopheniae, Mediterranean and Plymouth),
Notomenia, Pruvotia, Slrophomenia.

Fam. 4. Parameniidae. Short and truncated in front; thick

cuticle, often without papillae; gills and radula present.

Paramenia, Macellomenia, Pararhopalia, Dinomenia, Cyclo-

menia, Proparamenia, Uncimenia, Kruppomenia.

Suborder II. CHAETODERMOMORPHA. Aplacophora without

distinct ventral groove, with single median unisexual gonad, with

differentiated hepatic sac,
and with cloacal chamber
furnished with two bipec-
tinate gills. There are only
two genera in this sub-
order : Chaetoderma, and
FIG. 10. Chaetoderma nitidulum, Limifossor from Alaska.
Loven (after Graff). The cephalic The characters therefore
enlargement is to the left, the anal are very uniform. The body
chamber (reduced pallial chamber, con- is worm-like and cylindri-
taining the concealed pair of ctenidia) cal, the posterior half a
to the right. little thicker than the an-

terior; the posterior ex-
tremity forms the enlarged funnel-like branchial or cloacal chamber.
The anterior extremity is also somewhat enlarged. The whole
surface is uniformly covered with short compressed calcareous spicula
embedded in the cuticle.

Branchiae. The single pair of branchiae are placed sym-
metrically right and left of the anus, and each has the structure
of a ctenidium bearing a row of lamellae on each side as in the
Polyplacophora.

Intestine. The mouth is anterior, terminal and crescentic, and
beneath it is a rounded ventral shield. On the floor of the pharynx
or buccal mass is a rudimentary radula, which in many species
consists of a single large tooth, bearing two small teeth or a row of
teeth. In other species the radula is more of the usual type consist-
ng of several transverse rows of two or three teeth each. Two
>airs of salivary glands open into the buccal cavity. The digestive
tube is straight and simple, wider in its anterior part, into which
pens the duct of the hepatic caecum (fig. 4, B). The latter extends
ackwards on the ventral side of the intestine.
Coelom, Conads and Excretory Organs. These are closely similar
in their relations to those of the Neomeniomorpha. The chief
difference is that the gonad or generative portion of the coelom is
single and median, opening into the pericardium by a single posterior
aperture. The excretory organs or coelomoducts arise from the
sterior corners of the pericardium, run forwards and then back-

wards to open by separate apertures lateral to the gills (fig. 5, A).
There are no accessory generative organs.

The heart and vascular system are similar to those of the Neo-
meniomorpha, the only important differences being that the ventricle
is nearly free in the pericardia! cavity, and that the latter is traversed
by the retractor muscles of the gills.

Nervous System. There are two closely connected cerebral ganglia,
from which arise the usual two pairs of nerve cords. Pallial and
pedal on each side are closer together than in the other groups, and
posteriorly they unite into a supra-rectal cord provided with a
median ganglionic enlargement (fig. 7, C). A small stomatogastric
commissure bearing two small ganglia arises from the cerebral
ganglia and surrounds the oesophagus.

The development is at present entirely unknown.

General Remarks on the Amphineura.

The most important theoretical question concerning the
Amphineura is how far do they represent the original condition
of the ancestral mollusc? That is to say, we have to inquire
which of their structural features is primitive and which modified.
Their bilateral symmetry is obviously to be regarded as primitive,
and the nervous system shows an original condition from which
that of the asymmetrical twisted Gastropods can be derived.
But in many other features both external and internal the three
principal divisions differ so much from one another that we have
to consider in the case of each organ-system which condition
is the more primitive. According to Paul Pelseneer the Poly-
placophora are the most archaic, the Aplacophora being
specialized in (i) the great reduction of the foot, (2) the dis-
appearance of the shell (Cryploplax among the Polyplacophora
showing both reductions in progress), (3) the disappearance of
the radula. But it is a widely recognized principle of morphology
that a much modified animal is by no means modified to the
same degree in all its organs. A form which is primitive on the
whole may show a more advanced stage of evolution in some
particular system of organs than another animal which is on the
whole more highly developed and specialized. Thus the inde-
pendent metamerism of certain organs in the Chitons is not
primitive but acquired within the group: e.g. the shell valves
and the ctenidia. And although embryology seems to prove
that the Neomeniomorphs are derived from forms with a series
of shell-valves, nevertheless it seems probable that the calcareous
spicules which alone are present in adult Aplacophora preceded
the solid shell in evolution.

It is held by some morphologists that the mollusc body is
unsegmented, and therefore is to be compared to a single segment
of a Chaetopod or Arthropod. In this case there should be only
one pair of coelomoducts in the adult, the pair of true nephridia
which should also occur being represented by the larval nephridia.
There should also be only a single coelom, or a pair of lateral
coelomic cavities. On this view then the Aplacophora are more
primitive than the Polyplacophora in the relations of coelom,
gonad and coelomoducts; and the genital ducts of the Chitons
have arisen either by metameric repetition within the group,
or by the gradual loss of an original connexion between the
generative sac and the renal tube, as in Lamellibranchs and
Gastropods, the generative sac acquiring a separate duct and
opening to the exterior on each side.

LITERATURE. A. Sedgwick, " On certain Points in the Anatomy
of Chiton," Proc. R. Soc. Land, xxxiii., 1881 ; J. Blumrich, " Das
Integument der Chitonen," Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool. Hi., 1891 ; A. C.
Haddon, " Report on the Polyplacophora," Challenger Reports. Zool.
pt. xliii., 1886; H. N. Moseley, " On the presence of Eyes in the
Shells of certain Chitonidae, and on the structure of these Organs,"
Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. new ser. xxv., 1885; A. A. W. Hubrecht,
"Proneomenia Sluiteri," Nied. Arch. f. Zool. Suppl. I., 1881; A.
Kowalewsky and A. F. Marion, " Contr. a 1'histoire des Solenogastres
ou Aplacophores," Ann. Mus. Marseille, Zool. iii., 1887; A. Kowal-
ewsky, " Sur le genre Chaetoderma," Arch, de zoo/, exptr. (3) ix.,
1901 ; P. Pelseneer, " Mollusca," Treatise on Zoology, edited by
E. Ray Lankester, pt. v., 1906; E. Ray Lankester, " Mollusca,
in the gth ed. of this Encyclopaedia, to which this article is much
indebted. (J. T. C.)

CHITRAL, a native state in the North- West Frontier Province
of India. The state of Chitral (see also HINDU KUSH) is some-
what larger than Wales, and supports a population of about
35,000 rough, hardy hillmen. Previous estimates put the number
far higher, but as the Mehtar assesses his fighting strength at

252

CHITTAGONG CHIUSI

8000 only, this number is probably not far wrong. Both the
state and its capital are called Chitral, the latter being situated
about 47 m. from the main watershed of the range of the Hindu
Kush, which divides the waters flowing down to India from those
which take their way into the Oxus. Chitral is an important
state because of its situation at the extremity of the country over
which the government of India exerts its influence, and for some
years before 1895 it had been the object of the policy of the
government of India to control the external affairs of Chitral
in a direction friendly to British interests, to secure an effective
guardianship over its northern passes, and to keep watch over
what goes on beyond these passes. This policy resulted in a
British agency being established at Gilgit (Kashmir territory),
with a subordinate agency in Chitral, the latter being usually
stationed at Mastuj (65 m. nearer to Gilgit than the Chitral
capital), and occasional visits being paid to the capital. Chitral
can be reached either by the long circuitous route from Gilgit,
involving 200 m. of hill roads and the passage of the Shandur
pass (12,250 ft.), or (more directly) from the Peshawar frontier
at Malakand by 100 m. of route through the independent terri-
tories of Swat and Bajour, involving the passage of the Lowarai
(10,450 ft.)- It is held by a small force as a British outpost.

The district of Chitral is called Kashgar (or Kashkar) by the
people of the country; and as it was under Chinese domination in
the middle of the 1 8th century, and was regarded as a Buddhist
centre of some importance by the Chinese pilgrims in the early
centuries of our era, it is possible that it then existed as an outlying
district of the Kashgar province of Chinese Turkestan, where
Buddhism once flourished in cities that have been long since buried
beneath the sand- waves of the Takla Ma'c^n. The aboriginal
population of the Chitral valley is probably to be recognized in the
people called Kho (speaking a language called Khowar), who form
the majority of its inhabitants. Upon the Kho a people called Ronas
have been superimposed. The Ronas, who form the chief caste and
fighting race of the Chitral districts, originally came from the north,
but they have adopted the language and fashions of the conquered
Chitrali.

The town of Chitral (pop. in 1901, 8128), is chiefly famous for a
siege which it sustained in the spring of 1895. Owing to complica-
tions arising from the demarcation of the boundary of Afghanistan
which was being carried out at that time, and the ambitious projects
of Umra Khan, chief of Jandol, which was a tool in the hands of Sher
Afzul, a political refugee from Chitral supported by the amir at
Kabul, the mehtar (or ruler) of Chitral was murdered, and a small
British and Sikh garrison subsequently besieged in the fort. A large
force of Afghan troops was at that time in the Chitral river valley to
the south of Chitral, nominally holding the Kafirs in check during the
progress of boundary demarcation. It is considered probable that
some of them assisted the Chitralis in the siege. The position of the
political agent Dr Robertson (afterwards Sir George Robertson) and
his military force of 543 men (of whom 137 were non-combatants)
was at one time critical. Two forces were organized for the relief.
One was under Sir R. Low, with 15,000 men, who advanced by way
of the Malakand pass, the Swat river and Dir. The other, which was
the first to reach Chitral, was under Colonel Kelly, commanding the
32nd Pioneers, who was placed in command of all the troops in the
Gilgit district, numbering about 600 all told, with two guns, and in-
structed to advance by the Shandur pass and Mastuj. This force
encountered great difficulties owing to the deep snow on the pass
(12,230 ft. high), but it easily defeated the Chitrali force opposed
to it and relieved Chitral on the 2Oth of April, the siege having begun
on the 4th of March. Sher Afzul, who had joined Umra Khan,
surrendered, and eventually Chitral was restored to British political
control as a dependency of Kashmir. During Lord Curzon's vice-
royalty the British troops were concentrated at the extreme southern
end of the Chitral country at Kila Drosh and the force was reduced,
while the posts vacated and all outlying posts were handed over to
levies raised for the purpose from the Chitralis themselves. The
troops in Swat were also concentrated at Chakdara and reduced
in strength. The mehtar, Shuja-ul-Mulk, who was installed in
September 1895, visited the Delhi durbar in January 1903. .

See Sir George Robertson, Chitral (1898). (T. H. H.*)

CHITTAGONG, a seaport of British India, giving its name
to a district and two divisions of Eastern Bengal and Assam.
It is situated on the right bank of the Karnaphuli river, about
12 m. from its mouth. It is the terminus of the Assam-Bengal
railway. The municipal area covers about 9 sq. m.; pop. (1901)
22,140. The sea-borne exports consist chiefly of jute, other
items being tea, raw cotton, rice and hides. There is also a large
trade by country boats, bringing chiefly cotton, rice, spices, sugar
and tobacco. Since October 1905 Chittagong has become the
chief port of the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam.

The DISTRICT OF CHITTAGONG is situated at the north-east corner
of the province, occupying a strip of coast and hills between the sea
and the mountains of Burma. Its area is 2492 sq. m. In 1901 the
population was 1,353.250, showing an increase of 5% in the decade.
A lew unimportant ranges rise within the north-eastern portion, the
highest hill being the sacred Sitakund, 1155 ft. high. The principal
rivers are the Karnaphuli, on which Chittagong town is situated,
navigable by sea-going ships as far as Chittagong port, and by large
trading boats for a considerable distance higher up, and the Halda
and the Sangu, which are also navigable by large boats. The wild
animals are tigers, elephants, rhinoceros, leopards and deer. The
climate is comparatively cool, owing to the sea breeze which prevails
during the day; but for the same reason, the atmosphere is very
moist, with heavy dews at night and fogs. Chittagong was ceded to
the East India Company by Nawab Mir Kasim in 1760. The
northern portion of the district is traversed by the Assam-Bengal
railway. Tea cultivation is moderately successful.

The CHITTAGONG HILL TRACTS formed an independent district
from 1860 to 1891, were then reduced to the status of a sub-division,
but were again created a district in 1900. They occupy the ranges
between Chittagong proper and the south Lushai hills. The area
covers 5138 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 124,762, showing an
increase of 16% in the decade. The inhabitants, who are either
Arakanese or aboriginal tribes, are almost all Buddhists. The head-
quarters are at Rangamati, which was wrecked by the cyclone of
October 1897.

The DIVISION OF CHITTAGONG lies at the north-east corner of the
Bay of Bengal, extending northward along the left bank of the
Meghna. It consists of the districts of Chittagong, the Hill Tracts,
Noakhali and Tippera. Its area covers 1 1 ,773 sq. m. ; the population
in 1901 was 4,737,731.

CHITTUR, a town of British India, in the North Arcot district
of Madras, with a station on the South Indian railway. Pop.
(1901) 10,893. Formerly a military cantonment, it is now only
the civil headquarters of the district. It has an English church,
mission chapel, and .Roman Catholic chapel, a high school,
and several literary institutes.

CHITTY, SIR JOSEPH WILLIAM (1828-1899), English judge,
was born in London. He was the second son of Thomas Chitty
(himself son and brother of well-known lawyers), a celebrated
special pleader and writer of legal text-books, in whose pupil-
room many distinguished lawyers began their legal education.
Joseph Chitty was educated at Eton and Balliol, Oxford, gaining
a first-class in Literae Humaniorcs in 1851, and being afterwards
elected to a fellowship at Exeter College. His principal distinc-
tions during his school and college career had been earned in
athletics, and he came to London as a man who had stroked
the Oxford boat and captained the Oxford cricket eleven. He
became a member of Lincoln's Inn in 1851, was called to the
bar in 1856, and made a queen's counsel in 1874, electing to
practise as such in the court in which Sir George Jessel, master
of the rolls, presided. Chitty was highly successful in his
method of dealing with a very masterful if exceedingly able
judge, and soon his practice became very large. In 1880 he
entered the house of commons as liberal member for Oxford
(city). His parliamentary career was short, for in 1881 the
Judicature Act required that the master of the rolls should cease
to sit regularly as a judge of first instance, and Chitty was selected
to fill the vacancy thus created in the chancery division. Sir
Joseph Chitty was for sixteen years a popular judge, in the best
meaning of the phrase, being noted for his courtesy, geniality,
patience and scrupulous fairness, as well as for his legal attain-
ments, and being much respected and liked by those practising
before him, in spite of a habit of interrupting counsel, possibly
acquired through the example of Sir George Jessel. In 1897,
on the retirement of Sir Edward Kay, L.J., he was promoted
to the court of appeal. There he more than sustained in fact,
he appreciably increased his reputation as a lawyer and a
judge, proving himself to possess considerable knowledge of the
common law as well as of equity. He died in London on the
ijth of February 1899. He married in 1858 Clara Jessie,
daughter of Chief Baron Pollock, and left children who could
thus claim descent from two of the best-known English legal
families of the igth century.

See E. Manson, Builders of our Law (1904).

CHIUSI (anc. Cluslum), a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the
province of Siena, 55 m. S.E. by rail from the town of Siena,
and 26 m. N.N.W. of Orvieto. Pop. (1901) 6011. It is situated

CHIVALRY CHLORAL

253

on a hill 1305 ft. above sea-level, and is surrounded by medieval
walls, in which, in places, fragments of the Etruscan wall are
incorporated. The cathedral of S. Mustiola is a basilica with a
nave and two aisles, with eighteen columns of different kinds
oi marble, from ancient buildings. It has been restored and
decorated with frescoes in modern times. The campanile belongs
to the I3th century. The place was devastated by malaria in
the middle ages, and did not recover until the Chiana valley was
drained in the i8th century. For the catacombs see CLUSIUM.

CHIVALRY (O. Fr. cheoalcrie, from Late Lat. caballerius),
the knightly class of feudal times, possessing its own code of
rules, moral and social (see KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY). The
primary sense in the middle ages is " knights " or " fully armed
and mounted fighting men." Thence the term came to mean
that gallantry in battle and high sense of honour in general
expected of knights. Thus " to do chivalry " was a medieval
phrase tor " to act the knight." Lastly, the word came to be
used in its present very general sense of " courtesy." In English
law chivalry meant the tenure of land by knights' service. It
was a service due to the crown, usually forty days' military
attendance annually. The Court of Chivalry was a court in-
stituted by Edward III., of which the lord high constable and
earl marshal of England were joint judges. When both sat the
court had summary criminal jurisdiction as regards all offences
committed by knights, and generally as to military matters.
When the earl marshal alone presided, it was a court of honour
deciding as to precedence, coats of arms, &c. This court sat
for the last time in 1737. The heraldic side of its duties are
now vested in the earl marshal as head of the Heralds' College.

CHIVASSO, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in
the province of Turin, 18 m. N.E. by rail from the town of Turin,
600 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 4169 (town), 9804 (com-
mune). It is situated on the left bank of the Po, near the influx
of the Oreo. The cathedral is of the isth century with a fine
facade ornamented with statues in terra-cotta. It was an
important fortress in the middle ages, and until 1804, when the
French dismantled it. One tower only of the old castle of the
marquesses of Monferrato, who possessed the town from 1164
to 1435, remains. Chivasso is on the main line from Turin to
Milan, and is the junction of branches for Aosta and Casale
Monferrato.

CHIVE (Allium Schoeneprasum), a hardy perennial plant,
with small narrow bulbs tufted on short root-stocks and long
cylindrical hollow leaves. It is found in the north of England
and in Cornwall, and growing in rocky pastures throughout
temperate and northern Europe and Asiatic Russia, and also
in the mountain districts of southern Europe. It is cultivated
for the sake of its leaves, which are used in salads and soups as
a substitute for young onions. It will grow in any good soil,
and is propagated by dividing the roots into small clumps in
spring or autumn; these are planted from 8 to 12 in. apart and
soon form large tufts. The leaves should be cut frequently so
as to obtain them tender and succulent.

CHLOPICKI, GREGORZ JOZEF (1772-1854), Polish general,
was born in March 1772 in Podolia. He was educated at the
school of the Basilians at Szarogrod, from which in 1787 he ran
away in order to enlist as a volunteer in the Polish army. He
was present at all the engagements fought during 1792-1794,
especially distinguishing himself at the battle of Raclawice,
when he was General Rymkiewicz's adjutant. On the formation
of the Italian legion he joined the second battalion as major,
and was publicly complimented by General Oudinot for his
extraordinary valour at the storming of Peschiera. He also
distinguished himself at the battles of Modena, Busano, Casa-
bianca and Ponto. In 1807 he commanded the first Vistulan
regiment, and rendered good service at the battles of Eylau and
Friedland. In Spain he obtained the legion of honour and the
rank of a French baron for his heroism at the battle of Epila
and the storming of Saragossa, and in 1809 was promoted to be
general of brigade. In 1812 he accompanied the Grande Annie
to Russia, was seriously wounded at Smolensk, and on the
reconstruction of the Polish army in 1813 was made a general

of division. On his return to Poland in 1814, he entered the
Russian army with the rank of a general officer, but a personal
insult from the grand duke Constantine resulted in his retiring
into private life. He held aloof at first from the Polish national
rising of 1830, but at the general request of his countrymen
accepted the dictatorship on the sth of December 1830; on the
23rd of January 1831, however, he resigned in order to fight as
a common soldier. At Wavre (Feb. 19) and at Grochow (Feb.
20) he displayed all his old bravery, but was so seriously
wounded at the battle of Olszyna that he had to be conveyed to
Cracow, near which city he lived in complete retirement till his
death in 1854.

See Jozef Maczynski, Life and Death of Joseph Chlopicki (Pol.)
(Cracow, 1858); Ignacy Pradzynski, The Four I^ist Polish Com-
manders (Pol.) (Posen, 1865).

CHLORAL,orTRiCHLORACETALDEHYDE,CCl3-CHO,asubstance
discovered by J. von Liebig in 1832 (Ann., 1832, i, p. 189) and
further studied by J. B. A. Dumas and Staedeler. It is a heavy,
oily and colourless liquid, of specific gravity 1-541 at o C., and
boiling-point 97-7 C. It has a greasy, somewhat bitter taste,
and gives off a vapour at ordinary temperature which has a
pungent 'odour and an irritating effect on the eyes. The word
chloral is derived from the first syllables of chlorine and alcohol,
the names of the substances employed for its preparation.
Chloral is soluble in alcohol and ether, in less than its own
weight of water, and in four times its weight of chloroform; it
absorbs chlorine, and dissolves bromine, iodine, phosphorus and
sulphur. Chloral deliquesces in the air, and is converted by
water into a hydrate, with evolution of heat; it combines with
alcohols and mercaptans. An ammoniacal solution of silver
nitrate is reduced by chloral; and nascent hydrogen converts
it into aldehyde. By means of phosphorus pentachloride,
chlorine can be substituted for the oxygen of chloral, the
body CC1 3 -CC1 2 H being produced; an analogous compound,
CCl3-C(C6H 5 )2H, is obtained by treating chloral with benzene
and sulphuric acid. With an alkali, chloral gives chloroform
(q.v.) and a formate; oxidizing agents give trichloracetic acid,
CCls- CO (OH) . When kept for some days, as also when placed in
contact with sulphuric acid or a very small quantity of water,
chloral undergoes spontaneous change into the polymeride
metachloral (C 2 Cl3OH) 3 , a white porcellaneous body, slowly
volatile in the air, and reconverted into chloral without melting
at 1 80 C. Chloral unites directly with hydrocyanic acid to
form j3-trichloracetonitrile, CCU- CH(OH) CN, and with hydroxyl-
amine it forms chlorglyoxime, C2HsClN2O2.

Chloral is prepared by passing dry chlorine into absolute
alcohol; the latter must be cooled at first, but towards the end
of the operation has to be heated nearly to boiling. The alcohol
is converted finally into a syrupy^ fluid, from which chloral is
procured by treatment with sulphuric acid (see P. Fritsch, Ann.,
1894, pp. 279, 288). The crude chloral is distilled over lime,
and is purified by further treatment with sulphuric acid, and by
redistillation. A mixture of starch or sugar with manganese
peroxide and hydrochloric acid may be employed instead of
alcohol and chlorine for the manufacture of chloral (A. Staedeler,
Ann. Ch. Pharm.', 1847, 61, p. 101). An isomer of chloral,
parachloralide, is made by passing excess of dry chlorine into
absolute methyl alcohol.

Chloral hydrate, CC1 3 -CH(OH)2, forms oblique, often very short,
rhombic prisms. The crystals are perfectly transparent, only slightly
odorous, free from powder, and dry to the touch, and do not become
white by exposure. The melting-point of pure chloral hydrate is
57, the boiling-point 96-98 C. When heated with sulphuric acid
it is converted into anhydrous chloral and Moralide, C s H 8 ClOa.
When mixed with water, chloral hydrate causes a considerable degree
of cold; and, as with camphor, small fragments of it placed on the
surface of water exhibit gyratory movements. Chloral hydrate does
not restore the colour to a solution of fuchsine which has been
decolorized by sulphurous acid, and so one must assume that the
water present is combined in the molecular condition (V. Meyer,
Ber., 1880, 13, p. 2343). Chloral may be estimated by distilling the
hydrate with milk of Ume and measuring the volume of chloroform
produced (C. H. Wood, Pharm. Journ., (3) I, p. 703), or by hydrolysis
with a known volume of standard alkali and back titration with
standard acid (V. Meyer, Ber., 1873, 6, p. 600). Chloral hydrate
has the property of checking the decomposition of a great number

254

CHLORATES CHLORINE

of albuminous substances, such as milk and meat; and a mixture
of it with glycerin, according to J. Personne, is suitable for the
preservation of anatomical preparations. When heated with con-
centrated glycerin to a temperature of no" to 230 C., chloral
hydrate yields chloroform, CHCla, and allyl formate, HCO(OC 8 H S ).

Pharmacology and Therapeutics. The breaking up of chloral
hydrate, in the presence of alkalis, with the production of chloroform
and formates, led Liebreich to the conjecture that a similar decom-
position might be produced in the blood ; and hence his introduction
of the drug, in 1869, as an anaesthetic and hypnotic. It is now
known, however, that the drug circulates in the blood unchanged,
and is excreted in the form of urochloralic acid. The dose is from
five to twenty grains or somewhat more, and it is often given in the
form of the pharmacopoeial Syrupus Chloral, which contains ten
grains of chloral hydrate to the fluid drachm. Chloral hydrate must
be well diluted when given by the mouth, as otherwise it may cause
considerable gastro-intestinal irritation. In large doses chloral
hydrate is a depressant to the circulation and the respiration, and
also lowers the temperature. In the above doses the drug is a
powerful and safe hypnotic, acting directly on the brain, and pro-
ducing no preliminary stage of excitement. Very soon perhaps
twenty minutes after taking such a dose, the patient falls into a sleep
which lasts several hours, and is not distinguishable from natural
sleep. When he wakes, it is without disagreeable after-symptoms,
but with a feeling of natural refreshment. The pupils are always
contracted under its influence, except in large doses. There is also
rapidly induced a depression of the anterior horns of grey matter in
the spinal cord, and as the symptoms of strychnine poisoning are
due to violent stimulation of these areas, chloral hydrate is a valuable
antidote in such cases. It should not be hypodermically injected.
Its disadvantages are that it is powerless when there is pain, re-
sembling in this feature nearly all hypnotics except opium (morphine)
and hyoscin. Its action on the gastro-intestinal canal and on the
respiratory and circulatory systems renders its use inadvisable when
disease of these organs is present. Its action on the spinal cord has
been employed with success in cases of tetanus, whooping-cough,
urinary incontjnence, and strychnine poisoning. In the latter case
twenty grains in " normal saline " solution may be directly injected
into a subcutaneous vein, but not into the subcutaneous tissues.

Toxicology. In cases of acute poisoning by chloral hydrate, the
symptoms may be summarized as those of profound coma. The
treatment is to give a stimulant emetic such as mustard; to keep
up the temperature by hot bottles, &c. ; to prevent or disturb the
patient's morbid sleep by the injection of hot strong coffee into the
rectum, and by shouting, flipping with towels, &c. ; to use artificial
respiration in extreme cases; and to inject strychnine. Strychnine
is much less likely, however, to save life after poisoning by chloral
hydrate, than chloral hydrate is to save lite in poisoning by strychnine.

Chronic poisoning by chloral is a most pernicious drug-habit.
The vice is easily and very rapidly acquired. The victim is usually
excited and loquacious. He is easily fatigued and suffers from
attacks of easily induced syncope. There are signs of gastro-in-
testinal irritation, and a tendency to cutaneous eruptions of an
erythematous type. The patient may succumb to a dose only
slightly larger than usual. The treatment is on general principles,
there being no specific remedy. The patient must be persuaded to
put himself under restraint, and the drug must be stopped at once
and entirely.

CHLORATES, the metallic salts of chloric acid; they are all
solids, soluble in water, the least soluble being the potassium
salt. They may be prepared by dissolving or suspending a
metallic oxide or hydroxide in water and saturating the solution
with chlorine; by double decomposition; or by neutralizing a
solution of chloric acid by a metallic oxide, hydroxide or carbonate.
They are all decomposed on heating, with evolution of oxygen;
and in contact with concentrated sulphuric acid with liberation
of chlorine peroxide. The most important is potassium chlorate,
KClOs, which was obtained in 1786 by C. L. Berthollet by the
action of chlorine on caustic potash, and this method was at first
used for its manufacture. The modern process consists in the
electrolysis of a hot solution of potassium chloride, or, preferably,
the formation of sodium chlorate by the electrolytic method and
its subsequent decomposition by potassium chloride. (See
ALKALI MANUFACTURE.) Potassium chlorate crystallizes in large
white tablets, of a bright lustre. It melts without decomposition,
and begins to give off oxygen at about 370 C. According to
F. L. Teed (Proc. Chem. Soc., 1886, p. 141), the decomposition of
potassium chlorate by heat is not at all simple, the quantities
of chloride and perchlorate produced depending on the tempera-
ture. A very gentle heating gives decomposition approximating
to the equation of 22KC1O 3 =14KC1O 4 +SKC1+50 2 , whilst on a
more rapid heating the quantities correspond more nearly to
lOKClOs = 6KC1O 4 +4KC1+3O 2 . The decomposition is rendered

more easy and regular by mixing the salt with powdered man-
ganese dioxide. The salt finds application in the preparation of
oxygen, in the manufacture of matches, for pyrotechnic purposes,
and in medicine. Sodium chlorate, NaClOa, is prepared by the
electrolytic process; by passing chlorine into milk of lime and
decomposing the calcium chlorate formed by sodium sulphate;
or by the action of chlorine on sodium carbonate at low tempera-
ture (not above 35 C.). It is much more soluble in water than
the potassium salt.

Potassium chlorate is very valuable in medicine. Given in large
doses it causes rapid and characteristic poisoning, with alterations
in the blood and rapid degeneration of nearly all the internal
organs; but in small doses 5 to 15 grains it partly undergoes
reduction in the blood and tissues, the chloride being formed
and oxygen being supplied to the body-cells in nascent form.
Its special uses are in ulceration of the mouth or tongue (ulceralive
stomatitis), tonsillitis and pharyngitis. For these conditions it is
administered in the form of a lozenge, but may also be swallowed
in solution, as it is excreted by the saliva and so reaches the
diseased surface. Its remarkable efficacy in healing ulcers of
the mouth for which it is the specific has been ascribed to a
decomposition effected by the carbonic acid which is given off
from these ulcers. This releases chloric acid, which, being an
extremely powerful antiseptic, kills the bacteria to which the
ulcers are due.

CHLORINE (symbol Cl, atomic weight 35-46 (O=i6), a
gaseous chemical element of the halogen group, taking its name
from the colour, greenish-yellow (Gr. x^wpos). It was discovered
in 1774 by Scheele, who called it dephlogisticated muriatic acid;
about 1785, C. L. Berthollet, regarding it as being a compound of
hydrochloric acid and oxygen, termed it oxygenized muriatic acid.
This view was generally held until about 1810-1811, when Sir
H. Davy showed definitely that it was an element, and gave
it the name which it now bears.

Chlorine is never found in nature in the uncombined condition,
but in combination with the alkali metals it occurs widely
distributed in the form of rock-salt (sodium chloride) ; as sylvine
and carnallite, at Stassfurt; and to a smaller extent in various
other minerals such as matlockite and horn-mercury. In the
form of alkaline chlorides it is found in sea-water and various
spring waters, and in the tissues of animals and plants; while,
as hydrochloric acid it is found in volcanic gases.

The preparation of chlorine, both on the small scale and
commercially, depends on the oxidation of hydrochloric acid;
the usual oxidizing agent is manganese dioxide, which, when
heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid, forms manganese
chloride, water and chlorine : MnO 2 +4HCl = MnCl 2 +2H 2 O+
C1 2 . The manganese dioxide may be replaced by various other
substances, such as red lead, lead dioxide, potassium bichromate,
and potassium permanganate. Instead of heating hydrochloric
acid with manganese dioxide, use is frequently made of a mixture
of common salt and manganese dioxide, to which concentrated
sulphuric acid is added and the mixture is then heated: MnO 2
+2NaCl+3H 2 SO 4 = MnS04+2NaHSO 4 +2H 2 O+Cl 2 . Chlorine
may also be obtained by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on
bleaching powder.

Owing to the enormous quantities of chlorine required for
various industrial purposes, many processes have been devised,
either for the recovery of the manganese from the crude man-
ganese chloride of the chlorine stills, so that it can be again utilized,
or for the purpose of preparing chlorine without the necessity of
using manganese in any form (see ALKALI MANUFACTURE).

Owing to the reduction in the supply of available hydrochloric acid
(on account of the increasing use of the " ammonia-soda " process in
place of the " Leblanc " process for the manufacture of soda) Weldon
tried to adapt the former to the production of chlorine or hydro-
chloric acid. His method consisted in using magnesia instead of
lime for the recovery of the ammonia (which occurs in the form of
ammonium chloride in the ammonia-soda process), and then by
evaporating the magnesium chloride solution and heating the residue
in steam, to condense the acid vapours and so obtain hydrochloric
acid. One day before him E. Solvay had patented the same process,
but neither of them was able to make the method a commercial
success. However, in conjunction with Pechiney, of Salindres (near

CHLORINE

255

Alais, France), the Weldon-Pechiney process was worked out. The
residual magnesium chloride of the ammonia-soda process is eva-
porated until it ceases to give off hydrochloric acid, and is then mixed
with more magnesia; the magnesium oxychloride formed is broken
into small pieces and heated in a current of air, when it gives up its
chlorine, partly in the uncombined condition and partly in the form
of hydrochloric acid, and leaves a residue of magnesia, which can
again be utilized for the decomposition of more ammonium chloride
(VV. Weldon, Journ. ofSoc. of Ghent. Industry, 1884, p. 387). Greater
success attended the efforts of Ludwig Mond, of the firm of Brunner,
Mond & Co. In this process the ammonium chloride is volatilized
in large iron retorts lined with Doulton tiles, and then led into large
upright wrought-iron cylinders lined with fire-bricks. These cylinders
are filled with pills, made of a mixture of magnesia, potassium
chloride and fireclay, the object of the potassium chloride being to
prevent any formation of hydrochloric acid, which might occur if
the magnesia was not perfectly dry. At 300 C. the ammonium
chloride is decomposed by the magnesia, with the formation of
magnesium chloride and ammonia. The mixture is now heated to
600 C. in a current of hot dry gas, containing no free oxygen

gas from the carbonating plant being used), and then a current of air
at the same temperature is passed in. Decomposition takes place
and the issuing gas contains 18-20% of chlorine. This percentage
drops gradually, and when it is reduced to about 3 % the temperature
of the apparatus is lowered, by the admission of air, to about 350 C.,
and the air stream containing the small percentage of chlorine is
led off to a second cylinder of pills, which have just been treated
with ammonium chloride vapour and are ready for the hot air
current. With four cylinders the process is continuous (L. Mond,
British Assoc. Reports, 1896, p. 734).

More recently, owing to the production of caustic soda by electro-
lytic methods, much chlorine has consequently been produced in
the same manner (see ALKALI MANUFACTURE).

Chlorine is a gas of a greenish-yellow colour, and possesses
a characteristic unpleasant and suffocating smell. It can be
liquefied at - 34 C. under atmospheric pressure, and at 102 C.
it solidifies and crystallizes. Its specific heat at constant pressure
is 0-1155, and at constant volume 0-08731 (A. Strecker, Wied.
Ann., 1877 [2], 13, p. 20); and its refractive index 1-000772, whilst
in the liquid condition the refractive index is 1-367. The density
is 2-4885 (air= i) (Treadwell and Christie, Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1905,
47, p. 446). Its critical temperature is 146 C. Liquid and solid
chlorine are both yellow in colour. The gas must be collected
either by downward displacement, since it is soluble in water and
also attacks mercury; or over a saturated salt solution, in which
it is only slightly soluble. At ordinary temperatures it unites
directly with many other elements; thus with hydrogen, com-
bination takes place in direct sunlight with explosive violence;
arsenic, antimony, thin copper foil and phosphorus take fire in an
atmosphere of chlorine, forming the corresponding chlorides.
Many compounds containing hydrogen are readily decomposed
by the gas; for example, a piece of paper dipped in turpentine
inflames in an atmosphere of chlorine, producing hydrochloric
acid and a copious deposit of soot; a lighted taper burns in
chlorine with a dull smoky flame. The solution of chlorine in
water, when freshly prepared, possesses a yellow colour, but on
keeping becomes colourless, on account of its decomposition into
hydrochloric acid and oxygen. It is on this property that its
bleaching and disinfecting power depends (see BLEACHING).
Water saturated with chlorine at o C. deposits crystals of a
hydrate Cl2-8H 2 O, which is readily decomposed at a higher
temperature into its constituents. Chlorine hydrate has an
historical importance, as by sealing it up in a bent tube, and
heating the end containing the hydrate, whilst the other limb of
the tube was enclosed in a freezing mixture, M. Faraday was first
able to obtain liquid chlorine.

Chlorine is used commercially for the extraction of gold (?..) and
for the manulacture of " bleaching powder " and of chlorates.
It also finds an extensive use in organic chemistry as a substituting
and oxidizing agent, as well as for the preparation of addition com-
pounds. For purposes of substitution, the free element as a rule only
works slowly on saturated compounds, but the reaction may be
accelerated by the action of sunlight or on warming, or by using a
" carrier." In these latter cases the reaction may proceed in different
directions; thus, with the aromatic hydrocarbons, chlorine in the
cold or in the presence of a carrier substitutes in the benzene nucleus,
but in the presence of sunlight or on warming, substitution takes
place in the side chain. Iodine, antimony trichloride, molybdenum
pentachloride, ferric chloride, ferric oxide, antimony, tin, stannic
oxide and ferrous sulphate have all been used as chlorine carriers.

The atomic weight of chlorine was determined by J. Berzelius

and by F. Penny (Phil. Trans., 1830, 13). J. S. Stas, from the
synthesis of silver chloride, obtained the value 35-457 (O = l6),
and C. Marignac found the value 34-462. More recent determinations
are: H. B. Dixon and E. C. Edgar (Phil. Trans., 1905); T. W.
Richards and G. Jones (Abst. J.C.S., 1907) ; W. A. Noyes and H. C.
Weber (ibid., 1908), and Edgar (ibid., 1908).

Hydrochloric Acid. Chlorine combines with hydrogen to
form hydrochloric acid, HC1, the only known compound of
these two elements. The acid itself was first obtained by J. R.
Glauber in about 1648, but J. Priestley in 1772 was the first to
isolate it in the gaseous condition, and Sir H. Davy in 1810
showed that it contained hydrogen and chlorine only, as up to
that time it was considered to contain oxygen. It may be pre-
pared by the direct union of its constituents (see Burgess and
Chapman, J.C.S., 1906, 89, p. 1399), but on the large scale
and also for the preparation of small quantities it is made by
the decomposition of salt by means of concentrated sulphuric
acid, NaCl+H 2 SO 4 = NaHSO 4 +HCl. It is chiefly obtained as a
by-product in the manufacture of soda-ash by the Leblanc
process (see ALKALI MANUFACTURE). The commercial acid is
usually yellow in colour and contains many impurities, such as
traces of arsenic, sulphuric acid, chlorine, ferric chloride and
sulphurous acid; but these do not interfere with its application
to the preparation of bleaching powder, in which it is chiefly
consumed. Without further purification it is also used for
" souring " in bleaching, and in tin and lead soldering.

It is a colourless gas, which can be condensed by cold and pressure
to a liquid boiling at - 83-7 C.,and can also be solidified, the solid
melting at - 112-5 C. (K. Olszewski). Its critical temperature is
52-3 C., and its critical pressure is 86 atmos. The gas fumes strongly
in moist air, and it is rapidly dissolved by water, one volume of
water at o C. absorbing 503 volumes of the gas. The gas does not
obey Henry's law, that is, its solubility in water is not proportional
to its pressure. It is one of the " strong " acids, being ionized to the
extent of about 91-4% in dacinormal solution. The strongest
aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid at 15 C. contains 42-9% of
the acid, and has a specific gravity of 1-212. Perfectly dry hydro-
chloric acid gas has no action on metals, but in aqueous solution it
dissolves many of them with evolution of hydrogen and formation
of chlorides.

The salts of hydrochloric acid, known as chlorides, can, in most
cases, be prepared by dissolving either the metal, its hydroxide,
oxide, or carbonate in the acid ; or by heating the metal in a current
of chlorine, or by precipitation. The majority of the metallic chlorides
are solids (stannic chloride, titanic chloride and antimony penta-
chloride are liquids) which readily volatilize on heating. Many are
readily soluble in water, the chief exceptions being silver chloride,
mercurous chloride, cuprous chloride and palladious chloride which
are insoluble in water, and thallous chloride and lead chloride which
are only slightly soluble in cold water, but are readily soluble in hot
water. Bismuth and antimony chlorides are decomposed by water
with production of oxychlorides, whilst titanium tetrachloi ide
yields titanic acid under the same conditions. All the metallic
chlorides, with the exception of those of the alkali and alkaline
earth metals, are reduced either to the metallic condition or to that
of a lower chloride on heating in a current of hydrogen ; most are
decomposed by concentrated sulphuric acid. They can be dis-
tinguished from the corresponding bromides and iodides by the
fact that on distillation with a mixture of potassium bichromate
and concentrated sulphuric acid they yield chromium oxychloride,
whereas bromides and iodides by the same treatment give bromine
and iodine respectively. Some metallic chlorides readily form
double chlorides, the most important of these double salts being the
platinochlorides of the alkali metals. The chlorides of the non-
metallic elements are usually volatile fuming liquids of low boiling-
point, which can be distilled without decomposition and are de-
composed by water. Hydrochloric acid and its metallic salts can
be recognized by the formation of insoluble silver chloride, on adding
silver nitrate to their nitric acid solution, and also by the formation
of chromium oxychloride (see above). Chlorides can be estimated
quantitatively by conversion into silver chloride, or it in the form of
alkaline chlorides (in the absence of other metals, and of any free
acids) by titration with standard silver nitrate solution, using
potassium chromate as an indicator.

Chlorine and oxygen do not combine directly, but compounds can
be obtained indirectly. Three oxides are known : chlorine monoxide,
CljO, chlorine peroxide, ClOj, and chlorine heptoxide, CljO?.

Chlorine monoxide results on passing chlorine over dry precipitated
mercuric oxide. It is a pale yellow gas which can be condensed, on
cooling, to a dark-coloured liquid boiling at 5 C. (under a pressure
of 737-9 mm.). It is extremely unstable, decomposing with extreme
violence on the slightest shock or disturbance, or on exposure to
sunlight. It is readily soluble in water, with which it combines to
form hypochlorous acid. Sulphur, phosphorus, carbon compounds,

256

CHLORITE

and the alkali metals react violently with the gas, taking fire with
explosive decomposition. A. J. Bajard determined the volume
composition of the gas by decomposition over mercury on gentle
warming, followed by the absorption of the chlorine produced with
potassium hydroxide, and then measured the residual oxygen.

Chlorine peroxide was first obtained by Sir H. Davy in 1815 by
the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on potassium chlorate.
As this oxide is a dangerous explosive, great care must be taken in
its preparation; the chlorate is finely powdered and added in the
i-nid, in small quantities at a time, to the acid contained in a retort.
After solution the retort is gently heated by warm water when the
easisliberated : 3KC1O,+2H ? SO4 = KClO < +2KHSO4-f;H 2 O+ClO ! .
A mixture of chlorine peroxide and chlorine is obtained by the
action of hydrochloric acid on potassium chlorate, and similarly,
on warming a mixture of potassium chlorate and oxalic acid to
70 C. on the water bath, a mixture of chlorine peroxide and carbon
dioxide is obtained. Chlorine peroxide must be collected by displace-
ment, as it is soluble in water and readily attacks mercury. It is
a heavy gas of a deep yellow colour and possesses an unpleasant
smell. It can be liquefied, the liquid boiling at 9-9 C., and on
further cooling it solidifies at -79 C. It is very explosive, being
resolved into its constituents by influence of light, on warming,
or on application of shock. It is a very powerful oxidant ; a mixture
of potassium chlorate and sugar in about equal proportions spon-
taneously inflames when touched with a rod moistened with con-
centrated sulphuric acid, the chlorine peroxide liberated setting fire
to the sugar, which goes on burning. Similarly, phosphorus can be
burned under water by covering it with a little potassium chlorate
and running in a thin stream of concentrated sulphuric acid (see
papers by Bray, Zeii. phys. Chem., 1906, et seq.).

Chlorine heptoxide was obtained by A. Michael by slowly adding ,
perchloric acid to phosphoric oxide below -10 C. ; the mixture is
allowed to stand for a day and then gently warmed, when the oxide
distils over as a colourless very volatile oil of boiling-point 82 C.
It turns to a greenish-yellow colour in two or three days and gives
off a greenish gas; it explodes violently on percussion or in contact
with a flame, and is gradually converted into perchloric acid by the
action of water. On the addition of iodine to this oxide, chlorine
is liberated and a white substance is produced, which decomposes, on
heating to 380 C., into iodine and oxygen; bromine is without
action (see A. Michael, Amer. Chem. Jour., 1900, vol. 23; 1901, vol.

2 5)-

Several oxy-acids of chlorine are known, namely, hypochlorous
acid, HC1O, chlorous acid, HC1O 2 (in the form of its salts), chloric
acid, HClOs, and perchloric acid, HCIOi. Hypochlorous acid is
formed when chlorine monoxide dissolves in water, and can be pre-
pared (in dilute solution) by passing chlorine through water con-
taining precipitated mercuric oxide in suspension. Precipitated
calcium carbonate may be used in place of the mercuric oxide, or a
hypochlorite may be decomposed by a dilute mineral acid and the
.resulting solution distilled. For this purpose a filtered solution of
bleaching-powder and a very dilute solution of nitric acid may be
-employed. The acid is only known in aqueous solution, and only
dilute solutions can be distilled without decomposition. The solution
has a pale yellow colour, and is a strong oxidizing and bleaching
agent; it is readily decomposed by hydrochloric acid, with evolution
of oxygen. The salts of this acid are known as hypochlorites, and
like the acid itself are very unstable, so that it is almost impossible
to obtain them pure. A solution of sodium hypochlorite (Eau de
Javel), which can be prepared by passing chlorine into a cold aqueous
solution of caustic soda, has been extensively used for bleaching
purposes. One of the most important derivatives of hypochlorous
acid is bleaching powder. Sodium hypochlorite can be prepared by
the electrolysis of brine solution in the presence of carbon electrodes,
having no diaphragm in the electrolytic cell, and mixing the anode
and cathode products by agitating the liquid. The temperature
should be kept at about 15 C., and the concentration of the hypo-
chlorite produced must not be allowed to become too great, in order
to prevent reduction taking place at the cathode.

Chlorous acid is not known in the pure condition; but its sodium
salt is prepared by the action of sodium peroxide on a solution of
chlorine peroxide:2ClO 2 + Na 2 Oo=2NaClO ? +O 2 . Thesilverand lead
salts are unstable, being decomposed with explosive violence at
100 C. On adding a caustic alkali solution to one of chlorine
peroxide, a mixture of a chlorite and a chlorate is obtained.

Chloric acid was discovered in 1786 by C. L. Berthollet, and is
best prepared by decomposing barium chlorate with the calculated
amount of dilute sulphuric acid. The aqueous solution can be con-
centrated in vacua ov.er sulphuric acid until it contains 40% of
chloric acid. Further concentration leads to decomposition, with
evolution of oxygen and formation of perchloric acid. The con-
centrated solution is a powerful oxidizing agent; organic matter
being oxidized so rapidly that it frequently inflames. Hydrochloric
acid, sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphurous acid are rapidly oxidized
by chloric acid. J. S. Stas determined its composition by the analysis
of pure silver chlorate. The salts of this acid are known as chlorates
(q.v.).

Perchloric acid is best prepared by distilling potassium perchlorate
with concentrated sulphuric acid. According to Sir H. Roscoe, pure
perchloric acid distils over at first, but if the distillation be continued

a white crystalline mass of hydrated perchloric acid, HCIO-H 2 O,
passes over; this is due to the decomposition of some of the acid
into water and lower oxides of chlorine, the water produced then
combining with the pure acid to produce the hydrated form. This
solid, on redistillation, gives the pure acid, which is a liquid boiling at
39 C. (under a pressure of 56 mm.) and of specific gravity I -764 (V ).
The crystalline hydrate melts at 50 C. The pure acid decom-
poses slowly on standing, but is stable in dilute aqueous solution.
It is a very powerful oxidizing agent; wood and paper in contact
with the acid inflame with explosive violence. In contact with the
skin it produces painful wounds. It may be distinguished from
chloric acid by the fact that it does not give chlorine peroxide when
treated with concentrated sulphuric acid, and that it is not reduced
by sulphurous acid. The salts of the acid are known as the per-
chlorates, and are all soluble in water; the potassium and rubidium
salts, however, are only soluble to a slight extent. Potassium
perchlorate, KClOi, can be obtained by carefully heating the chlorate
until it first melts and then nearly all solidifies again. The fused
mass is then extracted with water to remove potassium chloride, and
warmed with hydrochloric acid to remove unaltered chlorate, and
finally extracted with water again, when a residue of practically pure
perchlorate is obtained. The alkaline perchlorates are isomorphous
with the permanganates.

CHLORITE, a group of green micaceous minerals which are
hydrous silicates of aluminium, magnesium and ferrous iron.
The name was given by A. G. Werner in 1798, from x^>P""w,
" a green stone." Several species and many rather ill-defined
varieties have been described, but they are difficult to recognize.
Like the micas, the chlorites (or " hydromicas ") are monoclinic
in crystallization and have a perfect cleavage parallel to the flat
face of the scales and plates. The cleavage is, however, not
quite so prominent as in the micas, and the cleavage flakes
though pliable are not elastic. The chlorites usually occur as
salt (H=2~3) scaly aggregates of a dark-green colour. They
vary in specific gravity between 2-6 and 3-0, according to the
amount of iron present. Well-developed crystals are met with
only in the species clinochlore and penninite; those of the former
are six-sided plates and are optically biaxial, whilst those of the
latter have the form of acute rhombohedra and are usually
optically uniaxial. The species prochlorite and corundophilite
also occur as more or less distinct six-sided plates. These four
better crystallized species are grouped together by G. Tschermak
as orthochlorites, the finely scaly and indistinctly fibrous forms
being grouped by the same author as leptochlorites.

Chemically, the chlorites are distinguished from the micas by
the presence of a considerable amount of water (about 13%)
and by not containing alkalis; from the soft, scaly, mineral
talc they differ in containing aluminium (about 20%) as an
essential constituent. The magnesia (up to 36%) is often
in part replaced by ferrous oxide (up to 30%), and the alu-
mina to a lesser extent by ferric oxide; alumina may also be
partly replaced by chromic oxide, as in the rose-red varieties
kammererite and kotschubeite. The composition of both
clinochlore and penninite is approximately expressed by
the formula HstMg^^sAUSisOig, and the formulae of pro-
chlorite and corundophilite are H^MgjFe^AluSiisOso and
H 2 o(Mg,Fe)nAl 8 Si6045 respectively. The variation in com-
position of these orthochlorites is explained by G. Tschermak
by assuming them to be isomorphous mixtures of HiMgsSiA
(the serpentine molecule) and I^MgsAlzSiOs (which is approxi-
mately the composition of the chlorite amesite). The lepto-
chlorites are still more complex, and the intermixture of other
fundamental molecules has to be assumed ; the species recognized
by Dana are daphnite, cronstedtite, thuringite, stilpnomelane,
strigovite, diabantite, aphrosiderite, delessite and rumpfite.

The chlorites usually occur as alteration products of other
minerals, such as pyroxene, amphibole, biotite, garnet, &c.,
often occurring as pseudomorphs after these, or as earthy
material filling cavities in igneous rocks composed of these
minerals. Many altered igneous rocks owe their green colour
to the presence of secondary chlorite. Chlorite is also an im-
portant constituent of many schistose rocks and phyllites, and
of chlorite-schist it is the only essential constituent. Well-
crystallized specimens of the species clinochlore are found with
crystals of garnet in cavities in chlorite-schist at Achmatovsk
near Zlatoust, in the Urals, and at the Ala valley near Turin,

CHLOROFORM CHMIELNICKI

257

Piedmont ; also as large plates at West Chester hi Pennsylvania
and at other American localities. Crystals of penninite are
found in serpentine at Zermatt in Switzerland and in the green
schists of the Zillerthal in Tirol.

Closely allied to the chlorites is another group of micaceous
minerals known as the vermiculites, which have resulted by the
alteration of the micas, particularly biotite and phlogopite.
The name is from the Latin vermicular, " to breed worms,"
because when heated before the blowpipe these minerals ex-
foliate into long worm-like threads. They have the same
chemical constituents as the chlorites, but the composition
is variable and indefinite, varying with that of the original
mineral and the extent of its alteration. Several indistinct
varieties have been named, the most important of which is
jeffersonite. (L. J. S.)

CHLOROFORM (trichlor-methane), CHClj, a valuable an-
aesthetic, a colourless liquid, possessing an agreeable smell and
a pleasant taste. It may be prepared by the action of bleaching
powder on many carbon compounds, such, for example, as ethyl
alcohol and acetone (E. Soubeiran, Ann. chim. phys., 1831 [2],
48, p. 131; J. v. Liebig, Ann., 1832, i, p. 199), by heating chloral
with alkalis (Liebig), CC1 3 CHO + NaHO= CHCU + NaHCO 2 , or '
by heating trichloracetic acid with ammonia (J. Dumas, Ann.,
1839, 32, p. 113). In the preparation of chloroform by the action
of bleaching powder on ethyl alcohol it is probable that the
alcohol is first oxidized to acetaldehyde, which is subsequently
chlorinated and then decomposed. Chloroform solidifies in the
cold and then melts at -62 C.; it boils at 61-2 C., and has a
specific gravity 1-52637 (o/4) (T. E. Thorpe). It is an exceed-
ingly good solvent, especially for fats, alkaloids and iodine.
It is not inflammable. The vapour of chloroform when passed
through a. red-hot tube yields hexachlorbenzene CeCl 6 , per-
chlorethane C 2 Cle, and some perchlorethylene C 2 CU (W.
Ramsay and S. Young, Jahresberichte, 1886, p. 628). Chromic
acid converts it into phosgene (carbonyl chloride, COC1 2 ). It
reacts with sodium ethylate to form ortho-formic ester,
CH(OC 2 H 5 ) 3 , and when heated with aqueous ammonia for some
hours at 200-220 C. gives carbon monoxide and ammonium
formate, 2CHC1 3 + 7NH 3 + 3H 2 O = NHvHCO 2 + CO+eNI^Cl
(G. Andr6, Jahresb., 1886, p. 627). When digested with phenols
and caustic soda it forms oxyaldehydes (K. Reimer, Ber., 1876,
9, p. 423) ; and when heated with alcoholic potash it is converted
into potassium formate, CHCU + 4KHO = KHCO 2 + 3KC1+
2H 2 O. It combines with acetoacetic ester to form the aromatic
compound meta-oxyuvitic acid, CsH2-CH 3 -OH-(COOH) 2 . A
hydrate, of composition CHC1 3 -18H 2 O, has been described
(G. Chancel, Fresenius Zeitschrifl f. anal. Chemie, 1886, 25, p.
118); it forms hexagonal crystals which melt at 1-6 C.

Chloroform may be readily detected by the production of
an isonitrile when it is heated with alcoholic potash and a primary
amine; thus with aniline, phenyl isocyanide (recognized by its
nauseating smell) is produced,

CHC1,+QH 6 NH 2 +3KHO = C,H 6 NC+3KC1+3H 2 O.

For the action and use of chloroform as an anaesthetic, see
ANAESTHESIA. Chloroform may be given internally La doses
of from one to five drops. The British Pharmacopoeia contains
a watery solution the Aqua Chloroformi which is useful in
disguising the taste of nauseous drugs; a liniment which consists
of equal parts of camphor liniment and chloroform, and is a
useful counter-irritant; the Spiritus Chloroformi (erroneously
known as " chloric ether "), which is a useful anodyne in doses
of from five to forty drops; and the Tinctura Chloroformi et
Morphinae Composite, which is the equivalent of a proprietary
drug called chlorodyne. This tincture contains chloroform, mor-
phine and prussic acid, and must be used with the greatest care.

Externally chloroform is an antiseptic, a local anaesthetic
if allowed to evaporate, and a rubefacient, causing the vessels
of the skin to dilate, if rubbed in. Its action on the stomach
is practically identical with that of alcohol (?..), though in very
much smaller doses. The uses of chloroform which fall to be
mentioned here are: as a counter-irritant; as a local anaes-

tic for toothache due to caries, it being applied on a cotton-
'

wool plug which is inserted into the carious cavity; as an
antispastnodic in tetanus and hydrophobia; and as the best
and most immediate and effective antidote in cases of strychnine
poisoning.

CHLOROPHYLL (from Gr. xAp6s, green, <t>v\\ov, a leaf),
the green colouring matter of leaves. It is universally present
in growing vegetable cells. The pigment of leaves is a complex
mixture of substances; of these one is green, and to this the
name, originally given in 1817 by Pelletier and Caventou, is
sometimes restricted; xanthophyll (Gr. I~a.v6bs, yellow) is ,dark
brown ; carotin is copper-coloured. Chlorophyll is related chemi-
cally to the proteids; a decomposition product, phylloporphyrin,
being very closely related to haematoporphyrin, which is a
decomposition product of haemoglobin, the red colouring matter
of the blood. Chlorophyll is neutral in reaction, insoluble in
water, but soluble in alcohol, ether, &c., the solutions exhibiting
a green colour and a vivid red fluorescence. Magnesium is a
necessary constituent. (See S. B. Schryver, Science Progress,

1909, 3, P- 42S-)

CHLOROSIS (Gr. xXwp6s, pale green), the botanical term for
loss of colour in a plant-organ, a sign of disease; also in medicine,
a form of anaemia (see BLOOD: Pathology).

CHLORPICRIN (Nitrochloroform), C-NOyCU, the product
of the distillation of many nitro compounds (picric acid, nitro-
methane, &c.) with bleaching powder; it can also be prepared
by the action of concentrated nitric acid on chloral or chloroform.
A. W. von Hofmann (Annalen, 1866, 139, p. in) mixed 10 parts
of bleaching powder into a paste with cold water and added a
solution (saturated at 30 C.) of i part of picric acid. ' A violent
reaction is set up and the chlorpicrin distils over, generally
without the necessity for any external heating. It is a colourless
liquid of boiling-point 112 C., and of specific gravity 1-692. It
is almost insoluble in water, but is readily soluble in alcohol; it
has a sharp smell, and its vapour affects the eyes very powerfully.
Iron filings and acetic acid reduce it to trimethylamine, whilst
alcoholic ammonia converts it into guanidine, HN:C(NHj)i,
and sodium ethylate into ortho-carbonic es^er, C(OCjH t ) 4 .
The corresponding brompicrin is also known.

CHMIELNICKI, BOGDAN (c. 1593-1657), hetman of the
Cossacks, son of Michael Chmielnicki, was born at Subatow,
near Chigirin in the Ukraine, an estate given to the elder
Chmielnicki for his lifelong services to the Polish crown.
Bogdan, after learning to read and write, a rare accomplishment
in those days, entered the Cossack ranks, was dangerously
wounded and taken prisoner hi his first battle against the Turks,
and found leisure during his two years' captivity at Constanti-
nople to acquire the rudiments of Turkish and French. On
returning to the Ukraine he settled down quietly on his paternal
estate, and in all probability history would never have known
his name if the intolerable persecution of a neighbouring Polish
squire, who stole his hayricks and flogged his infant son to death,
had not converted the thrifty and acquisitive Cossack husband-
man into one of the most striking and sinister figures of modern
times. Failing to get redress nearer home, he determined to seek
for justice at Warsaw, whither he had been summoned with other
Cossack delegates to assist Wladislaus IV. in his long-projected
war against the Turks. The king, perceiving him to be a man
of some education and intelligence, appointed him pisarz or
secretary of the registered Cossacks, and he subsequently served
under Koniecpolski in the Ukraine campaign of 1646. His hopes
of distinction were, however, cut short by a decree of the
Polish diet, which, in order to vex the king, refused to sanction
the continuance of the war. Chmielnicki, now doubly hateful
to the Poles as being both a royalist and a Cossack, was again
maltreated and chicaned, and only escaped from gaol by bribing
his gaolers. Thirsting for vengeance, he fled to the Cossack
settlements on the Lower Dnieper and thence sent messages to
the khan of the Crimea, urging a simultaneous invasion of
Poland by the Tatars and the Cossacks (1647).

On the nth of April 1648, at an assembly of the Zaporozhians
(see POLAND: History), he openly declared his intention of pro-
ceeding against the Poles, and was elected ataman by acclamation.

258

CHOATE

At Zheltnaya Vodui (Yellow Waters) in the Ukraine he
annihilated, on the loth of May, a detached Polish army corps
after three days' desperate fighting, and on the 26th routed the
main Polish army under the grand hetman, Stephen Potocki,
at Kruta Balka (Hard Plank), near the river Korsun. The
immediate consequence of these victories was the outbreak of a
" serfs' fury." Throughout the Ukraine the Polish gentry
were hunted down, flayed and burnt alive, blinded and sawn
asunder. Every manor-house was reduced to ashes. Every
Uniat and Catholic priest was hung up before his own altar,
along with a Jew and a hog. The panic-stricken inhabitants
fled to the nearest strongholds, and soon the rebels were swarming
all over the palatinates of Volhynia and Podolia. But the ataman
was as crafty as he was cruel. Disagreeably awakened to the
insecurity of his position by the refusal of the tsar and the sultan
to accept him as a vassal, he feigned to resume negotiations
with the Poles in order to gain time, dismissed the Polish com-
missioners in the summer of 1648 with impossible conditions,
and on the 23rd of September, after a contest of three days,
utterly routed the Polish chivalry, 40,000 strong, at Pildawa,
where the Cossacks are said to have reaped an immense booty
after the fight was over. All Poland now lay at his feet, and
the road to the defenceless capital was open before him; but he
wasted the precious months in vain before the fortress of Zamosc,
and was then persuaded by the new king of Poland, John
Casimir, to consent to a suspension of hostilities. In June 1649,
arrayed in cloth-of-gold and mounted on a white charger,
Chmielnicki made his triumphal entry into Kiev, where he was
hailed as the Maccabaeus of the Orthodox faith, and permitted
the committal of unspeakable atrocities on the Jews and Roman
Catholics. At the ensuing peace congress at Pereyaslavl he
demanded terms so extravagant that the Polish commissioners
dared not listen to them. In 1649, therefore, the war was re-
sumed. A bloody battle ensued near Zborow, on the banks of
the Strypa, when only the personal valour of the Polish king,
the superiority of the Polish artillery, and the defection of
Chmielnicki's allies the Tatars enabled the royal forces to hold
their own. Peace was then patched up by the compact of
Zborow (August 21, 1649), whereby Chmielnicki was virtually
recognized as a semi-independent prince.

For the next eighteen months he was the absolute master of
the Ukraine, which he divided into sixteen provinces, made his
native place Chigirin the Cossack capital, and entered into direct
relations with foreign powers. Poland and Muscovy competed
for his alliance, and in his more exalted moods he meditated an
Orthodox crusade against the Turk at the head of the northern
Slavs. But he was no statesman, and his difficulties proved
overwhelming. Instinct told him that his old ally the khan of
the Crimea was unreliable, and that the tsar of Muscovy was his
natural protector, yet he could not make up his mind to abandon
the one or turn to the other. His attempt to carve a principality
for his son out of Moldavia, which Poland regarded as her vassal,
led to the outbreak in 1651 of a third war between subject and
suzerain, which speedily assumed the dignity and the dimensions
of a crusade. Chmielnicki was now regarded not merely as a
Cossack rebel, but as the arch-enemy of Catholicism in eastern
Europe, and the pope granted a plenary absolution to all who
took up arms against him. But Bogdan himself was not without
ecclesiastical sanction. The archbishop of Corinth girded him
with a sword which had lain upon the Holy Sepulchre, and the
metropolitan of Kiev absolved him from all his sins, without
the usual preliminary of confession, before he rode forth to battle.
But fortune, so long his friend, now deserted him, and at
Beresteczko (July I, 1651) the Cossack ataman was defeated
for the first time. But even now his power was far from broken.
In 1652 he openly interfered in the affairs of Transylvania and
Walachia, and assumed the high-sounding title of " guardian
of the Ottoman Porte." In 1653 Poland made a supreme effort,
the diet voted 17,000,000 gulden in subsidies, and John Casimir
led an army of 60,000 men into the Ukraine and defeated the
arch-rebel at Zranta, whereupon Chmielnicki took the oath of
allegiance to the tsar (compact of Pereyaslavl, February 19,1654),

and all hope of an independent Cossack state was at an end. He
died on the 7th of August 1657. With all his native ability,
Chmielnicki was but an eminent savage. He was the creature
of every passing mood or whim, incapable of cool and steady
judgment or of the slightest self-control an incalculable weather-
cock, blindly obsequious to every blast of passion. He could
destroy, but he could not create, and other people benefited by
his exploits.

See P. Kulish, On the Defection of Malo- Russia from Poland (Rus.)
(Moscow, 1890); S. M. Soloyev, History of Russia (Rus.) (Moscow,
1857, &c.), vol. x.; Robert Nisbet Bain, The First Romanovs, chaps.
3-4 (London, 1905). (R. N. B.)

CHOATE, JOSEPH HODGES (1832- ), American lawyer
and diplomat, was born at Salem, Massachusetts, on the 24th of
January 1 83 2 . He was the son of Dr George Choate, a physician
of considerable note, and was a nephew of Rufus Choate. After
graduating at Harvard College in 1852 and at the law school
of Harvard University in 1854, he was admitted first to the
Massachusetts (1855) and then (1856) to the New York bar,
and entered the law office of Scudder & Carter in New York City.
His success in his profession was immediate, and in 1860 he
became junior partner in the firm of Evarts, Southmayd & Choate,
the senior partner in which was William M. Evarts. This firm
and its successor, that of Evarts, Choate & Beaman, remained
for many years among the leading law firms of New York and
of the country, the activities of both being national rather than
local. During these busy years Mr Choate was associated with
many of the most famous litigations in American legal history,
including the Tilden, A. T. Stewart, and Stanford will cases,
the Kansas prohibition cases, the Chinese exclusion cases, the
Maynard election returns case, and the Income Tax Suit. In
1871 he became a member of the " Committee of Seventy " in
New York City, which was instrumental in breaking up the
" Tweed Ring," and later assisted in the prosecution of the
indicted officials. In the retrial of the General Fitz John Porter
case he obtained a reversal of the decision of the original court-
martial. His greatest reputation was won perhaps in cross-
examination. In politics he allied himself with the Republican
party on its organization, being a frequent speaker in presidential
campaigns, beginning with that of 1856. He never held political
office, although he was a candidate for the Republican senatorial
nomination against Senator Thomas C. Platt in 1897. In 1894
he was president of the New York state constitutional convention.
He was appointed, by President McKinley, ambassador to Great
Britain to succeed John Hay in 1899, and remained in this
position until the spring of 1905. In England he won great
personal popularity, and accomplished much in fostering the
good relations of the two great English-speaking powers. He
was one of the representatives of the United States at the second
Peace Congress at the Hague in 1907.

Several of his notable public addresses have been published.
The Choate Story Book (New York, 1903) contains a few of his
addresses and after-dinner speeches, and is prefaced by a brief
biographical sketch.

CHOATE, RUFUS (1799-1859), American lawyer and orator,
was born at Ipswich, Massachusetts, on the ist of October 1799,
the descendant of a family which settled in Massachusetts in
1667. As a child he was remarkably precocious; at six he is
said to have been able to repeat large parts of the Bible and of
Pilgrim's Progress by heart. He graduated as valedictorian of
his class at Dartmouth College in 1819, was a tutor there in 1819-
1820, spent a year in the law school of Harvard University, and
studied for a like period at Washington, in the office of William
Wirt, then attorney-general of the United States. He was
admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1823 and practised at
what was later South Danvers (now Peabody) for five years,
during which time he served in the Massachusetts House of
Representatives (1825-1826) and in the state senate (1827).
In 1828 he removed to Salem, where his successful conduct of
several important law-suits brought him prominently into public
notice. In 1830 he was elected to Congress as a Whig from the
Salem district, defeating the Jacksonian candidate for re-election,

CHOBE CHODKIEWICZ

259

B. W. Crowninshield (1772-1851), a former secretary of the navy,
and in 1832 he was re-elected. His career in Congress was
marked by a notable speech in defence of a protective tariff.
In 1834, before the completion of his second term, he resigned
and established himself in the practice of law in Boston. Already
his fame as a speaker had spread beyond New England, and he
was much sought after as an orator for public occasions. For
several years he devoted himself unremittingly to his profession,
but in 1841 succeeded Daniel Webster in the United States
Senate. Shortly afterwards he delivered one of his most eloquent
addresses at the memorial services for President Harrison in
Faneuil Hall, Boston. In the Senate he made a series of brilliant
speeches on the tariff, the Oregon boundary, in favour of the
Fiscal Bank Act, and in opposition to the annexation of Texas.
On Webster's re-election to the Senate, Choate resumed (1845)
his law practice, which no amount of urging could ever persuade
him to abandon for public office, save for a short term as attorney-
general of Massachusetts in 1853-1854. In 1853 he was a
member of the state constitutional convention. He was a
faithful supporter of Webster's policy as declared in the latter's
famous " Seventh of March Speech " (1850) and laboured to
secure for him the presidential nomination at the Whig national
convention in 1852. In 1856 he refused to follow most of his
former Whig associates into the Republican party and gave his
support to James Buchanan, whom he considered the repre-
sentative of a national instead of a sectional party. In July 1859
failing health led him to seek rest in a trip to Europe, but he
died on the I3th of that month at Halifax, Nova Scotia, where
he had been put ashore when it was seen that he probably could
not outlive the voyage across the Atlantic. Choate, besides being
one of the ablest of American lawyers, was one of the most
scholarly of American public men, and his numerous orations
and addresses were remarkable for their pure style, their grace
and elegance of form, and their wealth of classical allusion.

His Works (edited, with a memoir, by S. G. Brown) were published
in 2 vols. at Boston in 1862. The Memoir was afterwards published
separately (Boston, 1870). See also E. G. Parker's Reminiscences
of Rufus Choate (New York, 1860); E. P. Whipple's Some Recollec-
tions of Rufus Choate (New York, 1879) ; and the Albany Law Review
(1877-1878).

CHOBE, a large western affluent of the middle Zambezi (q.v.).
The river was discovered by David Livingstone in 1851, and to
him was known as the Chobe. It is also called the . Linyante
and the Kwando, the last name being that commonly used.

CHOCOLATE, a paste of the ground kernels of the cocoa bean,
mixed with sugar, vanilla or other flavouring, made into a cake,
which is used for the manufacture of various forms of sweetmeat,
or in making the beverage, also known as " chocolate," obtained
by dissolving cakes of chocolate in boiling water or milk (see
COCOA). The word came into Eng. through the'Fr. chocolat or
Span, chocolate from the Mex. chocolatl. According to the New
English Dictionary (quoting R. Simeon, Diet, de la langue
Nahuatl), this was " an article of food made of ... the seeds of
cacao and of the tree pochotl (Bombay, ceiba)," and was etymo-
logically distinct from the Mexican cacauatl, cacao, or cocoa.

CHOCTAWS, CHAHTAS, or CHACATOS (apparently a corruption
of Span, chalo, flattened), a tribe of North American Indians of
Muskhogean stock. They are now settled in Oklahoma, but when
first known to Europeans they occupied the district now forming
the southern part of Mississippi and the western part of Alabama.
On the settlement of Louisiana they formed an alliance with
the French, and assisted them against the Natchez and Chicka-
saws; but by degrees they entered into friendly relations with
the English, and at last, in 1786, recognized the supremacy of
the United States by the treaty of Hopewell. Their emigration
westward began about 1800, and the last remains of their original
territory were ceded in 1830. In their new settlements the
Choctaws continued to advance in prosperity till the outbreak
of the Civil War, which considerably diminished the population
and ruined a large part of their property. They sided with the
Confederates, and their territory was occupied by Confederate
troops; and accordingly at the close of the war they were
rded as having lost their rights. Part of their land they

rega

were forced to surrender to the government; th^r slaves were
emancipated; and provision was claimed for them in the shape
of either land or money. Since then they have considerably
recovered their position. They long constituted a quasi-inde-
pendent people under the title of the Choctaw nation, and were
governed by a chief and a national council of forty members,
according to a written constitution, dating in the main from
1838; they possessed a regular judicial system and employed
trial by jury. Tribal government virtually ceased in 1906. The
Choctaws number some 18,000. A few groups still linger in
Mississippi and Louisiana. The Choctaw language has been re-
duced to writing, and brought to some degree of literary precision.
See INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN; Handbook of American Indians,
ed. F. W. Hodge (Washington, 1907).

CHODKIEWICZ, JAN KAROL (1560-1621), Polish general,
was the son of Hieronymus Chodkiewicz, castellan of. Wilna.
After being educated at the Wilna academy lie went abroad to
learn the science of war, fighting in the Spanish service under
Alva, and also under Maurice of Nassau. In 1593 he married
the wealthy Sophia Mielecka, by whom he had one son who
predeceased him. His first military service at home was against
the Cossack rising of Nalewajko as lieutenant to Zolkiewski,
and he subsequently assisted Zamoyski in his victorious Mol-
davian campaign. Honours and dignities were now showered
upon him. In 1599 he was appointed starosta of Samogitia,
and in 1600 acting commander-in-chief of Lithuania. In the
war against Sweden for the possession of Livonia he brilliantly
distinguished himself, capturing fortress after fortress, and repuls-
ing the duke of Sudermania, afterwards Charles IX, from Riga.
In 1604 he captured Dorpat, twice defeated the Swedish generals
at Bialy Kamien, and was rewarded with the grand baton of
Lithuania. Criminally neglected by the diet, which from sheer
niggardliness turned a deaf ear to all his requests for reinforce-
ments and for supplies and money to pay his soldiers, Chodkiewicz
nevertheless more than held his own against the Swedes. His
crowning achievement was the great victory of Kirkholm
(Aug. 27th, 1605), when with barely 5000 men he annihilated a
threefold larger Swedish army; for whicn feat he received
letters of congratulation from the pope, all the Catholic poten-
tates of Europe, and even from the sultan of Turkey and the
shah of Persia. Yet this great victory was absolutely fruitless,
owing to the domestic dissensions which prevailed in Poland
during the following five years. Chodkiewicz's own army,
unpaid for years, abandoned him at last en masse in order to
plunder the estates of their political opponents, leaving the grand
hetman to carry on the war as best he could with a handful of
mercenaries paid out of the pockets of himself and his friends.
Chodkiewicz was one of the few magnates who remained loyal
to the king, and after helping to defeat the rebels in Poland a
fresh invasion of Livonia by the Swedes recalled him thither,
and once more he relieved Riga besides capturing Pernau.
Meanwhile the war with Muscovy broke out, and Chodkiewicz
was sent against Moscow with an army of 2000 men though
if there had been a spark of true patriotism in Poland he could
easily have marshalled 100,000. Moreover, the diet neglected
to pay for the maintenance even of this paltry 2000, with the
result that they mutinied and compelled their leader to retreat
through the heart of Muscovy to Smolensk. Not till the crown
prince Wladislaus arrived with tardy reinforcements did the
war assume a different character, Chodkiewicz opening a new
career of victory by taking the fortress of Drohobu in 1617.
The Muscovite war had no sooner been ended by the treaty of
Deulina than Chodkiewicz was hastily despatched southwards
to defend the southern frontier against the Turks, who after the
catastrophe of Cecora (see ZOLKIEWSKI) had high hopes of
conquering Poland altogether. An army of 160,000 Turkish
veterans led by Sultan Osman in person advanced from
Adrianople towards the Polish frontier, but Chodkiewicz crossed
the Dnieper in September 1621 and entrenched himself in the
fortress of Khotin right in the path of the Ottoman advance.
Here for a whole month the Polish hero held the sultan at bay,
till the first fall of autumn snow compelled Osman to withdraw

26o

CHODOWIECKI CHOIR

his diminished forces. But the victory was dearly purchased by
Poland. A few days before the siege was raised the aged grand
hetman died of exhaustion in the fortress (Sept. 24th, 1621).

See Adam Stanislaw Naruszewicz, Life of J. K. Chodkiewicz (Pol. ;
4th ed., Cracow, 1857-1858); Lukasz Golebiowski, The Moral
Side of J. K. Chodkiewicz as indicated by his Letters (Pol. ; Warsaw,
1854). (R. N. B.)

CHODOWIECKI, DANIEL NICOLAS (1726-1801), German
painter and engraver of Polish descent, was born at Danzig.
Left an orphan at an early age, he devoted himself to the practice
of miniature painting, the elements of which his father had taught
him, as a means of support for himself and his mother. In 1743
he went to Berlin, where for some time he worked as clerk in an
uncle's office, practising art, however, in his leisure moments,
and gaining a sort of reputation as a painter of miniatures for
snuff-boxes. The Berlin Academy, attracted by a small en-
graving of his, entrusted to him the illustration of its yearly
almanac. After designing and engraving several subjects from
the story of the Seven Years' War, Chodowiecki produced the
famous " History of the Life of Jesus Christ," a set of admirably
painted miniatures, which made him at once so popular that he
laid aside all occupations save those of painting and engraving.
Few books were published in Prussia for some years without
plate'or vignette by Chodowiecki. It is not surprising, therefore,
that the catalogue of his works (Berlin, 1814) should include over
3000 items, of which, however, the picture of " Jean Galas and
his Family " is the only one of any reputation. He became
director of the Berlin Academy in 1797. The title of the German
Hogarth, which he sometimes obtained, was the effect of an
admiration rather imaginative than critical, and was disclaimed
by Chodowiecki himself. The illustrator of Lavater's Essays
on Physiognomy, the painter of the " Hunt the Slipper " in the
Berlin museum, had indeed but one point in common with the
great Englishman the practice of representing actual life and
manners. In this he showed skilful drawing and grouping,
and considerable expressional power, but no tendency whatever
to the use of the grotesque.

His brother Gottfried (1728-1781) and son Wilhelm (1765-
1803) painted and engraved after the style of Daniel, and some-
times co-operated with him.

CHOERILUS. (i) An Athenian tragic poet, who exhibited
plays as early as 524 B.C. He was said to have competed with
Aeschylus, Pratinas and even Sophocles. According to F. G.
Welcker, however, the rival of Sophocles was a son of Choerilus,
who bore the same name. Suidas states that Choerilus wrote
150 tragedies and gained the prize 13 times. His works are all
lost; only Pausanias (i. 14) mentions a play by him entitled
Alope (a mythological personage who was the subject of dramas
by Euripfides and Carcinus) . His reputation as a writer of satyric
dramas is attested in the well-known line

TJnjia niv fia<ri\(vs ^v XoipiXos tv Zaripois.

The Choerilean metre, mentioned by the Latin grammarians,
is probably so called because the above line is the oldest extant
specimen. Choerilus was also said to have introduced consider-
able improvements in theatrical masks and costumes.

See A. Nauck, Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta (1889); F. G.
Welcker, Die griechischen Tragodien, pp. 18, 892.

(2) An epic poet of Samos, who flourished at the end of the sth
century B.C. After the fall of Athens he settled at the court of
Archelaus, king of Macedonia, where he was the associate of
Agathon, Melanippides, and Plato the comic poet. The only
work that can with certainty be attributed to him is the Iltpcn/is
or litpauid., a history of the struggle of the Greeks against Persia,
the central point of which was the battle of Salamis. His import-
ance consists in his having taken for his theme national and con-
temporary events in place of the deeds of old-time heroes. For
this new departure he apologizes in the introductory verses
(preserved in the scholiast on Aristotle, Rhetoric, iii. 14), where
he says that, the subjects of epic poetry being all exhausted, it
was necessary to strike out a new path. The story of his intimacy
with Herodotus is probably due to the fact that he imitated him
and had recourse to his history for the incidents of his poem.

The Perseis was at first highly successful and was said to have
been read, together with the Homeric poems, at the Panathenaea,
but later critics reversed this favourable judgment. Aristotle
(Topica, viii. i) calls Choerilus's comparisons far-fetched and
obscure, and the Alexandrians displaced him by Antimachus in
the canon of epic poets. The fragments are artificial in tone.

G. Kinkel, Epicorum Graecorum Frag. {. (1877); for another view
of his relations with Herodotus see Miider in Klio (1907), 29-44.

(3) An epic poet of lasus in Caria, who lived in the 4th century
B.C. He accompanied Alexander the Great on his campaigns as
court-poet. He is well known from the passages in Horace
(Epistles, ii. i, 232; Ars Poetica, 357), according to which he
received a piece of gold for every good verse he wrote in celebra-
tion of the glorious deeds of his master. The quality of his verses
may be estimated from the remark attributed to Alexander,
that he would rather be the Thersites of Homer than the Achilles
of Choerilus. The epitaph on Sardanapalus, said to have been
translated from the Chaldean (quoted in Athenaeus, viii. p. 336),
is generally supposed to be by Choerilus.

See G. Kinkel, Epicorum Graecorum Fragmenta, i. (1877); A. F.
Nake, De Choerili Samii Aetate Vita et Poesi aiiisque Choerilis (1817),
where the above poets are carefully distinguished; and the articles
in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopddie, iii. 2 (1899).

CHOEROBOSCUS, GEORGIUS (c. A.D. 600), deacon and pro-
fessor at the oecumenical school at Constantinople. He is also
called charlophylax either as the holder of some ecclesiastical
office or as superintendent of the university library. It is not
known whether " Choeroboscus " (Gr. for ' swineherd ") is an
allusion to his earlier occupation or an inherited family name.
During his tenure of office he delivered a course of lectures on
grammar, which has come down to us in the shape of notes taken
by his pupils. He drew from the best authorities Apollonius
Dyscolus, Herodian, Orion, Theodosius of Alexandria. The
lectures are written in simple style, but suffer from diffuseness.
They were much used by Constantine Lascaris in his Greek
grammar and by Urban of Belluno (end of isth cent.). The
chief work of Choeroboscus, which we have in its complete form,
is the commentary on the canons of Theodosius on Declension
and Conjugation. Mention may also be made of a treatise on
orthography, of which a fragment (on Quantity) has been
preserved; a tract on prosody; commentaries on Hephaestion
and Dionysius Thrax; and grammatical notes on the Psalms.

See C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897) ;
A. Hilgard, Grammatici Graeci, iy. (1889-1894), containing the text
of the commentary on Theodosius, and a full account of the life
and writings of Choeroboscus; L. Kohn in Pauly-Wissowa's Real-
encyclopadie, iii. 2 (1889) ; Reitzenstein, Etymologika, 190, n. 4.

CHOIR (O. Fr. cuer from Lat. chorus; pronounced quire, and
until the end of the I7th century so spelt, the spelling being
altered to agree with the Fr. choiur), the body of singers who
perform the musical portion of the service in a church, or the
place set apart for them. Any organized body of singers per-
forming full part choral works or oratorios is also called a choir.

In English cathedrals the choir is composed of men (vicars-
choral or lay clerks) and boys (choristers). They are divided
into two sets, sitting on the north and south sides of the chancel
respectively, called cantoris and decani, from being on the same
side as the cantor (precentor) or the decanus (dean) . This arrange-
ment, together with the custom of vesting choirmen and choristers
in surplices (traditional only in cathedrals and collegiate
churches), has, since the middle of the igth century, been adopted
in a large number of parish and other churches. SurpUced
choirs of women have occasionally been introduced, notably
in America and the British colonies, but the practice has no
warrant of traditional usage. In the Roman Catholic Church
the choir plays a less conspicuous r&le than in the Church of
England, its members not being regarded as ministers of the
church, and non-Catholics are allowed to sing in it. The singers
at Mass or other solemn services are usually placed in a gallery
or some other inconspicuous place. The word " choir," indeed,
formerly applied to all the clergy taking part in services of the
church, and the restriction of the term to the singing men and
boys, who were in their origin no more than the representatives

CHOISEUL

261

(vicars) of the clergy, is a comparatively late development.
The distinction between " choir services " (Mattins, Vespers,
Compline, &c.) consisting of prayers, lections, the singing
of the psalms, &c. and the service of the altar was sharply
drawn in the middle ages, as in the modern Roman Church.
" Choir vestments " (surplice, &c.) are those worn by the clergy
at the former, as distinguished from those used at the Mass
(see VESTMENTS). In England at the Reformation the choir
services (Mattins, Evensong) replaced the Mass as the principal
popular services, and, in general, only the choir vestments were
retained in use. In the English cathedrals the members of the
choir often retain privileges reminiscent of an earlier definite
ecclesiastical status. At Wells, for instance, the vicars-choral
form a corporation practically independent of the dean and
chapter; they have their own lodgings inside the cathedral
precincts (Vicars' Close) and they can only be dismissed by a vote
of their own body. (W. A. P.)

In an architectural sense a " choir " is strictly that part of
a church which is fitted up for the choir services, and is thus
limited to the space between the choir screen and the presbytery.
Some confusion has arisen owing to the term being employed
by medieval writers to express the entire space enclosed for the
performance of the principal services of the church, and therefore
to include not only the choir proper, but the presbytery. In
the case of a cruciform church the choir is sometimes situated
under the central tower, or in the nave, and this is the case in
Westminster Abbey, where it occupies four bays to the west of
the transept. The choir is usually raised one step above the
nave, and its sides are fitted up with seats or stalls, of which in
large buildings there are usually two or three rows rising one
behind the other.

In Romanesque churches there are eastern and western choirs,
and in former times the term was given to chantries and sub-
sidiary chapels, which were also called chancels. In the early
Christian church the ambones where the gospels and epistles
were read were placed one on either side of the choir and formed
part of its enclosure, and this is the case in S. Clemente, S.
Lorenzo and S. Maria in Cosmedin in Rome. In England the
choir seems almost universally to have assembled at the eastern
part of the church to recite the breviary services, whereas on
the continent it was moved from one place to another according
to convenience. In Spanish churches it occupies the nave of the
church, and in the church of the Escorial in Spain was at the
west end above the entrance vestibule. (R. P. S.)

CHOISEUL, CESAR, Due DE (1602-1675), French marshal
and diplomatist, generally known for the best part of his life
as the marshal du Plessis-Praslin, came of the old French family
of Choiseul, which arose in the valley of the Upper Marne in the
loth century and divided into many branches, three of the names
of which, Hostel, Praslin and du Plessis, were borne, at one
time or another, by the subject of this article. Entering the
army at the age of fourteen as proprietary colonel of an infantry
regiment, he shared in almost all the exploits of the French
arms during the reign of Louis XIII. He took part in the siege
of La Rochelle, assisted to defend the island of R6 against the
attacks of the English under the duke of Buckingham, and
accompanied the French forces to Italy in 1629. In 1630 he
was appointed ambassador at the court of the duke of Savoy,
and was engaged hi diplomatic and administrative work in
Italy until 1635, when war was declared between France and
Spain. In the war that followed Plessis-Praslin distinguished
himself in various battles and sieges in Italy, including the
action called the " Route de Quiers " and the celebrated four-
cornered operations round Turin. In 1 640 he was made governor
of Turin, and in 1642 lieutenant-general, and after further
service in Italy he was made a marshal of France (1645) an( i
appointed second in command in Catalonia. During the first
War of the Fronde, which broke out in 1649, he assisted Conde
in the brief siege of Paris; and in the second war, remaining
loyal to the queen regent and the court party, he won his greatest
triumph in defeating Turenne and the allied Spaniards and

ibels at Rethel (or Blanc-Champ) in 1650. He then held high

office at the court of Louis XIV., became minister of state in
1652, and in November 1665 was created due de Choiseul. He
was concerned in some of the negotiations between Louis and
Charles II. of England which led to the treaty of Dover, and
died in Paris on the 23rd of December 1675.

CHOISEUL, ETIENNE FRANCOIS, Due DE (1719-1785),
French statesman, was the eldest son of Francois Joseph de
Choiseul, marquis de Stainville (1700-1770), and bore in early
life the title of comte de Stainville. Born on the 28th of June
1719, he entered the army, and during the War of the Austrian
Succession served in Bohemia in 1741 and in Italy, where he
distinguished himself at the battle of Coni, in 1744. From 1745
until 1748 he was with the army in the Low Countries, being
present at the sieges of Mons, Charleroi and Maestricht. He
attained the rank of lieutenant-general, and in 1750 married
Louise Honorine, daughter of Louis Francois Crozat, marquis
du Chatel (d. 1750), who brought her husband a large fortune
and proved a most devoted wife.

Choiseul gained the favour of Madame de Pompadour by
procuring for her some letters which Louis XV. had written
to his cousin Madame de Choiseul, with whom the king had
formerly had an intrigue; and after a short time as bailli of the
Vosges he was given the appointment of ambassador to Rome
in 1753, where he was entrusted with the negotiations concerning
the disturbances called forth by the bull Unigenitus. He
acquitted himself skilfully in this task, and in 1757 his patroness
obtained his transfer to Vienna, where he was instructed to
cement the new alliance between France and Austria. His
success at Vienna opened the way to a larger career, when in
1758 he supplanted Antoine Louis Rouille (1689-1761) as
minister for foreign affairs and so had the direction of French
foreign policy during the Seven Years' War. At this time he
was made a peer of France and created due de Choiseul. Al-
though from 1761 until 1766 his cousin Cesar, due de Choiseul-
Praslin (1712-1785), was minister for foreign affairs, yet Choiseul
continued to control the policy of France until 1770, and during
this period held most of the other important offices of state.
As the author of the " Family Compact " he sought to retrieve
by an alliance with the Bourbon house of Spain the disastrous
results of the alliance with Austria; but his action came too
late. His vigorous policy in other departments of state was not,
however, fruitless. Coming to power in the midst of the demoral-
ization consequent upon the defeats of Rossbach and Crefeld,
by boldness and energy he reformed and strengthened both army
and navy, and although too late to prevent the loss of Canada
and India, he developed French colonies in the Antilles and
San Domingo, and added Corsica and Lorraine to the crown of
France. His management of home affairs in general satisfied
the philosophes. He allowed the Enrydoptdie to be published,
and brought about the banishment of the Jesuits and the tem-
porary abolition of the order by Pope Clement IV.

Choiseul's fall was caused by his action towards the Jesuits,
and by his support of their opponent La Chalotais, and of the
provincial parlements. After the death of Madame de Pompa-
dour in 1764, his enemies, led by Madame Du Barry and the
chancellor Maupeou, were too strong for him, and in 1770 he
was ordered to retire to his estate at Chanteloupe. The intrigues
against him had, however, increased his popularity, which was
already great, and during his retirement, which lasted until
1774, he lived in the greatest affluence and was visited by many
eminent personages. Greatly to his disappointment Louis XVI.
did not restore him to his former position, although the king
recalled him to Paris in 1774, when he died on the 8th of May
1785, leaving behind him a huge accumulation of debt which
was scrupulously discharged by his widow.

Choiseul possessed both ability and diligence, and though
lacking in tenacity he showed foresight and liberaJity in his
direction of affairs. In appearance he was a short, ill-featured
man, with a ruddy countenance and a sturdy frame. His
MSmoires were written during his exile from Paris, and are
merely detached notes upon different questions. Horace
Walpole, in his Memoirs, gives a very vivid description of the

262

CHOISEUL-STAINVILLE CHOLERA

duke's character, accuses him of exciting the war between
Russia and Turkey in 1768 in order to be revenged upon the
tsarina Catherine II., and says of his foreign policy, " he
would project and determine the ruin of a country, but could
not meditate a little mischief or a narrow benefit." " He
dissipated the nation's wealth and his own; but did not repair
the latter by plunder of the former," says the same writer, who
in reference to Choiseul's private life asserts that " gallantry
without delicacy was his constant pursuit." Choiseul's widow,
a woman " in whom industrious malice could not find an
imperfection," lived in retirement until her death on the 3rd of

December 1808.

See Memoires du due de Choiseul, edited by F. Calmettes (Pans,

- - 7-1758

Pompadour, Correspondence (Paris, 1878); Revue historique, tomes
82 and 87 (Paris, 1903-1905) ; Horace Walpole, Memoirs of the Reign
of George III., edited by G. F. R. Barker (London, 1894); G.
Mangros, Le due el la duchesse de Choiseul (Paris, 1903) ; and La
Disgrace du due et de la duchesse de Choiseul (Paris, 1903) ; E.
Calmettes, Choiseul et Voltaire (Paris, 1902) ; A. Bourguet, Etudes
sur la politique etrangere du due de Choiseul (Paris, 1907) ; and Le
Due de Choiseul et ValUance espagnole (Paris, 1906). See also the
Edinburgh Review for July 1908.

CHOISEUL-STAINVILLE, CLAUDE ANTOINE GABRIEL,
Due DE (1760-1838), French soldier, was brought up at Chante-
loup, under the care of his relative, fitienne Francois, due de
Choiseul, who was childless. The outbreak of the Revolution
found him a colonel of dragoons, and throughout those troublous
times he was distinguished for his devotion to the royal house.
He took part in the attempt of Louis XVI. to escape from Paris
on the 20th of June 1791; was arrested with the king, and
imprisoned. Liberated in May 1792, he emigrated in October,
and fought in the " army of Conde " against the republic.
Captured in 1795, he was confined at Dunkirk; escaped, set
sail for India, was wrecked on the French coast, and condemned
to death by the decree of the Directory. Nevertheless, he was
fortunate enough to escape once more. Napoleon allowed him
to return to France in 1801, but he remained in private life
until the fall of the Empire. At the Restoration he was called
to the House of Peers by Louis XVIII. At the revolution of
1830 he was nominated a member of the provisional government;
and he afterwards received from Louis Philippe the post of
aide-de-camp to the king and governor of the Louvre. He
died in Paris on the ist of December 1838.

CHOISY, FRANCOIS TIMOLEON, ABBE DE (1644-1724),
French author, was born in Paris on the i6th of August 1644,
and died in Paris on the 2nd of October 1724. His father was
attached to the household of the duke of Orleans, and his mother,
who was on intimate terms with Anne of Austria, was regularly
called upon to amuse Louis XIV. By a whim of his mother, the
boy was dressed like a girl until he was eighteen, and, after
appearing for a short time in man's costume, he resumed woman's
dress on the advice doubtless satirical of Madame de La
Fayette. He delighted in the most extravagant toilettes until
he was publicly rebuked by the due de Montausier, when he
retired for some time to the provinces, using his disguise to
assist his numerous intrigues. He had been made an abbe
in his childhood, and poverty, induced by his extravagance,
drove him to live on his benefice at Sainte-Seine in Burgundy,
where he found among his neighbours a kindred spirit in Bussy-
Rabutin. He visited Rome in the suite of the cardinal de
Bouillon in 1676, and shortly afterwards a serious illness brought
about a sudden and rather frivolous conversion to religion.
In 1685 he accompanied the chevalier de Chaumont on a mission
to Siam. He was ordained priest,'and received various ecclesi-
astical preferments. He was admitted to the Academy in 1687,
and wrote a number of historical and religious works, of which
the most notable are the following: Quatre dialogues sur
I'immortalite de V&me . . . (1684), written with the Abbe
Dangeau and explaining his conversion; Traduction de I' Imita-
tion de Jesus-Christ (1692); Histoire de France sous les regnes
de Saint Louis . . . de Charles V et Charles VI (5 vols.,

1688-1695); and Histoire de I'Eglise (n vols., 1703-1723).
He is remembered, however, by his gossiping Memoires (1737),
which contain striking and accurate pictures of his time and
remarkably exact portraits of his contemporaries, although he
has otherwise small pretensions to historical accuracy.

The Memoires passed through many editions, and were edited in
1888 by M. de Lescure. Some admirable letters of Choisy are in-
cluded in the correspondence of Bussy-Rabutin. Choisy is said to
have burnt some of his indiscreet revelations, but left a considerable
quantity of unpublished MS. Part of this material, giving an
account of his adventures as a woman, was surreptitiously used in
an anonymous Histoire de madame la comtesse de Barres (Antwerp,
1735), and again with much editing in the Vie de M. I' abbe de Choisy
(Lausanne and Geneva, 1742), ascribed by Paul Lacroix to Lenglet
Dufresnoy; the text was finally edited (1870) by Lacroix as Aven-
tures de I' abbe de Choisy. See also Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi,
vol. iii.

CHOLERA (from the Gr. xMl, bile, and frltiv, to flow), the
name given to two distinct forms of disease, simple cholera and
malignant cholera. Although essentially different both as to
their causation "and their pathological relationships, these two
diseases may in individual cases present many symptoms of
mutual resemblance.

SIMPLE CHOLERA (synonyms, Cholera Europaea, British
Cholera, Summer or Autumnal Cholera) is the cholera of ancient
medical writers, as is apparent from the accurate description
of the disease given by Hippocrates, Celsus and Aretaeus. Its
occurrence in an epidemic form was noticed by various physicians
in the i6th century, and an admirable account of the disease
was subsequently given by Thomas Sydenham in 1660-1672.
This disease is sometimes called Cholera Nostras, the word
nostras, which is good Latin and used by Cicero, meaning " be-
longing to our country." The relations between it and Asiatic
cholera (see below) are obscure. Clinically they may exactly
resemble each other, and bacteriology has not been able to draw
an absolute line between them. The real difference is epidemic-
logical, cholera nostras having no epidemic significance.

The chief symptoms in well-marked cases are vomiting and
purging occurring either together or alternately. The seizure
is usually sudden and violent. The contents of the stomach are
first ejected, and this is followed by severe retching and vomiting
of thin fluid of bilious appearance and bitter taste. The diarrhoea
which accompanies or succeeds the vomiting, and is likewise
of bilious character, is attended with severe griping abdominal
pain, while cramps affecting the legs or arms greatly intensify
the suffering. The effect upon the system is rapid, and alarming,
a few hours of such an attack sufficing to reduce the strongest
person to a state of extreme prostration. The surface of the
body becomes cold, the pulse weak, the voice husky, and the
whole symptoms may resemble in a striking manner those of
malignant cholera, to be subsequently described. In unfavour-
able cases, particularly where the disorder is epidemic, death
may result within forty-eight hours. Generally, however, the
attack is arrested and recovery soon follows, although there may
remain for a considerable time a degree of irritability of the
alimentary canal, rendering necessary the utmost care in regard
to diet.

Attacks of this kind are of frequent occurrence in summer and
autumn in almost all countries. They appear specially liable
to occur when cold and damp alternate with heat. Occasionally
the disorder prevails so extensively as to constitute an epidemic.
The exciting causes of an attack are in many cases errors in diet,
particularly the use of unripe fruit and new vegetables, and
the excessive drinking of cold liquids .during perspiration. Out-
breaks of this disorder in a household or community can some-
times be traced to the use of impure water, or to noxious
emanations from the sewers.

In the treatment, vomiting should be encouraged so long as
it shows the presence of undigested food, after which opiates
ought to be administered. Small opium pills, or Dover's powder,
or the aromatic powder of chalk with opium, are likely to be
retained in the stomach, and will generally succeed in allaying
the pain and diarrhoea, while ice and effervescing drinks serve

CHOLERA

263

to quench the thirst and subdue the sickness. In aggravated
cases where medicines are rejected, enemata of starch and
laudanum, or the hypodermic injection of morphia, ought to be
resorted to. Counter-irritation by mustard or turpentine over
the abdomen is always of use, as is also friction with the hands
where cramps are present. When sinking threatens, brandy and
ammonia will be called for. During convalescence the food
should be in the form of milk and farinaceous diet, or light soups,
and all indigestible articles must be carefully avoided.

In the treatment of this disease as it affects young children
(Cholera Infantum), most reliance is to be placed on the adminis-
tration of chalk and the use of starch enemata. In their case
opium in any form cannot be safely employed.

MALIGNANT CHOLERA (synonyms, Asiatic Cholera, Indian
Cholera, Epidemic Cholera, Algide Cholera) is one of the most
severe and fatal diseases. In describing the symptoms it is
customary to divide them into three stages, but it must be noted
that these do not always present themselves in so distinct a
form as to be capable of separate recognition. The first or
premonitory stage consists in the occurrence of diarrhoea.
Frequently of mild and painless character, and coming on after
some error in diet, this symptom is apt to be disregarded. The
discharges from the bowels are similar to those of ordinary
summer cholera, which the attack closely resembles. There
is, however, at first the absence of vomiting. This diarrhoea
generally lasts for two or three days, and then if it does not
gradually subside either may pass into the more severe pheno-
mena characteristic of the second stage of cholera, or on the other
hand may itself prove fatal.

The second stage is termed the stage of collapse or the algide
or asphyxial stage. As above mentioned, this is often preceded
by the premonitory diarrhoea, but not infrequently the pheno-
mena attendant upon this stage are the first to manifest them-
selves. They come on often suddenly in the night with diarrhoea
of the most violent character, the matters discharged being of
whey-like appearance, and commonly termed the " rice-water "
evacuations. They contain large quantities of disintegrated
epithelium from the mucous membrane of the intestines. The
discharge, which is at first unattended with pain, is soon suc-
ceeded by copious vomiting of matters similar to those passed
from the bowels, accompanied with severe pain at the pit of
the stomach, and with intense thirst. The symptoms now
advance with rapidity. Cramps of the legs, feet, and muscles
of the abdomen come on and occasion great agony, while the
signs of collapse make their appearance. The surface of the
body becomes cold and assumes a blue or purple hue, the skin
is dry, sodden and wrinkled, indicating the intense draining
away of the fluids of the body, the features are pinched and the
eyes deeply sunken, the pulse at the wrist is imperceptible, and
the voice is reduced to a hoarse whisper (the vox cholerica).
There is complete suppression of the urine.

In this condition death often takes place in less than one
day, but in epidemics cases are frequently observed where
the collapse is so sudden and complete as to prove fatal in one
or two hours even without any great amount of previous purging
or vomiting. In most instances the mental faculties are com-
paratively unaffected, although in the later stages there is in
general more or less apathy.

Reaction, however, may take place, and this constitutes the
third stage. It consists in the arrest of the alarming symptoms
characterizing the second stage, and the gradual but evident
improvement in the patient's condition. The pulse returns,
the surface assumes a natural hue, and the bodily heat is restored.
Before long the vomiting ceases, and although diarrhoea may
continue for a time, it is not of a very severe character and soon
subsides, as do also the cramps. The urine mayremain suppressed
for some time, and on returning is often found to be albuminous.
Even in this stage, however, the danger is not past, for relapses
sometimes occur which speedily prove fatal, while again the
reaction may be of imperfect character, and there may succeed
an exhausting fever (the so-called typhoid stage of cholera)

ich may greatly retard recovery, and under which the patient

whii

may sink at a period even as late as two or three weeks from the
commencement of the illness.

Many other complications are apt to arise during the progress
of convalescence from cholera, such as diphtheritic and local
inflammatory affections, all of which are attended with grave
danger.

When the attack of cholera is of milder character in all its
stages than that above described, it has been named Cholerine,
but the term is an arbitrary one and the disease is essentially
cholera.

The bodies of persons dying of cholera are found to remain
long warm, and the temperature may even rise after death.
Peculiar muscular contractions have been observed to take
place after death, so that the position of the limbs may become
altered. The soft textures of the body are found to be dry and
hard, and the muscles of a dark brown appearance. The blood
is of dark colour and tarry consistence. The upper portion of
the small intestines is generally found distended with the rice-
water discharges, the mucous membrane is swollen, and there
is a remarkable loss of its natural epithelium. The kidneys are
usually in a state of acute congestion. This form of cholera
belongs originally to Asia, more particularly to India, where,
as well as in the Indian archipelago, epidemics are known to have
1 occurred at various times for several centuries.

Much light has been thrown upon Asiatic cholera by Western
experience; and the study of the disease by modern methods
has resulted in important additions to our previous knowledge
of its nature, causation, mode of dissemination and prevention.

The cause is a micro-organism identified by Koch in 1883
(see PARASITIC DISEASES). For some years it was called the

" comma bacillus," from its supposed resemblance _

, ., i , Causation.

in shape to a comma, but it was subsequently found

to be a vibrio or spirillum, not a bacillus. The discovery was
received with much scepticism in some quarters, and the claim of
Koch's vibrio to be the true cause of cholera was long disputed,
but is now universally acknowledged. Few micro-organisms
have been more elaborately investigated, but very little is known
of its natural history, and its epidemiological behaviour is still
surrounded by obscurity. At an important discussion on the
subject, held at the International Hygienic Congress in 1894,
Professor Gruber of Vienna declared that the deeper investigators
went the more difficult the problem became, while M. Elie Metsch-
nikoff of the Pasteur Institute made a similar admission. The
difficulty^lies chiefly in the variable characters assumed by the
organism and the variable effects produced by it. The type
reached by cultivation through a few generations may differ so
widely from the original in appearance and behaviour as to be
hardly recognizable, while, on the other hand, of two organisms
apparently indistinguishable one may be innocuous and the other
give rise to the most violent cholera. This variability offers a
possible explanation of the frequent failure to trace the origin
of epidemic outbreaks in isolated places. It is commonly assumed
that the micro-organism is of a specific character, and always
introduced from without, when cholera appears in countries
or places where it is not endemic. In some cases such introduc-
tion can be proved, and in others it can be inferred with a high
degree of probability, but sometimes it is impossible to trace
the origin to any possible channel of communication. A remark-
able case of this kind occurred at the Nietleben lunatic asylum
near Halle, in 1893, in the shape of a sudden, explosive and
isolated outbreak of true Asiatic cholera. It was entirely con-
fined to the institution, and the peculiar circumstances enabled
a very exact investigation to be made. The facts led Professor
Arndt, of Greifswald, to propound a novel and interesting
theory. No cholera existed in the surrounding district and no
introduction could be traced, but for several months in the
previous autumn diarrhoea had prevailed in the asylum. The
sewage from the establishment was disposed of on a farm, and
the effluent passed into the river Saale above the intake of the
water-supply for the asylum. Thus a circulation of morbid
material through the persons of the inmates was established. Dr
Arndt's theory was that by virtue of this circulation cholera was

264

CHOLERA

gradually developed from previously existing intestinal disease
of an allied but milder type. The outbreak occurred in winter,
and coincided with the freezing of the filter-beds at the water-
works. The theory is worth notice, because a similar relation
between the drainage and the water-supply frequently exists
in places severely attacked by cholera, and it has repeatedly
been observed that the latter is preceded by the prevalence
of a milder form of intestinal disease. The inference is not that
cholera can be developed de novo, but that the type is unstable,
and that a virulent form may be evolved under favourable
conditions from another so mild as to be unrecognized, and
consequently undetected in its origin or introduction. This is
quite in keeping with the observed variability of the micro-
organism, and with the trend of modern research with regard
to the relations between other pathogenic germs and the multi-
farious gradations of type assumed by other zymotic diseases.
The same thing has been suggested of diphtheria.

Cholera is endemic in the East over a wide area, ranging from
Bombay to southern China, but its chief home is British India.
It principally affects the alluvial soil near the mouths
of the great rivers, and more particularly the delta
of the Ganges. Lower Bengal is pre-eminently the
standing focus and centre of diffusion. In some years it is
quiescent, though never absent; in others it becomes diffused,
for reasons of which nothing is known, and its diffusive activity
varies greatly from equally inscrutable causes. At irregular
intervals this property becomes so heightened that the disease
passes its natural boundaries and is carried east, north and west,
it may be to Europe or beyond to the American continent. We
must assume that the micro-organism, like those of other epidemic
diseases, acquires greater vitality and toxic energy, or greater
power of reproduction at some times than at others, but the con-
ditions that govern this behaviour are quite unknown, though
no problem has a more important bearing on public health.
Bacteriology, as already intimated, has thrown no light upon it,
nor has meteorology. Some results of modern research, indeed,
tend to assign increasing importance to the relations between
surface soil and certain micro-organisms, and suggest that
changes in the level of the subsoil water, to which Professor
Max von Pettenkoffer long ago drew attention, may be a domin-
ant factor in determining the latency or activity of pathogenic
germs. But this is largely a matter of conjecture, and, so far as
cholera is concerned, the conditions which turn an endemic into
an epidemic disease must be admitted to be still unknown.

On the other hand, the mode of dissemination is now well
understood. Diffusion takes place along the lines of human
intercourse. The poison is carried chiefly by infected persons
moving from place to place; but soiled clothes, rags and other
articles tha^ have come into contact with persons suffering
from the disease may be the means of conveyance to a distance.
There is no reason to suppose that it is air-borne, or that atmo-
spheric influences have anything to do with its spread, except
in so far as meteorological conditions may be favourable to the
growth and activity of the micro-organisms. Beyond all doubt,
the great manufactory of the poison is the human body, and the
discharges from it are the great source of contagion. They may
infect the ground, the water, or the immediate surroundings
of the patient, and so pass from hand to hand, the poison finding
entrance into the bodies of the healthy by means of food and drink
which have become contaminated in various ways. Flies which
feed upon excreta and other foul matters may be carriers of
contagion . Of all the means of local dissemination , contaminated
water is by far the most important, because it affects the greatest
number of people, and this is particularly the case in places which
have a public water-supply. A single contaminated source may
expose the entire population to danger. All severe outbreaks of
an explosive character are due to this cause. It is also possible
that the cholera poison multiplies rapidly in water under favour-
able conditions, and that a reservoir, for instance, may form
a sort of forcing-bed. But it would be a mistake to regard
cholera as purely a water-borne disease, even locally. It may
infect the soil in localities which have a perfectly pure water-

supply, but have defective drainage or no drainage at all, and
then it will be found more difficult to get rid of, though less
formidable in its effects, than when the water alone is the source
of mischief. In all these respects it has a great affinity to enteric
fever. With regard to locality, no situation can be said to be free
from attack if the disease is introduced and the sanitary condi-
tions are bad; but, speaking generally, low-lying places on
alluvial soil near rivers are more liable than those standing high
or on a rocky foundation. Of meteorological conditions it can
only be said with certainty that a high temperature favours the
development of cholera, though a low one does not prevent it.
In temperate climates the summer months, and particularly
August and September, are the season of its greatest activity.

Cholera spreads westwards from India by two routes (i) by
sea to the shores of the Red Sea, Egypt and the Mediterranean;
and (2) by land to northern India and Afghanistan,
thence to Persia and central Asia, and so to Russia. In
the great invasions of Europe during the iQth century
it sometimes followed one route and sometimes the other. It
was not till 1817 that the attention of European physicians was
specially directed to the disease by the outbreak of a violent
epidemic of cholera at Jessore in Bengal. This was followed
by its rapid spread over a large portion of British India, where
it caused immense destruction of life both among natives and
Europeans. During the next three years cholera continued to
rage all over India, as well as in Ceylon and others of the Indian
islands. The disease now began to spread over a wider extent
than hitherto, invading China on the east and Persia on the west.
In 1823 it had extended into Asia Minor and Russia in Asia, and
it continued to advance steadily though slowly westwards, while
at the same time fresh epidemics were appearing at intervals
in India. From this period up till 1830 no great extension of
cholera took place, but in the latter year it reappeared in Persia
and along the shores of the Caspian Sea, and thence entered
Russia in Europe. Despite the strictest sanitary precautions,
the disease spread rapidly through that whole empire, causing
great mortality and exciting consternation everywhere. It
ravaged the northern and central parts of Europe, and spread
onwards to England, appearing in Sunderland in October 1831,
and in London in January 1832, during which year it continued
to prevail in most of the cities and large towns of Great Britain
and Ireland. The disease subsequently extended into France,
Spain and Italy, and crossing the Atlantic spread through North
and Central America. It had previously prevailed in Arabia,
Turkey, Egypt and the Nile district, and in 1835 it was general
throughout North Africa. Up till 1837 cholera continued to
break out in various parts of the continent of Europe, after which
this epidemic disappeared, having thus within twenty years
visited a large portion of the world.

About the year 1841 another great epidemic of cholera
appeared in India and China, and soon began to extend in the
direction traversed by the former, but involving a still wider
area. It entered Europe again in 1847, and spread through
Russia and Germany on to England, and thence to France,
whence it passed to America, and subsequently appeared in the
West Indies. This epidemic appears to have been even more
deadly than the former, especially as regards Great Britain and
France. A third great outbreak of cholera took place in the
East in 1850, entering Europe in 1853. During the two succeed-
ing years it prevailed extensively throughout the continent,
and fell with severity on the armies engaged in the Crimean
War. Although widely prevalent in Great Britain and Ireland
it was less destructive than former epidemics. It was specially
severe throughout both North and South America. A fourth
epidemic visited Europe again in 1865-1866, but was on the
whole less extensive and destructive than its predecessors.

By some writers the epidemic of 1853 is regarded as a re-
crudescence of that of 1847. The earlier ones followed the land
route by way of Afghanistan and Persia, and took several years
to reach Europe. That of 1865 travelled more rapidly, being
carried from Bombay by sea to Mecca, from there to Suez and
Alexandria, and then on to various Mediterranean ports. Within

CHOLERA

265

the year it had not only spread extensively in Europe, but had
reached the West Indies. In 1866 it invaded England and the
United States, but during the following year it died down in the
West. The subsequent history of cholera in Europe may be
stated chronologically.

1869-1874. This invasion was traced to the great gathering
of pilgrims at Hardwar on the Upper Ganges in the month of
April 1867. From there the returning pilgrims carried it to the
Punjab, Kashmir and Afghanistan, whence it spread to Persia
and the Caspian, but it did not reach Russia until 1869. During
the next four years a number of outbreaks occurred in central
Europe, and notably one at Munich in the winter of 1873. The
irregular character of these epidemics suggests that they were
rather survivals from the pandemic wave of 1867 than fresh
importations, but there is no doubt that cholera was carried
overland into Russia in the manner described.

1883-1887. This visitation, again, came by the Mediterranean.
In 1883 a severe outbreak occurred in Egypt, causing a mortality
of above 25,000. Its origin remained unknown. During this
epidemic Koch discovered the comma bacillus. The following
year cholera appeared at Toulon. It was said to have been
brought in a troopship from Saigon in Cochin-China, but it may
have been connected with the Egyptian epidemic. A severe
outbreak followed and reached Italy, nearly 8000 persons dying
in Naples alone. In 1885 the south of France, Italy, Sicily
and Spain all suffered, especially the last, where nearly 1 20,000
deaths occurred. Portugal escaped, and the authorities there
attributed their good fortune to the institution of a military
cordon, in which they have had implicit confidence ever since.
In 1886 the same countries suffered again, and also Austria-
Hungary. From Italy the disease was carried to South America,
and even travelled as far as Chile, where it had previously been
unknown. In 1887 it still lingered in the Mediterranean, causing
great mortality in Messina especially. According to Dr A. J.
Wall, this epidemic cost 250,000 lives in Europe and at least
50,000 in America. A particular interest attaches to it in the
fact that a localized revival of the disease was caused in Spain
in 1800 by the disturbance of the graves of some of the victims
who had died of cholera four years previously.

1892-189$. This great invasion reverted again to the old
overland route, but the march of the disease was of unprece-
dented rapidity. Within less than five months it travelled from
the North- West Provinces of India to St Petersburg, and probably
to Hamburg, and thence in a few days to England and the
United States. This speed, in such striking contrast to the
slow advance of former occasions, was attributed, and no doubt
, rightly, to improved steam transit, and particularly the Trans-
caspian railway. The progress of the disease was traced from
place to place, and almost from day to day, with great precision,
showing how it moves along the chief highways and is obviously
carried by man. The main facts are as follows: Cholera was
extensively and severely prevalent in India in 1891, causing
601,603 deaths, the highest mortality since 1877. In March
1892 it broke out at the Hardwar fair, a day or two before the
pilgrims dispersed; on the I9th of April it was at Kabul, on the
ist of May at Herat, and on the 26th of May at Meshed. From
Meshed it moved in three directions due west to Teheran in
Persia, north-east by the Transcaspian railway to Samarkand
in Central Asia, and north-west by the same line in the opposite
direction to Uzun-ada on the Caspian Sea. It reached Uzun-ada
on the 6th of June; crossed to Baku, June i8th; Astrakhan,
June 24-th; then up the Volga to Nizhniy-Novgorod, arriving
at Moscow and St Petersburg early in August. The part played
by steam transit is clear from the fact that the disease took no
longer to travel all the way from Meshed to St Petersburg by
rail and steamboat than to traverse the short distance from
Meshed to Teheran by road. On the i6th of August cases began
to occur in Hamburg; on the igth of August a fireman was
taken ill at Grangemouth in Scotland, where he had arrived
the day before from Hamburg; and on the 3ist of August a
vessel reached New York from the same port with cholera on
board. On the 8th of September the disease appeared in Galicia,

having moved somewhat slowly westwards across Russia into
Poland, and on the 26th of September it was in Budapest. Hol-
land and Servia were also attacked, while isolated cases were
carried to Norway, Denmark and Italy. Meanwhile two entirely
separate epidemics were in progress elsewhere. The first was
confined to Arabia and the Somali coast of Africa, and was
connected with the remains of an outbreak in Syria and Arabia
in 1890-1891. The second arose mysteriously in France about
the time when the overland invasion started from India. The
first known case occurred in the prison at Nanterre, near Paris,
on the 3ist of March. Paris was affected in April, and Havre
in July. The origin of this outbreak, which was of a much less
violent character than that which came simultaneously by way
of Russia, was never ascertained. Its activity was confined
to France, particularly in the neighbourhood of Paris, together
with Belgium and Holland, which was placed between two fires,
but escaped with but little mortality. The number of persons
killed by cholera in 1892, outside of India, was reckoned at
378,449, and the vast majority of those died within six months.
The countries which suffered most severely were as follows:
European Russia, 151,626; Caucasus, 69,423; Central Asian
Russia, 31,804; Siberia, 15,037 total for Russian empire,
267,890; Persia, 63,982 ;Somaliland, 10,000; Afghanistan, 7,000;
Germany, 9563; France, 455; Hungary, 1255; Belgium, 961.
Curiously enough, the south of Europe, which had been the
scene cf the previous epidemic visitation, escaped. The disease
was of the most virulent character. In European Russia
the mortality was 45-8% of the cases, the highest- rate ever
known in that country; in Germany it was 51-3%; and in
Austria-Hungary, 57-5%. Of all the localities attacked, the
case of Hamburg was the most remarkable. The presence of
cholera was first suspected on the i6th of August, when two
cases occurred, but it was not officially declared until the 23rd
of August. By that time the daily number of victims had
already risen to some hundreds, while the experts and authorities
were making up their minds whether they had cholera to deal
with or not. Their decision eventually came too late and was
superfluous, for by the 27th of August the people were being
stricken down at the rate of 1000 a day. This rate was main-
tained for four days, after which the vehemence of the pestilence
began to abate. It gradually declined, and ceased on the i4th
of November. During those three months 16,956 persons were
attacked and 8605 died, the majority within the space of a few
weeks. The town, ordinarily one of the gayest places of business
and pleasure on the continent, became a city of the dead.
Thousands of persons fled, carrying the disease into all parts
of Germany; the rest shut themselves indoors; the shops were
closed, the trams ceased to run, the hotels and restaurants were
deserted, and few vehicles or pedestrians were seen in the streets.
At the cemetery, which lies about 10 m. from the town, some
hundreds of men were engaged day and night digging long
trenches to hold double rows of coffins, while the funerals formed
an almost continuous procession along the roads; even so
the victims could not be buried fast enough, and their bodies
lay for days in sheds hastily run up as mortuaries. Hamburg
had been attacked by cholera on fourteen previous occasions,
beginning with 1831, but the mortality had never approached
that of 1892; in the worst year, which was 1832, there were
only 3687 cases and 1765 deaths. The disease was believed to
have been introduced by Jewish emigrants passing through on
their way from Russia, but the importation could not be traced.
The Jews were segregated and kept under careful supervision
from the middle of July onwards, and no recognized case occurred
among them. The total number of places in Germany in which
cholera appeared in 1892 was 269, but it took no serious hold
anywhere save in Hamburg. The distribution was chiefly by the
waterways, which seem to affect a larger number of places than
the railways as carriers of cholera. In Paris 907 persons died,
and in Havre 498. Between the i8th of August and the 2ist of
October 38 cases were imported into England and Scotland
through eleven different ports, but the disease nowhere obtained
a footing. Seven vessels brought 72 cases to the United States,

266

CHOLERA

and 1 6 others occurred on shore, but there was no further
dissemination.

During the winter of 1892-1893 cholera died down, but never
wholly ceased in Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary and
France. With the return of warm weather it showed renewed
activity, and prevailed extensively throughout Europe. The
recorded mortality for the principal countries was as follows:
Russia (chiefly western provinces), 41,047; Austria-Hungary,
4669; France, 4000; Italy, 3036; Turkey, 150x3; Germany,
298; Holland, 376; Belgium, 372; England, 139. Hardly any
country escaped altogether; but Europe suffered less than
Arabia, Mesopotamia and Persia. Cholera broke out at Mecca
in June, and owing to the presence of an exceptionally large
number of pilgrims caused an appalling mortality. The chief
shereef estimated the mortality at 50,000. The pilgrims carried
the disease to Asia Minor and Constantinople. In Persia also
a recrudescence took place and proved enormously destructive.
Dr Barry estimated the mortality at 70,000. At Hamburg,
where new waterworks had been installed with sand nitration,
only a few sporadic cases occurred until the autumn, when a
sudden but limited rush took place, which was traced to a
defect in the masonry permitting unfiltered Elbe water to pass
into the mains. In England cholera obtained a footing on the
Humber at Grimsby, and to a lesser extent at Hull, and isolated
attacks occurred in some 50 different localities. Excluding a
few ship-borne cases the registered number of attacks was
287, with 135 deaths, of which 9 took place in London. It is
interesting to compare the mortality from cholera in England
and Wales, and in London, for each year in which it has prevailed
since registration began :

Year.

England and Wales.

London.

Deaths.

Deaths per 10,000
living.

Deaths.

Deaths per 10,000
living.

I 1848
? 1849

i 1853
1 1854
1 1865
1 1866

1893
1 1894

1,908
53-293
4-419
20,097
1,297
14.378

'35
nil

l-l
3-3
2-4
10-9
0-6
6-8
0-05
nil

652
14,137
883
10,738
196
5.596
9
nil

2-9

61-8

3-5
42-8
0-6
18-4

O-OO2

nil

Preven-
tion.

In 1894 no deaths from cholera were recorded in England,
but on the continent it still prevailed over a wide area. ' In
Russia over 30,000 persons died of it, in Germany about 500,
but the most violent outbreak was in Galicia, where upwards
of 8000 deaths were registered. In 1895 it still lingered, chiefly
in Russia and Galicia, but with greatly diminished activity.
In that year Egypt, Morocco and Japan were attacked, the last
severely. The disease then remained in abeyance until the
severe epidemic in India in 1900.

The great invasion just described was fruitful in lessons for
the prevention of cholera. It proved that the one real and
sufficient protection lies in a standing condition of
good sanitation backed by an efficient and vigilant
sanitary administration. The experience of Great
Britain was a remarkable piece of evidence, but that of Berlin
was perhaps even more striking, for Berlin lay in the centre of
four fires, in direct and frequent communication with Hamburg,
Russia, France and Austria, and without the advantage of a
sea frontier. Cholera was repeatedly brought into Berlin, but
never obtained a footing, and its successful repression was
accomplished without any irksome interference with traffic or
the ordinary business of life. The general success of Great
Britain and Germany in keeping cholera in check by ordinary
sanitary means completed the conversion of all enlightened
nations to the policy laid down so far back as 1865 by Sir John
Simon, and advocated by Great Britain at a series of international
congresses the policy of abandoning quarantine, which Great
Britain did in 1873, and trusting to sanitary measures with
medical inspection of persons arriving from infected places.
This principle was formally adopted at the international con-

ference held at Dresden in 1893, at which a convention was signed
by the delegates of Germany, Austria, Belgium, France, Great
Britain, Italy, Russia, Switzerland, Luxemburg, Montenegro
and the Netherlands. Under .this instrument the practice is
broadly as follows, though the procedure varies a good deal in
different countries: Ships arriving from infected ports are
inspected, and if healthy are not detained, but bilge-water and
drinking-water are evacuated, and persons landing may Ke placed
under medical supervision without detention; infected ships are
detained only for purposes of disinfection; persons suffering
from cholera are removed to hospital; other persons landing
from an infected ship are placed under medical observation,
which may mean detention for five days from the last case, or,
as in Great Britain, supervision in their own homes, for which
purpose they give their names and places of destination before
landing. All goods are freed from restrictions, except rags and
articles believed to be contaminated by cholera matters. By
land, passengers from infected places are similarly inspected
at the frontiers and their luggage " disinfected " in all cases
a pious ceremony of no practical value, involving a short but
often a vexatious delay; only those found suffering from cholera
can be detained. Each nation is pledged to notify the others
of the existence within its own borders of a " foyer " of cholera,
by which is meant a focus or centre of infection. The precise
interpretation of the term is left to each government, and is
treated in a rather elastic fashion by some, but it is generally
understood to imply the occurrence of non-imported cases in
such a manner as to point to the local presence of infection.
The question of guarding Europe generally from the danger of
diffusion by pilgrims through the Red Sea was settled at another
conference held in Paris in 1894. The provisions agreed on
included the inspection of pilgrims at ports of departure, deten-
tion of infected or suspected persons, and supervision of pilgrim
ships and of pilgrims proceeding overland to Mecca.

The substitution of the procedure above described for the
old measures of quarantine and other still more drastic inter-
ferences with traffic presupposes the existence of a sanitary
service and fairly good sanitary conditions if cholera is to be
effectually prevented. No doubt if sanitation were perfect in
any place or country, cholera, along with many other diseases,
might there be ignored, but sanitation is not perfect anywhere,
and therefore it requires to be supplemented by a system of
notification with prompt segregation of the sick and destruction
of infective material. These things imply a regular organization,
and it is to the public health service of Great Britain that the
complete mastery of cholera has mainly been due in recent years,
and particularly in 1893. Of sanitary conditions the most
important is unquestionably the water-supply. So many
irrefragable proofs of this fact were given during 1892-1893
that it is no longer necessary to refer to the time-honoured case
of the Broad Street pump. At Samarkand three regiments
were encamped side by side on a level plain close to a stream of
water. The colonel of one regiment took extraordinary precau-
tions, placing a guard over the river, and compelling his men to
use boiled water even for washing. Not a single case of cholera
occurred in that regiment, while the others, in which only
ordinary precautions were taken, lost over 100 men. At Askabad
the cholera had almost disappeared, when a banquet was given
by the governor in honour of the tsar's name-day. Of the guests
one-half died within twenty-four hours; a military band, which
was present, lost 40 men out of 50; and one regiment lost half
its men and 9 officers. Within forty-eight hours 1300 persons
died out of a total population of about 1 3 ,000. The water supply
came from a small stream, and just before the banquet a heavy
rain-storm had occurred, which swept into the stream all surface
refuse from an infected village higher up and some distance from
the banks. But the classical example was Hamburg. The
water-supply is obtained from the Elbe, which became infected
by some means not ascertained. The drainage from the town
also runs into the river, and the movement of the tide was
sufficient to carry the sewage matter up above the water-intake.
The water itself, which is no cleaner than that of the Thames

CHOLET CHOLULA

267

at London Bridge, underwent no purification whatever before
distribution. It passed through a couple of ponds, supposed
to act as settling tanks, but owing to the growth of the town
and increased demand for water it was pumped through too
rapidly to permit of any subsidence. Eels and other fish con-
stantly found their way into the houses, while the mains were
lined with vegetation and Crustacea. The water-pipes of Ham-
burg had a peculiar and abundant fauna and flora of their own,
and the water they delivered was commonly called Fleischbriihe,
from its resemblance to thick soup. On the other hand, at
Altona, which is continuous with Hamburg, the water was
filtered through sand. In all other respects the conditions were
identical, yet in Altona only 328 persons died, against 8605 in
Hamburg. In some streets one side lies in Hamburg, the other
in Altona, and cholera stopped at the dividing line, the Hamburg
side being full of cases and the Altona side untouched. In the
following year, when Hamburg had the new filtered supply, it
enjoyed equal immunity, save for a short period when, as we
have said, raw Elbe water accidentally entered the mains.

But water, though the most important condition, is not the
only one affecting the incidence of cholera. The case of Grimsby
furnished a striking lesson to the contrary. Here the disease
obtained a decided hold, in spite of a pure water-supply, through
the fouling of the soil by cesspits and defective drainage. At
Havre also its prevalence was due to a similar cause. Further,
it was conclusively proved at Grimsby that cholera can be spread
by sewage-fed shell-fish. Several of the local outbreaks in
England were traced to the ingestion of oysters obtained from
the Grimsby beds. In short, it may be said that all insanitary
conditions favour the prevalence of cholera in some degree.
Preventive inoculation with an attenuated virus was introduced
by W. M. W. Haffkine, and has been extensively used in India,
with considerable appearance of success so far as the statistical
evidence goes.

As already remarked, the latest manifestations of cholera
show that it has lost none of its former virulence and fatality.
Treatment 'The symptoms are now regarded as the effects of the
toxic action of the poison formed by the micro-organisms
upon the tissues and especially upon the nervous system. But
this theory has not led to any effective treatment. Drugs in
great variety were tried in the continental hospitals in 1892, but
without any distinct success. The old controversy between the
aperient and the astringent treatment reappeared. In Russia
the former, which aims at evacuating the poison, was more
generally adopted; in Germany the latter, which tries to
conserve strength by stopping the flux, found more favour.
Two methods of treatment were invariably found to give great
relief, if not to prolong life and promote recovery the hot bath
and the injection of normal saline solution into the veins or the
subcutaneous tissue. These two should always be tried in the
cold and collapsed stages of cholera.

See Local Government Board Reports, iSp-j-pj-p^-pj ; Clemow,
The Cholera Epidemic of 1892 in the Russian Empire; Wall, Asiatic
Cholera-, Notter, Epidemiological Society's Transactions, vol. xvii. ;
Emmerich and Gemiind, Munchen. med. Wochenschr. (1904), pp. 1086-
1157; Wherry, Department of the Interior Bureau of Government
Laboratories, No. 19 (October 1904, Manila) ; Wherry and M'Dill,
Ibid. No. 31 (May 1905, Manila).

CHOLET, a town of western France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Maine-et-Loire, 41 m. S.E. of Nantes
on the Quest- Etat railway between that town and Poitiers. Pop.
(1906) 16,554. Cholet stands on an eminence on the right bank
of the Moine, which is crossed by a bridge of the i sth century.
A public garden occupies the site of the old castle; the public
buildings and churches, the finest of which is Notre-Dame, are
modern. The public institutions include the sub-prefecture, a
tribunal of first instance, a chamber of commerce, a board of
trade-arbitrators, and a communal college. There are granite
quarries in the vicinity of the town. The chief industry is the
manufacture of linen and linen handkerchiefs, which is also
carried on in the neighbouring communes on a large scale.
Woollen and cotton fabrics are also produced, and bleaching

.d the manufacture of preserved foods are carried on. Cholet

is the most important centre in France for the sale of fat cattle,
sheep and pigs, for which Paris is the chief market. Megalithic
monuments are numerous in the neighbourhood. The town owes
the rise of its prosperity to the settlement of weavers there by
Edouard Colbert, count of Maul6vrier, a brother of the great
Colbert. It suffered severely in the War of La Vendee of 1703,
insomuch that for years afterwards it was almost without in-
habitants.

CHOLON (" great market "), a town of French Indo-China,
the largest commercial centre of Cochin China, 3! m. S.W. of
Saigon, with which it is united by railway, steam-tramway and
canal. Cholon was founded by Chinese immigrants about 1780,
and is situated on the Chinese arroyo at the junction of the
Lo-Gom and a canal. Its waterways are frequented by innumer-
able boats and lined in some places with native dwellings built
on piles, in others by quays and houses of French construction.
Its population is almost entirely Asiatic, and has more than
trebled since 1880. In that year it had only 45,000 inhabit-
ants; in 1907 it numbered about 138,000. Of these, 42,000 were
Chinese, 73 ,000 Annamese, and 155 French (exclusive of a garrison
of 92) ; the remainder consisted of Cambodians and Asiatic
foreigners. During the rice season the town is visited by a
floating population of 21,000 persons. The Chinese are divided
into congregations according to their place of origin. Cholon is
administered by a municipal council, composed of French,
Annamese and Chinese traders. An administrator of native
affairs, nominated by the governor, fills the office of mayor.
There are a fine municipal hospital and municipal schools for boys
and girls. The principal thoroughfares are lighted by electric
light. The rice trade, almost monopolized by the Chinese, is
the leading industry, the rice being treated in large steam mills.
Tanning, dyeing, copper-founding, glass, brick and pottery
manufacture, stone working, timber-sawing and junk building
are also included among the industries.

CHOLONES, a tribe of South American Indians living on the
left bank of the Huallaga river in the Amazon valley. The name
is that given them by the Spanish. They were first met by the
Franciscans, who established mission villages among them
in 1676. They are a wild race but mild-mannered, very super-
stitious, and pride themselves on their skill as doctors. Their
chief weapon is the blow-pipe, in the use of which they are adepts.

CHOLULA, an ancient town of Mexico, in the state and on
the plateau of Puebla, 8 m. by rail W. by N. of the city of that
name, and 6912 ft. above sea-level. Pop'. (1000, estimate) 9000.
The Interoceanic railway passes through Cholula, but the city's
commercial and industrial standing is overshadowed by that of
its larger and more modern neighbour. At the time of the
Spanish Conquest, Cholula then known as Chololan was a
large and important town, consecrated to the worship of the
god Quetzalcoatl, who had here one of the most imposing temples
in Anahuac, built on the summit of a truncated pyramid, the
largest of its kind in the world. This pyramid, constructed of
sun-dried bricks and earth, 177 ft. high, and covering an area
of nearly 45 acres, is the most conspicuous object in the town
and is surmounted by a chapel dedicated to Nuestra Senora
de los Remedies. A corner of the lower terrace of this great
pyramid was cut through in the construction of the Puebla road,
but nothing was discovered to explain its purpose, which was
probably that of furnishing an imposing site for a temple.
Nothing definite is known of its age and history, as the fanatical
zeal of Cortez and his companions destroyed whatever historical
data the temple may have contained. Cholula was visited by
Cortez in 1519 during his eventful march inland to Montezuma's
capital, Tenochtitlan, when he treacherously massacred its
inhabitants and pillaged the city, pretending to distrust the
hospitable inhabitants. Cortez estimated that the town then
had 20,000 habitations, and its suburbs as many more, but this
was undoubtedly a deliberate exaggeration. The Cholulans
were of Nahuatl origin and were semi-independent, yielding
only a nominal allegiance to Montezuma. They were a trading
people, holding fairs, and exchanging their manufactures of
textiles and pottery for other produce. The pyramid is believed

268

CHOPIN

to have been built by a people occupying this region before the
Cholulans.

CHOPIN, FREDERIC FRANCOIS (1810-1849), Polish musical
composer and pianist, was born at Zelazowa-Wola, near Warsaw,
on the zznd of February 1810 (not the ist of March 1800).
His father, of French origin, born at Nancy in 1770, had married
a Polish lady, Justine Krzyzanowska. Frederic was their third
child. His first musical education he received from Adalbert
Ziwny, a Czech musician, who is said to have been a passionate
admirer of J. S. Bach. He also received a good general education
at one of the first colleges of Warsaw, where he was supported
by Prince Antoine Radziwill, a generous protector of artistic
talent and himself well known as the composer of music to
Goethe's Faust and other works. His musical genius opened
to Chopin the best circles of Polish society, at that time unrivalled
in Europe for its ease of intercourse, the beauty and grace of its
women, and its liberal appreciation of artistic gifts. These early
impressions were of lasting influence on Chopin's development.
While at college he received thorough instruction in the theory
of his art from Joseph Eisner, a learned musician and director of
the conservatoire at Warsaw. When in 1829 he left his native
town for Vienna, where his debut as a pianist took place, he was
in all respects a perfectly formed and developed artist. There
is in his compositions little of that gradual progress which, for
instance, in Beethoven necessitates a classification of his works
according to different periods. Chopin's individuality and his
style were distinctly pronounced in that set of variations on
" La ci darem " which excited the wondering enthusiasn of Robert
Schumann. In 1831 he left Vienna with the intention of visiting
London; but on his way to England he reached Paris and settled
there for the rest of his life. Here again he soon became the
favourite and musical hero of society. His connexion with
Madame Dudevant, better known by her literary pseudonym
of George Sand (q.v.), is an important feature of Chopin's life.
When in 1839 his health began to fail, George Sand went with him
to Majorca, and it was mainly owing to her tender care that the
composer recovered his health for a time. Chopin declared that
the destruction of his relations with Madame Dudevant in 1847
broke up his life. The association of these two artists has
provoked a whole literature on the nature of their relations, of
which the novelist's Un Hiver & Majorque was the beginning.
The last ten years of Chopin's life were a continual struggle
with the pulmonary disease to which he succumbed in Paris
on the 1 7th of October 1849. The year before his death he
visited England, where he was received with enthusiasm by his
numerous admirers. Chopin died in the arms of his sister, who
hastened from Poland to his death-bed. He was buried in the
cemetery of Pere Lachaise. A small monument was erected to
the memory of the composer at Wasswan in 1880. Portraits
and medallions of Chopin were executed by Ary Scheffer and
Eugene Delacroix, and by the sculptors Bary and C16singer.

A distinguished English amateur thus records his impressions
of Chopin's style of pianoforte-playing compared with those of
other masters. " His technical characteristics may be broadly
indicated as negation of bravura, absolute perfection of finger-
play, and of the legatissimo touch, on which no other pianist has
ever so entirely leant, to the exclusion of that high relief and point
which the modern German school, after the examples of Liszt
and Thalberg, has so effectively developed It is in these feature
that we must recognize that Grundverschiedenheil (fundamental
difference) . which according to Mendelssohn distinguished
Chopin's playing from that of these masters, and in no less degree
from the example and teaching of Moscheles. . . . Imagine a
delicate man of extreme refinement of mien and manner, sitting
at the piano and playing with no sway of the body and scarcely
any movement of the arms, depending entirely upon his narrow
feminine hands and slender fingers. The wide arpeggios in the
left hand, maintained in a continuous stream of tone by the strict
legato and fine and constant use of the damper-pedal, formed
an harmonious substructure for a wonderfully poetic cantabile.
His delicate pianissimo, the ever-changing modifications of tone
and time (tempo rubato) were of indescribable effect. Even in

energetic passages he scarcely ever exceeded an ordinary mezzo-
forte. His playing as a whole was unique in its kind, and no
traditions of it can remain, for there is no school of Chopin the
pianist, for the obvious reason that he could never be regarded
as a public player, and his best pupils were nearly all
amateurs."

In looking through the list of his compositions, teeming with
mazurkas, valses, polonaises, and other forms of national dance
music, one could hardly suppose that here one of the most
melancholy natures has revealed itself. This seeming paradox
is solved by the type of Chopin's nationality, of which it has justly
been said that its very dances are sadness intensified. But not-
withstanding this strongly pronounced national type of his
compositions, his music is always expressive of his individual feel-
ings and sufferings to a degree rarely met with in the annals of
the art. He is indeed the lyrical composer par excellence of the
modern school, and the intensity of his expression finds its equal
in literature only in the songs of Heinrich Heine, to whom Chopin
has been justly compared. A sensation of such high -strung passion
cannot be prolonged. Hence we see that the shorter forms of
music, the 6tude, the nocturne, besides the national dances already
alluded to, are chosen by Chopin hi preference. Even when he
treats the larger forms of the concerto or the sonata this concen-
trated, not to say pointed, character of Chopin's style becomes
obvious. The more extended dimensions seem to encumber
the freedom of his movements. The concerto for pianoforte
with accompaniment of the orchestra in E may be instanced.
Here the adagio takes the form of a romance, and in the final
rondo the rhythm of a Polish dance becomes recognizable while
the instrumentation throughout is meagre and wanting in colour.
Chopin is out of his element, and even the beauty of his melodies
and harmonies cannot wholly banish the impression of incon-
gruity. Fortunately he himself knew the limits of his power, and
with very few exceptions his works belong to that class of minor
compositions of which he was an unrivalled master. Barring
a collection of Polish songs, two concertos, and a very small
number of concerted pieces of chamber music, almost all his
works are written for the pianoforte solo; the symphony, the
oratorio, the opera, he never attempted.

Chopin's works group themselves firstly into the period from Op. 1
to 22, which includes nearly all his attempts at large or classical
forms, e.g. the works with orchestra, Op. 2 (variations on La ci
darem), Opp. n and 14 (concertos), Op. 13 (Polish fantasia), Op. 14
(Krakowiak, a concerto-rondo in mazurka-rhythm), and Op. 22
(Andante spianato and Polonaise), besides the solo rondos Opp. I,
5, 16, and the variations Op. 12 and the essays in chamber music
Opp. 3, 8, 65. Meanwhile, however, the mature lyric style of his
second period already began with Op. 6 (4 mazurkas), and though
it is not confined to small forms, the larger mature works (beginning
with the ballade Op. 23 and excepting only the sonata Op. 58 and
the Allegro de Concert Op. 46) are as independent of tradition as
the smallest. It is well to sift the posthumous works from those
published under Chopin's direction, for the last three mazurkas are
the only things he did not keep back as misrepresenting him. On
these principles his mature works are summed up in the 42 mazurkas
(Opp. 6, 7, 17, 24, 30, 33, 41, 50, 56, 59, 63, and the beautiful con-
tribution to the collection Notre temps) ; 7 polonaises (Opp. 26, 40,
53, 61); 24 preludes (in all the major and minor keys) Op. 28, and
the single larger prelude Op. 45; 27 etudes (12 in Op. 10, 12 in Op. 25,
and 3 written for the Methode des methodes) ; 18 nocturnes (Opp. 9,
T 5. 2 7. 3 2 . 37. 48. 55. 62); 4 ballades, in forms of Chopin's own
invention (Opp. 23, 38, 47, 52); 4 scherzos (Opp. 20, 31, 39, 54);
8 waltzes (Opp. 18, 34, 42, 64) ; and several pieces of various de-
scription, notably the great fantasia Op. 49 and the impromptus
Opp. 29, 36, 51.

The posthumous works number 35 pieces, besides a small volume
of songs a few of which are of great interest.

Franz Liszt wrote a charming sketch of Chopin's life and art (F.
Chopin, par F. Liszt, Paris, 1851), and a very appreciative though
somewhat eccentric analysis of his work appeared anonymously in
1842 (An Essay on the Works of Frederic Chopin, London). The
standard biography is the English work of Professor F. Niecks
(Novello, 1888). See also W. H. Hadow, Studies in Modern Music,
second series (1908). The editions of Chopin's works by his pupil
Mikuli and by Klindworth are full of valuable elucidation as to
methods of performance, but unfortunately they dp not distinguish
the commentary from the text. The critical edition published by
Breitkopf and Hartel, with all its mistakes, is absolutely necessary
for students who wish to know what Chopin wished to put into
the hands of players of independent judgment.

CHOPSTICKS CHORICIUS

269

CHOPSTICKS, the " pidgin-English " name for the pair of
small tapering sticks used by the Chinese and Japanese in eating.
" Chop " is pidgin-English for " quick," the Chinese word
for the articles being kwai-lsze, meaning " the quick ones."
" Chopsticks " are commonly made of wood, bone or ivory,
somewhat longer and slightly thinner than a lead-pencil. Held
between the thumb and fingers of the right hand, they are used
as tongs to take up portions of the food, which is brought to table
cut up into small and convenient pieces, or as means for sweeping
the rice and small particles of food into the mouth from the bowl.
Many rules of etiquette govern the proper conduct of the chop-
sticks; laying them across the bowl is a sign that the guest
wishes to leave the table; they are not used during a time of
mourning, when food is eaten with the fingers; and various
methods of handling them form a secret code of signalling.

CHORAGUS (the Lat. form of Gr. xopayte or xopnte, leader
of the chorus), the citizen chosen to undertake the expense of
furnishing and instructing the chorus at the Dionysiac festivals
at Athens (see LITURGY and FINANCE). The name is given to an
assistant to the professor of music at the university of Oxford,
whose office was founded, with that of the professor, in 1626 by
Dr William Heather.

CHORALE (from the Lat. choralis, sc. cantus; the final e is
added to show the Ger. pronunciation choral), a term in music
used by English writers to indicate the hymn-tunes composed
or adopted for use in church by the German reformers. German
writers, however, apply the terms " Choral " and " Chorale-
gesang," as Luther himself would apply them, to any solemn
melody used in the church. It is thus the equivalent of canto
fermo; and the German rhymed versions of the biblical and
other ancient canticles, such as the Magnificat and the Te Deum,
are set to curious corruptions of the corresponding Gregorian
tunes, which adaptations the composers of classical German
music called chorales with no more scruple than they applied
the name to tunes of secular origin, German or foreign. The
peculiarity of German chorale-music, however, is that its use,
and consequently much of its invention, not only arose in
connexion with the Reformation, by which the liturgy of the
church became " understanded of the people," but also that
it belongs to a musical epoch in which symmetry of melody
and rhythm was beginning to assume artistic importance. The
growing sense of form shown by some of Luther's own tunes
(e.g. Vom Himmel hoch, da komm' ich her) soon advanced, especi-
ally in the tunes of Criiger, beyond any that was shown by folk-
music; and it provided an invaluable bulwark against the
chaos that was threatening to swamp music on all sides at the
beginning of the I7th century. By Bach's time all the poly-
phonic instrumental and vocal art-forms of the i8th century
were mature; and though he loved to derive the design as well
as the details of a large movement from the shape of the chorale
tune on which it was based, he became quite independent of any
aid from symmetry in the tune as raw material. The chorus
of his cantata Jesus nun sei gepreiset is one of the most perfectly
designed and quite the longest of movements ever based upon
a chorale-tune treated phrase by phrase. Yet the tune is one
of the most intractable in the world, though its most unpromising
portion is the basis of the most impressive feature in Bach's
design (the slow middle section in triple time).

The national character of the German chorale, and the recent
great development of interest in folk-music, together with the
unique importance of Bach's work, have combined to tempt
writers on music to over-estimate the distinctness of the art-
forms based upon the German chorale. There is really nothing
in these art-forms which is not continuous with the universal
practice of writing counterpoint on a canto fermo. And it
should never be forgotten that, however fascinating may be
the study of the relation between artistic forms and the spirit
of the age, no art can successfully express more of the spirit of
the age than its own technical resources will admit. Choral
music in all ages has tended to consist largely of counterpoint
on a canto fermo (see CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS). Where there are
not many canto fermos in constant use in the church, composers

will be driven to use them rather unsystematically as special
effects, and to rely for the most part on other artistic devices,
though any use of melodies in long notes against quicker counter-
point will be aesthetically indistinguishable from counterpoint
on a canto fermo. Thus Handel in his Italian and English works
wrote no entire chorale movements, yet what is the passage
in the " Hallelujah " chorus from " the kingdom of this world "
to the end but a treatment of the second part of the chorale
Wachet auf? How shall we describe the treatment of the words
" And their cry came up unto the Lord " in the first chorus of
Israel in Egypt, except as the treatment of a phrase of chorale
or canto fermo? Again, to return to the i6th century, what are
the hymns of Palestrina but figured chorales? In what way,
except in the lack of symmetry in the Gregorian phrasing, do
they differ from the contemporary setting by Orlando di Lasso,
also a Roman Catholic, of the German chorale Voter unstr im
Himmelreich? In modern times the use of German chorales,
as in Mendelssohn's oratorios and organ-sonatas, has had rather
the aspect of a revival than of a development; though the
technique and spirit of Brahms's posthumous organ chorale-
preludes is thoroughly modern and vital.

One of the most important, and practically the earliest collection
of " Chorales " is that made by Luther and johann Walther (1496-
1570), the Enchiridion, published in 1524. Next in importance we
may place the Genevan Psalter (isted., Strassburg, 1542, final edition
1562), which is now conclusively proved to be the work of Bourgeois.
From this Sternhold and Hopkins borrowed extensively (1562).
The psalter of C. Goudimel (Paris, 1565) is another among many
prominent collections showing the steps towards congregational
singing, i.e. the restriction to " note-against-note " counterpoint
(sc. plain harmony), and, in twelve cases, the assigning of the melody
to the treble instead of to the tenor. The first hymn-book in which
this latter step was acted on throughout is Osiander's Geistliche
Lieder . . . also gesetzt, dass ein christliche Gemein durchaus mit-
singen kann (1586). But many of the finest and most famous tunes
are of much later origin than any such collections. Several (e.g.
Ichfreue mich in dir) cannot be traced before Bach, and were very
probably composed by him. (D. F. T.)

CHORIAMBIC VERSE, or CHORIAMBICS, the name given to
Greek or Latin lyrical poetry in which the sound of the chori-
ambus predominates. The choriambus is a verse-foot consisting
of a trochee united with and preceding an iambus, -ou-. The
choriambi are never used alone, but are usually preceded by a
spondee and followed by an iambus. The line so formed is called
an asclepiad, traditionally because it was invented by the
Aeolian poet Asclepiades of Samos. Choriambic verse was first
used by the poets of the Greek islands, and Sappho, in particular,
produced magnificent effects with it. The measure, as used by
the early Greeks, is essentially lyrical and impassioned. Mingled
with other metres, it was constantly serviceable in choral writing,
to which it was believed to give a stormy and mysterious char- "
acter. The Greater Asclepiad was a term used for a line in which
the wild music was prolonged by the introduction of a supple-
mentary choriambus. This was much employed by Sappho
and by Alcaeus, as well as in Alexandrian times by Callimachus
and Theocritus. Among the Latins, Horace, in imitation of
Alcaeus, made constant use of choriambic verse. Metrical
experts distinguish six varieties of it in his Odes. This is an
example of his greater asclepiad (Od. i. n):

./ V

In later times of Rome, both Seneca and Prudentius wrote

choriambic verse with a fair amount of success. Swinburne

even introduced it into English poetry:

Love, what | ailed them to leave | life that was made | lovely, we
thought | with love?

What sweet | vision of sleep | lured thee away | down from the light

I above?
Such lines as these make a brave attempt to resuscitate the

measured sound of the greater asclepiad. (E. G.)

CHORICIUS, of Gaza, Greek sophist and rhetorician, flourished

in the time of Anastasius I. (A.D. 491-518). He was the pupil

270

CHORIN CHORUS

of Procopius of Gaza, who must be distinguished from Procopius
of Caesarea, the historian. A number of his declamations and
descriptive treatises have been preserved. The declamations,
which are in many cases accompanied by explanatory commen-
taries, chiefly consist of panegyrics, funeral orations and the
stock themes of the rhetorical schools. The ' ErriflaXiitjuwH or
wedding speeches, wishing prosperity to the bride and bride-
groom, strike out a new line. Choricius was also the author
of so-called ' EiK<t>p&<rets, descriptions of works of art after the
manner of Philostratus. The moral maxims, which were a
constant feature of his writings, were largely drawn upon by
Macarius Chrysocephalas, metropolitan of Philadelphia (middle
of the 1 4th century), in his Rodonia (rose-garden), a voluminous
collection of ethical sayings. The style of Choricius is praised
by Photius as pure and elegant, but he is censured for lack of
naturalness. A special feature of his style is the persistent
avoidance of hiatus, peculiar to what is called the school of
Gaza.

Editions by J. F. Boissonade (1846, supplemented by C. Graux
in Revue de philologie, 1877) and R. Forster (1882-1894); see a ' so
C. Kirsten, " Quaestiones Choricianae in Breslauer philologische
Abhandlungen, vii. (1894), and article by W. Schmid in Pauly-
Wissowa's Realencyclopddie, iii. 2 (1899). On the Gaza school see
K. Seitz, Die Schule von Gaza (Heidelberg, 1892).

CHORIN, AARON (1766-1844), Hungarian rabbi and pioneer
of religious reform. He favoured the use of the organ and of
prayers in the vernacular, and was instrumental in founding
schools on modern lines. Chorin was thus regarded as a leader
of the newer Judaism. He also interested himself in public
affairs; and his son Francis was a Hungarian deputy.

See L. Low, Gesammelte Schriften, ii. 251.

CHORIZONTES (" separators "), the name given to the
Alexandrian critics who denied the single authorship of the
Iliad and Odyssey, and held that the latter poem was the work
of a later poet. The most important of them were the gram-
marians Xeno and Hellanicus; Aristarchus was their chief
opponent (see HOMER).

CHORLEY, HENRY FOTHERGILL (1808-1872), English
musical critic, one of an old Lancashire family, began in a
merchant's office, but soon took to musical journalism. He
began to write for the Athenaeum in 1830, and remained its
musical critic for more than a generation; and he also became
musical critic for The Times. In these positions he had much
influence; he had strong views, and was a persistent opponent
of innovation. In addition to musical criticism, he wrote
voluminously on literature and art, besides novels, dramas and
verse, and various librettos; and he published several books,
including Modern German Music (1854), Handel Studies (1859),
and Thirty Years' Musical Recollections (1862). He died in
London on the i6th of February 1872.

See his Autobiography, Memoir and Letters, edited by H. G.
Hewlett (1873).

CHORLEY, a market town and municipal borough in the
Chorley parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, on
the river Yarrow, 202 m. N.W. by W. from London and 22m.
N.W. from Manchester, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire and
London & North- Western railways and the Leeds & Liverpool
Canal. Pop. (1891) 23,087; (1901) 26,852. The church of St
Lawrence is of Perpendicular and earlier date, largely restored;
it contains fine woodwork and some interesting monuments.
Cotton spinning and the manufacture of cotton and muslin
are extensively carried on, and there are also iron and brass
foundries and boiler factories. Railway- wagon building is an im-
portant industry. The district contains a number of coal-mines
and stone-quarries. Close to the town is the beautiful Elizabethan
mansion of Astley Hall, which is said to have sheltered Oliver
Cromwell after the battle of Preston (1648). The corporation
consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area, 3614
acres.

CHORLU, TCHORLAU or SCHORLAU, a town of European
Turkey, in the vilayet of Adrianople; on the left bank of the
Chorlu, a small left-hand tributary of the Ergene, 20 m. N.E. of

Rodosto. Pop. (1905) about 12,000, of whom one-half are Greeks,
one-third Turks, and the remainder Armenians and Jews. Chorlu
has a station on the Constantinople-Adrianople branch of the
Oriental railways. It manufactures woollen cloth (shayak) and
native carpets, and exports cereals, oil-cloth, carpets, cattle,
poultry, fresh meat, game, fruits, wine, alcohol, hides and
bones.

CHOROGRAPHY. (i) (From the Gr. \upa, a tract of country,
and yp6.<t>tiv, to write), a description or delineation on a map of
a district or tract of country; it is to be distinguished from
" geography " and " topography," which treat of the earth as a
whole and of particular placesrespectively. The word is common
in old geographical treatises, but is now superseded by the
wider use of " topography." (2) (From the Gr. "xppbi, dance),
the art of dancing, or a system of notation to indicate the steps
and movements in dancing.

CHORUM, the chief town of a sanjak of the Angora vilayet
in Asia Minor, altitude 2300 ft., situated on the edge of a wide
plain, almost equidistant from Amasia and Yuzgat. Pop. about
1 2 , 500, including a few Christians. Its importance is largely due
to its situation on the great trade-route from Kaisarieh (Caesarea)
by Yuzgat and Marzivan to Samsun on the Black Sea. It
corresponds to the ancient Euchaita, which lay 1 5 m. E. Euchaiti
was attacked by the Huns A.D. 508, and became a bishopric
at an early period and a centre of religious enthusiasm, as con-
taining the tomb of the revered St Theodore, who slew a dragon
in the vicinity and became one of the great warrior saints of the
Greek Church. Something of the old enthusiasm seems to have
passed to the inhabitants of Chorum, whom most travellers have
found bigoted and fanatical Mahommedans (see J.G.C. Anderson,
Studia Pontica, pp. 6 ff.).

CHORUS (Gr. xP s ), properly a dance, and especially the
sacred dance, accompanied by song, of ancient Greece at the
festivals of the gods. The word xopoi seems originally to have
referred to a dance in an enclosure, and is therefore usually
connected with the root appearing in Gr. \bpros, hedge, enclosure,
Lat. hortus, garden, and in the Eng. " yard," " garden " and
" garth." Of choral dances in ancient Greece other than those
in honour of Dionysus we know of the Dance of the Crane at
Delos, celebrating the escape of Theseus from the labyrinth, one
telling of the struggle of Apollo and the Python at Delphi, and
one in Crete recounting the saving of the new-born Zeus by the
Curetes. In the chorus sung in honour of Dionysus the ancient
Greek drama had its birth. From that of the winter festival,
consisting of the K&HUK or band of revellers, chanting the
" phallic songs," with ribald dialogue between the leader and his
band, sprang " comedy," while from the dithyrambic chorus
of the spring festival came " tragedy." For the history of the
chorus in Greek drama, with the gradual subordination of the
lyrical to the dramatic side in tragedy and its total disappearance
in the middle and new comedy, see DRAMA: Greek Drama.

The chorus as a factor in drama survived only in the various
imitations or revivals .of the ancient Greek theatre in other
languages. A chorus is found in Milton's Samson Agonistes.
The Elizabethan dramatists applied the name to a single char-
acter employed for the recitation of prologues or epilogues.
Apart from the uses of the term in drama, the word " chorus "
has been employed chiefly in music. It is used of any organized
body of singers, in opera, oratorio, cantata, &c., and, in the form
" choir," of the trained body of singers of the musical portions of
a religious service in a cathedral or church. As applied to musical
compositions, a " chorus " is a composition written in parts, each
to be sung by groups of voices in a large body of singers, and
differs from " glee " (<?..), where each part is for a single voice.
The word is also used of that part of a song repeated at the close
of each verse, in which the audience or a body of singers may join
with the soloist.

In the early middle ages the name chorus was given to a
primitive bagpipe without a drone. The instrument is best known
by the Latin description contained in the apocryphal letter of
St Jerome, ad Dardanum: " Chorus quoque simplex, pellis cum
duabus cicutis aereis, et per primam inspiratur per secundam

CHOSE CHOSROES

271

vocem emittit." Several illuminated MSS. 1 from the 9th to the
nth century give fanciful drawings, accompanied by descriptions
in barbarous Latin, evidently meant to illustrate those described
in the letter to Dardanus. The original MS., probably an
illustrated transcript of this letter, which served as a copy for
the others, was apparently produced at a time when the Roman
bagpipe (tibia utricularia) had fallen into disuse in common with
other musical instruments, and was unknown except to the few.
The Latin description given above is correct and quite unmis-
takable to any one who knows the primitive form of bagpipe; the
illustrations must therefore represent theeffortofanartisttodepict
an unknown instrument from a description. Virdung, Luscinius
and Praetorius seem to have had access to a MS. of the Dardanus
letter now lost, and to have reproduced the drawings without
understanding them. In a MS. of the i4th century at the British
Museum, 2 containing a chronicle of the world's history to the
death of King Edward I., the chorus is mentioned and described
in similar words to those quoted above; in the margin is an
elementary sketch of a primitive bagpipe with blowpipe and
chaunter with three holes, but no drone. Bagpipes with drones
abound on sculptured monuments and in miniatures of that
century. Gerbert gives illustrations of the fanciful chorus from
the Dardanus letter and of two other instruments of later date;
one of these represents a musician playing the Platerspiel,the other
the bagpipe known as chevrette, in which the whole skin of the
animal (a kid or pig), with head and feet, has been used for the
bag. Edward Buhle, 3 in his admirable work on the musical
instruments in the illuminated MSS. of the middle ages, points out
that Gerbert, 4 who gives the dates of his two MSS. as " 6th and
9th centuries," has a singular method of reckoning the date
of a MS.; he refers to the age of a MS. at the time of writing
(i8th century), not to the date at which it was produced. The
MS. .containing the two figures of musicians mentioned above,
instead of being ascribed to the 6th century, was six centuries
old when Gerbert wrote in 1774, and dates therefore from the
i zth century. It is interesting to note that Giraldus Cambrensis 6
mentions the chorus as one of the three instruments of Wales
and Scotland, ascribing superior musical skill to the latter.
Historians record that King James I. of Scotland was renowned
for his skill as a performer on various musical instruments, one
of which was the chorus. 6 This bears out the traditional belief
that the bagpipe had been a Scottish attribute from the earliest
times. The word " chorus " occurs once or twice in French
medieval poems with other instruments, but without indication
as to the kind of instrument thus designated. The word was
probably the French equivalent for the Platerspiel.

See also G. Kastner, Danses des marts (pp. 200 to 202, pi. xv.,
No. 103); and Dom Pedro Cerone, El Melopeo y maestro (Naples,
1613), p. 248. (K. S.)

CHOSE (Fr. for " thing "), a term used in English law in
different senses. Chose local is a thing annexed to a place, as a
mill. A chose transitory is that which is movable, and can be
carried from place to place. But the use of the word " chose "
in these senses is practically obsolete, and it is now used only
in the phrases chose in action and chose in possession. A " chose
in action," sometimes called a chose in suspense, in its more
limited meaning, denotes the right of enforcing by legal pro-

1 The MSS. are a psaiterium, 9th century, Bibl. publique, Angers,
fol. 133; Boulogne Psalterium glossatum c. A.D. 1000, MS. No. 20,
Bibl. publique. For reproduction of musical instruments see A nnales
archeologiques, tome iv. (1846), p. 38; Cotton MS., Tiberius C. vi.,
loth to nth century, fol. l6b, British Museum, illustrated
in Strutt's Horda Angel-cynnan, vol. ii. pis. xx. and xxi. ; MS. psalter
of St Emmeran, now in Munich Staatsbibliothek, elm. 14523, fol.
Sib, loth century, illustrated by Gerbert, De Cantu el Mus. Sacra,
tome ii. pi. xxiii. ; Paris, Bibl. Nat. Fonds Latin, 7211, loth century,
fol. 150 and 1513.

1 Cotton MS., Nero D. ii. f. 153, Chronicon ab orbe condito ad

titum Regis Edwardi I., 1307.

3 Die musikalischen Instrument* in den Miniaturen desfriihen Mit-
\lalters, part i. " Die Blasinstrumente " (Leipzig, 1903), p. 7, note I.

4 Op. cit. (1774), tome ii. pi. xxv. No. 13, pp. 130, 151, 152, and
pi. xxxi. No. 12.

' Topographic Hiberniae, cap. xi.

Scotichronicon (Fordun and Bower), xvi. 28; and Dalyell,
fusical Memoirs of Scotland, p. 47, pis. x. and xi.

ceedings the payment of a debt, or the obtaining money by way
of damages for breach of contract, or as a recompense for a
wrong. Less accurately, the money itself which could be
recovered is frequently termed a chose in action, as is also
sometimes the document evidencing a title to a chose in action,
such as a bond or a policy of insurance, though strictly it is only
the right to recover the money which can be so termed. Choses
in action were, before the Judicature Acts, either legal or equitable.
Where the chose could be recovered only by an action at law,
as a debt (whether arising from contract or tort), it was termed
a legal chose in action; where the chose was recoverable only
by a suit in equity, as a legacy or money held upon a trust, it
was termed an equitable chose in action. Before the Judicature
Act, a legal chose in action was not assignable, i.e. the assignee
could not sue at law in his own name. To this rule there were
two exceptions: (i) the crown has always been able to assign
choses in action that are certain, such as an ascertained debt,
but not those that are uncertain; (2) assignments valid by
operation of law, e.g. on marriage, death or bankruptcy. On
the other hand, however, by the law merchant, which is part
of the law of England, and which disregards the rules of common
law, bills of exchange were freely assignable. The consequence
was that, with these and certain statutory exceptions (e.g.
actions on policies of insurance), an action on an assigned chose
in action must have been brought at law in the name of the
assignor, though the sum recovered belonged in equity to the
assignee. All choses in action being in equity assignable,
except those which are altogether incapable of being assigned,
in equity the assignee might have sued in his own name, making
the assignor a party as co-plaintiff or as defendant. The Judica-
ture Acts made the distinction between legal and equitable
choses in action of no importance. The Judicature Act of 1873,
s. 25 (6), enacted that the legal right to a debt or other legal
chose in action could be passed by absolute assignment in
writing under the hand of the assignor.

" Chose in possession " is opposed to chose in action, and
denotes not only the right to enjoy or possess a thing, but also
the actual or constructive enjoyment of it. The possession may
be absolute or qualified. It is absolute when the person is fully
and completely the proprietor or owner of the thing; it is
qualified when he " has not an exclusive right, or not a per-
manent right, but a right which may sometimes subsist and at
other times not subsist," as in the case of animals ferae naturae.
A chose in possession is freely transferable by delivery. Previ-
ously to the Married Women's Property Act 1882, a wife's
choses in possession vested in her husband immediately on her
marriage, while her choses in action did not belong to the husband
until he had reduced them into possession, but this difference
is now practically obsolete.

CHOSROES, in Middle and Modern Persian Khosrau (" with
a good name "), a very common Persian name, borne by a famous
king of the Iranian legend (Kai Khosrau) ; by a Parthian king,
commonly called by the Greeks Osroes (q.v.) ; and by the following
two Sassanid kings.

i. CHOSROES I., " the Blessed " (Anuskirvan) , 531-579, the
favourite son and successor of Kavadh I., and the most famous
of the Sassanid kings. At the beginning of his reign he concluded
an " eternal " peace with the emperor Justinian, who wanted
to have his hands free for the conquest of Africa and Sicily. But
his successes against the Vandals and Goths caused Chosroes
to begin the war again in 540. He invaded Syria and carried the
inhabitants of Antioch to his residence, where he built for them
a new city near Ctesiphon under the name of Khosrau-Antioch
or Chosro-Antioch. During the next years he fought successfully
in Lazica or Lazistan(the ancient Colchis, q.v.), on the Black Sea,
and in Mesopotamia. The Romans, though led by Belisarius,
could do little against him. In 545 an armistice was concluded,
but in Lazica the war went on till 556. At last, in 562, a peace
was concluded for 50 years, in which the Persians left Lazistan
to the Romans, and promised not to persecute the Christians,
if, they did not attempt to make proselytes among the Zara-
thustrians; on the other hand, the Romans had again to pay

272

CHOTA NAGPUR CHOUANS

subsidies to Persia. Meanwhile in the east the Hephthalites
had been attacked by the Turks, who now appear for the first
time in history. Chosroes united with them and conquered
Bactria, while he left the country north of the Oxus to the
Turks. Many other rebellious tribes were subjected. About

570 the dynasts of Yemen, who had been subdued by the Ethi-
opians of Axum, applied to Chosroes for help. He sent a fleet
with a small army under Vahriz, who expelled the Ethiopians.
From that time till the conquests of Mahomet, Yemen was
dependent on Persia, and a Persian governor resided here. In

571 a new war with Rome broke out about Armenia, in which
Chosroes conquered the fortress Dara on the Euphrates, invaded
Syria and Cappadocia, and returned with large booty. During
the negotiations with the emperor Tiberius Chosroes died in
579, and was succeeded by his son Hormizd IV.

Although Chosroes had in the last years of his father extirpated
the heretical and communistic Persian sect of theMazdakites (see
KAVADH) and was a sincere adherent of Zoroastrian orthodoxy,
he was not fanatical or prone to persecution. He tolerated
every Christian confession. When one of his sons had rebelled
about 550 and was taken prisoner, he did not execute him; nor
did he punish the Christians who had supported him. He
introduced a rational system of taxation, based upon a survey
of landed possessions, which his father had begun, and tried in
every way to increase the welfare and the revenues of his empire.
In Babylonia he built or restored the canals. His army was
in discipline decidedly superior to the Romans, and apparently
was well paid. He was also interested in literature and philo-
sophical discussions. Under his reign chess was introduced
from India, and the famous book of Kalilah and Dimnah was
translated. He thus became renowned as a wise prince. When
Justinian in 529 closed the university of Athens, the last seat of
paganism in the Roman empire, the last seven teachers of
Neoplatonism emigrated to Persia. But they soon found out
that neither Chosroes nor his state corresponded to the Platonic
ideal, and Chosroes, in his treaty with Justinian, stipulated
that they should return unmolested.

2. CHOSROES II., " the Victorious " (Panez), son of Hormizd
IV., grandson of Chosroes I., 590-628. He was raised to the
throne by the magnates who had rebelled against Hormizd IV.
in 590, and soon after his father was blinded and killed. But at
the same time the general Bahram Chobin had proclaimed
himself king, and Chosroes II. was not able to maintain himself.
The war with the Romans, which had begun in 571, had not
yet come to an end. Chosroes fled to Syria, and persuaded the
emperor Maurice (q.v.) to send help. Many leading men and
part of the troops acknowledged Chosroes, and in 591 he was
brought back to Ctesiphon. Bahram Chobin was beaten and
fled to the Turks, ^mong whom he was murdered. Peace with
Rome was then concluded. Maurice made no use of his advan-
tage; he merely restored the former frontier and abolished the
subsidies which had formerly been paid to the Persians. Chosroes
II. was much inferior to his grandfather. He was haughty and
cruel, rapacious and given to luxury; he was neither a general
nor an administrator. At the beginning of his reign he favoured
the Christians; but when in 602 Maurice had been murdered
by Phocas, he began war with Rome to avenge his death. His
armies plundered Syria and Asia Minor, and in 608 advanced
to Chalcedon. In 613 and 614 Damascus and Jerusalem were
taken by the general Shahrbaraz, and the Holy Cross was carried
away in triumph. Soon after, even Egypt was conquered.
The Romans could offer but little resistance, as they were torn
by internal dissensions, and pressed by the Avars and Slavs.
At last, in 622, the emperor Heraclius (who had succeeded
Phocas in 610) was able to take the field. In 624 he advanced
into northern Media, where he destroyed the great fire-temple
of Gandzak (Gazaca); in 626 he fought in Lazistan (Colchis),
while Shahrbaraz advanced to Chalcedon, and tried in vain,
united with the Avars, to conquer Constantinople. In 627
Heraclius defeated the Persian army at Nineveh and advanced
towards Ctesiphon. Chosroes fled from his favourite residence,
Dastagerd (near Bagdad), without offering resistance, and as

his despotism and indolence had roused opposition everywhere,
his eldest son, Kavadh II., whom he had imprisoned, was set
free by some of the leading men and proclaimed king. Four
days afterwards, Chosroes was murdered in his palace (February
628). Meanwhile, Heraclius returned in triumph to Constanti-
nople, in 629 the Cross was given back to him and Egypt evacu-
ated, while the Persian empire, from the apparent greatness
which it had reached ten years ago, sank into hopeless anarchy.

SeePERSlA: Ancient History. For the Roman wars see authorities
quoted under MAURICE and HERACLIUS. (Eo. M.)

CHOTA (or CHUTIA) NAGPUR, a division of British India
in Bengal, consisting of five British districts and two feudatory
states. It is a hilly, forest-clad plateau, inhabited mostly by
aboriginal races, between the basins of the Sone, the Ganges
and the Mahanadi. The five British districts are Hazaribagh,
Ranchi, Palamau, Manbhum and Singhbhum. The total
area of the British districts is 27,101 sq. m. The population in
1901 was 4,900,429. The tributary states are noticed separately
below. The Chota Nagpur plateau is an offshoot of the great
Vindhyan range, and its mean elevation is upwards of 2000 ft.
above the sea-level. In the W. it rises to 3600 ft., and to the E.
and S. its lower steppe, from 800 to 1000 ft. in elevation, com-
prises a great portion of the Manbhum and Singhbhum districts.
The whole is about 14,000 sq. m. in extent, and forms the source
of the Barakhar, Damodar, Kasai, Subanrekha, Baitarani,
Brahmani, Ib and other rivers. Sal forests abound. The
principal jungle products are timber, various kinds of medicinal
fruits and herbs, lac, tussur silk and mahud flowers, which are
used as food by the wild tribes and also distilled into a strong
country liquor. Coal exists in large quantities, and is worked
in the Jherria, Hazaribagh, Giridih and Gobindpur districts.
The chief workings are at Jherria, which were started in 1893,
and have developed into one of the largest coal-fields in India.
Formerly gold was washed from the sands in the bed of the
Subanrekha river, but the operations are now almost wholly
abandoned. Iron-ores abound, together with good building
stone. The indigenous inhabitants consist of non-Aryan tribes
who were driven from the plains by the Hindus and took refuge
in the mountain fastnesses of the Chota Nagpur plateau. The
principal of them are Kols, Santals, Oraons, Dhangars, Mundas
and Bhumij. These tribes were formerly turbulent, and a source
of trouble to the Mahommedan governors of Bengal and Behar;
but the introduction of British rule has secured peace and
security, and the aboriginal races of Chota Nagpur are now
peaceful and orderly subjects. The principal agricultural
products are rice, Indian corn, pulses, oil-seeds and potatoes.
A small quantity of tea is grown in Hazaribagh and Ranchi
districts. Lac and tussur silk-cloth are largely manufactured.
The climate of Chota Nagpur is dry and healthy. The Jherria
extension branch of the East India railway runs to Katrasgarh,
while the Bengal-Nagpur railway also serves the division.

The CHOTA NAGPUR STATES were formerly nine in number.
But the five states of Chang Bhakar, Korea, Sirguja, Udaipur
and Jashpur were transferred from Bengal to the Central Pro-
vinces in October 1905, and the two Uriya-speaking states of
Gangpur and Bonai were attached to the Orissa Tributary
States. There now remain, therefore, only the two states of
Kharsawan and Saraikela. At the decline of the Mahratta
power in the early part of the igth century, the Chota Nagpur
states came under British protection. Before the rise of the
British power in India their chiefs exercised almost absolute
sovereignty in their respective territories.

See F. B. Bradley-Birt, Chota Nagpore (1903).

CHOUANS (a Bas-Breton word signifying screech-owls), the
name applied to smugglers and dealers in contraband salt, who
rose in insurrection in the west of France at the time of the
Revolution and joined the royalists of La Vendee. It has been
suggested that the name arose from the cry they used when
approaching their nocturnal rendezvous; but it is more probable
that it was derived from a nickname applied to their leader Jean
Cottereau (1767-1794). Originally a contraband manufacturer
of salt, Cottereau along with his brothers had several times been

CHRESMOGRAPHION CHRISM

273

condemned and served sentence; but the Revolution, by
destroying the inland customs, ruined his trade. On the i$th
of August 1 792, he led a band of peasants to prevent the departure
of the volunteers of St Ouen, near Laval, and retired to the wood
of Misdon, where they lived in huts and subterranean chambers.
The Chouans then waged a guerrilla warf areagainst therepublicans
and, sustained by the royalists and from abroad, carried on their
assassinations and brigandage with success. From Lower Maine
the insurrection soon spread to Brittany, and throughout the
west of France. In 1793 Cottereau came to Laval with some
500 men ; the band grew rapidly and swelled into a considerable
army, which assumed the name of La Petite Vend6e. But after
the decisive defeats at Le Mans and Savenay, Cottereau retired
again to his old haunts in the wood of Misdon, and resumed his
old course of guerrilla warfare. Misfortunes here increased upon
him, until he fell into an ambuscade and was mortally wounded.
He died among his followers in February 1794. Cottereau's
brothers also perished in the war, with the exception of Rene,
who lived until 1846. Royalist authors have made of Cottereau
a hero and martyr, titles to which his claim is not established.
After the death of Cottereau, the chief leaders of the Chouans
were Georges Cadoudal (q.v.) and a man who went by the name
of Jambe d'Argent. For several months the Chouans continued
their petty warfare, which was disgraced by many acts of ferocity
and rapine; in August 1795 they dispersed; but they were
guilty of several conspiracies up to 1815. (See also VENDEE.)

See the articles in La Revolution franc.aise, vol. 29, La Chouannerie
dans la Manche; vol. 32, La Chouannerie dans I'Eure; vol. 40,
La Chouannerie dans le Morbihan (7705-1794) ; Sarot, Les Tribunaux
repressifs ordinaires de la Manche en matiere politique pendant la
premiere Revolution (Paris, 1881), 4 vols. ; Th. de Closmadeux,
Quiberon (1795), Emigres et Chouans, commissions militaires, interro-
gations et jugements (Paris, 1898), the only authority on the cele-
brated affair of Quiberon ; E. Daudet, La Police et les Chouans dans
le Consulat et I'Empire, 1800-1815 (Paris, 1895). Also the works
of Ch. L. Chessin mentioned under VENDEE.

CHRESMOGRAPHION (from Gr. XP^MOS, oracle, and ypafaiv,
to write) , an architectural term sometimes given to the chamber
between the pronaos and the cella in Greek temples where oracles
were delivered.

CHRESTIEN, FLORENT (1541-1596), French satirist and
Latin poet, the son of Guillaume Chrestien, an eminent French
physician and writer on physiology, was born at Orleans on the
z6th of January 1541. A pupil of Henri Estienne, the Hellenist,
at an early age he was appointed tutor to Henry of Navarre,
afterwards Henry IV., who made him his librarian. Brought up
as a Calvinist, he became a convert to Catholicism. He was the
author of many good translations from the Greelt into Latin
verse, amongst others, of versions of the Hero and Leander
attributed to Musaeus, and of many epigrams from the Anthology.
In his translations into French, among which are remarked those
of Buchanan's Jephthe (1567), and of Oppian De Venatione
(1575), he is not so happy, being rather to be praised for fidelity
to his original than for excellence of style. His principal claim
to a place among memorable satirists is as one of the authors
of the Satyre Mtnippfe, the famous pasquinade in the interest of
his old pupil, Henry IV., in which the harangue put into the
mouth of cardinal de Pelv6 is usually attributed to him. He
died on the 3rd of October 1596 at Vend&me.

CHRETIEN, or CRESTIEN, DE TROYES, a native of Champagne,
and the most famous of French medieval poets. Unfortunately
we have few exact details as to his life, and opinion differs as to
the precise dates to be assigned to his poems. We know that he
wrote the Chevalier de la Charrelte at the command of Marie,
countess of Champagne (the daughter of Louis VII. and Eleanor,
who married the count of Champagne in 1164), and Le Conte del
Graal or Perceval for Philip, count of Flanders, who died of the
plague before Acre in 1191. This prince was guardian to the
young king, Philip Augustus, and held the regency from 1180 to
1182. As Chretien refers to the story of the Grail as the best tale
told au cort roial, it seems very probable that it was composed
during the period of the count's regency. It was left unfinished,
and added to at divers times by at least three writers, Wauchier

de D'enain, Gerbert de Montreuil and Manessier. The second of
these states definitely that Chr6tien die.d before he could finish
his poem. Probably the period of his literary activity lies
between the dates 1150 and 1182, when his patron, Count
Philip, fell into disgrace at court. The extant poems of Chretien
de Troyes, in their chronological order are, rec et Enide, Cligts,
Le Chevalier de la Charrelte (or Lancelot), Le Chevalier au Lion (or
Yvain), and Le Conte del Graal (Perceval), all dealing with
Arthurian legend. Besides these he states in the opening lines of
Cligts that he had composed a Tristan (of which so far no trace
has been found), and had made certain translations from Ovid's
Ars A malaria a.nd Metamorphoses. A portion of the last has been
found by Gaston Paris included in the translation of Ovid made
by Chretien Legouais. There exists also a poem, Guillaume
d'Anglelerre, purporting to be by Chretien, but the authorship is a
matter of debate. Professor Foerster claims it as genuine, and
includes it in his edition of the poems, but Gaston Paris never
accepted it.

Chretien's poems enjoyed widespread favour, and of the three
most popular (rec, Yvain and Perceval) there exist old Norse
translations, while the two first were admirably rendered into
German by Hartmann von Aue. There is an English translation
of the Yvain, Yivain and Gawain, and there are Welsh versions of
all three stories, though their exact relation to the French has not
been determined. Chretien's style is easy and graceful, such as
might be expected from a court poet; he is analytical, but not
dramatic; in depth of thought and power of characterization he
is decidedly inferior to Wolfram von Eschenbach, and as a poet he
is probably to be ranked below Thomas, the author of the
Tristan, and the translator of Thomas, Gottfried von Strassburg.
Much that has been claimed as characteristic of his work has been
shown by M. Willmotte to be merely reproductions of literary
conceits employed by his predecessors; in the words of a recent
writer, M. Bedier, " Chretien semble moins avoir ete un createur
epique qu'un habile arrangeur." The special interest of his pcems
lies in the problems surrounding their origin. So far as the MSS.
are concerned they are the earliest Arthurian romances we
possess. Did Chretien invent the genre , or did he simply turn to
account the work of earlier, and less favoured, poets? Round
this point the battle still rages hotly, and though the extensive
claims made by the enthusiastic editor of his works are gradually
yielding to the force of critical investigation, it cannot be said that
the question is in any way settled (see ARTHURIAN LEGEND).

Chretien's poems, except the Perceval, have been critically edited
by Professor Foerster (4 vols.). There is no easily available edition
of the Perceval, which was printed from the Mons MS. by M. Potvin
(6 vols., 1866-1871), but is difficult to procure. For Ywain and
Gawain see the edition by Schleich (1887). The German versions are
in Deutsche Classiker des Mittelalters, 1888 (Iwein), 1893 (Erec); the
Welsh, in Lady Charlotte Guest's translation of the Mabinogion (Nutt,
1902) ; Scandinavian translations, ed. E. Kolbing (1872). For general
criticism see Willmotte, L' Evolution du roman franc.ais aux environs
de 7750 (1903) ; also Legend of Sir Lancelot and Legend of Sir Percival
(Grimm Library) ; and M. Borodine, La Femme el V amour au XII'
siecle, d'apres les poemes de Chretien de Troyes (1909).

CHRISM (through Lat. chrisma, from Gr. \piafM, an anointing
substance, xp' LfiV > to anoint; through a Romanic form cresma
comes the Fr. crime, and Eng. " cream "), a mixture of olive oil
and balm, used for anointing in the Roman Catholic church in
baptism, confirmation and ordination, and in the consecrating
and blessing of altars, chalices, baptismal water, &c. The
consecration of the " chrism " is performed by a bishop, and
since the sth century has taken place on Maundy Thursday. In
the Orthodox Church the chrism contains, besides olive oil, many
precious spices and perfumes, and is known as " muron " or
" myron." The word is sometimes-used loosely for the unmixed
olive oil used in the sacrament of extreme unction. The
" Chrisom " or " chrysom," a variant of " chrism," lengthened
through pronunciation, is a white cloth with which the head of a
newly baptized child was covered to prevent the holy oil from
being rubbed off. If the baby died within a month of its baptism ,
it was shrouded in its chrisom; otherwise the cloth or its value
was given to the church as an offering by the mother at her
churching. Children dying within the month were called

274

CHRIST CHRISTIAN II.

" chrisom-children " or " chrisoms," and up to 1726 such entries
occur in bills of mortality. The word was also used generally for
a very young and innocent child, thus Shakespeare, Henry V., ii.
3, says of Falstaff : " A' made a finer end and went away an it had
been any Chrisom Child."

CHRIST (Gr. Xptoros, Anointed), the official title given in the
New Testament to Jesus of Nazareth, equivalent to the Hebrew
Messiah. See JESUS CHRIST; MESSIAH; CHRISTIANITY.

CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906), German classical
scholar, was born in Geisenheim in Hesse-Nassau on the 2nd of
August 1831. From 1854 till 1860 he taught in the Maximilians-
gymnasium at Munich, and in 1861 was appointed professor of
classical philology in the university. His most important works
are his Geschichte der griechischen Literalur (sth ed., 1908 f.), a
history of Greek literature down to the time of Justinian, one of
the best works on the subject; Metrik der Criechen und Romer
(1879); editions of Pindar (1887); of the Poetica (1878) and
Metaphysica (1895) of Aristotle; Iliad (1884). His contributions
to the Silzungsberichte and Abhandlungen of the Bavarian
Academy of Sciences are particularly valuable.

See O. Crusius, Geddchtnisrede (Munich, 1907).

CHRISTADELPHIANS (XpurroD fiStX^ot, "brothers of
Christ "), sometimes also called Thomasites, a community
founded in 1848 by John Thomas (1805-1871), who, after
studying medicine in London, migrated to Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.A.
There he at first joined the " Campbellites," but afterwards
struck out independently, preaching largely upon the application
of Hebrew prophecy and of the Book of Revelation to current and
future events. Both in America and in Great Britain he gathered
a number of adherents, and formed a community which has
extended to several English-speaking countries. It consists of
exclusive " ecclesias," with neither ministry nor organization.
The members meet on Sundays to " break bread " and discuss
the Bible. Their theology is strongly millenarian, centering in
the hope of a world-wide theocracy with its seat at Jerusalem.
Holding a doctrine of " conditional immortality," they believe
that they alone have the true exegesis of Scripture, and that the
" faith of Christendom " is" compounded of the fables predicted
by Paul. " No statistics of the community are published. It prob-
ably numbers from two to three thousand members. A monthly
magazine, The Christadelphian, is published in Birmingham.

See R. Roberts, Dr Thomas, his Life and Work (1884).

CHRISTCHURCH, a municipal and parliamentary borough of
Hampshire, England, at the confluence of the rivers Avon and
Stour, ij m. from the sea, and 104 m. S.W. by W. from London
by the London & South Western railway. Pop. (1901) 4204.
It is famous for its magnificent priory church of the Holy Trinity.
The church is cruciform, lacking a central tower, but having a
Perpendicular tower at the west end. The nave and transepts
are principally Norman, and very fine; the choir is Perpendicular.
Early English additions appear in the nave, clerestory and
elsewhere, and the rood-screen is of ornate Decorated workman-
ship. Other noteworthy features are the Norman turret at the
north-east angle of the north transept, covered with arcading
and other ornament, the beautiful reredos, similar to that in
Winchester cathedral, and several interesting monuments,
among which is one to the poet Shelley. Only fragments remain
of the old castle, but an interesting ruin adjoins it known as the
Norman House, apparently dating from the later part of the
1 2th century. Hosiery, and chains for clocks and watches are
manufactured, and the salmon fishery is valuable. There is a
small harbour, but it is dry at low water. The parliamentary
borough, returning one member, includes the town of Bourne-
mouth. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen
and 12 councillors. Area, 832 acres.

Christchurch is mentioned in Saxon documents under the
name of Tweotneam or Tweonaeteam, which long survived in
the form Christchurch Twineham. In 901 it was seized by
Aethelwald, but was recaptured by Edward the Elder. In the
Domesday Survey, under the name of Thuinam, it appears as a
royal manor, comprising a mill and part of the king's forest;
its value since the time of Edward the Confessor had decreased

by almost one-half. Henry I. granted Christchurch to Richard
de Redvers, who erected the castle. The first charter was granted
by Baldwin earl of Exeter in the I2th century; it exempted
the burgesses from certain tolls and customs, including the tolls
on salt within the borough, and the custody of thieves. The
2nd Earl Baldwin granted to the burgesses the tolls of the fair
at St Faith and common of pasture in certain meads. The above
charters were confirmed by Edward II., Henry VII. and Eliza-
beth. The Holy Trinity fair is mentioned in 1 226. Christchurch
was governed by a bailiff in the I3th century, and was not
incorporated till 1670, when the government was vested in a
mayor and 24 capital burgesses, but this charter was shortly
abandoned. The borough was summoned to send representatives
to parliament in 1307 and 1308, but no returns are registered
until 1572, from which date it was represented by two members
until the Reform Act of 1832 reduced the number to one. The
secular canons of the church of Holy Trinity held valuable
possessions in Hampshire at the time of Edward the Confessor,
including a portion of Christchurch, and in 1 1 50 the establishment
was constituted a priory of regular canons of St Augustine.
Baldwin de Redvers confirmed the canons in their right to the
first salmon caught every year and the tolls of Trinity fair. The
priory, which attained to such fame that its name of Christchurch
finally replaced the older name of Twineham, was dissolved in

1539-

See Victoria County History. Hampshire; Benjamin Ferrey,
Antiquities of the Priory of Christchurch, 2nd edition, revised by
J. Britton (London, 1841).

CHRISTCHURCH, a city near the east coast of South Island,
New Zealand, to the north of Banks Peninsula, in Selwyn county,
the capital of the provincial district of Canterbury and the seat
of a bishop. Pop. (1906) 49,928; including suburbs, 67,878.
It stands upon the great Canterbury plain, which here is a dead
level, though the monotony of the site has been much relieved by
extensive plantations of English and Australian trees. A back-
ground is supplied by the distant mountains to the west, and by
the nearer hills to the south. The small river Avon winds
through the city, pleasantly bordered by terraces and gardens.
The wide streets cross one another for the most part at right
angles. The predominance of stone and brick as building
materials, the dominating cathedral spire, and the well-planted
parks, avenues and private gardens, recall the aspect of an
English residential town. Christchurch is mainly dependent on
the rich agricultural district which surrounds it, the plain being
mainly devoted to cereals and grazing. Wool is extensively
worked, and meat is frozen for export. Railways connect with
Culverden to the north and with Dunedin and the south coast,
with many branches through the agricultural districts; also
with Lyttelton, the port of Christchurch, 8 m. S.E. There are
tramways in the city, and to New Brighton, a seaside suburb,
and other residential quarters. The principal public buildings
are the government buildings and the museum, with its fine
collection of remains of the extinct bird, moa. The cathedral
is the best in New Zealand, built from designs of Sir G. Gilbert
Scott in Early English style, with a tower and spire 240 ft. high.
Among educational foundations are Canterbury College (for
classics, science, engineering, &c.), Christ's College (mainly
theological) and grammar school, and a school of art. There
is a Roman Catholic pro-cathedral attached to a convent of the
Sacred Heart. A large extent of open ground, to the west of the
town, finely planted, and traversed by the river, comprises
Hagley Park, recreation grounds, the Government Domain
and the grounds of the Acclimatization Society, with fish-ponds
and a small zoological garden. The foundation of Christchurch
is connected with the so-called " Canterbury Pilgrims," who
settled in this district in 1850. Lyttelton was the original
settlement, but Christchurch came into existence in 1851, and
is thus the latest of the settlements of the colony. It became a
municipality in 1862. In 1903 several populous suburban
boroughs were amalgamated with the city.

CHRISTIAN II. 0481-1559), king of Denmark, Norway and
Sweden, son of John (Hans) and Christina of Saxony, was

CHRISTIAN II.

275

born at Nyborg castle in 1481, and succeeded his father as king
of Denmark and Norway in 1 5 1 3 . As viceroy of Norway ( 1 506-
1512) he had already displayed a singular capacity for ruling
under exceptionally difficult circumstances. Patriotism, insight,
courage, statesmanship, energy, these great qualities were
indisputably his; but unfortunately they were vitiated by
obstinacy, suspicion and a sulky craftiness, beneath which
simmered 'a very volcano of revengeful cruelty. Another
peculiarity, more fatal to him in that aristocratic age than any
other, was his fondness for the common people, which was
increased by his passion for a pretty Dutch girl, named Dyveke,
who became his mistress in 1507 or 1509.

Christian's succession to the throne was confirmed at the
Herredag, or assembly of notables from the three northern king-
doms, which met at Copenhagen in 1513. The nobles and clergy
of all three kingdoms regarded with grave misgivings a ruler
who had already shewn in Norway that he was not afraid of
enforcing his authority to the uttermost. The Rigsraads of
Denmark and Norway insisted, in the haandfaestning or charter
extorted from the king, that the crowns of both kingdoms were
elective and not hereditary, providing explicitly against any
transgression of the charter by the king, and expressly reserving
to themselves a free choice of Christian's successor after his
death. But the Swedish delegates could not be prevailed upon
to accept Christian as king at all. " We have," they said, " the
choice between peace at home and strife here, or peace here and
civil war at home, and we prefer the former." A decision as
to the Swedish succession was therefore postponed. On the
1 2th of August 1515 Christian married Isabella of Burgundy,
the grand-daughter of the emperor Maximilian. But he would
not give up his liaison with Dyveke, and it was only the death
of the unfortunate girl in 1517, under suspicious circumstances,
that prevented serious complications with the emperor Charles
V. Christian revenged himself by executing the magnate Torben
Oxe, who, on very creditable evidence, was supposed to have
been Dyveke's murderer, despite the strenuous oppositidn of
Oxe's fellow-peers; and henceforth the king lost no opportunity
of depressing the nobility and raising plebeians to power. His
chief counsellor was Dyveke's mother Sigbrit, a born admini-
strator and a commercial genius of the first order. Christian
first appointed her controller of the Sound tolls, and ultimately
committed to her the whole charge of the finances. A bourgeoise
herself, it was Sigbrit's constant policy to elevate and extend
the influence of the middle classes. She soon became the soul
of a middle-class inner council, which competed with Rigsraad
itself. The patricians naturally resented their supersession and
nearly every unpopular measure was attributed to the influence
of " the foul-mouthed Dutch sorceress who hath bewitched
the king."

Meanwhile Christian was preparing for the inevitable war with
Sweden, where the patriotic party, headed by the freely elected
governor Sten Sture the younger, stood face to face with the
philo-Danish party under Archbishop Gustavus Trolle. Christian,
who had already taken measures to isolate Sweden politically,
hastened to the relief of the archbishop, who was beleagured
in his fortress of Stake, but was defeated by Sture and his peasant
levies at Vedla and forced to return to Denmark. A second
attempt to subdue Sweden in 1518 was also frustrated by Sture's
victory at Brankyrka. A third attempt made in 1520 with a
large army of French, German and Scottish mercenaries proved
successful. Sture was mortally wounded at the battle of Bor-
gerund, on the ipth of January, and the Danish army, unopposed,
was approaching Upsala, where the members of the Swedish
Riksr&d had already assembled. The senators consented to
ender homage to Christian on condition that he gave a full
ndemnity for the past and a guarantee that Sweden should b

Jed according to Swedish laws and custom; and a convention

i this effect was confirmed by the king and the Danish Rigsraad
on the 3ist of March. But Sture's widow, Dame Christina
Gyllenstjerna, still held out stoutly at Stockholm, and the
easantry of central Sweden, stimulated by her patriotism,

ew to arms, defeated the Danish invaders at Balundsas (March

igth), and were only with the utmost difficulty finally defeated
at the bloody battle of Upsala (Good Friday, April 6th). In
May the Danish fleet arrived, and Stockholm was invested by
land and sea; but Dame Christina resisted valiantly for four
months longer, and took care, when she surrendered on the 7th
of September, to exact beforehand an amnesty of the most
explicit and absolute character. On the ist of November the
representatives of the nation swore fealty to Christian as
hereditary king of Sweden, though the law of the land distinctly
provided that the Swedish crown should be elective. On the
4th of November he was anointed by Gustavus Trolle in Stock-
holm cathedral, and took the usual oath to rule the realm
through native-born Swedes alone, according to prescription.
The next three days were given up to banqueting, but on the
7th of November " an entertainment of another sort began."
On the evening of that day Christian summoned his captains
to a private conference at the palace, the result of which was
quickly apparent, for at dusk a band of Danish soldiers, with
lanterns and torches, broke into the great hall and carried off
several carefully selected persons. By 10 o'clock the same
evening the remainder of the king's guests were safely under
lock and key. All these persons had previously been marked
down on Archbishop Trolle's proscription list. On the following
day a council, presided over by Trolle, solemnly pronounced
judgment of death on the proscribed, as manifest heretics.
At 12 o'clock that night the patriotic bishops of Skara and
Strangnas were led out into the great square and beheaded.
Fourteen noblemen,three burgomasters,fourteen town-councillors
and about twenty common citizens of Stockholm were then
drowned or decapitated. The executions continued throughout
the following day; in all, about eighty-two people are said to
have been thus murdered. Moreover, Christian revenged himself
upon the dead as well as upon the living, for Sten Sture's body was
dug up and burnt, as well as the body of his little child. Dame
Christina and many other noble Swedish ladies were sent prisoners
to Denmark. It has well been said that the manner of this
atrocious deed (the " Stockholm Massacre " as it is generally
called) was even more detestable than the deed itself. Christian
suppressed his political opponents under the pretenceof defending
an ecclesiastical system which in his heart he despised. Even
when it became necessary to make excuses for his crime, we see
the same double-mindedness. Thus, while in a proclamation
to the Swedish people he represented the massacre as a measure
necessary to avoid a papal interdict, in his apology to the pope
for the decapitation of the innocent bishops he described it as an
unauthorized act of vengeance on the part of his own people.

It was with his brain teeming with great designs that Christian
II. returned to his native kingdom. That the welfare of his
dominions was dear to him there can be no doubt. Inhuman as
he could be in his wrath, in principle he was as much a humanist
as any of his most enlightened contemporaries. But he would
do things his own way; and deeply distrusting the Danish
nobles with whom he shared his powers, he sought helpers from
among the wealthy and practical middle classes of Flanders.
In June 1521 he paid a sudden visit to the Low Countries, and
remained there for some months. He visited most of the large
cities, took into his service many Flemish artisans, and made
the personal acquaintance of Quentin Matsys and Albrecht
Diirer, the latter of whom painted his portrait. Christian also
entertained Erasmus, with whom he discussed the Reformation,
and let fall the characteristic expression: " Mild measures are of
no use; the remedies that give the whole body a good shaking
are the best and surest."

Never had King Christian seemed so powerful as on his return
to Denmark on the 5th of September 1521, and with the con-
fidence of strength he at once proceeded recklessly to inaugurate
the most sweeping reforms. Soon after his return he issued his
great Landelove, or Code of Laws. For the most part this is
founded on Dutch models, and testifies in a high degree to the
king's progressive aims. Provision was made for the better
education of the lower, and the restriction of the political influence
of the higher clergy; there were stern prohibitions against

276

CHRISTIAN III.-IV.

wreckers and " the evil and unchristian practice of selling
peasants as if they were brute beasts "; the old trade gilds were
retained, but the rules of admittance thereto made easier, and
trade combinations of the richer burghers, to the detriment of
the smaller tradesmen, were sternly forbidden. Unfortunately
these reforms, excellent in themselves, suggested the Standpoint
not of an elected ruler, but of a monarch by right divine. Some
of them were even in direct contravention of the charter; and
the old Scandinavian spirit of independence was deeply wounded
by the preference given to the Dutch. Sweden too was now in
open revolt; and both Norway and Denmark were taxed to
the uttermost to raise an army for the subjection of the sister
kingdom. Foreign complications were now superadded to these
domestic troubles. With the laudable object of releasing Danish
trade from the grinding yoke of the Hansa, and making Copen-
hagen the great emporium of the north, Christian had arbitrarily
raised the Sound tolls and seized a number of Dutch ships which
presumed to evade the tax. Thus his relations with the Nether-
lands were strained, while with Liibeck and her allies he was
openly at war. Finally Jutland rose against him, renounced its
allegiance and offered the Danish crown to Duke Frederick of
Holstein (January 2oth, 1523). So overwhelming did Christian's
difficulties appear that he took ship to seek help abroad, and on
May ist landed at Veere in Zealand. Eight years later (October
24th, 1531) he attempted to recover his kingdoms, but a tempest
scattered his fleet off the Norwegian coast, and on the ist of July
1532, by the convention of Oslo, he surrendered to his rival,
King Frederick, and for the next 27 years was kept in solitary
confinement, first in the Blue Tower at Copenhagen and after-
wards at the castle of Kabendborg. He died in January 1 559.

See K. P. Arnoldson, Nordens enhet och Kristian II. (Stockholm,
1899); Paul Frederik Barfod, Danmarks Historic fra 1319 til 1536
(Copenhagen, 1885) ; Danmarks Riges Historic, vol. 3 (Copenhagen,
1897-1905) ; Robert Nisbet Bain, Scandinavia, chap 2 (Cambridge,
1905). (R. N. B.)

CHRISTIAN III. (1503-1559), king of Denmark and Norway,
was the son of Frederick I. of Denmark and his first consort,
Anne of Brandenburg. His earliest teacher, Wolfgang von
Utenhof, who came straight from Wittenberg, and the Lutheran
Holsteiner Johann Rantzau, who became his tutor, were both
able and zealous reformers. In 1521 Christian travelled in
Germany, and was present at the diet of Worms, where Luther's
behaviour profoundly impressed him. On his return he found
that his father had been elected king of Denmark in the place of
Christian II., and the young prince's first public service was
the reduction of Copenhagen, which stood firm for the fugitive
Christian II. He made no secret of his Lutheran views, and his
outspokenness brought him into collision, not only with the
Catholic Rigsraad, but also with his cautious and temporizing
father. At his own court at Schleswig he did his best to introduce
the Reformation, despite the opposition of the bishops. Both
as stadtholder of the Duchies in 1526, and as viceroy of Norway
in 1529, he displayed considerable administrative ability, though
here too his religious intolerance greatly provoked the Catholic
party. There was even some talk cf passing him over in the
succession to the throne, in favour of his half-brother Hans, who
had been brought up in the old religion. On his father's death
Christian was proclaimed king at the local diet of Viborg, and
took an active part in the " Grevens Fejde " or " Count's War."

The triumph of so fanatical a reformer as Christian brought
about the fall of Catholicism, but the Catholics were still so strong
in the council of state that Christian was forced to have recourse
to a coup d'etat, which he successfully accomplished by means of
his German mercenaries (i2th of August 1536), an absolutely
inexcusable act of violence loudly blamed by Luther himself,
and accompanied by the wholesale spoliation of the church.
Christian's finances were certainly readjusted thereby, but the
ultimate gainers by the confiscation were the nobles, and both
education and morality suffered grievously in consequence.
The circumstances under which Christian III. ascended the throne
naturally exposed Denmark to the danger of foreign domination.
It was with the help of the gentry of the duchies that Christian

had conquered Denmark. German and Holstein noblemen had
led his armies and directed his diplomacy. Naturally, a mutual
confidence between a king who had conquered his kingdom and
a people who had stood in arms against him was not attainable
immediately, and the first six years of Christian III.'s reign were
marked by a contest between the Danish Rigsraad and the
German counsellors, both of whom sought to rule " the pious
king " exclusively. Though the Danish party won a signal
victory at the outset, by obtaining the insertion in the charter
of provisions stipulating that only native-born Danes should
fill the highest dignities of the state, the king's German counsellors
continued paramount during the earlier years of his reign. The
ultimate triumph of the Danish party dates from 1539, the
dangers threatening Christian III. from the emperor Charles V.
and other kinsmen of the imprisoned Christian II. convincing
him of the absolute necessity of removing the last trace of dis-
content in the land by leaning exclusively on Danish magnates
and soldiers. The complete identification of the Danish king
with the Danish people was accomplished at the Herredag of
Copenhagen, 1542, when the nobility of Denmark voted
Christian a twentieth part of all their property to pay off his
heavy debt to the Holsteiners and Germans.

The pivot of the foreign policy of Christian III. was his alliance
with the German Evangelical princes, as a counterpoise to the
persistent hostility of Charles V., who was determined to support
the hereditary claims of his nieces, the daughters of Christian II.,
to the Scandinavian kingdoms. War was actually declared
against Charles V. in 1542, and, though the German Protestant
princes proved faithless allies, the closing of the Sound against
Dutch shipping proved such an effective weapon in King
Christian's hand that the Netherlands compelled Charles V. to
make peace with Denmark at the diet of Spires, the 23rd of May
1544. The foreign policy of Christian's later days was regulated
by the peace of Spires. He carefully avoided all foreign complica-
tions; refused to participate in the Schmalkaldic war of 1546;
mediated between the emperor and Saxony after the fall of
Maurice of Saxony at the battle of Sievershausen in 1553, and
contributed essen tially to the conclusion of peace. King Christian
III. died on New Year's Day 1559. Though not perhaps a great,
he was, in the fullest sense of the word, a good ruler. A strong
sense of duty, genuine piety, and a cautious but by no means
pusillanimous common-sense coloured every action of his
patient, laborious and eventful life. But the work he left
behind him is the best proof of his statesmanship. He found
Denmark in ruins; he left her stronger and wealthier than she had
ever been before.

See Danmarks Riges Historic, vol. 3 (Copenhagen, 1897-1901);
Huitfeld, King Christian III.'s Historic (Copenhagen, 1595) ; Bain,
Scandinavia, cap. iv. v. (Cambridge, 1905). (R. N. B.)

CHRISTIAN IV. (1577-1648), king of Denmark and Norway,
the son of Frederick II., king of Denmark, and Sophia of Mecklen-
burg, was born at Fredriksborg castle in 1577, and succeeded to
the throne on the death of his father (4th of April 1588), attaining
his majority on the I7th of August 1596. On the 27th of
November 1597 he married Anne Catherine, a daughter of
Joachim Frederick, margrave of Brandenburg. The queen died
fourteen years later, after bearing Christian six children. Four
years after her death the king privately wedded a handsome
young gentlewoman, Christina Munk, by whom he had twelve
children, a connexion which was to be disastrous to Denmark.

The young king's court was one of the most joyous and
magnificent in Europe; yet he found time for work of the most
various description, including a series of domestic reforms (see
DENMARK: History). He also did very much for the national
armaments. New fortresses were constructed under the direction
of Dutch engineers. The Danish navy, which in 1 596 consisted of
but twenty-two vessels, in 1610 rose to sixty, some of them being
built after Christian's own designs. The formation of a national
army was more difficult. Christian had to depend mainly upon
hired troops, supported by native levies recruited for the most
part from the peasantry on the crown domains. His first
experiment with his newly organized army was successful. In

CHRISTIAN V.

277

the war with Sweden, generally known as the " Kalmar War,"
because its chief operation was the capture by the Danes of
Kalmar, the eastern fortress of Sweden, Christian compelled
Gustavus Adolphus to give way on all essential points (treaty of
Knared, 2oth of January 1613). He now turned his attention'to
Germany. His object was twofold: first, to obtain the control
of the great German rivers the Elbe and the Weser, as a means of
securing his dominion of the northern seas; and secondly, to
acquire the secularized German bishoprics of Bremen and Werden
as appanages for his younger sons. He skilfully took advantage
of the alarm of the German Protestants after the battle of
White Hill in 1620, to secure the coadjutorship to the see of
Bremen for his son Frederick (September 1621), a step followed
in November by a similar arrangement as to Werden; while
Hamburg by the compact of Steinburg (July 1621) was induced
to acknowledge the Danish overlordship of Holstein. The
growing ascendancy of the Catholics in North Germany in and
after 1623 almost induced Christian, for purely political reasons,
to intervene directly in the Thirty Years' War. For a time,
however, he stayed his hand, but the urgent solicitations of the
western powers, and, above all, his fear lest Gustavus Adolphus
should supplant him as the champion of the Protestant cause,
finally led him to plunge into war against the combined forces of
the emperor and the League, without any adequate guarantees of
co-opefation from abroad. On the gth of May 1625 Christian
quitted Denmark for the front. He had at his disposal from
19,000 to 25,000 men, and at first gained some successes; but on
the 27th of August 1626 he was utterly routed by Tilly at
Lutter-am-Barenberge, and in the summer of 1627 both Tilly and
Wallenstein, ravaging and burning, occupied the duchies and
the whole peninsula of Jutland. In his extremity Christian now
formed an alliance with Sweden (ist of January 1628), whereby
Gustavus Adolphus pledged himself to assist Denmark with a
fleet in case of need, and shortly afterwards a Swedo-Danish army
and fleet compelled Wallenstein to raise the siege of Stralsund.
Thus the possession of a superior sea-power enabled Denmark
to tide over her worst difficulties, and in May 1629 Christian was
able to conclude peace with the emperor at Liibeck, without any
diminution of territory.

Christian IV. was now a broken man. His energy was tem-
porarily paralysed by accumulated misfortunes. Not only his
political hopes, but his domestic happiness had suffered ship-
wreck. In the course of 1628 he discovered a scandalous intrigue
of his wife, Christina Munk, with one of his German officers; and
when he put her away she endeavoured to cover up her own
disgrace by conniving at an intrigue between Vibeke Kruse, one of
her discharged maids, and the king. In January 1630 the rupture
became final, and Christina retired to her estates in Jutland.
Meanwhile Christian openly acknowledged Vibeke as his mistress,
and she bore him a numerous family. Vibeke's children were of
course the natural enemies of the children of Christina Munk,
and the hatred of the two families was not without influence
on the future history of Denmark. Between 1629 and 1643,
however, Christian gained both in popularity and influence.
During that period he obtained once more the control of the
foreign policy of Denmark as well as of the Sound tolls, and
towards the end of it he hoped to increase his power still further
with the assistance of his sons-in-law, Korfits Ulfeld and Hannibal
Sehested, who now came prominently forward.

Even at the lowest ebb of his fortunes Christian had never
lost hope of retrieving them, and between 1629 and 1643 the
European situation presented infinite possibilities to politicians
with a taste for adventure. Unfortunately, with all his gifts,
Christian was no statesman, and was incapable of a consistent
policy. He would neither conciliate Sweden, henceforth his
most dangerous enemy, nor guard himself against her by a
definite system of counter-alliances. By mediating in favour of
the emperor, after the death of Gustavus Adolphus in 1632,
he tried to minimize the influence of Sweden in Germany, and
did glean some minor advantages. But his whole Scandinavian
olicy was so irritating and vexatious that Swedish statesmen
nade up their minds that a war with Denmark was only a

question of time; and in the spring of 1643 it seemed to them
that the time had come. They were now able, thanks to their
conquests in the Thirty Years' War, to attack Denmark from the
south as well as the east; the Dutch alliance promised to secure
them at sea, and an attack upon Denmark would prevent her
from utilizing the impending peace negotiations to the prejudice
of Sweden. In May the Swedish Riksrdd decided upon war;
on the 1 2th of December the Swedish marshal Lennart Torstens-
son, advancing from Bohemia, crossed the northern frontier of
Denmark; by the end of January 1644 the whole peninsula of
Jutland was in his possession. This totally unexpected attack,
conducted from first to last with consummate ability and
lightning-like rapidity, had a paralysing effect upon Denmark.
Fortunately, in the midst of almost universal helplessness and
confusion, Christian IV. knew his duty and had the courage
to do it. In his sixty-sixth year he once more displayed some-
thing of the magnificent energy of his triumphant youth. Night
and day he laboured to levy armies and equip fleets. Fortunately
too for him, the Swedish government delayed hostilities in
Scania till February 1644, so that the Danes were able to
make adequate defensive preparations and save the important
fortress of Malmo. Torstensson, too, was unable to cross from
Jutland to Funen for want of a fleet, and the Dutch auxiliary
fleet which came to his assistance was defeated between the
islands of Sylt and Ronno on the west coast of Schleswig by the
Danish admirals. Another attempt to transport Torstensson
and his army to the Danish islands by a large Swedish fleet was
frustrated by Christian IV. in person on the ist of July 1644.
On that day the two fleets encountered off Kolberge .Heath, S.E.
of Kiel Bay, and Christian displayed a heroism which endeared
him ever after to the Danish nation and made his name famous in
song and story. As he stood on the quarter-deck of the " Trinity"
a cannon close by was exploded by a Swedish bullet, and splinters
of wood and metal wounded the king in thirteen places, blinding
one eye and flinging him to the deck. But he was instantly on his
feet again, cried with a loud voice that it was well with him, and
set every one an example of duty by remaining on deck till the
fight was over. Darkness at last separated the contending fleets ;
and though the battle was a drawn one, the Danish fleet showed
its superiority by blockading the Swedish ships in Kiel Bay.
But the Swedish fleet escaped, and the annihilation of the Danish
fleet by the combined navies of Sweden and Holland, after an
obstinate fight between Fehmarn and Laaland at the end of
September, exhausted the military resources of Denmark and
compelled Christian to accept the mediation of France and the
United Provinces; and peace was finally signed at Bromsebro
on the 8th of February 1645.

The last years of the king were still further embittered by
sordid differences with his sons-in-law, especially with the most
ambitious of them, Korfits Ulfeld. On the 2 ist of February
1648, at his earnest request, he was carried in a litter from
Fredriksborg to his beloved Copenhagen, where he died a week
later. Christian IV. was a good linguist, speaking, besides hi?
native tongue, German, Latin, French and Italian. Naturally
cheerful and hospitable, he delighted in lively society; but he
was also passionate, irritable and sensual. He had courage,
a vivid sense of duty, an indefatigable love of work, and all
the inquisitive zeal and inventive energy of a born reformer.
Yet, though of the stuff of which great princes are made, he
never attained to greatness. His own pleasure, whether it took
the form of love or ambition, was always his first consideration.
In the heyday of his youth his high spirits and passion for
adventure enabled him to surmount every obstacle with flan.
But in the decline of life he reaped the bitter fruits of his lack
of self-control, and sank into the grave a weary and broken-
hearted old man.

' See Life (Dan.), by H. C. Bering Liisberg and A. L. Larsen (Copen-
hagen, 1800-1891); Letters (Dan.), ed. Carl Frederik Bricka and
Julius Albert Fridericia (Copenhagen, 1878); Danmarks Rites
Historie, vol. 4 (Copenhagen, 1897-1905); Robert Nisbet Bain,
Scandinavia, cap. vii. (Cambridge, 1905). (R. N. B.)

CHRISTIAN V. (1646-1699), king of Denmark and Norway,
the son of Frederick III. of Denmark and Sophia Amelia of

278

CHRISTIAN VII.-IX.

Brunswick-Luneburg, was born on the isth of April 1646 at
Flensberg, and ascended the throne on the 9th of February 1670.
He was a weak despot with an exaggerated opinion of his dignity
and his prerogatives. Almost his first act on ascending the
throne was publicly to insult his consort, the amiable Charlotte
Amelia of Hesse-Cassel, by introducing into court, as his officially
recognized mistress, Amelia Moth, a girl of sixteen, the daughter
of his former tutor, whom he made countess of Samso. His
personal courage and extreme affability made him highly
popular among the lower orders, but he showed himself quite
incapable of taking advantage permanently of the revival of
the national energy, and the extraordinary overflow of native
middle-class talent, which were the immediate consequences
of the revolution of 1660. Under the guidance of his great
chancellor Griffenfeldt, Denmark seemed for a brief period to
have a chance of regaining her former position as a great power.
But in sacrificing Griffenfeldt to the clamour of his adversaries,
Christian did serious injury to the monarchy. He frittered
away the resources of the kingdom in the unremunerative
Swedish war of 1675-79, an d did nothing for internal progress
in the twenty years of peace which followed. He died in a
hunting accident on the 25th of August 1699.

See Peter Edvard Holm, Danmarks indre Historic under Ene-
vaelden (Copenhagen, 1881-1886); Adolf Ditleva Jprgensen, Peter
Griffenfeldt (Copenhagen, 1893) ; Robert Nisbet Bain, Scandinavia
cap. x., xi. (Cambridge, 1905).

CHRISTIAN VII. (1749-1808), king of Denmark and Norway,
was the son of Frederick V., king of Denmark, and his first
consort Louisa, daughter of George II. of Great Britain. He
became king on his father's death on the I4th of January 1766.
All the earlier accounts agree that he had a winning personality
and considerable talent, but he was badly educated, systematic-
ally terrorized by a brutal governor and hopelessly debauched
by corrupt pages, and grew up a semi-idiot. After his marriage
in 1 766 with Caroline Matilda (1751-1775), daughter of Frederick,
prince of Wales, he abandoned himself to the worst excesses.
He ultimately sank into a condition of mental stupor, and
became the obedient slave of the upstart Struensee (<?..). After
the fall of Struensee (the warrant for whose arrest he signed
with indifference), for the last six-and-twenty years of his
reign, he was only nominally king. He died on the I3th of March
1808. In 1772 the king's marriage with Caroline Matilda, who
had been seized and had confessed to criminal familiarity with
Struensee, was dissolved, and the queen, retaining her title,
passed her remaining days at Celle, where she died on the nth
of May 1775.

See E. S. F. Reverdil, Struensee et la cour de Copenhague, 1760-
1772 (Paris, 1858) ; Danmarks Riges Historic, vol. v. (Copenhagen,
1897-1905) ; and for Caroline Matilda, Sir F. C. L. Wraxall, Life
and Times of Queen Caroline Matilda (1864), and W. H. Wilkins,
A Queen of Tears (1904).

CHRISTIAN VIII. (1786-1848), king of Denmark and Norway,
the eldest son of the crown prince Frederick and Sophia Frederica
of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, was born on the i8th of September
1786 at Christiansborg castle. He inherited the talents of his
highly gifted mother, and his amiability and handsome features
made him very popular in Copenhagen. His unfortunate first
marriage with his cousin Charlotte Frederica of Mecklenburg-
Schwerin was dissolved in 1810. In May 1813 he was sent as
stadtholder to Norway to promote the loyalty of the Northmen
to the dynasty, which had been very rudely shaken by the
disastrous results of Frederick VI.'s adhesion to the falling
fortunes of Napoleon. He did all he could personally to
strengthen the bonds between the Norwegians and the royal
house of Denmark, and though his endeavours were opposed
by the so-called Swedish party, which desired a dynastic union
with Sweden, he placed himself at the head of the Norwegian
party of independence, and was elected regent of Norway by an
assembly of notables on the i6th of February 1814. This
election was confirmed by a Storthing held at Eidsvold on the
loth of April, and on the I7th of May Christian was elected king
of Norway, despite the protests of the Swedish party. Christian
next attempted to interest the great powers in his cause, but

without success. On being summoned by the commissioners
of the allied powers at Copenhagen to bring about a union between
Norway and Sweden in accordance with the terms of the treaty
of Kiel, and then return to Denmark, he replied that, as a
constitutional king, he could do nothing without the consent
of the Storthing, to the convocation of which a suspension of
hostilities on the part of Sweden was the condition precedent.
Sweden refusing Christian's conditions, a short campaign ensued,
in which Christian was easily worsted by the superior skill and
forces of the Swedish crown prince (Bernadotte). The brief
war was finally concluded by the convention of Moss on the
i4th of August 1814 (see NORWAY: History). Henceforth
Christian's suspected democratic principles made him persona
ingratissima at all the reactionary European courts, his own
court included, and he and his second wife, Caroline Amelia
of Augustenburg, whom he married in 1815, lived in comparative
retirement as the leaders of the literary and scientific society
of Copenhagen. It was not till 1831 that old King Frederick
gave him a seat in the council of state. On the i3th of December
1839 he ascended the Danish throne as Christian VIII. The
Liberal party had high hopes of " the giver of constitutions,"
but he disappointed his admirers by steadily rejecting every
Liberal project. Administrative reform was the only reform
he would promise. He died of blood-poisoning on the 2oth
of January 1848.

See Just Matthias Thiele, Christian den Ottende (Copenhagen, 1 848) ;
Yngvar Nielsen, Bidrag til Norges Historic (Christiania, 1882-1886).

CHRISTIAN IX. (1818-1906), king of Denmark, was a younger
son of William, duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-GIiicks-
burg (d. 1831), a direct descendant of the Danish king Christian
III. by his wife Louise, a daughter of Charles, prince of Hesse-
Cassel (d. 1836), and grand-daughter of King Frederick V.
Born at Gottorp on the 8th of April 1818, Christian entered the
army, and alone among the members of his family served with
the Danish troops in Schleswig during the insurrection of 1848;
but he was a personage of little importance until about 1852,
ten years after his marriage with Louise (1817-1898), daughter
of William, prince of Hesse-Cassel (d. 1867), and cousin of King
Frederick VII. At this time it became imperative that satis-
factory provision should be made for the succession to the Danish
throne. The reigning king, Frederick VII., was childless, and
the representatives of the great powers met in London and
settled the crown on Prince Christian and his wife (May 1852),
an arrangement which became part of the law of Denmark in
1853. The " protocol king," as Christian was sometimes called,
ascended the throne on Frederick's death in November 1863,
and was at once faced by formidable difficulties. Reluctantly
he assented to the policy which led to war with the combined
power of Austria and Prussia, and to the separation of the duchies
of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg from Denmark (see
ScHLESwic-HoLSTEiN QUESTION). Within the narrowed limits
of his kingdom Christian's difficulties were more protracted and
hardly less serious. During almost the whole of his reign the
Danes were engaged in a political struggle between the " Right "
and the " Left," the party of order and the party of progress,
the former being supported in general by the Landsting, and
the latter by the Folketing. The king's sympathies lay with the
more conservative section of his subjects, and for many years
he was successful in preventing the Radicals from coming into
office. The march of events, however, was too strong for him,
and in 1901 he assented in a dignified manner to the formation
of a " cabinet of the Left " (see DENMARK: History). In spite
of these political disturbances Christian's popularity with his
people grew steadily, and was enhanced by the patriarchal and
unique position which in his later years he occupied in Europe.
With his wife, often called " the aunt of all Europe," he was
related to nearly all the European sovereigns. His eldest son
Frederick had married a daughter of Charles XV. of Sweden;
his second son George had been king of the Hellenes since 1863;
and his youngest son Waldemar (b. 1858) was married to Marie
d'Orleans, daughter of Robert, due de Chartres. Of his three
daughters, Alexandra married Edward VII. of Great Britain;

CHRISTIAN, W. CHRISTIANIA

279

Dagmar (Marie), the tsar Alexander III.; and Thyra, Ernest
Augustus, duke of Cumberland. One of his grandsons, Charles,
became king of Norway as Haakon VII. in 1905, and another,
Constantine, crown prince of Greece, married a sister of the
German emperor William II. Christian was also the ruler of
Iceland, where he was received with great enthusiasm when he
visited the island in 1874. He died at Copenhagen on the 2gth
of January 1906, and was buried at Roskilde.

See Barfod, Kong KristianlX.'s Regerings-Dagbog (Copenhagen,
1876); and Hans Majestet Kong Kristian IX. (Copenhagen, 1888).

CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663), Manx politician, a son
of Ewan Christian, one of the Manx deemsters, was born on the
I4th of April 1608, and was known as Illiam Dhone, or Brown
William. In 1648 the lord of the Isle of Man, James Stanley,
7th earl of Derby, appointed Christian his receiver-general; and
when in 1651 the earl crossed to England to fight for Charles II.
he left him in command of the island militia. Derby was taken
prisoner at the battle of Worcester, and his famous countess,
Charlotte de la .Tremouille, who was residing in Man, sought to
obtain her husband's release by negotiating with the victorious
parliamentarians for the surrender of the island. At once a
revolt headed by Christian broke out, partly as a consequence
of this step, partly owing to the discontent caused by some
agrarian arrangements recently introduced by the earl. The
rebels seized many of the forts; then Christian in his turn entered
into negotiations with the parliamentarians; and probably
owing to his connivance the island was soon in the power of
Colonel Robert Duckenfield, who had brought the parliamentary
fleet to Man in October 1651. The countess of Derby was
compelled to surrender her two fortresses, Castle Rushen and
Peel castle, while Christian remained receiver-general, becoming
governor of the island in 1656. Two years later, however, he
was accused of misappropriating some money; he fled to
England, and in 1660 was arrested in London. Having under-
gone a year's imprisonment he returned to Man, hoping that his
offence against the earl of Derby would be condoned under the
Act of Indemnity of 1661; but, anxious to punish his conduct,
Charles, the new earl of Derby, ordered his seizure; he refused
to plead, and a packed House of Keys declared that in this case
his life and property were at the mercy of the lord of the island.
The deemsters then passed sentence, and in accordance therewith
Christian was executed by shooting on the 2nd of January 1663.
This arbitrary act angered Charles II. and his advisers; the
deemsters and others were punished, and some reparation was
made to Christian's family. Christian is chiefly celebrated
through the Manx ballad Baase Illiam Dhone, which has been
translated into English by George Borrow, and through the
references to him in Sir Walter Scott's Pcveril of the Peak.

See A. W. Moore, History of the Isle of Man (1900).

CHRISTIAN OF BRUNSWICK (1599-1626), bishop of Halber-
stadt and a general during the earlier part of the Thirty Years'
War, a younger son of Henry Julius, duke of Brunswick- Wolfen-
buttel, was born at Groningen on the 2oth of September 1599.
Having succeeded his father as " bishop " of Halberstadt in 1616,
he obtained some experience of warfare under Maurice, prince
of Orange, in the Netherlands. Raising an army he entered the
service of Frederick V., elector palatine of the Rhine, just after
that prince had been driven from Bohemia; glorying in his
chivalrous devotion to Frederick's wife Elizabeth, he attacked
the lands of the elector of Mainz and the bishoprics of Westphalia.
* After some successes he was defeated by Tilly at Hochst in June
1622; then, dismissed from Frederick's service, he entered that
of the United Provinces, losing an arm at*the battle of Fleurus,
a victory he did much to win. In 1623 he gathered an army and
broke into lower Saxony, but was beaten by Tilly at Stadtlohn
and driven back to the Netherlands. When in 1625 Christian IV.,
king of Denmark, entered the arena of the war, he took the field
again in the Protestant interest, but after some successes he died
at Wolfenbuttel on the i6th of June 1626. Christian, who loved
to figure as " the friend of God, the enemy of the priests," is
sometimes called " the mad bishop," and was a merciless, coarse,
and blasphemous man.

CHRISTIAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, the name assumed by a
religious organization founded at Zion City near Chicago,
Illinois, U.S.A., in 1896, by John Alexander Dowie (?..). Its
members added to the usual tenets of Christianity a special
belief in faith-healing, and laid much stress on united consecra-
tion services and the threefold immersion of believers. To assist
Dowie, assistant overseers were appointed, and the operations,
of the community included religious, educational and commercial
departments. Small branches sprang up in other parts of the
United States, Mexico, Canada, Europe and Australasia. At the
end of 1901 there were nearly 12,000 baptized believers. After
1903 considerable dissension arose among Dowie's followers:
he was deposed in 1906; and after his death (1907) the city
gradually became a community of normal type.

CHRISTIAN CONNECTION, a denomination of Christians in
North America formed by secession, under James O'Kelly (1735-
1826), of members of the Methodist Episcopal Church in North
Carolina in 1793. The movement resembled those under the
Campbells and Stone in Kentucky in 1801-1804, and in Lyndon,
Vermont, among the Baptists in 1800. The predisposing cause
in each case was the desire to be free from the " bondage of
creed." Some of O'Kelly's followers joined the Disciples of
Christ (<?..). Their form of church government is Congregational;
they take the Bible as the sole rule of faith and practice, and
while adopting immersion as the proper mode of baptism, freely
welcome Christians of every sect to their communion. They
number about 100,000 members, mainly in the states of Ohio,
Indiana and Illinois. The original seceders in Virginia and
North Carolina bore for a time the name " Republican Metho-
dists," and then called themselves simply "Christians," a
designation which with the pronunciation "Christ-yans" is still
often applied to them. Their position is curiously akin to that
outlined by William Chillingworth (q.v.) in his famous work The
Religion of Protestants (1637-1638).

CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOUR SOCIETIES, organizations formed
for the purpose of promoting spiritual life among young people.
They date from 1881, in which year Dr Francis E. Clark (q.v.)
formed a Young People's Society of Christian Endeavour in
his (Congregational) church at Portland, Maine, U.S.A. The
idea was taken up elsewhere in America and spread to other
countries, till, under the presidency of Dr Clark, a huge number
of affiliated societies came into operation throughout the world.
They take as their motto " For Christ and the Church," and have
done much, especially in the non-episcopal churches, to prepare
young men and women for active services in the Church. The
organization is international and interdenominational, a World's
ChristianEndeavourUnionbeingformedini895. Themembersdo
not form a separate denomination, but remain attached to their re-
spective churches, being grouped in voluntary district federations.

CHRISTIANIA (officially KRISTIANIA), the capital of Norway,
forming a separate county (ami), and the seat of a bishopric
(stiff). Pop. (1901) 229,101. It lies on the south-eastern coast,
at the head of Christiania Fjord, about 80 m. from the open
waters of the Skagerrack, is 59 54' N. (about the latitude of the
southern extremity of the Shetland Islands) and 10 45' E.,
mainly on the west bank of the small Aker river. The situation
is very beautiful, pine-wooded hills rising sharply behind the
city, while several islands stud the fjord. The town is mainly
modern, having increased rapidly in and since the second half
of the igth century, when brick and stone largely superseded
wood as the building material. It is the seat of government,
of the supreme courts, of the parliament (Storthing), and of a
university. The harbour is of two parts, the Bjorvik, where
the larger steamers lie, and the Pipervik, west of this. On the
promontory intervening between these two inlets stands the old
fortress of Akershus, occupied as an arsenal and prison, and
having a pleasant promenade upon its ramparts. Until 1719
it was a royal palace. At the head of the Bjorvik the principal
railway station (Hovedbanegaard) stands in the Jernbanetorv
(railway square), and north-west from this runs the principal
street, Karl-Johans-gade. In this street, passing the Vor
Frelsers Kirke (Church of our Saviour), the Storthings-Bygning

280

CHRISTIANITY

(parliament-house, 1866) is seen, facing a handsome square
planted with trees. Beyond this is the National theatre (1899),
with colossal statues -of the dramatists Ibsen and Bjornsen.
It faces the Fridericiana University, housed in three buildings
dating from 1853, but founded by Frederick VI. of Denmark in
1811, embracing the five faculties of theology, law, medicine,
history and philology, mathematics and natural sciences. The
equipment of the university is very complete: it has attached
to it a large and valuable library, natural history, ethnological
and numismatic collections, with one of Scandinavian anti-
quities; also botanical gardens and an observatory. The Karl-
Johans-gade gives upon the beautiful Slotspark, a wooded
elevation crowned with the royal palace (slot), a plain building
completed in 1848. North of the university is the museum of
art, containing a noteworthy collection of sculpture and paintings
of ancient and modern foreign masters, and of native works.
The historical museum adjoining this contains northern antiqui-
ties, including two viking's ships, excavated, in 1867 and 1880
respectively, from the burial-places of the viking chiefs who
owned and, according to custom, were buried in them. Another
noteworthy collection is that of industrial art. The Bank of
Norway, the exchange, and the courts of law lie between the
harbours. Other institutions are the Freemasons' Lodge, housed
in one of the handsomest buildings in the city (1844), a conserva-
tory of music, naval, military and art schools, Athenaeum, and
the great Dampkjokken or kitchen (1858), where dinners are
provided for the poor.

The suburbs of Christiania are attractive and rapidly growing.
On the east side of the river Aker is that of Oslo, with the existing
episcopal palace, and an old bishop's palace, in which James VI.
of Scotland (I. of England) was betrothed to Princess Anne of
Denmark (i 589). In the environs of the city are the royal plea sure
castle of Oscarshal (1847-1852), on the peninsula Bygdo (Ladu-
gaard) to the west of the city, and the Norwegian national museum
(1881), containing industrial and domestic exhibits from the
various provinces. Close at hand is an interesting collection of old
Norwegian buildings, brought here from all parts, and re-erected,
including an example of the timber church of the izth century
(Slavekirke). A collection of ancient agricultural implements is
also shown. On Hovedo (Head Island) in the fjord, immediately
opposite to the Akershus, are the ruins of a Cistercian monastery,
founded in 1147 by monks from Kirkstead in Lincolnshire,
England, and burnt down in 1532. There are sanatoria and inns
among the surrounding hills, on which beautiful gardens are laid
out, such as Hans Haugen, Frognersaeter, Holmenkollen, where
the famous ski (snow-shoe) races are held in February, and
Voksenkollen. Electric tramways connect the city and suburbs,
and local steamers run from the Pipervik to the neighbouring
islands and fjord-side towns and villages.

Christiania has two railway stations, the Hovedbanegaard by
the Bjorvik, and the Vestbanegaard by the Pipervik. From the
first trains run south to Fredrikshald and Gothenburg, east to
Charlottenberg and Stockholm, north to Hamar and Trondhjem,
and Otta in Gudbrandsdal, and to Gjovik and the Valdres district.
From the west station start the lines to Drammen, Laurvik,
Skien and Kongsberg (for the Telemark district). The eastward
extension of the railway between Bergen and Vossevangen,
undertaken in 1896, had as its ultimate object the connexion of
Christiania and Bergen by rail. With these extensive land
communications Christiania is at once the principal emporium
of southern Norway, and a favourite centre of the extensive
tourist traffic. Regular passenger steamers serve the port from
Hull, Newcastle, Grangemouth and London, from Trondhjem,
Bergen and the Norwegian coast towns, from Hamburg, Amster-
dam, Antwerp, &c. Except for two large shipbuilding yards, one
with a floating dock, the other with a dry dock, most of the
manufactories are concentrated in the suburb of Sagene, on the
north side of the city, deriving their motive power from the
numerous falls of the river Aker. They embrace factories for
cotton and woollen spinning and weaving, paper, flour, soap and
oil, bricks and tiles, matches, nails (especially horse-shoe nails),
margarine, foundries and engineering shops, wood-pulp, tobacco,

matches, linen, glass, sail-cloth, hardware, gunpowder, chemicals,
with sawmills, breweries and distilleries. There is also a busy
trade in the preparation of granite paving-stones, and in the
storing and packing of ice. Imports greatly exceed exports, the
annual values being about 7 J and i J millions sterling respectively.
The former consist principally of grain and flour, cottons and
woollens, coffee, iron (raw and manufactured), coal, bacon and
salt meat, oils, sugar, machinery, flax, jute and hemp, paper-
hangings, paints, colours, &c., wines and spirits, raw tobacco,
copper, zinc, lead and tin, silk, molasses and other commodities.
The principal exports are wood-pulp, timber, nails, paper, butter
and margarine, matches, condensed milk, fish, leather and hides,
ice, sealskins, &c. Of the imports, Great Britain supplies the
greater part of the cotton and woollen yarn, the machinery
(including ships), and the raw metals; the United States about
one-half of the oils and fats, and a large proportion of the food-
stuffs, and skins, feathers, &c. Of the exports, almost the whole
of the timber goes to Great Britain, together with the larger
portion of the paper and food-stuffs (butter, &c.).. The harbour is
ice-bound for three or four months in the winter, when ships lie at
Drobak, lower down the fjord; but ice-breakers are also used.
Early in 1899 the municipality voted 47,000 for the construction
of a pier, a harbour for fishing-boats, protected by a mole, and a
quay, 345 ft. long, on the shore underneath the Akershus. These
works signalized a great scheme of improvement, involving a
general rearrangement of the entire harbour.

The present suburb of Oslo represents the original city, which
was founded on this site under that name (or Opslo) by Harald
Sigurdsson in 1048. By the close of the i4th century it was
established as the chief city of Norway. Trade was long
dominated by the powerful Hanseatic League, at least until the
beginning of the i6th century. The town, built mainly of wood,
was no less subject to fires than all Norwegian towns have always
been, and after one of these King Christian IV. refounded the
capital on the new site it now occupies, and gave his name to it in
1624. By the close of the century it was fortified, but this did not
prevent Charles XII. from gaining possession of it in 1716.

SeeL. Daae, DetgamU Christiania, 1624-1824 (Christiania, 1890);
Y. Nielsen, Christiania und Umgegend (Christiania, 1 894); G.
Amnus, La Vitte de Christiania . . . Resume historique, &fc. (Chris-
tiania, 1900).

CHRISTIANITY, the religion which accepts Jesus Christ as
Lord and Saviour, embracing all who profess and call themselves
Christians, the term derived from his formal title (xpwros, i.e.
the anointed). Within this broad characterization are found
many varieties of cult, organization and creed (see CHURCH
HISTORY). Christianity is classed by the students of the science
of religion as a universal religion; it proclaims itself as intended
for all men without distinction of race or caste, and as in posses-
sion ol absolute truth. In fact, Christianity has been widely
accepted by varied races in very different stages of culture, and it
has maintained itself through a long succession of centuries in
lands where the transformations in political structure, the
revolutions in social conditions, and the changes in science and
philosophy, have been numerous and extreme.

Beginning in Asia, Christianity extended itself rapidly through-
out the Roman empire and beyond its borders among the
barbarians. When the Empire in the 4th century adopted it, its
cult, organization and teaching were carried throughout the
western world. The influences and motives and processes
which led to the result were many and varied, but ultimately in
one way or another it,became the religion of Europe and of the
nations founded by the European races beyond the seas and in
the northern part of Asia called Siberia. Beyond these bounds it
has not greatly prospered. The explanation of the apparent
bounding of Christianity by Europe and its offspring is not,
however, to be found in any psychological peculiarity separating
the European races from those of other continents, nor in any
special characteristic of Christianity which fits it for European
soil. For not only were its founder and his disciples Asiatics,
and the original authoritative writings Semitic, but Asiatic tribes
and nations coming into Europe have been readily converted.

CHRISTIANITY

281

Missions in Asia too have achieved sufficient success to prove
that there exists no inherent obstacle either in the gospel or in
the Asiatic mind. Moreover, Christianity was once represented
in Asia by a powerful organization extending throughout Persia
and central Asia into India (see PERSIA). Mutatis mutandis, the
same applies to Africa also, and Christianity still survives in both
continents in the Coptic, Abyssinian and Armenian Churches.
The explanation is rather to be sought in the political condition of
the early centuries of the Christian era, especially in the rise of
Mahommedanism. This may be regarded indeed as a form of
Christianity, for it is not more foreign perhaps to the prevailing
type than are some sects which claim the name. It exerted a
strong influence upon Europe, but its followers have been
peculiarly unsusceptible to missionary labours, and even in
Europe have retained the faith of the Prophet. In the limita-
tions of the Roman empire and in the separation of East and
West consequent upon its decline, Christianity, as a dominant
religion, was confined for a thousand years to Europe, and even
portions of this continent for centuries were in the hands of its
great foe. The East appeared as the Mahommedan dominions,
and beyond these the continents of Asia and Africa were so
dimly discerned th'at little reciprocal influence was felt. Thus
the development of the two great civilized portions of the race in
Europe and Asia followed independent lines in religion as in all
else; and Africa, excepting its northern border, was left un-
touched by the progress of enlightenment.

Not only is Christianity thus the religion of a wide variety of
races but across the divisions there cut other lines. In its
organization Christianity exists in three great divisions, Roman,
Greek and Protestant; and in various ancient sects in the Orient.
The Roman Catholic and Greek divisions of the Christian Church
are homogeneous in organization, but in Protestantism certain
denominations are national, established by differing govern-
ments, and others are independent of governmental aid, making
a large number of differing denominations. Some of these
divisions are mutually antagonistic, denying to each other the
name of Christian and even the hope of salvation.

According to a second classification, Christianity may be placed
among the " individual " religions, since it traces its origin, like
Islam and Buddhism, to an individual as its founder. This
beginning is not in the dimness of antiquity nor in a multitude
of customs, beliefs, traditions, rites and personalities, as is the
case with the so-called " natural " religions. It is not implied
that in the formation of the " natural " religions individuals
were not of great importance, nor, on the other hand, that in
individual religions the founder formed his faith independently
of the community of which he was a part; but only that as
undoubted historic facts certain religions, in tracing their lines to
individuals, thereby acquired a distinctive character, and retain
the impress of their founder. Such religions begin as a reform
or a protest or revolt. They proclaim either a new revelation,
or the return to an ancient truth which has been forgotten or
distorted. They demand repentance and change of heart, i.e. the
renouncing of the ordinary faith of the community and the
acceptance of a new gospel. Thus demanding an act of will on
the part of individuals, they are classed once more as " ethical "
religions. To be sure, the new is built upon the old in part
unconsciously and the rejection of the faith of the past, however
violent, is never thoroughgoing. In consequence the old affects
the new in various ways. Thus in Buddhism the presupposi-
tions which Buddha uncritically took over work out their
logical results in the Mahayana, so that great sects calling
themselves " Buddhist " affirm what the Master denied and.
eny what he taught. Christianity takes Judaism (see HEBREW
EUGION) for granted rejects it in part as a merely preparatory
age, in part reinterprets it, and does not submit what it accepts
> rigorous scrutiny. As a result the Old Testament (see BIBLE)
emains not only as the larger part of the Christian canon, but,
ometimes, in some churches, as obscuring its distinctive truth,
loreover, in the transference of Christianity from the Jewish
the Greek-Roman world again various elements were taken
nto it. More properly perhaps we might consider the Greek

and Roman civilization as the permanent element so that the
relationship to it was not different from the relationship to
Judaism in part it was denied, in part it was of purpose accepted,
in still larger part unconsciously the Greek- Roman converts took
over with them the presuppositions of their older world view
and thus formed the moulds into which the Christian truth was
run. Here again, in some instances the pre-Christian elements
so asserted themselves as to obscure the new and distinctive
teaching.

Christianity, regarded objectively as one of the great religions
of the world, owes its rise to Jesus of Nazareth, in ancient
Galilee. (See JESUS CHRIST.) By reverent disciples
his ancestry was traced to the royal family of David, Relation
and his birth isascribed by the church to the miraculous ju<f a ;, m .
act of God. His life was spent, until the beginning
of his public ministry, in humble circumstances as the son of a
carpenter and his wife, Joseph and Mary. Of Joseph we hear
nothing after the boyhood of Jesus, who followed the same
trade, supporting himself and perhaps his mother and younger
brothers and sisters. Of this period we have only a few frag-
mentary anecdotes and a stray reference or two. At thirty
years of age he appeared in public, and after a short period
(we cannot determine how long, but possibly eighteen months)
he was crucified, upon the accusation of his countrymen, by the
Roman authorities. He was without technical education, but
he had been carefully trained in the sacred books, as was usual
with his people. Belonging neither to the aristocracy nor to
the learned class, he was one of the common people yet separate
from them a separation not of race or caste or education, but
of unique personality.

His career is understood only in the light of his relations to
Judaism (see HEBREW RELIGION). This faith, in a peculiarly
vivid fashion, illustrates the growth and development of religion,
for its great teachers in the highest degree possessed what the
Germans call God-consciousness. The Hebrew national literature
centres in the thought of God. It is Yahweh who is all and in all,
the father, the leader, the hope, the hero of his people. No other
national literature is so continuously and so highly religious.
Another factor gives it still greater interest for the student of
religion, in it the progress of religious thought can be traced,
and the varying elements of the religious life seen in harmony
and in conflict.

In the early period the Hebrew religion was of the ordinary
Semitic type. In its ancient stories were remnants of primitive
religion, of tabu, of anthropomorphic gods, of native forms of
worship, of magic and divination, of local and tribal cults. Out
of these developed, by the labours of the prophets, a religion of
high spirituality and exalted ethical ideals. According to it
God demands not ritual nor sacrifice nor offerings. He does not
delight in prayers and praise, but he demands truth in the soul
and bids man to walk humbly and deal righteously and mercifully
with his brother (Micah vi.6-8 ; Isa. i. 2-20). He requires kindness,
forgiveness and loving sacrifice from all to all (Isa. Iviii.3-i2).
This conception of God revealed itself as so essential to the
prophets that their intense national feeling was modified. God
would not deliver Israel because it was his people, descended
from Abraham, his chosen, but he would punish it even more
severely than the other nations because it denied him by its sins
(Amos iii. 1-2). Yet Israel would not be destroyed, for a
spiritual remnant, loving and obeying God, would be saved and
purified (Ezek. xxxvi.-xxxvii.). Thus Israel survived its mis-
fortunes. When the national independence was destroyed,
the prophetic teaching held the people together in the hope of
a re-establishment of the Kingdom when all nations should be
subject to it and blessed in its everlasting reign of righteousness
and peace (Isa. xlix., lx.).

Some of the prophets associated the restoration of the Kingdom
with the coming of the Messiah, the anointed one, who should
re-establish the line of David (Isa. ix. 6 f., xi. i f. ; Micah v. 2;
Ezek. xxxiv. 23, xxxvii. 24; Zech. ix. 9; Ps. ii. 72). Others
said nothing of such a one, but seemed to expect the regenera-
tion of Israel through the labours, sufferings and triumphs of

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the righteous remnant (Isa. liii., Ezek. xxxvi.-xxxvii.). By the
strong emphasis upon righteousness, the tribal Lord of Israel was
revealed as the universal God, of one relationship to all men.
This monotheism was not primarily cosmological nor meta-
physical, but ethical. The Jews showed little capacity for abstract
reasoning and never pursued their inquiries to the discovery of
ultimate principles. Thus they did not develop a systematic
cosmology, nor formulate a system of metaphysics. Their
religion was pre-eminently " theocratic "; God was thought
of as King, enthroned in heaven and supreme. In the beginning
as a tribal deity his powers were limited and he was involved
in the fortunes of his people. But as the conception of Yahweh
was deepened and broadened, and, especially after the develop-
ment of ethical monotheism, not only was he believed to possess
power sufficient to ensure the triumph of his chosen people, but
to be the creator and ruler of all things in heaven and on earth,
the God whom all peoples should worship and obey.

But the prophetic teaching was obscured in part by the
nationalism of the prophets themselves, who exalted Israel as at
once God's instrument and the peculiar object of his love; and
in part by the triumph of a legal-ritualistic sacrificial system.
In the downfall of Jerusalem, the experiences of the exile in
Babylon, and the return to Judaea, the nation was transformed
into a church. Apart from the brief Maccabaean period, the
intense patriotism of the people centred in the ecclesiastical organ-
ization. As a result, cult and organization and code hardened,
forming a shell which proved strong enough to resist all dis-
integrating tendencies. Inevitably the freedom, spirituality and
universality of the prophetic teaching were obscured. In the
ist century A.D. the national and priestly, elements controlled;
doubtless many individuals still were faithful to the purer
prophetic message, though also zealous for the system of ritual
and sacrifice, but for the ruling majority ritualistic service was the
chief thing, justice, purity and mercy being subordinate. Hence
in their view all who did not -participate in the national worship
and conform to the national usages were outcasts. The triumph
of Israel was to be accomplished by the miraculous power of a
Messiah who should descend out of heaven. His coming was
delayed, in part by the opposition of demons, in part by the
failure of the people to obey the law. This law embraced both
moral ami-ceremonial elements derived from varied sources, but
in the apprehension of the people it was all alike regarded as of
divine origin. It was to be obeyed without question and without
inquiry as to its meaning, because established by God. It was
contained in the Sacred Scriptures (see BIBLE: Old Testament),
which had been revealed by God supernaturally, and its meaning
was set forth by schools of learned men whose interpretations
were authoritative. The conception of salvation was mingled
with ideas derived from the East during and after the period of
captivity. The priesthood held still the ancient ideas. Salvation
was for the nation, and the individual was not necessarily
participant in it. Life after death was disbelieved or held as the
existence of shades. There could be no resurrection of the body
and no immortality (in the Greek sense). With these beliefs
were associated a certain worldliness and want of fervour. The
more actively and aggressively religious party, on the other hand,
adopted the belief in the resurrection of the body, and in the
individual's participation in the Messiah's kingdom; all the
pious would have their share in it, while the wicked would be
outcast. But these doctrines were variously conceived. By
some the Messianic kingdom was thought of as permanent, by
others as intermediary, the external kingdom being transcendent.
So too some thought of a literal resurrection of the body of flesh
and blood, while others thought that it would be transformed.
The rudiments of some of these ideas can be found in the prophets,
but their development took place after the exile, and indeed for
the most part after the conclusion of the writings accounted
canonical. Thus too the belief in a kingdom of demons held a
large place in the mind of the people, though the references to
such evil beings are almost absent from the sacred writings of the
Old Testament. Again it is to the East that we must look for the
origin of these ideas.

of Jesus.

Jesus completed the prophetic teachings. He employed the
old phraseology and imagery, but he was conscious that he used
them in a new sense, and that he preached a new gospel
of great joy. Jesus was not a historian, a critic or a
theologian. He used the words of common men in the
sense in which common men understood them. He did
not employ the Old Testament as now reconstructed by scholar-
ship or judged by criticism, but in its simple and obvious and
traditional sense. And his background is the intellectual and
religious thinking of his time. The ideas of demons and of the
future, of the Bible and many other traditional conceptions, are
taken over without criticism. So the idea of God which he sets
forth is not that of a theologian or a metaphysician, but that
of the unlearned man which even the child could understand.
Yet though thus speaking in untechnical language, he revolution-
ized his terms and filled them with new meaning. His emphasis is
his own, and the traditional material affords merely the setting
for his thought. He was not concerned with speculative
questions about God, nor with abstract theories of his relation-
ship to the soul and to the world. God's continual presence, his
fatherly love, his transcendent righteousness, his mercy, his good-
ness, were the facts of immediate experience! Not in proofs by
formal logic but in the reality of consciousness was the certainty
of God. Thus religion was freed from all particular and national
elements in the simplest way. For Jesus did not denounce these
elements, nor argue against them, nor did he seek converts outside
of Israel, but he set forth communion with God as the most
certain fact of man's experience and as simple reality made it
accessible to every one. Thus his teaching contains the note of
universality not in terms and proclamations but as plain matter
of fact. His way for others to this reality is likewise plain and
level to the comprehension of the unlearned and of children.

For him repentance is put first, for how vastly changed is the
conception of the religious life! The intricacies of ritual and
theology are ignored, and ancient laws which contradict the
fundamental beliefs are unhesitatingly abrogated or denied.
He seizes upon the most spiritual passages of the prophets, and
revives and deepens them. He sums up his teaching in supreme
love to God and a love for fellow-man like that we hold for
ourselves (Mark xii. 29-31). This supreme love to God is a
complete oneness with him in will, a will which is expressed in
service to our fellow-men in the simplest and most natural
relationship (Luke x. 2 5-3 7) . Thus religion is ethical through and
through, as God's inner nature, expressed in forgiveness, mercy,
righteousness and truth, is not something transcendental, but
belongs to the realm of daily life. We become children of God
and he our Father in virtue of a moral likeness (Matt. v. 43-48),
while of any metaphysical, or (so to speak) physical relationship
to God Jesus says nothing. With this clearly understood, man is
to live in implicit trust in the divine love, power, knowledge and
forgiveness. Hence he attains salvation, being delivered from
sin and fear and death, for the divine attributes are not ontological
entities to be discussed and defined in the schools, but they are
realities, entering into the practical daily life. Indeed they are
to be repeated in us also, so that we are to forgive our brethren as
we ask to be forgiven (Matt. vi. 12; Luke xi. 4).

As religion thus becomes thoroughly ethical, so is the notion
of the Messianic kingdom transformed. Its essential character-
istic is the doing of the Father's will on earth as in heaven.
Jesus uses parable after parable to establish its meaning. It is
a seed cast into the ground which grows and prospers (Matt,
xiii. 31-32). It is a seed sown in good ground and bringing
forth fruit, or in bad ground and fruitless (Luke viii. 5-8; Mark
iv. 1-32). It is a pearl of great price for which a man should sell
all that he possesses (Matt. xiii. 44-46). It is not come " with
observation," so that men shall say " lo here and lo there "
(Luke xvii. 20-21). It is not of this world, and does not possess
the characteristics or the glory of the kingdom of the earth
(Luke xxii. 24-26; Mark x. 13-16). It is already present among
men (Luke xvii. 21). Together with these statements in our
sources are still mingled fragments of the. more ordinary cata-
clysmic, apocalyptic conceptions, which in spite of much

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283

ingenious exegesis, cannot be brought into harmony with Christ's
predominant teaching, but remain as foreign elements in the
words of the Master, possibly brought back through his disciples,
or, more probably, used by Jesus uncritically a part of the
current religious imagery in which he shared.

It is often declared that in these teachings there is nothing
new, and indeed analogies can be found for many sayings; yet
nowhere else do we gain so strong an impression of
J '" originality. The net result is not only new but re-
volutionary; so was it understood by the Pharisees.
They and Jesus spoke indeed the same words and appealed to the
same authorities, but they rightly saw in him a revolutionist
who threatened the existence of their most cherished hopes.
The Messianic kingdom which they sought was opposed point
by point to the kingdom of which he spoke, and their God and
his Father though called by the same sacred name were
different. Hence almost from the beginning of his public
ministry they constantly opposed him, the conflict deepening
into complete antagonism.

Jesus has already been termed unique, one of the common
people yet separated from them, and this description applies
to the breadth, depth and reality of his sympathy. In the meagre
records of his life there is evidence that he deemed no form of
suffering humanity foreign to himself. This was not a mere
sentiment, nor was his sympathy superficial, for it constituted
the essential characteristic of his personality " He went about
doing good." In him the will of the Father for the redemption
of the race was incarnate. This led him into the society of those
outcasts who were condemned and rejected by the respectable
and righteous classes. In contemptuous condemnation he was
called the friend of the outcasts (Matt. xi. 19; Mark ii. 16-17),
and on his part he proclaimed that these sinners would enter into
the Kingdom of Heaven before the self-righteous saints (Matt.
xxi. 31). Even the most repulsive forms of disease and sin drew
from him only loving aid, while he recognized in all other men
who laboured for the welfare of their fellows the most intimate
relationship to himself. These constituted his family, and these
were they whom his Father will bless.

Jesus recognized his unique position; he could not be ignorant
of his powers. Even the prophets had spoken in the name of
God; they accepted neither book nor priesthood as authoritative,
but uttered their truth as they were inspired to speak, and com-
manded men to listen and obey. As in Jesus the whole prophetic
line culminates, so does its consciousness. Reverent toward the
Holy Scriptures, he spoke not as their expositor but with a
divine power which invests his words with immediate and full
authority. The prophets use the formula, " Thus saith the
Lord," but he goes beyond them and speaks in his own name,
" Amen, I say unto you." He knew himself as greater than the
prophets, indeed as him of whom the prophets spoke the
Messiah. Only through this self-consciousness can we explain
his mission and the career of his disciples. The prophets up to
John foretold the coming of the kingdom (Matt. xi. 11-13; Luke
xvi. 16), but Jesus opened its doors and made possible entrance
into it. Where he is there it is, and hence those who follow him
are God's children, and those who refuse his message are left out-
side in darkness. He is to sit as enthroned, judge and king, and
by him is men's future to be determined (Matt. xxv. 31 f. ; Mark
xiii. 26). Indeed it was his presence more than his teaching
which created his church. Great as were his words, greater was
his personality. His disciples misunderstood what he said,
but they trusted and followed him. By him they felt themselves
freed from sin and fear and under the influence of a divine
power.

Though his claims to authoritative pre-eminence thus took

him out of the class of prophets and put him even above Elijah

and Mo=es (Mark ix. 2-7; Luke vii. 28; Luke x. 23-24),

Messianic an ^ though naturally this self-assertion seemed

iims. blasphemous to those who did not accept him, yet as
he had transformed the traditional notion of the
kingdom, so did he the current thought of the Messiah. The
pre-eminence was not to be of rank and glory but of service and

self-sacrifice. In his kingdom there can be no strife for pre-
cedence, since its King comes not to be ministered unto but to
minister and to give his life in the service of others (Mark ix.
33 f., x. 42-45). The formal acknowledgment of the Messiah's
worth and position matters little, for to call him Lord does not
ensure entrance into his kingdom (Matt. vii. 21-23). It is those
who fail to recognize the spirit of sympathy and self-sacrificing
service as divine and blaspheme redeeming love, who are in
danger of eternal sin (Mark iii. 28-29). All who do the will of
the Father, i.e. who serve their fellows, are the brethren of Christ,
even though they do not call him Lord (Mark iii. 31-35; Matt,
vii. 21): and those are blessed who minister to the needy even
though ignorant of any relation to himself (Matt. xxv. 37-40).
Finally, membership in his own selected company, or a place
in the chosen people, is not of prime importance (Mark ix. 38-40;
Luke xiii. 24-30).

Jesus also refuses to conform to the current ideas as to the estab-
lishment of the kingdom. He wrought miracles, it is true, because
of his divine sympathy and compassion, but he refused to show
miraculous signs as a proof of his Messianic character (Mark
viii. 1 2). The tradition of the people implied a sudden appearance
of the Messiah, but Jesus made no claims to a supernatural
origin and was consent to be known as the son of Joseph and Mary
(Mark vi. 3-4). His kingdom is not to be set up by wonders and
miraculous powers, nor is it to be established by force (Matt,
xxvi. 52). Such means would contradict its fundamental
character, for as the kingdom of loving service it can be estab-
lished only by loving service. And as God is love, he can be
revealed not by prodigies of power but only by a love which is
faithful unto death.

Even the disciples of Jesus could not grasp the simplicity and
profundity of his message; still less could his opponents. When
the crisis came, he alone remained unshaken in his faith. He was
accused of blasphemy to the ecclesiastical authorities and of
insurrection to the civil rulers. He was condemned and crucified.
His followers were scatteied every man to his own place as sheep
without a shepherd. Of his work nothing remained, not a
written word, nor more than the rudiments of an organization.
The decisive event, which turned defeat into victory and re-
established courage and faith, was the resurrection of Jesus from
the dead and his reappearance to his disciples. Our sources will
not permit the precise determination of the order or the nature of
these appearances, but in any case from them arose the faith
which was the basis of the Christian Church and the starting-
point of its theology.

The death of Jesus as a criminal, and his resurrection, pro-
foundly aroused the belief and hopes of the little group of Jews
who were his followers. His person and mission assumed the
first place in their affections and their thinking. He had been to
them a prophet, mighty in word and deed, but he now becomes
to them the Messiah, Christ. It is not his word but his person
which assumes first place, and faith is acceptance of him
crucified and risen as Messiah. Hence his followers early
acquire the name Christians from the Greek form of the word.
With this emphasis upon the Messiah the Jewish element would
seem to be predominant, but as a matter of fact it was not so.
The earlier group of disciples, it is true, did not appreciate the
universality of the teaching of Jesus, and they continued zealous
for the older forms, but St Paul through his prophetic conscious-
ness grasped the fundamental fact and became Jesus' true
interpreter. As a result Christianity was rejected by the Jews
and became the conquering religion of the Roman empire.
In this it underwent another modification of far-reaching
consequence.

In our earliest sources the epistles of St Paul Christ is the
pre-existent man from heaven, who had there existed in the form
of God, and had come to earth by a voluntary act of Christian -
self-humiliation. He is before and above all things, ttyaad
By him all things exist. In the Johannine writings he Oreek
is the Son of God the Logos who in the beginning was a " H v ht -
with God of whom are all things who lightens every man and
who was incarnate in Jesus. Here the cosmological element is

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again made prominent though not yet supreme, and the meta-
physical problems are so close at hand that their discussion is
imperative. Even in Paul the term Messiah thus had lost its
definite meaning and became almost a proper name. Among the
Greek Christians this process was complete. Jesus is the " Son of
God "; and the great problem of theology becomes explicit.
Religion is in our emotions of reverence and dependence, and
theology is the intellectual attempt to describe the object of
worship. Doubtless the two do not exactly coincide, not only
because accuracy is difficult or even impossible, but also because
elements are admitted into the definition of God which are
derived from various sources quite distinct from the religious
experience. Like all concepts the meaning of religious terms is
changed with a changing experience and a changing world-view.
Transplanted into the Greek world-view, inevitably the Christian
teaching was modified indeed transformed. Questions which
had never been asked came into the foreground, and the Jewish
presuppositions tended to disappear. Especially were the
Messianic hopes forgotten or transferred to a transcendent
sphere beyond death. When the empire became Christian in the
4th century, the notion of a kingdom of Christ on earth to be
introduced by a great struggle all but disappeared, remaining
only as the faith of obscure groups. Immortality the philo-
sophical conception took the place of the resurrection of the
body. Nevertheless the latter continues because of its presence
in the primary sources, but it is no longer a determining factor,
since its presupposition the Messianic kingdom on earth has
been obscured. As thus the background is changed from Jewish
to Greek, so are the fundamental religious conceptions.

The Semitic peoples were essentially theocratic in their
religion; they used the forms of the sensuous imagination in
setting forth the realities of the unseen world. They were not
given to metaphysical speculation, nor long insistent in their
inquiries as to the meaning and origin of things. With the
Greeks it was far otherwise. For them ideas and not images set
forth fundamental reality, and their restless intellectual activity
would be content with nothing else than the ultimate truth.
Their speculation as to the nature of God had led them gradually
to separate him by an infinite distance from all creation, and to
feel keenly the opposition of the finite and the infinite, the perfect
and the imperfect, the eternal and the temporal. To them,
therefore, Christianity presented itself not primarily as the
religion of a redemption through the indwelling power of a risen
saviour, as with Paul, nor even as the solution of the problem how
the sins of men could be forgiven, but as the reconciliation of the
antinomy of the intellect, indicated above. The incarnation
became the great truth: God is no longer separated by a measure-
less distance from the human race, but by his entering into
humanity he redeems it and makes possible its ultimate unity
with himself. Such lines of thought provoke discussion as to the
relationship of Jesus to God the Father, and, at a later period, of
the nature of the Holy Spirit who enters into and transforms
believers.

Greek philosophy in the second century A.D. had sunk for the
most part into scepticism and impotence; its original impulse
had been lost, and no new intellectual power took its place; only
in Alexandria was there a genuine effort make to solve the
fundamental problems of God and the world. Plato had made
God accessible to the highest knowledge as the transcendent idea,
remote from the world. For Aristotle, too, God in his essence is
far above the world and at most its first mover. The stoics, on
the other hand, taught his immanence, while the eclectics sought
truth by the mingling of the two ideas. They accomplished their
purpose in various ways, by distinguishing between God and his
power or by the notion of a hierarchy of super-sensible beings,
or in a doctrine which taught that the operations of nature are
the movement of pure spirit; or by the use of the " Word " of
" Wisdom," half personified as intermediate between God and
the world. While these monotheistic, pantheistic doctrines were
taught in the schools, the people were left to a debased polytheism
and to new superstitions imported from the Orient; the philo-
sophers themselves were by no means unaffected by the popular

beliefs. Mingled with all these were the ancient legends of gods
and heroes, accepted as inspired scripture by the people, and by
philosophers in part explained away by an allegorical exegesis and
in part felt increasingly as a burden to the intelligence. In this
period of degeneracy there were none the less an awakening to
religious needs and a profound longing for a new revelation of
truth, which should satisfy at once the intellect and the religious
emotions.

Christianity came as supplying a new power; it freed philo-
sophy from scepticism by giving a definite object to its efforts
and a renewed confidence in its mission. Monotheism henceforth
was to be the belief not of philosophers only but even of the
ignorant, and in Jesus Christ the union of the divine and the
human was effected. The Old Testament, allegorically explained,
became the substitute for the outgrown mythology; intellectual
activity revived; the new facts gained predominant influence
in philosophy, and in turn were shaped according to its canons.
In theology the fundamental problems of ontological philosophy
were faced; the relationship of unity to multiplicity, of noumenon
to phenomena, of God to man. The new element is the historical
Jesus, at once the representative of humanity and of God. As
in philosophy, so now in theology, the easiest solution of the
problem was the denial of one of its factors: and successively
these efforts were made, until a solution was found in the doctrine
of the Trinity, which satisfied both terms of the equation and
became the fundamental creed of the church. Its moulds of
thought are those of Greek philosophy, and into these were run
the Jewish teachings. We have thus a peculiar combination
the religious doctrines of the Bible, as culminating in the person
of Jesus, run through the forms of an alien philosophy.

The Jewish sources furnished the terms Father, Messiah,
Son and Spirit. Jesus seldom employed the last term, and St
Paul's use of it is not altogether clear. Already in The
Jewish literature it had been all but personified (cf. doctrine
the Wisdom of Solomon) . Thus the material is Jewish, ' '*
though already modified doubtless by Greek influence.
But the problem is Greek. It is not primarily ethical nor even
religious, but it is metaphysical. What is the ontological relation-
ship between these three factors? The answer is given in the
Nicene formula, which is characteristically Greek. By it we
perceive how God, the infinite, the absolute, the eternal, is yet not
separated from the finite, the temporal, the relative, but, through
the incarnation, enters into humanity. We further see how this
entering into humanity is not an isolated act but continues in all
the children of God by the indwelling spirit. Thus, according
to the canons of the ancient philosophy, justice is done to all the
factors of our problem God remains as Father, the infinitely
remote and absolute source of all; as Son, the Word who is
revealed to man and incarnate in him; as Spirit, who dwells even
in our own souls and by his substance unites us to God.

While thus the Greek philosophy furnished the dialectic and
the mould for the characteristic Christian teaching, the doctrine
of the Trinity preserved religious values. By Jesus the disciples
had been led to God, and he was the central fact of faith. After
the resurrection he was the object of praise, and soon prayers were
offered in his name and to him. Already to the apostle Paul he
dominates the world and is above all created things, visible and
invisible, so that he has the religious value of God. It is not God
as abstract, infinite and eternal, as the far-away creator of the
universe, or even as the ruler of the world, which Paul worships,
but it is God revealed in Jesus Christ, the Father of Jesus Christ,
the grace and mercy in Jesus Christ which deliver from evil.
Metaphysics and speculative theories were valueless for Paul;
he was conscious of a mighty power transforming his own life
and filling him with joy, and that this power was identical with
Jesus of Nazareth he knew. In all this Paul is the representative
of that which is highest and best in early Christianity. Specula-
tion and hyperspiritualization were ever tending to obscure
this fundamental religious fact: in the interest of a higher
doctrine of God his true presence in Jesus was denied, and by
exaggeration of Paul's doctrine of " Christ in us " the significance
of the historic Jesus was given up. The Johannine writings,

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285

which presupposed the Pauline movement, are a protest against
the hyperspiritualizing tendency. They insist that the Son of
God has been incarnate in Jesus of Nazareth, and that our hands
have handled and our eyes have seen the word of life. This same
purpose, namely, to hold fast to the historic Jesus, triumphed
in the doctrine of the Trinity; Jesus was not to be resolved
into an aeon or into some mysterious tertium quid, neither God
nor man, but to be recognized as very God who redeemed the
soul. Through him men were to understand the Father and
to understand themselves as God's children. Thus the doctrine
of the Trinity satisfied at once the philosophic intelligence of
scholars and the religious needs of Christians. Only thus can its
adoption and ultimate acceptance be explained. Its doctrinal
form is the philosophic statement of beliefs held by the common
people, who had little interest in theology, but whose faith
centred in Jesus. It marks the naturalization of Christianity
ia the Greek world for the common people who believed in Christ,
and for the philosophers who justified the faith to reason.

The historic and religious values of the doctrine of the Trinity
may be illustrated by way of contrast. The Mahayana systems
are the union of Buddha's teaching with the forms of the Brah-
man philosophy. The historic Buddha the man Gautama
is taught as only one of a limitless series of incarnations or
(better) appearances. For his life on earth with his material
body was only an appearance, a seeming, a phenomenon, and
simultaneously with its activities the true Buddha existed
unmoved and eternal. Thus the way was opened for other
apparitional Buddhas, and different sects take different ones
as the objects of faith and worship. Moreover, our true nature is
also Buddha. The conscious life of all men is apparitional and
illusive. Salvation is the comprehension of this fact, and in the
apprehension of our essential oneness with the absolute. Hence
the way of salvation is by knowledge. In the Mahayana
gnosticism was triumphant, and the historic values of Gautama's
teaching and personality are lost. The Mahayana illustrates
in part what would have followed the triumph of gnosticism
in Christianity, for not only would the historic value of the life
and teaching of Jesus have been lost, but with it the significance
of humanity.

It is apparent that such a doctrine as the Trinity is itself
susceptible of many explanations, and minds differently con-
stituted lay emphasis upon its different elements. Especially
is this true as its Greek terminology was translated into Latin,
and from Latin came into modern languages the original
meaning being obscured or disguised, and the original issues
forgotten. For some the first thought of God, the infinite and
ultimate reality lying beyond and behind all phenomena, pre-
dominates. With these the historic manifestation of Jesus
becomes only a guide to lead us to that immediate apprehension
of God which is the end of theology, and to that immediate union
with God which is the end of religion. Such an end is accom-
plished either by means of pure thought or by a oneness of pure
feeling, giving as results the theological or philosophical con-
struction of the concept God, or a mystical ecstasy which is itself
at once immediate, inexplicable and indescribable. On the other
hand, minds of a different and more concrete character so
emphasize the distinctions God, Son and Holy Spirit, that a
tritheistic construction appears three individuals in the one
Godhead: these individuals appearing, as for example in the
Father and the Son, even in opposition to each other. In general
we may say then that the Trinity takes on four differing aspects
in the Christian church: in its more common and easily appre-
hended form as three Gods, in its ecclesiastical form as a mystery
which is above reason to be accepted by faith, in its philosophic
form as the highest reason which solves the ultimate problems
of the universe, and finally, as a mode by which the spirit through

i emotional content enters into communion with God himself.

To some Christians the doctrine of the Trinity appeared
nconsistent with the unity of God which is emphasized in the

criptures. They therefore denied it, and accepted Jesus Christ,
not as incarnate God, but as God's highest creature by whom
all else was created, or as the perfect man who taught the true

doctrine of God. The first view in the early Church long con-
tended with the orthodox doctrine, but finally disappeared,
and the second doctrine in the modern Church was set forth as
easily intelligible, but has remained only as the faith of sects
relatively small in number.

Allied with the doctrine of God which seeks the solution of the
ultimate problem of all philosophy, the doctrine of salvation has
taken the most prominent place in the Christian faith: Tbg
so prominent, indeed, that to a large portion of believers doctrine
it has been the supreme doctrine, and the doctrine of the of the
deity of Jesus has been valued only because of its "**
necessity on the effect of the atonement. Jesus alone of the great
founders of religion suffered an early and violent death, even the
death of a criminal. It became therefore the immediate task of
his followers to explain this fact. This explanation was the more
urgent because under the influence of Jewish monotheism the
rule of God was accepted as an undoubted presupposition, so that
the death of Jesus must be in accordance with his will. The early
Church naturally used the terms and phrases of the prophets.
He died the death of a criminal, not for his sins, but for ours.
Isaiah liii. was suggested at once and became the central ex-
planation: Christ is the suffering servant who is numbered with
the transgressors and who bears the sins of many.

Jesus faced this problem perhaps before the opening of his
ministry, certainly from his break with the ecclesiastical
authorities. As his violent death drew near, his words indicated
how he preserved his deep faith unshaken while yet recognizing
the seeming failure of his mission. He devotes himself more
exclusively to the little body of his faithful friends and commits
his mission to them. As his work is sealed by his death his body
is broken and his blood is shed for them. Through this is to come
the victory which is denied to his life, as the seed cast into the
ground and dead brings forth fruit. Our hints are few of Jesus'
teaching, but this much, at least, we cannot doubt unless we
suppose that death took him unawares, or that his explanation
of the impending fact took on some un- Jewish form; and further,
that the earliest tradition misrepresents him. But these hypo-
theses do not commend themselves, and we accept the tradition
that Jesus taught that his death was an atonement for others.

Beyond this the gospel does not go. Why vicarious suffering is
needed, or why the God who is the loving Father does not
simply forgive, as in the parable of the prodigal son, is not asked.
For after all it is not theory which is central, but the fact of the
death, and the reason assigned is simply " for others."

In St Paul we find the beginnings of explanation, indeed of two
explanations, and in the Epistle to the Hebrews the whole
sacrificial system is found to culminate in Christ, of whom all
priests and sacrifices are symbols, so that they are abolished
with the coming of the great reality.

In the Greek world further questions are raised and the thought
of the death as a ransom is prominent. To whom was the
ransom paid? For a thousand years the answer was " to the
devil." He had gained control of man by man's sin, and Christ
set man free. God then, who is love, delivers us from evil
through Christ, who pays the penalty of our transgression to the
enemy of God and man. There were other theories also, indeed
the germs of all later theories existed even in the second century,
but this one prevailed. The heretic Marcion taught a variant,
namely, the existence of two Gods, one of the Old Testament of
law, the other of the New Testament of grace. Christ, unjustly
condemned by the God of law, is given as reparation for all men
who put their trust in him. From Anselm's time (izth century
A.D.) this theory of Marcion's is held as orthodox in substance but
is made monotheistic in form. St Anselm denied that any penalty
was due to the devil, and in terms of feudal honour restated
the problem. The conflict here is in God himself, so to speak,
between his immutable righteousness and his limitless grace.
In the sacrifice of Jesus these are reconciled. This doctrine of
St Anselm's attaches itself readily to texts of St Paul, for his
teachings contain undeniably the vicarious propitiatory element.

These theories have to do with the being to whom the ransom
is paid or the sacrifice offered. Another group of theories deals

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with the effect of the death of Christ upon the sinner. One of
these is the so-called governmental theory, wherein the death of
Christ is set forth as for the sake of good government, so that the
forgiveness of sins shall not be thought a sign of laxity. Again,
by other theologians the death of Jesus is extolled because of
the moral influence it exerts, since Christ's devotion unto death
incites a like devotion in us.

Excepting in relatively narrow circles these theories have
been seriously studied only by professed theologians. That Christ
died for us, and that we are saved by him, is indeed the living
truth of the Church in all ages, and a false impression of the fact is
given by dwelling upon theories as if they were central. At best
they bear only the relationship of philosophy to life.

Another explanation, or (better) system of beliefs, has been
far more influential in the Church. Belief in mysterious powers
attached to food, feasts, ceremonial rites and sacred things is
all but universal. Primitive man seldom connects sacrifice with
notions of propitiation, indeed only in highly ethicized religions is
the consciousness of sin or of guilt pre-eminent. Sacrifice was
believed to exert an influence on the deity which is quasi-
physical, and in sacrificial feasts God and worshipper are in
mysterious union. Sometimes, indeed, such contact with deity
is thought to be dangerous, and the rites indicate avoidance
(tabu), and sometimes it is thought desirable.

So universal are such ideas that the problem in particular
religions is not their origin but their form. In the Old Testament
repeatedly they are found in conflict with the prophetic ideals.
Sometimes the prophets denounce them, sometimes ignore them,
sometimes attempt to reform and control them. Jesus ignores
them, his emphasis being so strong upon the ethical and spiritual
that the rest is passed by. In the early Church, still Jewish, the
belief was in the coming of a mysterious power from God which
produced ecstasy and worked wonders. St Paul also believes in
this, but insists that it is subordinate to the peaceable fruits of
righteousness. With the naturalization of the Church in the
Gentile world ethical ideas became less prominent, and the
sacramental system prevailed. By baptism and the Lord's
Supper grace is given (ex opere operato), so that man is renewed
and made capable of salvation. Already in the 2nd century
baptism was described as a bath in which the health of the soul is
restored, and the Lord's Supper as the potion of immortality.
Similar notions present in the ethnic faiths take the Christian
facts into their service, the belief of the multitude without
essential change remaining vague and undefined. While the
theologians discussed doctrine the people longed for mystery, as it
satisfied their religious natures. By sacraments they felt them-
selves brought into the presence of God, and to sacraments tliey
looked for aid. Many sacraments were adopted by portions of the
Church, until at last the sacred number seven was agreed upon.

As the way of salvation was modified, so too was the idea of
salvation: the dream of a Messianic kingdom on earth, with its
corollary the resurrection of the physical body, faded
awa >% especially after the Roman empire adopted
salvation. Christianity. It was no longer the Jewish nation against
the heathen empire, for the Jewish nation had ceased
to be, and the empire and the Church were one. Salvation
henceforth is not the descent of the New Jerusalem out of
heaven, but the ascent of the saints to heaven ; for the individual
it is not the resurrection of the body but the immortality of the
soul. So Jesus is no longer Christ or Messiah, but the Son of God.
These terms again are variously 'interpreted: heaven is still
thought of by many under the imagery of the book of Revelation,
and by others it is conceived as'a mystical union of the soul with
God through the intelligence or of feelings. Yet the older con-
ceptions still continue, Christianity not becoming purely and
simply Greek. Again and again individuals and groups turn
back to the Semitic cycle of hopes and ideas, while the reconcilia-
tion of the two systems, Jewish and Graeco-Roman, becomes the
task of exegetes and theologians.

These hopes and theories of salvation, however, do not explain
the power of Christianity. Jesus wearied himself with the healing
of man's physical ailments, and he was remembered as the great

physician. Early Christian literature is filled with medical terms,
applied (it is true) for the greater part to the cure of souls.
The records of the Church are also filled with the efforts of Jesus'
followers to heal the diseases and satisfy the wants of men. A
vast activity animated the early Church: to heal the sick,
to feed the hungry, to succour the diseased, to rescue the fallen,
to visit the prisoners, to forgive the erring, to teach the ignorant,
were ministries of salvation. A mighty power impelled men
to deny themselves in the service of others, and to find in this
service their own true life. None the less the first place is
given to the salvation of the soul, since, created for an unend-
ing existence, it is of transcendent importance. While man
is fallen and by nature vile, nevertheless his possibilities are
so vast that in comparison the affairs of earth are insignificant.
The word, " What shall it profit a man if he gain the whole world
and lose his own soul?" comes to mean that the individual soul
outvalues the whole world. With emphasis upon God as creator
and ruler, and upon man as made in God's image, endowed with
an unending existence, and subject to eternal torture if not
redeemed, the concept of personality has been exalted at the
expense of that of nature, and the future has been magnified
at the expense of the present. Thus a future heaven is man's
true home, and theology instead of philosophy or natural science
is his proper study.

Indeed, intellectual interest centred in religion. Natural
science was forsaken, except in so far as it ministered to theology.
Because the Old Testament contained references to the origin
and the objects of the universe, a certain amount of natural
science was necessary, but it was only in this connexion that
it had any value. By Augustine's time this process is complete.
His writings contain most of the knowledge of his age, but it
is strictly subordinate to his theological purpose. Hence, when
the barbarians submerged southern Europe, theology alone
survived. The Church entered upon a new task. In the begin-
ning Christianity had been the teacher of religion to highly
civilized peoples now it became the civilizing agent to the
barbarians, the teacher of better customs, the upholder of law
and the source of knowledge. The learned men were monks
and priests, the universities were Church institutions, and
theology was the queen of the sciences.

The relation of cult to creed is still undetermined. Theoreti-
cally the first depends on the second, for its purpose is twofold :
the excitation of worthy religious emotions and the
attaining of our desires; and how shall these objects be
attained unless we know him whom we worship and worship.
to whom we pray? But it is plausibly maintained
that the reverse is true, namely, that theology rests on cult.
In the beginnings of consciousness instinctive reactions precede
definite thoughts, and even in mature life thoughts often follow
acts instead of preceding them. Our religious consciousness
is simply our ordinary consciousness obeying its laws. So un-
purposed does cult grow up that it combines many elements of
diverse origin, and is seldom precisely and wholly in accordance
with the creed. No doubt the two interact, cult influencing
creed and creed modifying cult cult, perhaps, being most
powerful in forming the actual religious faith of the multitude.
Cult divides into two unequal parts, the stimulation of the
religious emotions and the control of piety. In the Church
service it came early to centre in the sacrament of the Eucharist
(q.v.). In the earliest period the services were characterized by
extreme freedom, and by manifestations of ecstasy which were
believed to indicate the presence of the spirit of God; but as
the years went by the original enthusiasm faded away, the cult
became more and more controlled, until ultimately it was com-
pletely subject to the priesthood, and through the priesthood
to the Church. In the Roman communion the structure of the
sacred edifice, the positions and attitudes of the priest and the
congregation, the order of service, emphasize the mystery and
the divine efficacy of the sacrament. The worshipper feels him-
self in the immediate presence of God, and enters into physical
relations with him. Participation in the mass also releases from
guilt, as the Lamb of God offered up atones for sin and intercedes

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287

Polity.

with the Father in our behalf. Thus in this single act of deyotion
both objects of all cults are attained.

As the teaching and person of Jesus were fitted into the
framework of the Greek philosophy, and the sacraments into
the deeper and broader forms of popular belief, so was
the organization shaped by the polity of the Roman
empire. Jesus gathered his group of followers and committed
to it his mission, and after his resurrection the necessities of the
situation brought about the choice of quasi-officials. Later the
familiar polity of the synagogue was loosely followed. A com-
pleter organization was retarded by two factors, the presence
of the apostles and the inspiration of the prophets. But when
the apostles died and the early enthusiasm disappeared, a stricter
order arose. Practical difficulties called for the enforcement of
discipline, and differences of opinion for authority in doctrine;
and, finally, the sacramentarian system required a priesthood.
In the 2nd century the conception of a Catholic Church was
widely held and a loose embodiment was given it; after the con-
version of the empire the organization took on the official forms
of the empire. Later it was modified by the rise of the feudal
system and the re-establishment of the modern European
nationalities (see CHURCH HISTORY).

The polity of the Church was more than a formal organization;
it touched the life of each believer. Very early, Christianity
Penance was conce i ve d to be a new system of law, and faith was
interpreted as obedience. Legalism was joined with
sacramentarianism, doubling the power of the priest. Through
him Church discipline was administered, a complete system of
ecclesiastical penalties, i.e. penance, growing up. It culminated
the doctrine of purgatory, a place of discipline, of purifying
iuffering after death. The Roman genius for law strengthened
nd systematized this tendency.

The hierarchy which centres in the pope constitutes the Church
if which the sacramental system is the inn^r life and penance
the sanction. It is thus a divine-human organization. It
teaches that the divine-human Son of God established it, and
returning to heaven committed to the apostles, especially to St
'eter, his authority, which has descended in an unbroken line
rough the popes. This is the charter of the Church, and its
iceptance is the first requisite for salvation; for the Church
etermines doctrine, exercises discipline and administers sacra-
ments. Its authority is accompanied by the spirit of God, who
guides it into truth and gives it miraculous power. Outside the
Church there are only the " broken lights " of man's philosophy
and the vain efforts of weak human nature after virtue.

Christianity in its complete Roman development is thus the
iming of the supernatural into the natural. The universe falls
into these orders, the second for the sake of the first, as
nature is of and for God. Without him nature at its
highest is like a beautiful statue, devoid of life; it is of
secondary moment compared even to men, for while it
passes away he continues for ever. He is dependent,
therefore, not upon nature, but upon God's grace for
salvation, and this comes through the Church. In the book of
Revelation the New Jerusalem descending from heaven to the
earth may be taken as a symbol of a continuing process: the
human receives the divine, as the Virgin Mary received the Holy
Spirit and brought forth Jesus, perfect man and perfect God.
hus the Church ever receives God and has a twofold nature;
its sacraments through material and earthly elements impart a
divine power; its teachings agree with the highest truths of
ihilosophy and science, yet add to these the knowledge of
ysteries which eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither hath it
tered into the heart of man to conceive; it sanctifies human
lationships, but the happiness of earth at purest and best is
>nly a shadow of the divine bliss which belongs to the redeemed
soul. Hence man should deny the world for the sake of the other
orld, and the title " religious " belongs distinctly to the monastic
id priestly life. Theology is the queen of the sciences, and
icthing should be taught in school or university which contradicts
its conclusions. Moreover, nothing should be done by the state
'hich interferes with the transcendent interest committed to the

The

completed

doctrine

of the

Homan

Church.

Church. Thus the Church touches and controls all realms of life,
and the cycle is complete. It began as separate from the world
and proscribed by it; next it adapted itself to the learning, the
customs and the polity of the world. Finally it asserted its
mastery and assumed sovereign power over all. The Church in
its completed form was the outcome of a long development; if
the seed was Jewish the environment was Gentile. Into the full
tree were gathered the effects, not only of the initial energy, but
of the forces of earth, air, water and sun. The Roman Church
expressed the beliefs and answered the needs of the people, and
this explains in part both its forms and its power, its long
continuance and wide supremacy.

The Church was never completely successful in unifying its
organization. In part it shared the destiny of the Roman
empire, and with it fell into two parts, East separating
from West. Indeed the East never really acknowledged Eastern
the Roman primacy nor shared in its development, Church.
and it still remains apart. With characteristic oriental
conservatism it claims the title of " Orthodox," and retains the
creed and organization of the early Church. In general its
conception of the relation of the world to the super-world is
identical with that of the Roman Church, though somewhat less
defined, as its organization is less complete. It has remained in
the second stage mentioned above; established, as in Russia, by
the empire, it is dependent upon it and in alliance with it. In
the Mahommedan dominions it has been recognized as a state
within the state, and in these communities faith and patriotism
are one.

The idea of the Roman Church was imperfectly enlbodied at the
best; the divine gift was in earthen vessels. The world was never
completely cast out; indeed the Church became the
scene for ambition and the home of luxury and pleasure. g e formtt-
It was entangled also in the political strife of the feudal tioo.
ages and of the beginning of modern empires. Its
control of the sciences embroiled it with its own philosophers and
scholars, while saints and pure-minded ecclesiastics attempted,
without success, its reform from within. Finally, through
Luther, the explosion came, and western Christendom broke into
two parts Catholic and Protestant.

Protestantism in its primary principle is the return to primitive
Christianity. The whole development which we have traced,
culminating in the ecclesiastical-doctrinal system of the Roman
Church, is regarded as a corruption, since foreign and even
heathen elements have been brought in, so that the religion
established by Christ is obscured or lost. For Protestants the
Bible only now becomes the infallible, inspired authority in faith
and morals. Interpretations by the Fathers or by the councils are
to be taken only as aids to its understanding. With this principle
is associated a second, the liberty of the individual; he reads the
sacred Scriptures and interprets them for himself without the
intervention of priests or church; and he enters by faith in Christ
into communion with God, so that all believers are priests. Here
may be noted a fundamental difference in the psychology of
religion, since in the Roman Church the chief appeal is to the
emotions, while in the Reformed it is to the intelligence. Yet
this appeal to the intelligence is not rationalism: the latter
makes reason the supreme authority, rejecting all which does not
conform to it; the Bible is treated like any other book, to be
accepted or rejected in part or in whole as it agrees with our
canons of logic and our general science, while religion submits to
the same process as do other departments of knowledge. But in
Protestantism reason and the light of nature are in themselves as
impotent as in the Roman Church. The Bible interpreted by
man's unaided intelligence is as valueless as other writings, but it
has a sacramental value when the Holy Spirit accompanies its
teaching, and the power of God uses it and makes the soul capable
of holiness. In all this the supernatural is as vividly realized as in
the Roman Church; it is only its mediation which is different.

These principles are variously worked out in the different
churches and variously expressed. In part because of historical
circumstances, the divergence from the older systems is more
marked in some Protestant churches than in others, yet on the

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CHRISTIANITY

whole these two principles determine cult and in part organiza-
tion. As in the Roman Church cult centres in the mass, so in
the Reformed Church it centres in the sermon. The
Holy Spirit, the determining factor in the religious life,
uses the Bible as his means, and calls the intelligence
into action. The clergyman is primarily the preacher, renewed by
God's power and enlightened by the Spirit, so that he speaks with
divine authority. The ancient Jewish prophetic office is revived,
yet with a difference: the ancient prophets acknowledged no
external authority, but the Protestant preacher is strictly
subordinate to the Scriptures of which he is the interpreter.
Beside the sermon the sacraments are observed as established by
Christ two in number, baptism and the Lord's Supper. But
these do not exert a quasi-physical or magical influence, ex opere
operate. Unless there be faith in the recipient, an understanding
of the meaning of the sacrament and an acceptance of it, it is
valueless or harmful. Prayer and praise also are effective only as
the congregation intelligently join in them; hence they are not
to be solely by a priest nor in a strange tongue, as the clergyman
is simply the leader of the devotions of the people. In large
portions of the Church also opportunity for the free expression of
the religious experience of the laity is found.

The emphasis upon the believer and his freedom from all ex-
ternal authority do not result in a thoroughgoing individualism.
Luther clearly held to the unity of all Christians, and Protestants
are agreed in this. For them, as for the Roman Church, there is a
belief in a catholic or all-embracing Church, but the unity is not
that of an organization ; Christians are one through an indwelling
spirit; they hold the same faith, undergo the same experience
and follow the same purpose. This inner life constitutes the
oneness of believers and forms the true Church which is invisible.
It expresses itself in outward forms, yet there are not two
Churches visible and invisible, but only one. The spiritual
experience of the individual utters itself in words, and desires
association with others who know the same grace. There is
formed a body of teaching in which all agree, and an organization
in which the common experience finds expression and aid. While
then membership in this organization is not primary, it assumes
a higher and even a vital importance, since a true experience
recognizes the common faith and the common fellowship. Were
it to refuse assent to these, doubt would be thrown upon its own
trustworthiness.

Historically these principles were only in part embodied, for the
Reformation was involved in political strife. The Reformers
turned to the government for aid and protection, and throughout
Europe turmoil and war ensued. In consequence, in the Pro-
testant nations the state assumed the ultimate authority over
the Church. Moreover, in the early days of the Reformation the
Catholic Church charged it with a lawless individualism, a charge
which was seemingly made good by an extreme divergence in
theological opinion and by riots in various parts of the Protestant
world. The age was indeed one of ferment, so that the foundations
of society and of religion seemed threatened. The Reformers
turned to the state for protection against the Roman Church, and
ultimately as a refuge from anarchy, and they also returned to
the theology of the Fathers as their safeguard against heresy.
Instead of the simplicity of Luther's earlier writings, a dogmatic
theology was formed, and a Protestant ecclesiasticism estab-
lished, indistinguishable from the Roman Church in principle.
The main difference was in the attitude to the Roman allegiance
and to the sacramentarian system. There was thus by no means
a complete return to the Bible as the sole authority, but the
Bible was taken as interpreted by the earlier creeds and as
worked into a doctrinal system by the scholastic philosophy.
Thus Protestantism also came to identify theology with the
whole range of human knowledge, and in its official forms it was
as hostile to the progress of science as was the Roman Church
itself.

Many Protestants rebelled against this radical departure from
the principles of the Reformation and of Biblical Christianity.
To them it seemed the substitution of the authority of the Church
for the authority of a living experience and of intellectual

adherence to theological propositions for faith. The freedom of
the individual was denied when the state enforced religious
conformity. Thus a struggle within Protestantism arose, with
persecutions of Protestants by Protestants. Moreover, many
failed to find the expression of their faith in the official creed or in
the established organization, and Protestantism divided into
many sects and denominations, founded upon special types of
religious experience or upon particular points in doctrine or in
cult. Thus Protestantism presents a wide diversity in com-
parison with the regularity of the Roman Church. This we
should expect indeed from its insistence upon individual freedom;
yet, notwithstanding certain notable exceptions, amid the
diversity there is a substantial unity, a unity which in our day
finds expression in common organizations for great practical ends,
for example in the " Bible Societies," " Tract Societies," the
" Young Men's Christian Associations," " Societies of Christian
Endeavour," &c., which disregard denominational lines.

The coming of the northern peoples into the Roman world
profoundly modified Christianity. It shared indeed in the
dreariness and corruption of the times commonly called christi-
the " dark ages," but when at last a productive period aaUyand
began the Church was the first to profit by it. Since all t ^ e ^ tnt
educated men were priests, it assimilated the new"' 1
learning the revived Aristotelianism and continued its control
of the universities. In the I3th century it was supreme, and
Christianity was identified with world systems of knowledge and
politics. Both were deemed alike divine in origin, and to question
their validity was an offence against God. Christianity thus had
passed through three stages in politics as in science. At first it
was persecuted by the state, then established by it, and finally
dominated over it; so its teaching was at first alien to philosophy
and despised by it, next was accepted by it and given form and
rights through it, and finally became queen of the sciences as
theology and ruled over the whole world of human knowledge.
But the triumph by its completeness ensured new conflicts; from
the disorder of the middle ages arose states which ultimately
asserted complete autonomy, and in like fashion new intellectual
powers came forth which ultimately established the independence
of the sciences.

In the broadest sense the underlying principle of the struggle
is the reassertion of interest in the world. It is no longer merely
the scene for the drama of the soul and God, nor is man inde-
pendent of it, but man and nature constitute an organism,
humanity being a part of the vaster whole. Man's place is not
even central, as he appears a temporary inhabitant of a minor
planet in one of the lesser stellar systems. Every science is
involved, and theology has come into conflict with metaphysics,
logic, astronomy, physics, chemistry, geology, zoology, biology,
history and even economics and medicine. From the modem
point of view this is unavoidable and even desirable, since
" theology " here represents the science of the I3th century. As
in the political world the states gained first the undisputed
control of matters secular, rejecting even the proffered counsel of
the Church, and then proceeded to establish their sovereignty
over the Church itself, so was it in the empire of the mind. The
rights gained for independent research were extended over the
realm of religion also; the two indeed cannot remain separate,
and man must subordinate knowledge to the authority of
religion or make science supreme, submitting religion to its
scrutiny and judging it like other phenomena. Under this
investigation Christianity does not appear altogether exceptional.
Its early logic, ontology and cosmology, with many of its dis-
tinctive doctrines, are shown to be the natural offspring of the
races and ages which gave them birth. Put into their historical
environment they are freed from adverse criticism, and indeed
valued as steps in the intellectual development of man's mind.
Advanced seriously, however, as truths to-day, they are put
aside as anachronisms not worthy of dispute. The Bible is
studied like other works, its origins discovered and its place in
comparative religion assigned. It does not appear as altogether
unique, but it is put among the other sacred books. For the
great religions of the world show similar cycles of development,

CHRISTIANITY

289

similar appropriations of prevalent science and philosophy,
similar conservative insistence upon ancient truth, and similar
claims to an exclusive authority.

'With this interest is involved an attitude of mind toward the
supernatural. As already pointed out, nature and super-nature
were taken as physically and spatially distinct. The latter could
descend upon the former and be imparted to it, neither subject
to nature nor intelligible by reason. In science the process has
been reversed; nature ascends, so to speak, into the region of
the supernatural and subdues it to itself; the marvellous or
miraculous is brought under the domain of natural law, the
canons of physics extend over metaphysics, and religion takes its
place as one element in the natural relationship of man to his
environment. Hence the new world-view threatens the founda-
tions of the ecclesiastical edifice. This revolution in the world-
view is no longer the possession of philosophers and scholars, but
the multitude accepts it in part. Education in general has
rendered many familiar with the teachings of science, and,
moreover, its practical benefits have given authority to its
maxims and theories. The world's problem is not only therefore
acute, but the demand for its solution is wider than ever before.
The Roman Catholic Church uncompromisingly reasserts its
ancient propositions, political and theological. The cause is
Theatti- lost indeed in the political realm, where the Church
tiide ofthe is obliged to submit, but it protests and does not
waive or modify its claims (see the Syllabus of 1864,
paragraphs 19 ff., 27, 54 and 55). In the Greek and
Protestant churches this situation cannot arise, as they make
no claims to governmental sovereignty. In the intellectual
domain the situation is more complex. Again the Roman Church
unhesitatingly reaffirms the ancient principles in their extreme
form (Syllabus, paragraphs 8-9-13; Decrees of the Vatican
Council, chapter 4, note especially canon 4-2). The works of
St Thomas Aquinas are recommended as the standard authority
in theology (Encyc. of Leo XIII., Aeterni Patris, Aug. 4, 1879).
In details also the conclusions of modern science are rejected,
as for example the origin of man from lower species, and, in a
different sphere, the conclusions of experts as to the origins of
the Bible. Faith is defined as " assent upon authority," and the
authority is the Church, which maintains its right to supremacy
over the whole domain of science and philosophy.

The Greek Church remains untouched by the modern spirit,
and the Protestant Churches also are bound officially to the
The Greek scholastic philosophy of the I7th century; their con-
aadPro- fessions of faith still assert the formation of the world
m s ' x ^ avs > an< ^ rec l u i re assent to propositions which
can be true only if the old cosmology be correct. Offici-
ally then the Church identifies Christianity with the position
outlined above, and hostile critics agree to this identification,
rejecting the faith in the name of philosophic and scientific truth.
On the other hand there are not wanting individuals and even
large bodies of Christians who are intent upon a reinterpretation.
Even in the official circles of the Church, not excepting
promises. tne Roman Church, there are many scholars who find
no difficulty in remaining Christian while accepting
the modern scientific view of the world. This is possible to some
because the situation in its sharp antithesis is not present to
their minds: by making certain compromises on the one side
and on the other, and by framing private interpretations of
important dogmas, they can retain their faith in both and yet
preserve their mental integrity. A large literature is produced,
reconciling science and theology by softening and compromising
and adapting; a procedure in accordance with general historical
development, for men do not love sharp antagonisms, nor are
they prepared to carry principles to their logical conclusions.
By a fortunate power of mind they are able to believe as truths
mutually inconsistent propositions.

Thus the crisis is in fact not so acute as it might seem. No
great institution lives or dies by logic. Christianity rests on great
religious needs which it meets and gratifies, so that its life (like all
other lives) is in unrationalized emotions. Reason seeks ever to
rationalize these, an attempt which seems to destroy yet really

VI. 10

fulfils. As thus the restless reason tests the emotions of the soul,
criticizes the traditions to which they cling, rejects the ancient
dogmas in which they have been defined, the Church slowly
participates in the process: silently this position and that are
forsaken, legends and beliefs once of prime importance are for-
gotten, or when forced into controversy many ways are found
by which the old and the new are reconciled: the sharpness of
distinctions can be rubbed off, expressions may be softened,
definitions can be modified and half-way resting-places afforded,
until the momentous transition has been made and the continuity
of tradition is maintained. Finally, as the last step, even the
official documents may be revised. Such a process in Christianity
is everywhere in evidence, for even the Roman Church admits
the modern astronomy. So too it accepts the changes in the world
of politics with qualified approval. In the Syllabus of 1864 the
separation of state and church was anathematized, yet in 1906
this separation in the United States was held up as an example
to be followed by the French government. In the Protestant
Churches the process is precisely similar. No great church has
yet modified its articles of religion so as to admit, for example,
that the Garden of Eden was not a definite place where Eve was
tempted, yet the doctrine is contradicted with approval by
individuals, and the results of modern science are accepted and
taught without rebuke. In all this the Church shows its essential
oneness with other organizations of society, the government,
the family, which are at once deeply rooted in the past, and yet
subject to the influences of the present. For Christianity is by
no means wholly intellectual, nor chiefly so. It would be fully
as true to facts to describe this religion as a vast scheme for
the amelioration of the condition of humanity. In education,
in care for the sick, the poor, the outcast, it has retained the
spirit of its Lord. Though it has at times denied this spirit,
been guilty of crimes, persecutions, wars and greed still the
Church has never quite forgotten him who went about doing good,
nor freed itself from the contagion of his example. No age has
been so responsive to the needs of man as our own; whatever
doubts men have as to the doctrines or the cults there is an
agreement wider than in the past in the good works whose inspira-
tion is a divine love.

Yet the intellectual crisis cannot be ignored in the interest
of the practical life. Men must rationalize the universe. On
the one hand there are churchmen who attempt to
repeat the historical process which has naturalized
the Church in alien soils by appropriating the forces
of the new environment, and who hold that the entire
process is inspired and guided by the spirit of God. Hence
Christianity is the absolute religion, because it does not preclude
development but necessitates it, so that the Christianity that is to
come shall not only retain all that is important in the Christianity
of the past and present but shall assimilate new truth. On the
other hand some seek the essential Christianity in a life beneath
and separable from the historic forms. In part under the in-
fluence of the Hegelian philosophy, and in part because of the
prevalent evolutionary scientific world-view, God is represented
under the form of pure thought, and the world process as the
unfolding of himself. Such truth can be apprehended by the
multitude only in symbols which guide the will through the
imagination, and through historic facts which are embodiment
of ideas. The Trinity is the essential Christian doctrine, the
historic facts of the Christian religion being the embodiment
of religious ideas. The chief critical difficulty felt by this school
is in identifying any concrete historic fact with the unchanging
idea, that is, in making Jesus of Nazareth the incarnation of God.
God is reinterpreted, and in place of an extra-mundane creator
is an omnipresent life and power. The Christian attainment is
nothing else than the thorough intellectual grasp of the absolute
idea and the identification of our essential selves with God.
With a less thorough-going intellectualism other scholars re-
interpret Christianity in terms of current scientific phraseology.
Christianity is dependent upon the understanding of the universe ;
hence it is the duty of believers to put it into the new setting,
so that it adopts and adapts astronomy, geology, biology and

290

CHRISTIANITY

psychology. With this accomplished, Christianity will resume
its ancient place. Consciously and of purpose the attempt is
made to do once more what has been done repeatedly before,
to restate Christianity in the terms of current science.

From all these efforts to reconstruct systematic theology with
its appropriations of philosophy and science, groups of Christians
turn to the inner life and seek in its realities to find the con-
firmation of their faith. They also claim oneness with a long line
of Christians, for in every age there have been men who have
ignored the dogma and the ritual of the Church, and in contempla-
tion and retirement have sought to know God immediately in
their own experience. To them at best theology with its cos-
mology and its logic is only a shadow of shadows, for God
reveals himself to the pure in heart, and it matters not what
science may say of the material and fleeting world. This spirit
manifests itself in wide circles in our day. The Gordian knot is
cut, for philosophy and religion no longer touch each other but
abide in separate realms.

In quite a different way a still more influential school seeks
essential Christianity in the sphere of the ethical life. It also
would disentangle religion from cosmology and formal philosophy.
It studies the historic development of the Church, noting how
element after element has been introduced into the simplicity
of the gospel, and from all these it would turn back to the Bible
itself. In a thorough-going fashion it would accomplish what
Luther and the Reformation attempted. It regards even the
earliest creeds as only more or less satisfactory attempts to
translate the Christian facts into the current language of the
heathen world. But the process does not stop with this re-
jection of the ancient and the scholastic theology. It recognizes
the scientific results attained in the study of the Bible itself,
and therefore it does not seek the entire Bible as its rule of truth.
To it Jesus Christ, and he alone, is supreme, but this supremacy
does not carry with it infallibility in the realm of cosmology or
of history. In these too Jesus participated in the views of his
own time; even his teaching of God and of the future life is
not lacking in Jewish elements, yet none the less he is the
essential element in Christianity, and to his life-purpose must all
that claims to be Christianity be brought to be judged. To this
school Christianity is the culmination of the ethical monotheism
of the Old Testament, which finds its highest ideal in self-
sacrificing love. Jesus Christ is the complete embodiment of this
ideal, in life and in death. This ideal he sets before men under
the traditional forms of the kingdom of God as the object to be
attained, a kingdom which takes upon itself the forms of the
family, and realizes itself in a new relationship of universal
brotherhood. Such a religion appeals for its self-verification
not to its agreement withtosmological conceptions, either ancient
or modern, or with theories of philosophy, however true these
may be, but to the moral sense of man. On the one hand, in its
ethical development, it is nothing less than the outworking of
that principle of Jesus Christ which led him not only to self-
sacrificing labour but to the death upon the cross. On the other
hand, it finds its religious solution in the trust in a power not
ourselves which makes for the same righteousness which was
incarnate in Jesus Christ.

Thus Christianity, as religion, is on the one hand the adoration
of God, that is, of the highest and noblest, and this highest and
noblest as conceived not under forms of power or knowledge but
in the form of ethical self-devotion as embodied in Jesus Christ,
and on the other hand it meets the requirements of all religion
in its dependence, not indeed upon some absolute idea or omni-
potent power, but in the belief that that which appeals to the
soul as worthy of supreme worship is also that in which the soul
may trust, and which shall deliver it from sin and fear and death.
Such a conception of Christianity can recognize many embodi-
ments in ritual, organization and dogma, but its test in all ages
and in all lands is conformity to the purpose of the life of Christ.
The Lord's Prayer in its oldest and simplest form is the expression
of its faith, and Christ's separation of mankind on the right hand
and on the left in accordance with their service or refusal of
service to their fellow-men is its own judgment of the right

of any age or church to the name Christian. This school also
represents historic Christianity, and maintains the continuity
of its life through all the ages past with Christ himself. But this
continuity is not then in theological systems or creeds, nor in
sacraments and cult, nor in organization, but in the noble
company of all who have lived in simple trust in God and love to
humanity. It is this true Church of the spirit and purpose of Jesus
which has been the supreme force for the uplifting of humanity.

Christianity has passed through too many changes, and it has
found too many interpretations possible, to fear the time to come.
Thoroughgoing reconstruction in every item of theology and in
every detail of polity there may be, yet shall the Christian life
go on the life which finds its deepest utterance in the words of
Christ, " Thou shall love the Lord thy God with all thy heart
and thy neighbour as thyself "; the life which expresses its pro-
foundest faith in the words Christ taught it to pray, "Our Father";
the life which finds its highest rule of conduct in the words of its
first and greatest interpreter, " Let this mind be in you Which
was also in Christ Jesus our Lord."

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Detailed bibliographies accompany the separate
articles on subjects connected with the Christian religion and Church.
In the following list a selection is given of books on the wider and
general subject :

Extent and Growth. D. Dorchester, The Problem of Religious
Progress (revised ed., 1894) ; S. Gulick, The Growth of the Kingdom
of God (1895) ; James S. Dennis, Christian Missions and Social
Progress (1906).

Prophets of Israel. Rudolf Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen
Religionsgeschichte (2nd ed., 1899); A. B. Davidson, Old Testament
Prophecy (1903) ; Karl Budde, Religion of Israel to the Exile (1809) ;
W. Robertson Smith, The Prophets of Israel and their Place in History
(1899); A. F. Kirkpatrick, Doctrine of the Prophets (3rd ed., 1901);
Beruk Duhm, Die Theologie der Propheten (1875).

Judaism. Emil Schiirer, History of the Jewish People in the Time
of Jesus Christ (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1890) ; C. G. Montefiore,
Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as illustrated by the
Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (2nd ed., 1893) ; W. Bousset, Die
Religion des Judentums im neutestamentlichen Zeitalter (2nd ed., 1906).

The Life and Teaching of Jesus. Hans Heinrich Wendt, The
Teaching of Jesus (1892), 2 vols.; Oskar Holtzmann, The Life of Jesus
(Eng. trans., 1904) ; Paul Wernle, Beginnings of Christianity, 2 vols.
(1903-1904); T. Crawford Burkitt, The Gospel History and t>
Transmission (1906).

The Beginnings of Christianity. Ernst von Dobschiitz, Christian
Life in the Primitive Church (Eng. trans., 1904); A. C. McGiffert,
The Apostolic Age (1900); Carl Weizsacker, The Apostolic Age
(Eng. trans., 1897) ; Otto Pfleiderer, Das Urchristentum (1902).

The Expansion of Christianity. Edwin Hatch, " The Influence
of Greek Ideas and Usages upon the Christian Church," the Hibbert
Lectures, 1888 (1890).; Adolf Harnack, The Expansion of Christianity
in the First Three Centuries (Eng. trans., 1904) ; Sir W. M. Ramsay,
The Church in the Roman Empire (1893).

The History of Church and of Dogma. Adolf Harnack, History
of Dogma (Eng. trans., 1895); Reinhold Seeberg, Lehrbuch der
Dogmengeschichte (1895, 2 vols.); Philip Schaff, The Creeds of
Christendom (3 vols., 1881, 3rd ed.).

The Roman Church. Joseph Wilhelm and Thomas B. Scannell,
Manual of Catholic Theology (1906); J. A. Moehler, Symbolism
(trans. 1844); Thomas Aquinas, The Summa (Eng. trans., 1907);
William Ward, The Ideal of a Christian Church (1844).

The Greek Church. " The Creeds of the Greek and Russian
Churches," in Schaff, Creeds, vol. ii. pp. 275-542; and J. Michalcesu,
Die Bekenntnisse und die wich'tigsten Glaubenszeugnisse der griechisch-
orientalischen Kirche (Leipzig, 1904).

Protestantism. John Calvin, Institutio Religionis Christianae,
(1536; Eng. trans., 1816); Charles Hodge, Systematic Theolog
(3 vols., 1872); Ernst Troeltsch, Die Absolutheit des Christentum
und die Religionsgeschichte (1902); First Principles of the Refor-
mation, or the Ninety-five Theses and the Three Primary Works, Iran
by Henry Wace and C. A. Buchheinz (1883).

Christianity in the Modern World. Andrew D. White, Confiit
of Science with Theology (2 vols., 1896); D. F. Strauss, Der alte un
der neue Glaube (1872 ; Eng. trans., 1873) ; A. J. Balfour, The Founda
tions of Belief (1897); J. Ward, Naturalism and Agnosticism (1899).

Modern Adaptations of Christianity. William Adams Brown
Christian Theology in Outline (1906); Augustus Sabatier, Religio
of Authority and the Religion of the Spirit (1904); J. A. Zaht
Evolution and Dogma (1896); John Henry Newman, An Essay c
the Development of Christian Doctrine (1845); Edward Caird, Th
Evolution of Religion (1893) ; Otto Pfleiderer, Philosophy of Religion
(Eng. trans., 1888, especially volumes 3 and 4); Newman Smyth,
Old Faiths in New Lights (1879), Through Science to Faith (1902);
Henry Drummpnd, The Ascent of Man (1894); -William Ralph Inge
Christian Mysticism (Bampton Lectures, 1894) ; Wilhelm Herrmann
The Communion of the Christian with God (1895); George Willian

CHRISTIANSAND CHRISTINA

291

Knox Direct and Fundamental Proofs of the Christian Religion (1903) :
Albrecht Ritschl, Die ckristliche Lehre von der Rechlfertigung und
Versbhnung (1900).

Modern Definitions of Cnrtstiamty. Alfred Loisy, The Oospe.1
und the Church (1904) ; Adolf Harnack, What is Christianity? (1901) :
William Adams Brown, The Essence of Christianity (1902); Ernest
Troettsch, Das Wesen des Christentums; J. Kaftan, Das Wesen der
christlichen Religion (2nd ed., 1888); J. Caird, The Fundamental
Ideas of Christianity (1899). (G. W. KM.)

CHRISTIANSAND (KRISTIANSAND), a fortified seaport of
Norway, the chief town of a diocese (slift), on a fjord of the
Skagerrack, 175 m- S.W. of Christiania by sea. Pop. (1900)
14,701. It stands on a square peninsula flanked by the western
and eastern harbours and by the Otter river. The situation, with
its wooded hills and neighbouring islands, is no less beautiful
than that of other south-coast towns, but the substitution of brick
for wood as building material after a fire in 1892 made against
the picturesqueness of the town. There is a fine cathedral,
rebuilt in Gothic style after a fire in 1880. Christiansand is
an important fishing centre (salmon, mackerel, lobsters), and
sawmills, wood-pulp factories, shipbuilding yards and mechanical
workshops are the principal industrial works. The port is the
largest on the south coast, and all the coast steamers, and those
serving Christiania from London, Hull, Grangemouth, Hamburg,
&c., touch here. The Saetersdal railway follows that valley
north to Byglandsfiord (48 m.), whence a good road continues
to Viken i Valle at the head pf the valley. Flekkero, a neighbour-
ing island, is a favourite pleasure resort. The town was founded
in 1641 by Christian IV., after whom it was named.

CHRISTIAN SCIENCE, a system of theosophic and therapeutic
doctrine, which was originated in America about 1866 by Mrs
Mary Baker Glover Eddy, and has in recent years obtained a
number of adherents both in the United States and in European
countries. Mrs. Eddy (1821-1910 ; nie Baker) was born near
Concord, New Hampshire; in 1843 she married Colonel G. W.
Glover (d. 1844), in 1853 she married Daniel Patterson (divorced
1873), and in 1877 Dr Asa Gilbert Eddy (d. 1883). About the
year 1867 she came forward as a healer by mind-cure. She
based her teaching on the Bible, and on the principles that man's
essential nature is spiritual, and that, the Spirit of God being
Love and Good, moral and physical evil are contrary to that
Spirit, and represent an absence of the True Spirit which was in
Jesus Christ. There is but one Mind, one God, one Christ, and
nothing real but Mind. Matter and sickness are subjective states
of error, delusions which can be dispelled by the mental process
of a true knowledge of God and Christ, or Christian science.
Ordinary medical science using drugs, &c. is therefore irrele-
vant; spiritual treatment is the only cure of what is really mental
error. Jesus himself healed by those means, which were therefore
natural and not miraculous, and promised that those who be-
lieved should do curative works like his. In 1876 a Christian
Scientist Association was organized. Mrs Eddy had published
in the preceding year a book entitled Science and Health, with
Key to the Scriptures, which has gone through countless editions
and is the gospel of Christian Science.* In 1879 she became
the pastor of a " Church of Christ, Scientist," in Boston, and also
founded there the " Massachusetts Metaphysical College " (1881 ;
closed 1889) for the furtherance of her tenets. The first denomi-
national chapel outside Boston was built at Oconto, Wisconsin, in
1886; and in 1894 (enlarged and reconstructed in 1906) a great
memorial church was erected in Boston. Mrs Eddy's publications
also include Retrospection and Introspection (1891), Unity of Good
and Unreality of Evil (1887), Rudimental Divine Science (1891),
Christian Healing ( 1 886) , &c. The progress of the cult of Christian
Science has been remarkable, and by the beginning of the
2oth century many hundreds of Christian Science churches had
been established; and the new religion found many adherents
also in England. A purely local and congregational form of
government was adopted, but Christian Scientists naturally
looked to the mother church in Boston, with Mrs Eddy as its
guiding influence, as their centre. A monthly magazine, The
Christian Science Journal (founded in 1883), and the weekly
Christian Science Sentinel are published officially in Boston.

The profession of the paid Christian Science " healer " has
been very prominent in recent years both in -America and. in
England; and very remarkable successes have been claimed
for the treatment. In some serious cases of death after illness,
where a coroner's inquest has shown that the only medical
attendancewas that of a Christian Science "healer," the question
of criminal responsibility has been prominently canvassed; but
an indictment in England against a healer for manslaughter in
1906 resulted in an acquittal. The theosophic and the medical
aspects of Christian Science may perhaps be distinguished;
the latter at all events is open to grave abuse. But the modern
reaction in medical practice against drugs, and the increased
study of the subject of " suggestion," have done much to encour-
age a belief in faith-healing and in " psychotherapy " generally.
In 1008, indeed, a separate movement (Emmanuel), inspired by
the success of Christian Science, and also emanating from
America, was started within the Anglican Communion, its
object being to bring prayer to work en the curing of disease;
and this movement obtained the approval of many leaders of
the church in England.

An " authorized " Life of Mrs Eddy, by Sibyl Wilbur (1908), deals
with the subject acceptably to her disciples. Georgine Milmine's
Life of M. B. G. Eddy, and History of Christian Science (1900),
though not so acceptable, is a judicious critical account. A detailed
indictment against the whole system, by a competent English
doctor (Stephen Paget), will be found in The Faith and Works of
Christian Science (1909).

CHRISTIANSUND (KRISTIANSUND), a seaport on the west coast
of Norway, in Romsdal ami (county), 259 m. N.E. -by N. of
Bergen, in the latitude of the Faeroe Islands. Pop. (1901)
11,982. It is built on four small islands, by which its harbour is
enclosed. The chief exports are wood, cod, herrings and fish
products, and butter to Great Britain. The town is served by the
principal steamers between the south Norwegian ports, Hull,
Hamburg, &c., and Trondhjem, and it is the chief port of the
district of Nordmore. Local steamers serve the neighbouring
fjords, including the Sundalsf jord, from which at Sundalspren a
driving road past the fine Dovrefjeld connects with the Gud-
brandsdal route. Till 1742, when it received town privileges
from Christian VI., Christiansund was called Lille-Fosen.

CHRISTIE, RICHARD COPIED (1830-1901), English scholar
and bibliophile, was born on the 22nd of July 1830 at Lenton in
Nottinghamshire, the son of a millowner. He was educated at
Lincoln College, Oxford, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's
Inn in 1857, and in 1872 became chancellor of the diocese of
Manchester. This he resigned in 1893. He held numerous
appointments, notably the professorships of history (from 1854 to
1856) and of political economy (from 1855 to 1866) at Owens
College, Manchester. He always took an active interest in this
college, of which he was one of the governors; in 1893 he gave the
Christie library building designed by Alfred Waterhouse, and in
1 897 he devoted 50,000 of the funds at his disposal as a trustee of
Sir Joseph Whitworth's estate for the building of Whitworth Hall,
which completed the front quadrangle of the college. He was an
enthusiastic book collector, and bequeathed to Owens College his
library of about 75,000 volumes, rich in a very complete set of
the books printed by Dolet, a wonderful series of Aldines, and of
volumes printed by Sebastian Gryphius. His tienne Dolet, the
Martyr of the Renaissance (1880), is the most exhaustive work
on the subject. He died at Ribsden on the 9th of January 1901.

CHRISTINA (1626-1689), queen of Sweden, daughter of
Gustavus Adolphus and Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg, was
born at Stockholm on the 8th of December 1626. Her father
died when she was only six years old. She was educated,
principally, by the learned Johannes Matthiae, in as masculine a
way as possible, while the great Oxenstjerna himself instructed
her in politics. Christina assumed the sceptre in her eighteenth
year (Dec. 8, 1644). From the moment when she took her seat
at the head of the council board she impressed her veteran
counsellors with the conviction of her superior genius. Axel
Oxenstjerna himself said of her, when she was only fifteen:
" Her majesty is not like women-folk, but is stout-hearted and of
a good understanding, so that, if she be not corrupted, we have

292

CHRISTINA CHRISTISON

good hopes of her." Unfortunately her brilliant and commanding
qualities were vitiated by an inordinate pride and egoism, which
exhibited themselves in an utter contempt for public opinion, and
a prodigality utterly regardless of the necessities of the state.
She seemed to consider Swedish affairs as far too petty to occupy
her full attention; while her unworthy treatment of the great
chancellor was mainly due to her jealousy of his extra-
ordinary reputation and to the uneasy conviction that, so long
as he was alive, his influence must at least be equal to her own.
Recognizing that he would be indispensable so long as the Thirty
Years' War lasted, she used every effort to bring it to an end;
and her impulsive interference seriously hampered the diplomacy
of the chancellor, and materially reduced the ultimate gains of
Sweden. The general peace congress was not opened till April
1645. The Swedish plenipotentiaries were Johan Oxenstjema,
the chancellor's son, and Adler Salvius. From the first the
relations between them were strained. Young Oxenstjema,
haughty and violent, claimed, by right of birth and rank, to be
caput legationis. The chancellor, at home, took his son's part,
while Salvius was warmly supported by Christina, who privately
assured him of her exclusive favour and encouraged him to hold
his own. So acute did the quarrel become that there was a
violent scene in full senate between the queen and the chancellor;
and she urged Salvius to accelerate the negotiations, against the
better judgment of the chancellor, who hoped to get more by
holding out longer.

The longer Christina ruled, the more anxious for the future fate
of her empire grew the men who had helped to build it up. Yet
she gave fresh privileges to the towns; she encouraged trade and
manufactures, especially the mining industries of the Dales; in
1649 she issued the first school ordinance for the whole kingdom;
she encouraged foreign scholars to settle in Sweden; and native
science and literature, under her liberal encouragement, flourished
as they had never flourished before. In one respect, too, she
showed herself wiser than her wisest counsellors. The senate and
the estates, naturally anxious about the succession to the throne,
had repeatedly urged her majesty to marry, and had indicated
her cousin, Charles Gustavus, as her most befitting consort.
Wearied of their importunities, yet revolting at the idea of
submission to any member of the opposite sex, Christina settled
the difficulty by appointing Charles her successor, and at the
Riksdag of 1650 the Swedish crown was declared hereditary in
Charles and his heirs male. In the summer of 1651 Christina was,
with difficulty, persuaded to reconsider her resolution to abdicate,
but three years later the nation had become convinced that her
abdication was highly desirable, and the solemn act took place on
the 6th of July 1654 at the castle of Upsala, in the presence of the
estates and the great dignitaries of the realm. Many were the
causes which predisposed her to what was, after all, anything but
an act of self-renunciation. First of all she could not fail to
remark the increasing discontent with her arbitrary and wasteful
ways. Within ten years she had created 17 counts, 46 barons
and 428 lesser nobles; and, to provide these new peers with
adequate appanages, she had sold or mortgaged crown property
representing an annual income of 1,200,000 rix-dollars. Signs are
also not wanting that Christina was growing weary of the cares
of government; while the importunity of the senate and Riksdag
on the question of her marriage was a constant source of irritation.
In retirement she could devote herself wholly to art and science,
and the opportunity of astonishing the world by the unique
spectacle of a great queen, in the prime of life, voluntarily
resigning her crown, strongly appealed to her vivid imagination.
Anyhow, it is certain that, towards the end of her reign, she
behaved as if she were determined to do everything in her power
to make herself as little missed as possible. From 1651 there was
a notable change in her behaviour. She cast away every regard
for the feelings and prejudices of her people. She ostentatiously
exhibited her contempt for the Protestant religion. Her foreign
policy was flighty to the verge of foolishness. She contemplated
an alliance with Spain, a state quite outside the orbit of Sweden's
influence, the firstfruits of which were to have been an invasion of
Portugal. She utterly neglected affairs in order to plunge into a

whirl of dissipation with her foreign favourites. The situation be-
came impossible, and it was with an intense feeling of relief that
the Swedes saw her depart, iu masculine attire, under the name
of Count Dohna. At Innsbruck she openly joined the Catholic
Church, and was rechristened Alexandra. In 1656, and again
in 1657, she visited France, on the second occasion ordering the
assassination of her major-domo Monaldischi, a crime still unex-
plained. TwiceshereturnedtoSweden(i66oand 1667) in the vain
hope of recovering the succession, finally settling in Rome, where
she died on the igth of April 1689, poor, neglected and forgotten.
See Francis William Bain, Queen Christina of Sweden (London,
1890); Robert Nisbet Bain, Scandinavia (Cambridge, 1905);
Christina de Suede et le Cardinal Azzolino (Paris, 1899); Claretta
Gaudenzio, La Regina Christina de Suezia in Italia (Turin, 1892);
Hans Emil Friis, Dronning Christina (Copenhagen, 1896); C. N. D.
Bildt, Christina de Suede et le conclave de Clement X (Paris, 1906);
Drottning Kristinas sista dagar (Stockholm, 1897) ; and J. A. Taylor,
Christina of Sweden (1909). (R. N. B.)

CHRISTINA [MARIA CHRISTINA HENRIETTA DE SIREE FELICIT
RNIERE], for some years queen-regent of Spain (1858- ),
widow of Alphonso XII. and mother of Alphonso XIII., was born
at Gross Seelowitz, in Austria, on the zist of July 1858, being the
daughter of the archduke Charles Ferdinand and the archduchess
Elizabeth of Austria. She was brought up by her mother as a
rigid Catholic, and great care was taken with her education.
At eighteen she was appointed by the emperor Francis Joseph,
abbess of the House of Noble Ladies of Saint Theresa in Prague,
where she made herself very popular and distinguished herself by
her intellectual parts. It is said that at the court of Vienna the
archduchess saw the young prince Alphonso of Spain when he was
only a pretender in exile, before the restoration of the Bourbons.
A few years later, when Alphonso XII. had lost his first wife and
cousin, Queen Mercedes, daughter of the due de Montpensier, his
ministers, especially Sefior Canovas, urged him to marry again.
He told them that if he did so it would only be with the young
Austrian archduchess Maria Christina. After some negotiations
between the two courts and governments it was agreed that the
archduchess Elizabeth and her daughter should meet Alphonso
XII. at Arcachon, in the south of France, where a few days'
personal acquaintance was sufficient to make both come to a
decision. The duke of Bailen went officially to Vienna to get the
emperor of Austria's authorization, and on the i4th of November
1879, in the throne-room of the Imperial palace, the archduchess
solemnly abdicated all her rights of succession in Austria, in
accordance with the law obliging all princesses of the imperial
house to do so when they wed a foreign prince. On the 1 7th of
November the archduchess and her mother, with a numerous
suite, started for Spain, arriving at the royal castle of El Pardo,
near Madrid, on the 24th of November. The wedding took place
in the Atocha cathedral, on the 29th of November, in great state,
and was followed by splendid festivities. Queen Christina bore
her husband two daughters before he died in 1885 Dona
Mercedes, born on the nth of September 1880, and Dona Maria
Theresa, born on the isth of November 1882. During her
husband's lifetime the young queen kept studiously apart from
politics, so much so that her inexperience caused much anxiety in
November 1885, when she was called upon to take the arduous
duties of regent. During the long minority of the posthumou
son of Alphonso XII., afterwards King Alphonso XIII., tb
Austrian queen-regent acted in a way that obliged even tl
adversaries of the throne and the dynasty to respect the mot
and the woman. The people of Spain, and the ever-restless civ
and military politicians, found that the gloved hand of the
constitutional ruler was that of a strong-minded and tenaciou
regent, who often asserted herself in a way that surprised then
much, but always, somehow, enforced obedience and resp
More could not be expected by a foreign ruler from a nation litt
prone to waste attachment or demonstrative loyalty upon any
body not Castilian born and bred.

CHRISTISON, SIR ROBERT, Bart. (1797-1882), Scottis
toxicologist and physician, was born in Edinburgh on the i8th <
July 1797. After graduating at the university of that city
1819, he spent a short time in London, studying under Job

CHRISTMAS

293

Abernethy and Sir William Lawrence, and in Paris, where he
learnt analytical chemistry from P. J. Robiquet and toxicology
from M. J. B. Orfila. In 1822 he returned to Edinburgh as
professor of medical jurisprudence, and set to work to organize
the study of his subject on a sound basis. On poisons in parti-
cular he speedily became a high authority; his well-known
treatise on them was published in 1829, and in the course of his
inquiries he did not hesitate to try such daring experiments on
himself as taking large doses of Calabar bean, His attainments
in medical jurisprudence and toxicology procured him the
appointment, in 1829, of medical officer to the crown in Scotland,
and from that time till 1866 he was called as a witness in many
celebrated criminal cases. In 1832 he gave up the chair of
medical jurisprudence and accepted that of medicine and
therapeutics, which he held till 1877; at the same time he
became professor of clinical medicine, and continued in that
capacity till 1855. His fame as a lexicologist and medical jurist,
together with his work on the pathology of the kidneys and on
fevers, secured him a large private practice, and he succeeded to
a fair share of the honours that commonly attend the successful
physician, being appointed physician to Queen Victoria in 1848
and receiving a baronetcy in 1871. Among the books which he
published were a treatise on Granular Degeneration of the Kidneys
(1839), and a Commentary on the Pharmacopoeias of Great Britain
(1842). Sir Robert Christison, who retained remarkable physical
vigour and activity down to extreme old age, died at Edinburgh
on the 23rd of January 1882.
See the Life by his sons (1885-1886).

CHRISTMAS (i.e. the Mass of Christ), in the Christian Church,
the festival of the nativity of Jesus Christ. The history of this
feast coheres so closely with that of Epiphany (q.v.), that what
follows must be read in connexion with the article under that
heading.

The earliest body of gospel tradition, represented by Mark no
less than by the primitive non-Marcan document embodied in the
first and third gospels, begins,not with the birth and childhood of
Jesus, but with his baptism; and this order of accretion of
gospel matter is faithfully reflected in the time order of the
invention of feasts. The great church adopted Christmas much
later than Epiphany; and before the 5th century there was no
general consensus of opinion as to when it should come in the
calendar, whether on the 6th of January, or the 25th of March, or
the 25th of December.

The earliest identification of the 25th of December with the
birthday of Christ is in a passage, otherwise unknown and
probably* spurious, of Theophilus of Antioch (A.D. 171-183),
preserved in Latin by the Magdeburg centuriators (i. 3, 118), to
the effect that the Gauls contended that as they celebrated the
birth of the Lord on the 25th of December, whatever day of the
week it might be, so they ought to celebrate the Pascha on the
25th of March when the resurrection befell.

The next mention of the 25th of December is in Hippolytus'
(c. 202) commentary on Daniel iv. 23. Jesus, he says, was born
at Bethlehem on the 25th of December, a Wednesday, in the forty-
second year of Augustus. This passage also is almost certainly
interpolated. In any case he mentions no feast, nor was such a
feast congruous with the orthodox ideas of that age. As late as
245 Origen, in his eighth homily on Leviticus, repudiates as
sinful the very idea of keeping the birthday of Christ " as if he
were a king Pharaoh." The first certain mention of Dec. 25
is in a Latin chronographer of A.D. 354, first published entire by
Mommsen. 1 It runs thus in English: " Year i after Christ, in the
consulate of Caesar and Paulus, the Lord Jesus Christ was born
on the 25th of December, a Friday and isth day of the new
moon." Here again no festal celebration of the day is attested.

There were, however, many speculations in the 2nd century
about the date of Christ's birth. Clement of Alexandria, towards
its close, mentions several such, and condemns them as super-
stitions. Some chronologists, he says, alleged the birth to have

1 In the Abhandlungen der sachsischen Akademie der Wissen-
schaften (1850). Note that in A.D. i, Dec. 25 was a Sunday and not
a Friday.

occurred in the twenty-eighth year of Augustus, on the asth of
Pachon, the Egyptian month, i.e. the 2oth of May. These were
probably the Basilidian gnostics. Others set it on the 24th or
25th of Pharmuthi, i.e. the igth or 2oth of April. Clement
himself sets it on the I7th of November, 3 B.C. The author of a
Latin tract, called the De Pascha computus, written in Africa in
243, sets it by private revelation, ab ipso deo inspirati, on the
28th of March. He argues that the world was created perfect,
flowers in bloom, and trees in leaf, therefore in spring; also at the
equinox, and when the moon just created was full. Now the
moon and sun were created on a Wednesday. The 28th of March
suits all these considerations. Christ, therefore, being the Sun of
Righteousness, was born on the 28th of March. The same
symbolical reasoning led Polycarp 2 (before 160) to set his birth on
Sunday, when the world's creation began, but his baptism on
Wednesday, for it was the analogue of the sun's creation. On
such grounds certain Latins as early as 354 may have transferred
the human birthday from the 6th of January to the 25th of
December, which was then a Mithraic feast and is by the chrono-
grapher above referred to, but in another part of his compilation,
termed Natalis invicti solis, or birthday of the unconquered Sun.
Cyprian (de oral. dom. 35) calls Christ Sol serai, Ambrose Sol novus
nosier (Sermo vii. 13), and such rhetoric was widespread. The
Syrians and Armenians, who clung to the 6th of January,
accused the Romans of sun-worship and idolatry, contending
with great probability that the feast of the 25th of December had
been invented by disciples of Cerinthus and its lections by
Artemon to commemorate the natural birth of Jesus. Chrysostom
also testifies the 25th of December to have been from the begin-
ning known in the West, from Thrace even as far as Gades.
Ambrose, On Virgins, iii. ch. i, writing to his sister, implies that
as late as the papacy of Liberius 352-356, the Birth from the
Virgin was feasted together with the Marriage of Cana and the
Banquet of the 4000 (Luke ix. 13), which were never feasted on
any other day but Jan. 6.

Chrysostom, in a sermon preached at Antioch on Dec. 20,
386 or 388, says that some held the feast of Dec. 25 to have
been held in the West, from Thrace as far as Cadiz, from the
beginning. It certainly originated in the West, but spread
quickly eastwards. In 353-361 it was observed at the court of
Constantius. Basil of Caesarea (died 379) adopted it. Honorius,
emperor (395-423) in the West, informed his mother and brother
Arcadius (395-408) in Byzantium of how the new feast was kept
in Rome, separate from the 6th of January, with its own troparia
and sticharia. They adopted it, and recommended it to
Chrysostom, who had long been in favour of it. Epiphanius of
Crete was won over to it, as were also the other three patriarchs,
Theophilus of Alexandria, John of Jerusalem, Flavian of Antioch.
This was under Pope Anastasius, 398-400. John or Wahan of
Nice, in a letter printed by Combe&sin'hisHistoriamonothelitarum,
affords the above details. The new feast was communicated by
Proclus, patriarch of Constantinople (434-446), to Sahak,
Catholicos of Armenia, about 440. The letter was betrayed to the
Persian king, who accused Sahak of Greek intrigues, and deposed
him. However, the Armenians, at least those within the
Byzantine pale, adopted it for about thirty years, but finally
abandoned it together with the decrees of Chalcedon early in the
8th century. Many writers of the period 375-450, e.g. Epiphanius,
Cassian, Asterius, Basil, Chrysostom and -Jerome, contrast the
new feast with that of the Baptism as that of the birth after the
flesh, from which we infer that the latter was generally regarded
as a birth according to the Spirit. Instructive as showing that
the new feast travelled from West eastwards is the fact (noticed
by Usener) that in 387 the new feast was reckoned according to
the Julian calendar by writers of the province of Asia, who in
referring to other feasts use the reckoning of their local calendars.
As early as 400 in Rome an imperial rescript includes Christmas
among the three feasts (the others are Easter and Epiphany) on
which theatres must be closed. Epiphany and Christmas were
not made judicial non dies until 534.

1 In a fragment preserved by an Armenian writer, Ananias of
Shirak.

294

CHRISTMAS ISLAND

For some years in the West (as late as 353 in Rome) the birth
feast was appended to the baptismal feast on the 6th of January,
and in Jerusalem it altogether supplanted it from about 360 to
440, when Bishop Juvenal introduced the feast of the 2Sth of
December. The new feast was about the same time (440) finally
established in Alexandria. The quadragesima of Epiphany (i.e.
the feast of the presentation in the Temple, or hupapante) con-
tinued to be celebrated in Jerusalem on the i4th of February,
forty days after the 6th of January, until the reign of Justinian.
In most other places it had long before been put back to the
and of February to suit the new Christmas. Armenian historians
describe the riots, and display of armed force, without which
Justinian was not able in Jerusalem to transfer this feast from
the i4th to the 2nd of February.

The grounds on which the Church introduced so late as 350-440
a Christmas feast till then unknown, or, if known, precariously
linked with the baptism, seem in the main to have been the
following, (i) The transition from adult to infant baptism was
proceeding rapidly in the East, and in the West was well-nigh
completed. Its natural complement was a festal recognition of
the fact that the divine element was present in Christ from the
first, and was no new stage of spiritual promotion coeval only
with the descent of the Spirit upon him at baptism. The
general adoption of child baptism helped to extinguish the old
view that the divine life in Jesus dated from his baptism, a view
which led the Epiphany feast to be regarded as that of Jesus'
spiritual rebirth. This aspect of the feast was therefore forgotten,
and its importance in every way diminished by the new and rival
feast of Christmas. (2) The 4th century witnessed a rapid
diffusion of Marcionite, or, as it was now called, Manichaean
propaganda, the chief tenet of which was that Jesus either was
not born at all, was a mere phantasm, or anyhow did not take
flesh of the Virgin Mary. Against this view the new Christmas
was a protest, since it was peculiarly the feast of his birth in the
flesh, or as a man, and is constantly spoken of as such by the
fathers who witnessed its institution.

In Britain the 2Sth of December was a festival long before
the conversion to Christianity, for Bede (De temp. rat. ch. 13)
relates that " the ancient peoples of the Angli began the year on
the 25th of December when we now celebrate the birthday of
the Lord; and the very night which is now so holy to us, they
called in their tongue modranecht (modra niht), that is, the
mothers' night, by reason we suspect of the ceremonies which
in that night-long vigil they performed." With his usual
reticence about matters pagan or not orthodox, Bede abstains
from recording who the mothers were and what the ceremonies.
In 1644 the English puritans forbad any merriment or religious
services by act of Parliament, on the ground that it was a heathen
festival, and ordered it to be kept as a fast. Charles II. revived
the feast, but the Scots adhered to the Puritan view.

Outside Teutonic countries Christmas presents are unknown.
Their place is taken in Latin countries by the strenae, French
etrennes, given on the ist of January; this was in antiquity
a great holiday, wherefore until late in the 4th century the
Christians kept it as a day of fasting and gloom. The setting
up in Latin churches of a Christmas creche is said to have been
originated by St Francis.

AUTHORITIES. K. A. H. Kellner, Heortologie (Freiburg im Br.,
1906), with Bibliography; Hospinianus, De festis Christianorum
(Genevae, 1574); Edw. Mart^ne, De Antiquis Ecclesiae Ritibus, iii.
31 (Bassani, 1788); J. C. W. Augusti, Christi. Archaologie, vols. i.
and v. (Leipzig, 1817-1831); A. J. Binterim, Denkwurdigkeiten,
v. pit. i. p. 528 (Mainz, 1825, &c.) ; Ernst Friedrich Wernsdorf, De
originibus Solemnium Natalis Christi (Wittenberg, 1757, and in J. E.
Volbeding, Thesaurus Commentationum, Lipsiae, 1847); Anton.
Bynaeus, De Natali Jesu Christi (Amsterdam, 1689) ; Hermann
Usener, Religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen (Bonn, 1889); Nik.
Nilles, S.J., Kalendarium Manuals (Innsbruck, 1896); L. Duchesne,
Origines du culte Chretien (y ed., Paris, 1889). (F. C. C.)

CHRISTMAS ISLAND, a British possession under the govern-
ment of the Straits Settlements, situated in the eastern part
of the Indian Ocean (in 10 25' S., 105 42' E.), about 100 m.
S. of Java. The island is a quadrilateral with hollowed sides,
about 12 m. in greatest length and 9 in extreme breadth. It

is probably the only tropical island that had never been inhabited
by man before the European settlement. When the first settlers
arrived, in 1897, it was covered with a dense forest of great trees
and luxuriant under-shrubbery. The settlement in Flying Fish
Cove now numbers some 2 50 inhabitants, consisting of Europeans,
Sikhs, Malays and Chinese, by whom roads have been cut and
patches of cleared ground cultivated.

The island is the flat summit of a submarine mountain more
than 15,000 ft. high, the depth of the platform from which it
rises being about 14,000 ft., and its height above the sea being
upwards of 1000 ft. The submarine slopes are steep, and within
20 m. of the shore the depth of the sea reaches 2400 fathoms.
It consists of a central plateau descending to the water in three
terraces, each with its " tread " and " rise." The shore terrace
descends by a steep cliff to the sea, forming the " rise " of a
submarine " tread " in the form of fringing reef which surrounds
the island and is never uncovered, even at low water, except
in Flying Fish Cove, where the only landing-place exists. The
central plateau is a plain whose surface presents "rounded,
flat-topped hills and low ridges and reefs of limestone," with
narrow intervening valleys. On its northern aspect this plateau
has a raised rim having all the appearances of being once the
margin of an atoll. On these rounded hills occurs the deposit
of phosphate of lime which gives the island its commercial
value. The phosphatic deposit has doubtless been produced
by the long-continued action of a thick bed of sea-fowl dung,
which converted the carbonate of the underlying limestone into
phosphate. The flat summit is formed by a succession of lime-
stones all deposited in shallow water from the Eocene (or
Oligocene) up to recent deposits in the above-mentioned atoll
with islands on its reef. The geological sequence of events
appears to have been the following: After the deposition of
the Eocene (or Oligocene) limestone which reposes upon a floor
of basalts and trachytes basalts and basic tuffs were ejected,
over which, during a period of very slow depression, orbitoidal
limestones of Miocene age which seem to make up the great
mass of the island were deposited; then elapsed a long period
of rest, during which the atoll condition existed and the guano
deposit was formed; from then down to the present time there
has succeeded a series of sea-level subsidences, resulting in the
formation of the terraces and the accummulation of the detritus
now seen on the first inland cliff, the old submarine slope of the
island. The occurrence of such a series of Tertiary deposits
appears to be unknown elsewhere. The whole series was evi-
dently deposited in shallow water on the summit of a submarine
volcano standing in its present isolation, and round which the
ocean floor has probably altered but a few hundred feet since the
Eocene age. Thus although the rocks of the southern coast
of Java in their general character and succession resemble those
of Christmas Island, there lies between them an abysmal trough
18,000 ft. in depth, which renders it scarcely possible that they
were deposited in a continuous area, for such an enormous
depression of the sea-floor could hardly have occurred since
Miocene times without involving also Christmas Island. One
of the main purposes of the exploration was to obtain light on
the question of the foundation of atolls.

The flora consists of 129 species of angiosperms, i Cycas,
22 ferns, and a few mosses, lichens and fungi, 17 of which are
endemic, while a considerable number not specifically distinct
form local varieties nearly all presenting Indo-Malayan affinities,
as do the single Cycas, the ferns and the cryptogams. As to its
fauna, the island contains 319 species of animals 54 only being
vertebrates 145 of which are endemic. A very remarkable
distributional fact in regard to them, and one not yet fully
explained, is that a large number show affinity with species in
the Austro-Malayan rather than in the Indo-Malayan, their
nearer, region. The ocean currents, the trade-winds blowing
from the Australian mainland, and north-westerly storms
from the Malayan islands, are no doubt responsible for the
introduction of many, but not all, of these Malayan and Austral-
asian species. The climate is healthy, the temperature varying
from 75 to 84 F. The prevailing wind is the S.E. trade, which

CHRISTODORUS CHRIST'S HOSPITAL

295

blows the greater part of the year. The rainfall in the wet season
is heavy, but not excessive, and during the dry season the ground
is refreshed with occasional showers and heavy dews. Malarial
fever is not prevalent, and it is interesting to note that there
are no swamps or standing waters on the island.

It is not known when and by whom the island was discovered,
but under the name of Moni it appears on a Dutch chart of 1666.
It was first visited in 1688 by Dampier, who found it uninhabited.
In 1886 Captain Maclear of H.M.S. " Flying Fish," having
discovered an anchorage in a bay which he named Flying Fish
Cove, landed a party and made a small but interesting collection
of the flora and fauna. In the following year Captain Aldrich
on H.M.S. " Egeria " visited it, accompanied by Mr J. J. Lister,
F.R.S., who formed a larger biological and mineralogical collec-
tion. Among the rocks then obtained and submitted to Sir John
Murray for examination there were detected specimens of nearly
pure phosphate of lime, a discovery which eventually led, in
June 1888, to the annexation of the island to the British crown.
Soon afterwards a small settlement was established in Flying
Fish Cove by Mr G. Clunies Ross, the owner of the Keeling
Islands, which lie about 750 m. to the westward. In 1891
Mr Ross and Sir John Murray were granted a lease, but on the
further discovery of phosphatic deposits they disposed of their
rights in 1897 to a company. In the same year a thorough
scientific exploration was made, at the cost of Sir John Murray,
by Mr C. W. Andrews, of the British Museum.

See C. W. Andrews, A Monograph of Christmas Island (Indian
Ocean), (London, 1900).

CHRISTODORUS, of Coptos in Egypt, epic poet, flourished
during the reign of Anastasius I. (A.D. 491-518). According
to Suidas, he was the author of Harpta, accounts of the founda-
tion of various cities; AvSuuca., the mythical history of Lydia;
'laavpuca, the conquest of Isauria by Anastasius; three books
of epigrams; and many other works. In addition to two
epigrams (Anthol. Pal. vii. 697, 698) we possess a description
of eighty statues of gods, heroes and famous men and women in
the gymnasium of Zeuxippus at Constantinople. This k^peum,
consisting of 416 hexameters, forms the second book of the
Palatine Anthology. The writer's chief models are Homer
and Nonnus, whom he follows closely in the structure of his
hexameters. Opinions are divided as to the merits of the
work. Some critics regard it as of great importance for the
history of art and a model of description; others consider it
valueless, alike from the historical, mythological and archaeo-
logical points of view.

See F. Baumgarten, De Christodoro poeta Thebano (1881), and his
article in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencydopddie, iii. 2 (1899); W. Christ,
Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur (1898).

CHRISTOPHER, SAINT (Christophorus, Christoferus), a saint
honoured in the Roman Catholic (25th of July) and Orthodox
Eastern (gth of May) Churches, the patron of ferrymen. Nothing
that is authentic is known about him. He appears to have been
originally a pagan and to have been born in Syria. He was
baptized by Babylas, bishop of Antioch; preached with much
success in Lycia; and was martyred about A.D. 250 during the
persecution under the emperor Decius. 1 Round this small
nucleus of possibility, however, a vast mass of legendary matter
gradually collected. All accounts agree that he was of great
stature and singularly handsome, and that this helped him
not a little in his evangelistic work. But according to a story
reproduced in the New Uniat Anthology of Arcudius, and
mentioned in Basil's Monologue, Christopher was originally a
hideous man-eating ogre, with a dog's face, and only received
his human semblance, with his Christian name, at baptism.
Most of his astounding miracles are of the ordinary type. He
thrusts his staff into the ground; whereupon it sprouts into
a date palm, and thousands are converted. Courtesans sent to
seduce him are turned by his mere aspect into Christians and
martyrs. The Roman governor is confounded by his insensi-

1 Or Dagnus perhaps to be identified with Maximinus Daza,
joint emperor (with Galerius) in the East 305-311, and sole emperor

\f- - v

bility to the most refined and ingenious tortures. He is roasted
over a slow fire and basted with boiling oil, but tells his tormentors
that by the grace of Jesus Christ he feels nothing. When at last,
in despair, they cut off his head, he had converted 48,000 people.

The more conspicuous of these legends are included in the
Mozarabic Breviary and Missal, and are given in the thirty-third
sermon of Peter Damien, but the best-known story is that which
is given in the Golden Legend of Jacopus de Voragine. According
to this, Christopher or rather Reprobus, as he was then called
was a giant of vast stature who was in search of a man stronger
than himself, whom he might serve. He left the service of the
king of Canaan because the king feared the devil, and that of the
devil because the devil feared the Cross. He was converted
by a hermit; but as he had neither the gift of fasting nor that
of prayer, he decided to devote himself to a work of charity,
and set himself to carry wayfarers over a bridgeless river. One
day a little child asked to be taken across, and Christopher took
him on his shoulder. When half way over the stream he staggered
under what seemed to him a crushing weight, but he reached
the other side and then upbraided the child for placing him in
peril. " Had I borne the whole world on my back," he said,
"it could not have weighed heavier than thou!" "Marvel
not!" the child replied, " for thou hast borne upon thy back
the world and him who created it! " It was this story that gave
Christopher his immense popularity throughout Western
Christendom.

See BoIIand. Acta Sanct. vi. 146; Guenebault, Diet, icono-
graphique des attributs des figures et des legendes des saints (Par,,
1850); Smith and Wace, Diet, of Christ. Btog. (London, .1877, &c.,
4 vols.) ; A. Sinemus, Die Legende vom h. Christophorus (Hanover,
1868); and other literature cited in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk.
iv. 60.

CHRISTOPHORUS, pope or anti-pope, elected in 903 against
Leo V., whom he threw into prison. In January 004 he was
treated in the same fashion by his competitor, Sergius III., who
had him strangled.

CHRISTOPOULOS, ATHANASIOS (1772-1847), Greek poet,
was born at Castoria in Macedonia. He studied at Buda and
Padua, and became teacher of the children of the Vlach prince
Mourousi. After the fall of that prince in 1811, Christopoulos
was employed by Prince Caradja, who had been appointed
hospodar of Moldavia and Walachia, in drawing up a code
of laws for that country. On the removal of Caradja, he retired
into private life and devoted himself to literature. He wrote
drinking songs and love ditties which are very popular among
the Greeks. He is also the author of a tragedy, of Politika
Par allela (a comparison of various systems of government), of
translations of Homer and Herodotus, and of some philological
works on the connexion between ancient and modern Greek.

His Hellenika Archaiologemata (Athens, 1853) contains an account
of his life.

CHRIST'S HOSPITAL (the " Blue-coat School "), a famous
English educational and charitable foundation. It was originally
one of three royal hospitals in the city of London, founded by
Edward VI., who is said to have been inspired by a sermon
of Bishop Ridley on charity. Christ's hospital was specially
devoted to fatherless and motherless children. The buildings
of the monastery of Grey Friars, Newgate Street, were appro-
priated to it; liberal public subscription added to the king's
grant endowed it richly; and the mayor, commonalty and
citizens of London were nominated its governors in its charter of
ISS3- At first Christ's hospital shared a common fund with the
two other hospitals of thefoundation(Bridewell and St Thomas's),
but the three soon became independent. Not long after its
opening Christ's was providing home and education (or, in the
case of the very young, nursing) for 400 children. The popular
name of the Blue-coat school is derived from the dress of the
boys originally (almost from the time of the foundation) a blue
gown, with knee-breeches, yellow petticoat and stockings, neck-
bands and a blue cap. The petticoat and cap were given up in the
middle of the ipth century, and thereafter no head-covering was
worn. The buildings on the Newgate Street site underwent
reconstruction from time to time, and in 1902 were vacated by

296

CHRISTY CHROMIUM

the. school, which was moved to extensive new buildings at
Horsham. The London buildings were subsequently taken
down. The school at Horsham is conducted on the ordinary
lines of a public school, and can accommodate over 800 boys.
It includes a preparatory school for boys, established in 1683
at Hertford, where the buildings have been greatly enlarged
for the use of the girls' school on the same foundation. This was
originally in Newgate Street, but was moved to Hertford in 1778.
In the boys' school the two highest classes retain their ancient
names of Grecians and Deputy Grecians. Children were formerly
admitted to the schools only on presentation. Admission is now
(i) by presentation of donation governors (i.e. the royal family,
and contributors of 500 or more to the funds), of the council
of almoners (which administers the endowments), or of certain
of the city companies; (2) by competition, on the nomination
of a donation governor (for boys only), or from public elementary
schools in London, certain city parishes and certain endowed
schools elsewhere. The main school is divided into two parts
the Latin school, corresponding to the classical side in other
schools, and the mathematical school or modern side. Large
pension charities are administered by the governing body,
and part of the income of the hospital (about 60,000 annually)
is devoted to apprenticing boys and girls, to leaving exhibitions
from the school, &c.

CHRISTY, HENRT (1810-1865), English ethnologist, was born
at Kingston-on-Thames en the 26th of July 1810. He entered
his father's firm of hatters, in London, and later became a
director of the London Joint-Stock Bank. In 1850 he started on
a series of journeys, which interested him in ethnological studies.
Encouraged by what he saw at the Great Exhibition of 1851,
Christy devoted the rest of his life to perpetual travel and research,
making extensive collections illustrating the early history of man,
now in the British Museum. He travelled in Norway, Sweden,
Denmark, Mexico, British Columbia and other countries; but in
1858 came the opportunity which brought him fame. It was in
that year that the discoveries by Boucher de Perthes of flint-
implements in France and England were first held to have clearly
proved the great antiquity of man. Christy joined the Geological
Society, and in company with his friend Edouard Lartet explored
the caves in the valley of the Vezere, a tributary of the Dordogne
in the south of France. To his task Christy devoted money and
time ungrudgingly, and an account of the explorations appeared
in Complex rendus (Feb. 29th, 1864) and Transactions of the
Ethnological Society of London (June 2ist, 1864). He died,
however, on the 4th of May 1865, of inflammation of the lungs
supervening on a severe cold contracted during excavation work
at La Palisse, leaving a half-finished book, entitled Reliquiae
Aquitanicae, being contributions to the Archaeology and Palaeonto-
logy of Perigord and the adjacent provinces of Southern France;
this was issued in parts and completed at the expense of Christy's
executors, first by Lartet and, after his death in 1870, by Pro-
fessor Rupert Jones. By his will Christy bequeathed his magni-
ficent archaeological collection to the nation. In 1884 it found a
home in the British Museum. Christy took an earnest part in
many philanthropic movements of his time, especially identifying
himself with the efforts to relieve the sufferers from the Irish
famine of 1847.

CHROMATIC (Gr. xpianoiTtKas, coloured, from xp&na, colour),
a term meaning " coloured," chiefly used in science, particularly
in the expression " chromatic aberration " or " dispersion " (see
ABERRATION). In Greek music XPWMHTOCT) /UOWTIK^ was one of
three divisions diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic of the
tetrachord. Like tbe Latin color, xp&l* a wa s often used of
ornaments and embellishments, and particularly of the modifica-
tion of the three genera of the tetrachord. The chromatic, being
subject to three such modifications, was regarded as particularly
"coloured." To the Greeks chromatic music was sweet and
plaintive. From a supposed resemblance to the notes of the
chromatic tetrachord, the term is applied to a succession of notes
outside the diatonic scale, and marked by accidentals. A
" chromatic scale " is thus a series of semi-tones, and is commonly
written with sharps in ascending and flats descending. The most

correct method is to write such accidentals as do not involve a
change of key.

CHROMITE, a member of the spinel group of minerals; an
oxide of chromium and ferrous iron, FeCr 2 O 4 . It is also known
as chromic iron or as chrome-iron-ore, and is the chief commercial
source of chromium and its compounds. It crystallizes in
regular octahedra, but is usually found as grains or as granular to
compact masses. In its iron-black colour with submetallic lustre
and absence of cleavage it resembles magnetite (magnetic iron-
ore) in appearance, but differs from this in being only slightly if at
all magnetic and in the brown colour of its powder. The hardness
is sJ; specific gravity 4-5. The theoretical formula FeCr 2 4
corresponds with chromic oxide (Cr 2 Oj) 68%, and ferrous oxide
32%; the ferrous oxide is, however, usually partly replaced by
magnesia, and the chromic oxide by alumina and ferric oxide, so
that there may be a gradual passage to picotite or chromespinel.
Much of the material mined as ore does not contain more than
40 to 50% of chromic oxide. In the form of isolated grains the
mineral is a characteristic constituent of ultrabasic igneous rocks,
namely the peridotites and the serpentines which have resulted
from their alteration. It is also found under similar conditions
in meteoric stones and irons. Often these rocks enclose large
segregated masses of granular chromite. The earliest worked
deposits were those in the serpentine of the Bare Hills near
Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A.; it was also formerly extensively
mined in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, and is now mined in
California, as well as in Turkey, the Urals, Dun Mountain near
Nelson in New Zealand, and Unst in the Shetlands.

Chrome-iron-ore is largely used in the preparation of chroraium
compounds for use as pigments (chrome-yellow, &c.) and in
calico-printing; it is also used in the manufacture of chrome-
steel. (L. J. S.)

CHROMIUM (symbol Cr. atomic weight 52-1), one of the
metallic chemical elements, the name being derived from the fine
colour (Gr. xpWMa) of its compounds. It is a member of the sixth
group in the periodic classification of the elements, being included
in the natural family of elements containing molybdenum,
tungsten and uranium. The element is not found in the free state
in nature, nor to any large extent in combination, occurring
chiefly as chrome-ironstone, Cr 2 O 3 -FeO, and occasionally being
found as crocoisite, PbCrO 4 , chrome-ochre, Cr 2 O 3 , and chrome-
garnet, CaOCr 2 Cv3SiO 2 , while it is also the cause of the colour in
serpentine, chrome-mica and the emerald. It was first investi-
gated in 1789 by L. N. Vauquelin and Macquart, and in 1797 by
Vauquelin, who found that the lead in crocoisite was in combina-
tion with an acid, which he recognized as the oxide of a new metal.

The metal can be obtained by various processes. Thus Sainte
Claire Deville prepared it as a very hard substance of steel-grey
colour, capable of taking a high polish, by strong ignition of
chromic oxide and sugar charcoal in a lime crucible. F. Wohler
reduced the sesquioxide by zinc, and obtained a shining green
powder of specific gravity 6-81, which tarnished in air and
dissolved in hydrochloric acid and warm dilute sulphuric acid,
but was unacted upon by concentrated nitric acid. H. Moissan
(Comptes rendus, 1893, 116, p. 349; 1894, 119, p. 185) reduces the
sesquioxide with carbon, in an electric furnace; the product so
obtained (which contains carbon) is then strongly heated with
lime, whereby most of the carbon is removed as calcium carbide,
and the remainder by heating the purified product in a crucible
lined with the double oxide of calcium and chromium. An easier
process is that of H. Goldschmidt (Annalen, 1898, 301, p. 19)
in which the oxide is reduced by metallic aluminium ; and if care is
taken to have excess of the sesquioxide of chromium present, the
metal is obtained quite free from aluminium. The metal as
obtained in this process is lustrous and takes a polish, does not
melt in the oxyhydrogen flame, but liquefies in the electric arc,
and is not affected by air at ordinary temperatures. Chromium
as prepared by the Goldschmidt process is in a passive condition
as regards dilute sulphuric acid and dilute hydrochloric acid at
ordinary temperatures; but by heating the metal with the acid it
passes into the active condition, the same effect being produced
by heating the inactive form with a solution of an alkaline halide

CHROMIUM

297

W. Hittorf thinks that two allotropic forms of chromium exist
(Zeit.ftirphys.Chem.,i8()8,2S,p.'j2g; 1899,30^.481; 1900,
34, p. 385), namely active and inactive chromium; while W,
Ostwald (ibid., 1900, 35, pp. 33, 204) has observed that on
dissolving chromium in dilute acids, the rate of solution as
measured by the evolution of gas is not continuous but periodic
It is largely made as ferro-chrome, an alloy containing about
60-70% of chromium, by reducing chromite in the electric
furnace or by aluminium.

Chromium and its salts may be detected by the fact that
they give a deep green bead when heated with borax, or that
on fusion with sodium carbonate and nitre, a yellow mass of
an alkaline chromate is obtained, which, on solution in water
and acidification with acetic acid, gives a bright yellow precipitate
on the addition of soluble lead salts. Sodium and potassium
hydroxide solutions precipitate green chromium hydroxide
from solutions of chromic salts; the precipitate is soluble in
excess of the cold alkali, but is completely thrown down on
boiling the solution. Chromic acid and its salts, the chromates
and bichromates, can be detected by the violet coloration which
they give on addition of hydrogen peroxide to their dilute acid
solution, or by the fact that on distillation with concentrated
sulphuric acid and an alkaline chloride, the red vapours of
chromium oxychloride are produced. The yellow colour of
normal chromates changes to red on the addition of an acid,
but goes back again to yellow on making the solution alkaline.
Normal chromates on the addition of silver nitrate give a red
precipitate of silver chromate, easily soluble in ammonia, and
with barium chloride a yellow precipitate of barium chromate,
insoluble in acetic acid. Reducing agents, such as sulphurous
acid and sulphuretted hydrogen, convert the chromates into
chromic salts. Chromium in the form of its salts may be
estimated quantitatively by precipitation from boiling solutions
with a slight excess of ammonia, and boiling until the free
ammonia is nearly all expelled. The precipitate obtained is
filtered, well washed with hot water, dried and then ignited until
the weight is constant. In the form of a chromate, it may be
determined by precipitation, in acetic acid solution, with lead
acetate; the lead chromate precipitate collected on a tared
filter paper, well washed, dried at 100 C. and weighed; or the
chromate may be reduced by means of sulphur dioxide to the
conditionof a chromic salt, the excess of sulphur dioxide expelled

> boiling, and the estimation carried out as above.
Fhe atomic weight of chromium has been determined by
S. G. Rawson, by the conversion of pure ammonium bichromate
into the trioxide (Journal ofChem. Soc., 1899, 55, p. 213), the mean
value obtained being 52-06; and also by C. Meinecke, who
estimated the amount of silver, chromium and oxygen in silver
chromate, the amount of oxygen in potassium bichromate, and
the amount of oxygen and chromium in ammonium bichromate
(Ann., 1891, 261, p. 339), the mean value obtained being 51-99.

romium forms three series of compounds, namely the chromous
ts corresponding to CrO, chromous oxide, chromic salts, corre-
ending to Cr 2 O s , chromium sesquioxide, and the chromates
corresponding to CrO s , chromium trioxide or chromic anhydride.
Chromium sesquioxide is a basic oxide, although like alumina it acts
as an acid-forming oxide towards strong bases, forming salts called
chromites. Various other oxides of chromium, intermediate in
composition between the sesquioxide and trioxide, have been
described, namely chromium dioxide, Cr 2 Oj-CrO a , and the oxide
CrO,-2Cr 2 O,.

Chromous oxide, CrO, is unknown in the free state, but in the
hydrated condition as CrO-H 2 O or Cr(OH) 2 it may be prepared by
precipitating chromous chloride by a solution of potassium hy-
droxide in air-free water. The precipitate so obtained is a brown
amorphous solid which readily oxidizes on exposure, and is decom-
posed^ by heat with liberation of hydrogen and formation of the
sesquioxide. The sesquioxide, Cr 2 O 8 , occurs native, and can be
irtificially obtained in several different ways, e.g., by igniting the
:orresponding hydroxide, or chromium trioxide, or ammonium
>ichromate, or by passing the vapours of chromium oxychloride
nrough a red-hot tube, or by ignition of mercurous chromate. In
he amorphous state it is a dull green, almost infusible powder, but
;s obtained from chromium oxychloride it is deposited in the form of
lark green hexagonal crystals of specific gravity 5-2. After ignition it
iccomes almost insoluble in acids, and on fusion with silicates it colours
green ; consequently it is used as a pigment for colouring glass

and china. By the fusion of potassium bichromate with boric acid,
and extraction of the melt with water, a residue is left which pos-
sesses a fine green colour, and is used as a pigment under the name
of Guignet's green. In composition it approximates to CriOj-HjO,
but it always contains more or less boron trioxide. Several forms
of hydrated chromium sesquioxide are known ; thus on precipitation
of a chromic salt, free from alkali, by ammonia, alight blue precipitate
is formed, which after drying over sulphuric acid, has the compo-
sition Cr 2 O,-7H 2 O, and this after being heated to 200 C. in a current
of hydrogen leaves a residue of composition CrO-OH or Cr 2 Oj-HO
which occurs naturally as chrome ochre. Other hydrated oxides
such as Cr 2 Os;2H 2 O have also been described. Chromium trioxide,
CrOa, is obtained by adding concentrated sulphuric acid to a cold
saturated solution of potassium bichromate, when it separates in
long red needles; the mother liquor is drained off and the crystals
are washed with concentrated nitric acid, the excess of which is
removed by means of a current of dry air. It is readily soluble in
water, melts at 193 C.,_and is decomposed at a higher temperature
into chromium sesquioxide and oxygen; it is a very powerful oxid-
izing agent, acting violently on alcohol, converting it into acetalde-
hyde, and in glacial acetic acid solution converting naphthalene and
anthracene into the corresponding quinones. Heated with concen-
trated hydrochloric acid it liberates chlorine, and with sulphuric acid
jt liberates oxygen. Gaseous ammonia passed over the oxide reduces
it to the sesquioxide with formation of nitrogen and water. Dia,
solved in hydrochloric acid at -20, it yields with solutions of the
alkaline chlorides compounds of the type MCl-CrOCls, pointing to
pentavalent chromium. For salts of this acid-forming oxide and for
perchromic acid see BICHROMATES.

_Thechromitesmay be looked upon as salts of chromium sesquioxide
with other basic oxides, the most important being chromite (g.v.).

Chromous chloride, CrCl 2 , is prepared by reducing chromic chloride
in hydrogen; it forms white silky needles, which dissolve in water
giving a deep blue solution, which rapidly absorbs oxygen, forming
basic ^chromic salts, and acts as a very strong reducing agent. The
bromide and iodide are formed in a similar manner by heating the
metal in gaseous hydrobromic or hydriodic acids.

Chromous sulphate, CrSO-7H 2 O, isomorphous with ferrous sul-
phate, results on dissolving the metal in dilute sulphuric acid or,
better, by dissolving chromous acetate in dilute sulphuric acid,
when it separates in blue crystals on cooling the solution. On
pouring a solution of chromous chloride into a saturated solution of
sodium acetate, a red crystalline precipitate of chromous acetate is
produced; this is much more permanent in air than the other
chromous salts and consequently can be used for their preparation.
Chromic salts are of a blue or violet colour, and apparently the
chloride and bromide exist in a green and violet form.

Chromic chloride, CrClj, is obtained in the anhydrous form by
igniting a mixture of the sesquioxide and carbon in a current of dry
chlorine; it forms violet laminae almost insoluble in water, but
dissolves rapidly in presence of a trace of chromous chloride; this
actio_n has been regarded as a catalytic action, it being assumed that
the insoluble chromic chloride is first reduced by the chromous
chloride to the chromous condition and the original chromous
chloride converted into soluble chromic chloride, the newly formed
chromous chloride then reacting with the insoluble chromic chloride.
Solutions of chromic chloride in presence of excess of acid are green
in colour. According to A. Werner, four hydrated chromium
chlorides exist, namely the green and violet salts, CrCl,-6H s O a
hydrate, CrCl,-10H 2 OandoneCrCls-4H 2 O. The violet form gives a
purple solution, and all its chlorine is precipitated by silver nitrate,
the aqueous solution containing four ions, probably Cr(OH), and
three chlorine ions. The green salt appears to dissociate in aqueous
solution into two ions, namely CrCl 2 (OH 2 ) 4 and one chlorine ion,
since practically only one-third of the chlorine is precipitated by
silver nitrate solution at o C. Two of the six water molecules are
easily removed in a desiccator, and the salt formed, CrClf4H 2 O,
resembles the original salt in properties, only one-third of the
:hlorine being precipitated by silver nitrate. In accordance with
liis theory of the constitution of salts Werner formulates the hexa-
hydrate as CrCl 2 -(OH 2 ),-CI-2H 2 O.

Chromic bromide, CrBr a , is prepared in the anhydrous form by the
same method as the chloride, and resembles it in its properties.
The iodide is unknown.

The fluoride, CrF 8 , results on passing hydrofluoric acid over the
icated chloride, and sublimes in needles. The hydrated fluoride,
-rF a -9H 2 O, obtained by adding ammonium fluoride to cold chromic
sulphate solution, is sparingly soluble in water, and is decomposed
by heat.

Oxyhalogen derivatives of chromium are known, the oxychloride,
CrO 2 Cl 2 , resulting on heating potassium bichromate and common
ialt _with concentrated sulphuric acid. It distils over as a dark red
iquid of boiling point 117" C., and is to be regarded as the acid
chloride corresponding to chromic acid, CrOj(OH) 2 . It dissolves
odine and absorbs chlorine, and is decomposed by water with for-
mation of chromic and hydrochloric acids; it takes fire in contact
with sulphur, ammonia, alcohol, &c., and explodes in contact with
phosphorus; it also acts as a powerful oxidizing agent. Heated in
a closed tube at 180 C. it loses chlorine and leaves a black residue of
"richromyl chloride, CriO e Cl 2 , which deliquesces on exposure to air.

298

CHROMOSPHERE CHRONICLE

Analogous bromine and iodine compounds are unknown, since
bromides and iodides on heating with potassium bichromate and
concentrated sulphuric acid give free bromine or free iodine.

The oxyfluoride, CrOjFt, is obtained in a similar manner to the
oxychloride by using fluorspar in place of common salt. It may be
condensed to a dark red liquid which is decomposed by moist air
into chromic acid and chromic fluoride.

The semi-acid chloride, CrOs-Cl-OH, chlorochromic acid, is only
known in the form of its salts, the chlorochromates.

Potassium chlorochromate, CrOj-Cl-OK, is produced when potas-
sium bichromate is heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid and
a little water, or from chromium oxychloride and saturated potassium
chloride solution, when it separates as a red crystalline salt. By
suspending it in ether and passing ammonia, potassium amido-
chromate, CrOz-NHj-OK, is obtained; on evaporating the ether
solution, after it has stood for 24 hours, red prisms of the amido-
chromate separate; it is slowly decomposed by boiling water, and
also by nitrous acid, with liberation of nitrogen.

Chromic sulphide, CrjSs, results on heating chromium and sulphur
or on strongly heating the trioxide i^a current of sulphuretted
hydrogen ; it forms a dark green crystalline powder, and on ignition
gives the sesquioxide.

Chromic sulphate, Cr 2 (SO4)t, is prepared by mixing the hydroxide
with concentrated sulphuric acid and allowing the mixture to stand,
a green solution is first formed which gradually changes to blue, and
deposits violet-blue crystals, which are purified by dissolying in
water and then precipitating with alcohol. It is soluble in cold
water, giving a violet solution, which turns green on boiling. If the
violet solution is allowed to evaporate slowly at ordinary tempera-
tures the sulphate crystallizes out as Cr 2 (SO4)3-15H 2 O, but the green
solution on evaporation leaves only an amorphous mass. Investi-
gation has shown that the change is due to the splitting off of sul-
phuric acid during the process, and that green-coloured chrom-
sulphuric acids are formed thus

(violet) (green)

since, on adding barium chloride to the green solution, only one-third
of the total sulphuric acid is precipitated as barium sulphate, whence
it follows that only one-third of the original SC>4 ions are present
in the green solution. The green salt in aqueous solution, on stand-
ing, gradually passes back to the violet form. Several other com-
plex chrom-sulphuric acids are known, e.g.

[Crj(SO4)4]H,; [Cr 2 (SO4) 6 ]H4; [Cr 2 (SO4) 6 ]H

(see A. Recoura, Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1895 (7), 4, p. 505.)
Chromic sulphate combines with the sulphates of the alkali metals
to form double sulphates, which correspond to the alums. Chrome
alum, K 2 SO4-Cr 2 (SO4)-24H!O, is best prepared by passing sulphur
dioxide through a solution of potassium bichromate containing the
calculated quantity of sulphuric acid,

On evaporating the solution dark purple octahedra of the alum
are obtained. It is easily soluble in warm water, the solution being
of a dull blue tint, and is used in calico-printing, dyeing and tanning.
Chromium ammonium sulphate, (NH4) 2 Sp4'Cr 2 (SO4V24H 2 O, results
on mixing equivalent quantities of chromic sulphate and ammonium
sulphate in aqueous solution and allowing the mixture to crystallize.
It forms red octahedra and is less soluble in water than the corre-
sponding potassium compound. The salt CrClSO4-8H 2 O has been
described. By passing ammonia over heated chromic chloride, the
nitride, CrN, is formed as a brownish powder. By the action of
concentrated sulphuric acid it is transformed into chromium am-
monium sulphate.

Thenitrate,Cr(NO)j'9H 2 p,crystallizes in purple prismsandresults
on dissolving the hydroxide in nitric acid, its solution turns green on
boiling. A phosphide, PCr, is known ; it burns in oxygen forming the
phosphate. By adding sodium phosphate to an excess of chrome
alum the violet phosphate, CrPCVBHjO, is precipitated ; on heating
to 100 C. it loses water and turns green. A green precipitate,
perhaps CrPCh-SHjO, is obtained on adding an excess of sodium
phosphate to chromic chloride solution.

Carbides of chromium are known ; when the metal is heated in an
electric furnace with excess of carbon, crystalline, C 2 Crs, is formed ;
this scratches quartz and topaz, and the crystals are very resistant
to the action of acids; CCn has also been described (H. Moissan,
Comptes rendus, 1894, JI 9. P- ^S).

Cyanogen compounds of chromium, analogous to those of
iron, have been prepared ; thus potassium chromocyanide,
K4Cr(CN)-2H 2 O, is formed from potassium cyanide and chrompus
acetate; on exposure to air it is converted into the chrornicyanide,
KjCr(CN) 6 , which can also be prepared by adding chromic acetate
solution to boiling potassium cyanide solution. Chromic thiocyanate,
Cr(SCN), an amorphous deliquescent mass, is formed by dissolving
the hydroxide in tniocyanic acid and drying over sulphuric acid.
The double thiocyanate, Cr(SCN),-3KCNS-4H ? O, is also known.

Chromium salts readily _combine with ammonia to form complex
salts in which the ammonia molecule is in direct combination with
the chromium atom. In many of these salts one finds that the
elements of water are frequently found in combination with the

metal, and further, that the ammonia molecule may be replaced by
such other molecular groups as NOi, &c. Of the types studied
the following may be mentioned: the diammine chromium thio-
cyanates, MFCr(NH) 2 -(SCN)4], the chloraquotetrammine chromic
salts, R 1 ![Cr(NHj) 4 -H 2 O-Cl], the aquopentammine or roseo-chromium
salts, R'j[Cr(NHi)5'H 2 O],thechlorpentanimine or purpureo-chromium
salts, R' 2 [Cr(NHi)i-Cl], the nitrito pentammine or xanthochromium
salts, R 1 t[NOV(NH)fCr], the luteo or hexammine chromium salts,
R 1 [(NHj)cCr], and the rhodochromium salts: where R'= a mono-
valent acid radical and M = a monovalent basic radical. For the
preparation and properties of these salts and a discussion on their
constitution the papers of S. F. Jorgensen and of A. Werner in the
Zeitschrift fitr anorganische Chemie from 1892 onwards should be
consulted.

P. Pfeiffer (Berichte, 1904, 37, p. 4255) has shown that chromium
salts of the type [Cr{C 2 H4(NH 2 ) 2 [ 2 X 2 ]X exist in two stereo-isomeric
forms, namely, the cis- and trans- forms, the dithiocyan-diethylene-
diamine-chrpmium salts being the trans- salts. Their configuration
was determined by their relationship to their oxalo-derivatives;
the cis-dichloro chloride, [CrC 2 H4(NH 2 ) 2 Cl 2 ]Cl-H s O, compound with
potassium oxalate gave a carmine red crystalline complex salt
[Cr{C 2 H4(NH 2 ) 2 )C 2 04][CrC 2 H,(NH 2 ) 2 -(C 2 0,) s ]lJH 2 0, while from the
trans-chloride a red complex salt is obtained containing the unaltered
trans-dichloro group [CrC 2 H4(NH 2 ) 2 -Cl 2 ].

CHROMOSPHERE (from Gr. xpw/uo, colour, and afalpa., a
sphere), in astronomy, the red-coloured envelope of the sun,
outside of the photosphere. It can be seen with the eye at the
beginning or ending of a total eclipse of the sun, and with a
suitable spectroscope at any time under favourable conditions,
(See SUN and ECLIPSE.)

CHRONICLE (from Gr. xpoww, time). The historical works
written in the middle ages are variously designated by the
terms " histories," " annals," or " chronicles "; it is difficult,
however, to give an exact definition of each of these terms, since
they do not correspond to determinate classes of writings.
The definitions proposed by A. Giry (in La Grande Encyclopedic),
by Ch. V. Langlois (in the Manuel de bibliographic historique),
and by E. Bernheim (in the Lehrbuch der historischen Methode), are
manifestly insufficient. Perhaps the most reasonable is that
propounded by H. F. Delaborde at the Ecole des Charles, that
chronicles are accounts of a universal character, while annals
relate either to a locality, or to a religious community, or even
to a whole people, but without attempting to treat of all periods
or all peoples. The primitive type, he says, was furnished by
Eusebius of Caesarea, who wrote (c. 303) a chronicle in Greek,
which was soon translated into Latin and frequently recopied
throughout the middle ages; in the form of synoptic and
synchronistic tables it embraced the history of the world, both
Jewish and Christian, since the Creation. This ingenious opinion,
however, is only partially exact, for it is certain that the medieval
authors or scribes were not conscious of any well-marked distinc-
tion between annals and chronicles; indeed, they often apparently
employed the terms indiscriminately.

Whether or not a distinction can be made, chronicles and
annals (q.v.) have points of great similarity. Chronicles are
accounts generally of an impersonal character, and often anony-
mous, composed in varying proportions of passages reproduc
textually from sources which the chronicler is seldom at pa
to indicate, and of personal recollections the veracity of whic
remains to be determined. Some of them are written with
little intelligence and spirit that one is led to regard the wor;
of composition as a piece of drudgery imposed on the clergy and
monks by their superiors. To distinguish what is original fron
what is borrowed, to separate fact from falsehood, and to estah
lish the value of each piece of evidence, are in such circumstanc
a difficult undertaking, and one which has exercised the sagacit)
of scholars, especially since the lyth century. The work, mor
over, is immense, by reason of the enormous number of medie
chronicles, both Christian and Mahommedan.

The Christian chronicles were first written in the two lear
languages, Greek and Latin. At an early stage we have pr
of the employment of national languages, the most famou
instances being found at the two extremities of Europe,
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (q.v.), the most ancient form of which
goes back to the loth century, and the so-called Chronicle
Nestor, in Palaeo-Slavonic, written in the nth and 1 2th centurie

CHRONICLES

299

Position
tad date.

In the I3th and uth centuries the number of chronicles written
in the vulgar tongue continued to increase, at least in continental
Europe, which far outpaced England in this respect. From the
I5th century, with the revived study of Greek and Roman
literature, the traditional form of chronicles, as well as of annals,
tended to disappear and to be replaced by another and more
scientific form, based on the models of antiquity that of the
historical composition combining skilful arrangement with
elegance of literary style. The transition, however, was very
gradual, and it was not until the iyth century that the traditional
form became practically extinct.

See E. Bernheim, Lehrbuch der historischcn Methods (4th ed.,
1903); H. Bloch, " Geschichte der deutschen Geschichtsschreibung
im Mittelalter " in the Hcmdbuch of G. von Below and F. Meinecke
(Munich, 1903 seq.); Max Jansen, " Historiographie und Quellen
der deutschen Geschichte bis 1500," in Alois Meister's Grundris
(Leipzig, 1906); and the Introduction (1904) to A. Molinier's Les
Sources de I'histoire de France. (C. B.*)

CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF, two Old Testament books of the
Bible. The name is derived from Chronicon, first suggested by
Jerome as a rendering of the title which they bear in
the Hebrew Canon, viz. Events of the Times. The full
Hebrew title would be Book of Events of the Times, and
this again appears to have been a designation commonly applied
to special histories in the more definite shape Events of the Times
tf King David, or the like (i Chron. xxvii. 24; Esth. x. 2, &c.).
The Greek translators divided the long book into two, and
adopted the title ! lopaAenro/jeca, Things omitted [scil. in the other
historical books].

The book of Chronicles begins with Adam and ends abruptly
in the middle of Cyrus's decree of restoration, which reappears
complete at the beginning of Ezra. A closer examination of those
parts of Ezra and Nehemiah which are not extracted from earlier
documents or original memoirs leads to the conclusion that
Chronicles- Ezra-Nehemiah was originally one work, displaying
throughout the peculiarities of language and thought of a single
editor, who, however, cannot be Ezra himself as tradition would
have it. Thus the fragmentary close of 2 Chronicles marks the
disruption of a previously-existing continuity, due, presumably,
to the fact that in the gradual compilation of the Canon the
necessity for incorporating in the Holy Writings an account of
the establishment of the post-Exile theocracy was felt, before it
was thought desirable to supplement Samuel and Kings by adding
a second history of the period before the Exile. Hence Chronicles
is the last book of the Hebrew Bibfe, following the book of Ezra-
Nehemiah, which properly is nothing else than the sequel of
Chronicles.

Of the authorship of Chronicles we know only what can be
determined by internal evidence. The style of the language, and
also the position of the book in the Jewish Canon, stamp the book
as one of the latest in the Old Testament, but lead to no exact
determination of the date. 1 In i Chron. xxix. 7, which refers to
the time of David, a sum of money is reckoned by darics, which
certainly implies that the author wrote after this Persian coin
had been long current in Judaea. In i Chron. iii. 19 sqq. the
descendants of Zerubbabel seem to be reckoned to six generations
(the Septuagint reads it so as to give as many as eleven genera-
tions), and this agrees with the suggestion that Hattush (verse 22),
who belongs to the fourth generation from Zerubbabel, was a
contemporary of Ezra (Ezra viii. 2). Thus the compiler lived at
least two generations after Ezra. With this it accords that in
Nehemiah five generations of high priests are enumerated from
Joshua (xii. 10 seq.), and that the last name is that of Jaddua,
who, according to Josephus, was a contemporary of Alexander
the Great (333 B.C.) . That the compiler wrote after the fall of the
Persian monarchy has been argued by Ewald and others from the
use of the title king of Persia (2 Chron. xxxvi. 23), and from the
reference made in Neh. xii. 22 to Darius III. (336-332 B.C.). A
date some time after 332 B.C. is now accepted by most modern
critics. See further EZRA AND NEHEMIAH.

What seems to be certain and important for a right estimate of

1 See the lists in Driver, Lit. of Old Test. pp. 502 sqq. ; and the
exhaustive summary by Fr. Brown in Hastings' Diet. Bible, i. 289 sqq.

the book is that the writer lived a considerable time after Ezra,
and stood entirely under the influence of the religious institu-
tions of the new theocracy. This standpoint determined the
nature of his interest in the early history of his people.
The true importance of Hebrew history had always
centred in the fact that this petty nation was the people work.
of Yahweh, the spiritual God. The tragic interest
which distinguishes the annals of Israel from the forgotten
history of Moab or Damascus lies wholly in that long contest
which finally vindicated the reality of spiritual things and the
supremacy of Yahweh's purpose, in the political ruin of the
nation which was the faithless depository of these sacred truths.
After the return from the Exile it was impossible to write the
history of Israel's fortunes otherwise than in a spirit of religious
pragmatism. But within the limits of the religious conception of
the plan and purpose of the Hebrew history more than one point
of view might be taken up. The book of Kings looks upon the
history in the spirit of the prophets in that spirit which is still
echoed by Zech. i. 5 seq., but which had become extinct before the
Chronicler wrote. The New Jerusalem of Ezra was organized as a
municipality and a church, not as a nation. The centre of religious
life was no longer the living prophetic word but the ordinances of
the Pentateuch and the liturgical service of the sanctuary.
The religious vocation of Israel was no longer national but
ecclesiastical or municipal, and the historical continuity of the
nation was vividly realized only within the walls of Jerusalem
and the' courts of the Temple, in the solemn assembly and stately
ceremonial of a feast day. These influences naturally operated
most strongly on those who were officially attached to the
sanctuary. To a Levite, even more than to ether Jews, the
history of Israel meant above all things the history of Jerusalem,
of the Temple, and of the Temple ordinances. Now the writer of
Chronicles betrays on every page his essentially Levitical habit
of mind. It even seems possible from a close attention to his
descriptions of sacred ordinances to conclude that his special
interests are those of a common Levite rather than of a priest,
and that of all Levitical functions he is most partial to those of
the singers, a member of whose guild he may have been. From
the standpoint of the post-exilic age, the older delineation of the
history of Israel, especially in the books of Samuel and Kings,
could not but appear to be deficient in some directions, while
in other respects its narrative seemed superfluous or open to
misunderstanding, as for example by recording, and that without
condemnation, things inconsistent with the later post-exilic law.
The history of the ordinances of worship holds a very small place
in the older record. Jerusalem and the Temple have not that
central place in the book of Kings which they occupied in the
minds of the Jewish community after the Exile. Large sections
of the old history are devoted to the religion and politics of the
ten tribes, which are altogether unintelligible and uninteresting
when measured by a strictly Levitical standard; and in general
the whole problems and struggles of the prophetic period turn on
points which had ceased to be cardinal in the life of the New
Jerusalem, which was no longer called to decide between the
claims of the Word of Yahweh and the exigencies of political
affairs and social customs, and which could not comprehend that
men absorbed in deeper spiritual contests had no leisure for the
niceties of Levitical legislation. Thus there seemed to be room
for a new history, which should confine itself to matters still
interesting to the theocracy of Zion, keeping Jerusalem and the
Temple in the foreground, and developing the divine pragmatism
of the history, not so much with reference to the prophetic word
as to the fixed legislation of the Pentateuch, so that the whole
narrative might be made to teach that the glory of Israel lies in
the observance of the divine law and ritual.

For the sake of systematic completeness the book begins with
Adam, as is the custom with later Oriental writers. But there
was nothing to add to the Pentateuch, and the period content*.
from Moses to David contained little that served the
purpose. The early history is therefore contracted into a series of
tribal and priestly genealogies, which were doubtless by no means
the least interesting part of the work at a time when every

CHRONICLES

Sources.

Israelite was concerned to prove the purity of his Hebrew
descent (cp. Ezra ii. 59, 62). Commencing abruptly (after some
Benjamite genealogies) with the death of Saul, the history
becomes fuller and runs parallel with the books of Samuel and
Kings. The limitations of the compiler's interest in past times
appear in the omission, among other particulars, of David's reign
in Hebron, of the disorders in his family and the revolt of Absalom,
of the circumstances of Solomon's accession, and of many
details as to the wisdom and splendour of that sovereign, as well
as of his fall into idolatry. In the later history the ten tribes are
quite neglected (" Yahweh is not with Israel," 2 Chron. xxv. 7),
and political affairs in Judah receive attention, not in proportion
to their intrinsic importance, but according as they serve to
exemplify God's help to the obedient and His chastisement of the
rebellious. That the compiler is always unwilling to speak of the
misfortunes of good rulers is cot necessarily to be ascribed to a
deliberate suppression of truth, but shows that the book was
throughout composed not in purely historical interests, but with a
view to inculcating a single practical lesson. The more important
additions to the older narrative consist partly of statistical lists
(i Chron. xii.), partly of full details on points connected with the
history of the sanctuary and the great feasts or the archaeology of
the Levitical ministry (i Chron. xiii., xv., xvi., xxii.-xxix.; 2
Chron. xxix.-xxxi., &c.), and partly of narratives of victories and
defeats, of sins and punishments, of obedience and its reward,
which could be made to point a plain religious lesson in favour of
faithful observance of the law (2 Chron. xiii., xiv. 9 sqq.; xx.,
xxi. ii sqq., &c.). The minor variations of Chronicles from the
books of Samuel and Kings are analogous in principle to the
larger additions and omissions, so that the whole work has a
consistent and well-marked character, presenting the history in
quite a different perspective from that of the old narrative.

The chronicler makes frequent reference to earlier histories
which he cites by a great variety of names. That the names
" Book of the Kings of Israel and Judah," " Book of
the Kings of Judah and Israel," " Book of the Kings of
Israel," and " Affairs of the Kings of Israel " (2 Chron. xxxiii. 18) ,
refer to a single work is not disputed. Under one or other title
this book is cited some ten times. Whether it is identical with
the Midrash 1 of the book of Kings (2 Chron. xxiv. 27) is not
certain. That the work so often cited is not the Biblical book of
the same name is manifest from what is said of its contents. It
must have been quite an extensive work, for among other things
it contained genealogical statistics (i Chron. ix. i), and it in-
corporated certain older prophetic writings in particular, the
debarlm (" words " or " history ") of Jehu the son of Hanani
(2 Chron. xx. 34) and possibly the vision of Isaiah (2 Chron.
xxxii. 32). Where the chronicler does not cite this compre-
hensive work at the close of a king's reign he generally refers to
some special authority which bears the name of a prophet or seer
(2 Chron. ix. 29; xii. 15, &c.). But the book of the Kings and a
special prophetic writing are not cited for the same reign. It is
therefore probable that in other cases than those of Isaiah and
Jehu the writings of, or rather, about the prophets which are
cited in Chronicles were known only as parts of the great " book
of the Kings." Even the genealogical lists may have been
derived from that work (i Chron. ix. i), though for these other
materials may have been accessible.

The two chief sources of the canonical book of Kings were
entitled Annals (" events of the times ") of the Kings of Israel and
Jitdah respectively (see KINGS). That the lost source of the
Chronicles was not independent of these works appears probable
both from the nature of the case and from the close and often
verbal parallelism between many sections of the two Biblical
narratives. But while the canonical book of Kings refers to
separate sources for the northern and southern kingdoms, the
source of Chronicles was a history of the two kingdoms com-
bined, and so, no doubt, was a more recent work which in
great measure was doubtless based upon older annals. Yet it

_'R.y. "commentary," properly, an edifying religious work, a
didactic or homiletic exposition. A distinct tendency to Midrash
is found even here and there in the earlier books.

contained also matter not derived from these works, for it is
pretty clear from 2 Kings xxi. 17 that the Annals of the Kings oj
Judah gave no account of Manasseh's repentance, which, accord-
ing to 2 Chron. xxxiii. 18, 19, was narrated in the great book of
the Kings of Israel. It was the opinion of Bertheau, Keil and
others, that the parallelisms of Chronicles with Samuel and Kings
are sufficiently explained by the ultimate common source from
which both narratives drew. But most critics hold that the
chronicler also drew directly from the canonical books of Samuel
and Kings as he apparently did from the Pentateuch. This
opinion is not improbable, as the earlier books of the Old Testa-
ment cannot have been unknown in his age; and the critical
analysis of the canonical book of Kings is advanced enough to
enable us to say that in some of the parallel passages the chronicler
uses words which were not written in the annals but by one of
the compilers of Kings himself. In particular, Chronicles agrees
with Kings in those short notes of the moral character of indi-
vidual monarchs which can hardly be ascribed to an earlier hand
than that of the redactor of the latter book. 2

For the criticism of the book it is important to institute a
careful comparison of Chronicles with the parallel narratives in
Samuel-Kings^ It is found that in the cases where
Chronicles directly contradicts the earlier books there
are few in which an impartial historical judgment will
decide in favour of the later account, and in any point that
touches difference of usage between its time and that of the old
monarchy it is of no authority. The characteristic feature of the
post-exilic age was the re-shaping of older tradition in the interest
of parenetic and practical purposes, and for this object a certain
freedom of literary form was always allowed to ancient historians.
The typical speeches in Chronicles are of little value for the
periods to which they relate, and where they are inconsistent
with the evidence from earlier writings or contain inherent im-
probabilities are scarcely of historical worth. According to the
ordinary laws of research, the book, being written at a time long
posterior to the events it records, can have only a secondary
value, although that is no reason why here and there valuable
material should not have been preserved. But the general
picture which it gives of life under the old monarchy cannot have
the same value for us as the records of the book of Kings. On the
other hand, it is of distinct value for the history of its time, and
presents a clear picture of the spirit of the age. The -" ecclesiasti-
cal chronicle of Jerusalem," as Reuss has aptly called it, repre-
sents the culminating point (as far -as the O. T. Canon is con-
cerned) of that theory of which examples recur in Judges, Samuel
and Kings, and this treatment of history in accordance with
religious or ethical doctrines finds its continuation in the didactic
aims which characterize the later non-canonical writings (cf.
JUBILEES; MIDRASH).

The most prominent examples of disagreement with earlier
sources may be briefly noticed. Thus, it would appear that the
book has confused Jehoiakim and Jehoiachin (2 Chron. xxxvi. 5-8)
and has statements which directly conflict with 2 Sam. xxi. 19
(i Chron. xx. 5 ; see GOLIATH), and i Kings ix. 10 seq. (2 Chron. viii.
2); it has changed Hezekiah's submission (2 Kings xviii.) into a
brave resistance (2 Chron. xxxii. 1-8) and ignored the humiliating
payment of tribute by this king and by Joash (2 Kings xii. 18;
2 Chron. xxiv. 23 sqq.). 4 That Satan, and not Yahweh incited

1 The problem of the sources is one of considerable intricacy and
cannot be discussed here ; the introduction to the commentaries of
Benzinger and Kittel (see Bibliography below) should be consulted.
The questions depend partly upon the view taken of the origin and
structure of the book of Kings (g..) and partly upon the results of
historical criticism.

* " A careful comparison of Chronicles with Samuel and Kings is
a striking object lesson in ancient historical composition. It is an
almost indispensable introduction to the criticism of the Pentateuch
and the older historical works" (W. H. Bennett, Chronides,p.2O seq.).

4 But xxxii. 1-8 may preserve a tradition of the account of the
city's wonderful deliverance mentioned in Kings (see HEZEKIAH),
and the details of the invasion of Judah in the time of Joash differ
essentially from those in the earlier source. Even 2 Chron. viii. 2
cannot be regarded as a deliberate alteration since the writer does
not appear to be quoting from I Kings ix. 10 sqq. (the two passages
should be carefully compared), and his view of Solomon's greatness
is already supported by allusions in the earlier but extremely
composite sources in Kings (see SOLOMON).

CHRONOGRAPH

301

David to number Israel (i Chron. xxi.; 2 Sam. xxiv. i) accords
with later theological development.

A particular tendency to arrange history according to a mechanical
rule appears in the constant endeavour to show that recompense
and retribution followed immediately on good or bad conduct, and
especially on obedience or disobedience to prophetic advice. Thus,
the invasion of Shishak (see REHOBOAM) becomes a typical romance
(2 Chron. xii.) ; the illness of Asa is preceded by a denunciation for
relying upon Syria, and the chronology is changed to bring the fault
near the punishment (2 Chron. xv. seq.). The ships which Jehosha-
phat made were wrecked at Ezipn-geber because he had allied him-
self with Ahaziah of Israel despite prophetic warning (2 Chron. xx.
35 sqq.: i Kings xxii. 48; cf. similarly the addition in 2 Chron.
xix. 1-3), and the later writer supposes that the " Tarshish ships "
(large vessels such as were used in trading with Spain cf. " India-
men ") built in the Red Sea were intended for the Mediterranean
trade (cf. 2 Chron. ix. 21 with i Kings x. 22). The Edomite revolt
under Jehoram of Judah becomes the penalty for the king's apostasy
(2 Chron. xxi. 10-20; 2 Kings viii. 22). Ahaziah was slain because
of his friendship with Jehoram (2 Chron. xxii. 7). The Aramaean
invasion in the time of Joash of Judah was a punishment for the
murder of Jehoiada's son (2 Chron. xxiv.; 2 Kings xii.). Amaziah,
af ter defeating Edom (2 Chron. xxv., esp. verses 19-21 ; see 2 Kings xiv.
10 seq.), worshipped strange gods, for which he was defeated by Joash
of Israel, and subsequently met with his death (2 Chron. xxv. 27;
2 Kings xiv. 19). Uzziah's leprosy is attributed to a ritual fault
(2 Chron. xxvi. 4 seq., 16 sqq. ; cf. 2 Kings xv. 3-5 ; see UZZIAH). The
defeat and death of the good king Josiah came through disobedi-
ence to the Divine will (2 Chron. xxxv. 21 seq.; see 2 Kings xxiii.
26 sqq.).

In addition to such supplementary information, another tendency
of the chronicler is the alteration of narratives that do not agree
with the later doctrines of the uniformity of religious institutions
before and after the exile. Thus, the reformation of Josiah has been
thrust back from his eighteenth to his twelfth year (when he was
nineteen years old) apparently because it was felt that so good a king
would not have tolerated the abuses of the land for so long a period, 1
but the result of this is to leave an interval of ten years between his
conversion and the subsequent act of repentance (2 Chron. xxxiv.
3-6; 2 Kings xxii. seq.). References to Judaean idolatry are omitted
(I Kings xiv. 22-24; see 2 Chron. xii. 14; 2 Kings xviii. 4; 2 Chron.
xxxi. i) or abbreviated (2 Kings xxiii. 1-20; 2 Chron. xxxiv. 29-33) ;
and if the earlier detailed accounts of Judaean heathenism were
repulsive, so the tragic account of the fate of Jerusalem was a
painful subject upon which the chronicler's age did not care to
dwell (contrast 2 Kings xxiv. 8-xxv. with the brief 2 Chron. xxxvi.
9-21). At an age when the high places were regarded as idolatrous
it was considered only natural that the good kings should not have
tolerated them. So 2 Chron. xiv. 5, xvii. 6 (from unknown sources)
contradict I Kings xv. 14, xxii. 43 (that Asa and Jehoshaphat did
not demolish the high places), whereas xv. 16-18, xx. 31-34, are
quoted from the book of Kings and give the older view The example
is an illustration of the simple methods of early compilers. Further,
it is assumed that the high place at Gibeon was a legitimate sanctuary
(2 Chron. i. 3-6; i Kings jii. 2-4; I Chron. xxi. 28-30; 2 Sam. xxiv.) ;
that the ark was borne not by priests (i Kings viii. 3) but by Levites
(2 Chron. v. 4), in accordance with post-exilic usage; and that the
Levites, and not the foreign bodyguard of the temple, helped to place
Joash on the throne (2 Chron. xxiii.). 2 Conversely i Chron. xv.
12 seq. explains xiii. 10 (2 Sam. vi. 7) on the view that Uzza was not
a Levite, hence the catastrophe.

Throughout it is assumed that the Levitical organization had
been in existence from the days of David, to whom its foundation
is ascribed. In connexion with the installation of the ark consider-
able space is devoted to the arrangements for the maintenance of
the temple-service, upon which the earlier books are silent, and
elaborate notices of the part played by the Levites and singers give
expression to a view of the history of the monarchy which the book
of Kings does not share. 3 Along with the exceptional interest taken
in Levitical and priestly lists should be noticed the characteristic
preference for genealogies. Particular prominence is given to the
tribe and kings of Judah (i Chron. ii.-iv.), and to the priests and
Levites (i Chron. vi., xv. sq., xxiii.-xxv. ; with ix. 1-34 cf. Neh. xi.).
The historical value of these lists is very unequal; a careful study
of the names often proves the lateness of the source, although
an appreciation of the principles of genealogies sometimes reveals
important historical information; see CALEB, GENEALOGY, JUDAH.
But the Levitical system as it appears in its most complete form in

1 But that this was not the invention of the chronicler appears
(ssible from Jer. xxv. 3. Similarly ,*Hezekiah's reforms are dated

in his first year (2 Chron. xxix. 3), against all probability; see

HEZEKIAH (end).

* 2 Chron. xxiii. is an excellent specimen of the redaction to which
der narratives were submitted; cf. also 2 Chron. xxiv. 5 seq.
! Kings xi. 4 seq.), xxxiv. 9-14 (2 Kings xxii.), xxxv. 1-19 (2 Kings
riii. 21-23).
1 Passages in the books of Samuel and Kings which might appear

to point to the contrary require careful examination; they prove

to be glosses or interpolations, or are relatively late as a whole.

Chronicles is the result of the development of earlier schemes, of
which some traces are still preserved in Chronicles itself and in
Ezra-Nehemiah. (See further LEVITES.)

The tendency of numbers to grow is one which must always be
kept in view cf. I Chron. xviii. 4, xix. 18 (2 Sam. viii. 4 (but see
LXX.j, x. 1 8), i Chron. xxi. 5, 25 (2 Sam. xxiv. 9, 24) ; consequently
little importance can be attached to details which appear to be
exaggerated (i Chron. y. 21, xii., xxii. 14: 2 Chron. xiii. 3, 17), and
are found to be quite in accordance with similar peculiarities else-
where (Num. xxxi. 32 seq.; Judg. xx. 2, 21, 25).

But when allowance is made for all the above tendencies of
the late post-exilic age, there remains a certain amount of
additional matter in Chronicles which may have been
derived from relatively old sources. These items are
of purely political or personal nature and contain
several details which taken by themselves have every appear-
ance of genuineness. Where there can be no suspicion of such
" tendency " as has been noticed above there is less ground
for scepticism, and it must be remembered that the earlier books
contain only a portion of the material to which the compilers
had access. Hence it may well happen that the details which
unfortunately cannot be checked were ultimately derived from
sources as reputable as those in the books of Samuel, Kings,
&c. As examples may be cited Rehoboam's buildings, &c.
(2 Chron. xi. 5-12, 18 sqq.); Jeroboam's attack upon Abijah
(2 Chron. xiii., cf. i Kings xv. 7); the invasion of Zerah in Asa's
reign (2 Chron. xiv. ; see ASA) ; Jehoshaphat's wars and judicial
measures (2 Chron. xvii. xx. ; see i Kings xxii. 45) ; Jehoram's
family (2 Chron. xxi. 2-4); relations between Jehoiada and
Joash (2 Chron. xxiv. 3, 15 sqq.); conflicts between Ephraim
and Judah (2 Chron. xxv. 6-13); wars of Uzziah and Jotham
(2 Chron. xxvi. seq.); events in the reign of Ahaz (2 Chron.
xxviii. 8-15, 1 8 seq.); reforms of Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxix. sqq.,
cf. Jer. xxvi. 19); Manasseh's captivity, repentance and buildings
(2 Chron. xxxiii. 10-20; see 2 Kings xxi. and MANASSEH); the
death of Josiah (2 Chron. xxxv. 20-25). In addition to this
reference may be made to such tantalizing statements as those
in i Chron. ii. 23 (R.V.).iv. 30-41, v. 10, 18-22, vii. 21 seq., viii. 13,
xii. 15, examples of the kind of tradition, national and private,
upon which writers could draw. Although in their present
form the additional narratives are in the chronicler's style, it is
not necessary to deny an older traditional element which may
have been preserved in sources now lost to us. 4
' BIBLIOGRAPHY. Robertson Smith's article in the gth ed. of the
Ency. Brit, was modified by his later views in Old Test, in the Jewish
Church'', pp. 140-148. Recent literature js summarized by S. R.
Driver in his revision of Smith's article in Ency. Bib. and in his
Lit. of Old Test., and by F. Brown in Hastings' Diet. Bib. (a very
comprehensive article). Many parts of the book offer a very hard
task to the expositor, especially the genealogies, where to other
troubles are added the extreme corruption and many variations of
the proper names in the versions; on these see the articles in the
Ency. Bib. Valuable contributions to the exegesis of the book will
be found in Wellhausen's Prolegomena (Eng. trans.), pp. 171-227;
Benzinger in Marti's Hand-Kommentar (1901); Kittef in Sacred
Books of the Old Test. (1895), History of the Hebrews, ii. 224 sqq.
(1896), and in Nowack's Hand-Kommentar (1902). W. H. Bennett
in Expositor's Bible (1894), W. E. Barnes in Cambridge Bible (1899),
and Harvey-Jellie in the Century Bible (1906), are helpful. Among
more recent investigations are those of Howorth, Proc. Sec. of Bibl.
Archael. xxvii. 267-278 (Chronicles a late translation from the
Aramaic). (W. R. S.; S. A. C.)

CHRONOGRAPH from Gr. \pkvas, time, and ypd^tiv, to write).
Instruments whereby periods of time are measured and recorded
are commonly called chronographs, but it would be more correct
to give the name to the records produced. Instruments such as
" stop watches " (see WATCH), by means of which the time
between events is shown on a dial, are also called chronographs;
they were originally nghtly called chronoscopes (truajrtiv, to see).

4 The view that the chronicler invented such narratives is in-
conceivable, and in the present stage of historical criticism is as
unsound as an implicit reliance upon those sources in the earlier
books, which in their turn are _ of ten long posterior to the events
they record. Although Graf, in a critical and exhaustive study
(Geschichtlichen Biicher des A.T., Leipzig, 1866), concluded that the
Chronicles have almost no value as a documentary source of the
ancient history, he subsequently admitted in private correspondence
with Bertheau that this statement was too strong (preface to
Bertheau's Commentary, 2nd ed., 1873).

302

CHRONOGRAPH

In the first experiments in ballistics by B. Robins, Count
Rumford and Charles Hutton, the velocity of a projectile was
found by means of the ballistic pendulum, in which the principle
of momentum is applied in finding the velocity of a projectile
(Principles of Gunnery, by Benjamin Robins, edited by Hutton,
1805, p. 84). It consisted of a pendulum of considerable weight,
which was displaced from its position of rest by the impact of
the bullet, the velocity of which was required. A modification
of the ballistic pendulum was also employed by W. E. Metford
(1824-1809) in his researches on different forms of rifling;
the bob was made in the form of a long cylinder, weighing about
140 II), suspended with its axis horizontal from four wires at
each end, all moving points being provided with knife edges.
The true length of suspension was deduced from observations
of the time of a complete small oscillation. The head of the
pendulum was furnished with a wooden block, which caught
the fragments of bullets fired at it, and its displacement was
recorded by a rod moved by the bob (The Book of the Rifle, by
the Hon. T. F. Fremantle, p. 336). An improved ballistic
pendulum in which the geometric method of suspension is
introduced has been used by A. Mullock, to determine the
resistance of the air to bullets having a velocity up to 4500 F/S.
(Proc. Roy. Soc., Nov. 1904). A ballistic pendulum, carried by a
geometric suspension from five points, has also been employed
by C. V. Boys in a research on the elasticity of golf balls, the
displacement of the bob being recorded on a sheet of smoked
glass. 1 For further information on the dynamics of the subject
see Text Book of Gunnery, 1897, p. 101.

In nearly all forms of chronographs in which the ballistic
pendulum method is not used, the beginning and end of a period
of time is recorded by means of some kind of electrically con-
trolled mechanism; and in order that small fractions of a second
may be measured, tuning-forks are employed, giving any con-
venient number of vibrations per second, a light style or scribing
point, usually of aluminium, being attached to one of the legs
of the tuning-fork. A trace of the vibration is made on a surface
blackened with the deposit from the smoke of a lamp. Glazed
paper is often employed when the velocity of the surface is slow,
but when a high velocity of smoked surface is necessary, smoked
glass offers far the least resistance to the movement of the
scribing points. If the surface be cylindrical, thin sheet mica
attached to it, and smoked, gives excellent results, and offers
but little resistance to all the scribing points employed. The
period of vibration of tuning-forks is determined by direct or in-
direct comparison with the mean solar second, taken from a
standard clock, the rate of which is known from transit observa-
tions (" Recherches sur les vibrations d'un diapason etalon," R.
Koenig, Wied. Ann., 1880). In the celebrated ballistic experi-
ments of the Rev. F. Bashforth, the time markings were made
electrically from a standard clock, and fractions of a second
were estimated by interpolation. Regnault (Memoires de I'acad.
des sciences, t. xxxvii.) employed both a standard clock and a
tuning-fork in his determination of the velocity of sound. The
effect of temperature on tuning-forks has been determined by

'The velocity of the projectile is found thus. Let V be the
velocity of the bob, due to the impact of the projectile, v the velocity
of the projectile, h the height through which the bob is raised
vertically, then

If W be the weight of the bob, and w the weight of the projectile,
then

V, and t>=

If I be the true length of suspension, and C the length of the chord
of the arc of displacement of the bob after being struck, then

Also if T be the time of a complete small oscillation of the pendulum

2-irC

Lord Rayleigh and Professor H. McLeod (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1880,
26, p. 162), who found the coefficient to be o-oooi i per degree C.
between 9 C. and 27 C. The beginning and end of a time
period is marked on a moving surface in many ways. Usually
an electromagnetic stylus is employed, in which a scribing point
suddenly moves when the electric circuit is broken by a pro-
jectile. Another method is to arrange the terminals of the
secondary circuit of an induction coil, so that when the primary
circuit is opened a small spark punctures or marks a moving
surface (Helmholtz, Phil. Mag., 1853, p. 6). A photographic
plate or film, moving in a dark chamber, is also used to receive
markings produced by a beam of light interrupted by a small
screen attached to an electromagnetic stylus, or by the legs of a
tuning-fork, or by the mercury column of a capillary electro-
meter. In certain researches on the explosive wave of gases
the light given by the burning gases made the time trace on
a rapidly moving photographic film (H. B. Dixon, Phil. Trans.,
1003, 200, p. 323). In physiological chronography the stylus is
in many cases actuated directly by the piece of muscle to which
it is attached; when the muscle is stimulated its contraction
moves the stylus on the moving surface of the myograph
(M. Foster, Text Book of Physiology, 1879, p. 39).

Gun Chronographs. Probably the earliest forms of chronographs,
not based on the ballistic pendulum method, are due to Colonel
Grobert, 1804, and Colonel Dabooz, 1818, both officers
of the French army. In the instrument by Grobert two . Orobert
large disks, attached to the same axle 13 ft. apart, were n"^,
rapidly rotated; the shot pierced each disk, the angle D ">*
between two holes giving the time of flight of the ball, when the
angular velocity of the disks was known. In the instrument by
Colonel Dabooz a cord passing over two light pulleys, one close to
the gun, the other at a given distance from it, was stretched by a
weight at the gun end and by a heavy screen at the other end.
Behind this screen there was a fixed screen. The shot cut the cord
and liberated the screen, which was perforated during its fall. The
height of fall was measured by superposing the hole in the moving
screen upon that in the fixed one. This gave'the approximate
time _of flight of the shot over a given distance, and hence its
velocity.

In the early form of chronoscope invented by Sir C. Wheatstone in
1840 the period of time was measured by means of a species of clock,
driven by a weight; the dial pointer was started and
stopped by the action of an electromagnet which moved a
pawl engaging with a toothed wheel fixed on the axle to
which the dial pointer was attached. The instrument applied to the
determination of the velocity of shot is described thus by Wheat-
stone : " A wooden ring embraced the mouth of the gun, and a wire
connected the opposite sides of the ring. At a proper distance the
target was erected, and so arranged that the least motion given to
it would establish a permanent contact between two metal points.
One of the extremities of the wire of the electromagnet (before
mentioned) was attached to one pole of a small battery; to the
other extremity of the electromagnet were attached two wires, one
of which communicated with the contact piece of the target, and
the other with one of the ends of the wire stretched across the
mouth of the gun ; from the other extremity of the voltaic battery
two wires were taken, one of which came to the contact piece of
the target, and the other to the opposite extremity of the wire
across the mouth of the gun. Before the firing of the gun a con-
tinuous circuit existed, including the gun wire; when the target
was struck the second circuit was completed; but during the
passage of the projectile both circuits were interrupted, and the
duration of this interruption was indicated by the chronoscope."

Professor Joseph Henry (Journal Franklin Inst., 1886) employed a
cylinder driven by clockwork, making ten revolutions per second.
The surface was divided into 100 equal parts, each equal to
n^s second. The time marks were made by two galvano- Heniy.
meter needles, when successive screens were broken by a shot.
Henry also used an induction-coil spark to make the cylinder, the
primary of the coil being in circuit with a battery and screen. This
form of chronograph is in many respects similar to the instrument of
Konstantmoff, which was constructed by L. F. C. Breguet and has
been sometimes attributed to him (Comptes rendus, 1845). This
chronograph consisted of a cylinder I metre in circumference and
0-36 metre long, driven by clockwork, the rotation being regulated by
a governor provided with wings. A small carriage geared to the
wheelwork traversed its length, carrying electromagnetic signals.
1 he electric chronograph signal usually consists of a small armature
(furnished with a style which marks a moving surface) moving
in front of an electromagnet, the armature being suddenly pulled
oft the poles of the electromagnet by a spring when the circuit is
broken (Journal of Physiology, ix. 408). The signals in Breguet's
instrument were in a circuit, including the screens and batteries
>f a gun range. The measurement of time depended on the

Wheal-
Btoae,

CHRONOGRAPH

303

regularity of rotation of the cylinder, on which each mm. repre-
sented ToVa second.

In the chronograph of A. J. A. Navez (1848) the time period is
found by means of a pendulum held at a large angle from the vertical

by an electromagnet, which is in circuit with a screen on
Navez. t j w g un ran g e when the shot cuts this screen the circuit
is broken and the pendulum liberated and set swinging. When the
next screen on the range is broken by the shot, the position of the
pendulum is recorded and the distance it has passed through measured
on a divided arc. From this the time of traversing the space between
the screens is deduced. By means of an instrument known as a
disjunctor the instrumental time-loss or latency of the chronograph

is determined. In Benton's chronograph (1859) two
Beaton. pendulums are liberated, in the same manner as in the
instrument of Navez, one on the cutting of the first screen, the other
on the cutting of the second. The difference between the swings
of the two pendulums gives the time period sought for. The dis-
junctor is also used in connexion with this instrument. In Vignotti's
chronograph (1857) again a pendulum is employed, furnished with a
metal point, which moves close to paper impregnated with ferro-
cyanide of potassium. The gun-range screens are included in the
primary circuits of induction coils; when these circuits are broken
a spark from the pointer marks the paper. From these marks the
time of traverse of the shot between the screens is determined.

In the Bashforth chronograph a platform, arranged to descend
slowly alongside of a vertical rotating cylinder, carries two markers,

controlled by electromagnets, which describe a double

spiral on the prepared surface of the cylinder. One
electromagnet is in circuit with a clock, and the marker actuated
by it marks seconds on the cylinder; the circuit of the other is
completed through a series of contact pieces attached to the screens
through which the shot passes in succession. On the gun range,
when the shot reaches the first screen, it breaks a weighted cotton
thread, which keeps a flexible wire in contact with a conductor.
When the thread is broken by a shot, the wire leaves the conductor
and almost immediately establishes the circuit through the next
screen, by engaging with a second contact, the time of the rupture
being recorded on the cylinder by the second marker. The velocity
with which the cylinder rotates is such that the distance between
successive clock marks indicating seconds is about 18 in.; hence the
marks corresponding with the severance of a thread can be allotted
their value in fractions of seconds with great accuracy. The times
when the shot passes successive screens being thus recorded on the
spiral described by the second marker, and the distance between
each screen being known, the velocity of the shot can be calculated.
The chronoscope invented by Sir Andrew Noble is so well adapted
to the measurement of very small intervals of time that it is usually
N . . employed to ascertain the velocity acquired by a shot at

different parts of the bore in moving from a state of rest
inside the gun. A series of " cutting plugs " is screwed into the sides
of the gun at measured intervals, and in each is inserted a loop of
wire which forms part of the primary circuit of an induction coil.
On the passage of a shot this wire is severed by means of a small knife
which projects into the bore and is actuated by the shot as it passes;
the circuit being thus broken, a spark passes between the terminals
of the secondary of the coil. There is a separate coil and circuit for
each plug. The recording arrangement consists of a series of disks,
one for each plug, mounted on one axle and rotating at a high angular
velocity. The edges of these disks are covered with a coating of
lamp-black, and the secondaries of the coils are caused to discharge
against them, so that a minute spot burnt in the lamp-black of each
disk indicates the moment of the cutting of the wire in the correspond-
ing plug. Hence measurement of the distance between two successive
spots gives the time occupied by the shot in moving over the portion
of the bore between two successive plugs. By the aid of a vernier,
readings are made to thousandths of an inch, and the peripheral
velocity of the disks being noo in. a second, the machine indicates
portions of time rather less than one-millionth of a second; it is,
in fact, practically correct to hundred-thousandths of a second (Phil.
Trans., 1875, pt. i.).

In the Le Boulenge chronograph (" Chronograph le Boulenge,"
par M. Breger, Commission de Gavre, Sept. 1880) two screens are
, used. The wire of the first forms part of the circuit of an

i electromagnet which, so long as it is energized, supports

* e ' a vertical rod called the " chronometer." Hence when
the circuit is broken by the passage of a shot through the screen
this rod drops. The wire of the second screen conveys a current
through another electromagnet which supports a much shorter rod.
This " registrar," as it is called, when released by the shot severing
the wire of the second screen, falls on a disk which sets free a spring,
and causes a horizontal knife to.fly forward and nick a zinc tube
with which the chronometer rod is sheathed. Hence the long rod
will be falling for a certain time, while the shot is travelling between
the two screens, before the short rod is released ; and the longer the
shot takes to travel this distance, the farther the long rod falls, and
the higher up on it will be the nick made by the knife. A simple
calculation connects the distance through which the rod falls with
the time occupied by the shot in travelling over the distance between
the screens, and thus its velocity ascertained. The nick made by
the knife, if released while the chronometer rod is still suspended,

is the zero point. If both rods are released simultaneously, as is
done by breaking both circuits at once by means of a " disjunctor,"
a certain time is consumed by the short rod in reaching the disk,
setting free the spring and cutting a nick in the zinc; and during
this time the long rod is falling into a recess in the stand deep enough
to receive its full length. The instrument is so adjusted that the nick
thus made is 4'435 in. above the zero point, corresponding to 0-15
sec. This is the disjunctor reading, and requires to be frequently
corrected during experiments. The instrument was modified and
improved by Colonel H. C. Holden, F.R.S. For further information
respecting formulae relating to it see Text Book of Gunnery (189.7).

The electric chronograph of the late H. S. S. Watkin consists
of two long cylinders rotating on vertical axes, and between them a
cylindrical weight, having a pointed head, is free to fall. n/atUa
The weight is furnished with an insulated wire which
passes through it at right angles to its longest axis. When the
weight falls the ends of the insulated wire move very close to the
surfaces of the cylinders which form part of a secondary circuit of
an induction coil, the primary circuit of which is opened when a
screen is ruptured by a shot. A minute mark is made by the induced
spark on the snicked paper with which the cylinders are covered.
The time period between events is deduced from the space fallen
through by the weight, and by means of a scale, graduated for a given
distance between the screens, the velocity of a shot is at once found.
It may be noted that the method of release is such that the falling
weight is not subjected, after it has begun to fall, to a diminishing
magnetic field, which would be the case if it were directly supported
by an electromagnet. An iron rod when falling from an electro-
magnet, during a minute portion of its fall, is subject to a diminishing
force acting in the opposite sense to that of gravity, whereby its time
of fall is slightly changed.

Colonel Sebert (Extraits dtt memorial de I'artillerie de la marine)
devised a chronograph to indicate graphically the motion of recoil
of a cannon when fired. A pillar fixed to the ground at Seberi
the side of the gun-carriage supported a tuning-fork, the
vibration of which was maintained electrically. The fork was
provided with a tracing point attached to one of the prongs, and so
adjusted that it drew its path on a polished sheet of smoke-blackened
metal attached to the gun-carriage, which traversed past the tracing
point when the gun ran back. The fork used made 500 complete
vibrations per second. A central line was drawn through the curved
path of the tracing point, and every entire vibration cut the straight
line twice, the interval between each intersection equalling i-fa,
second. The diagram so produced gave the total time of the acceler-
ated motion of recoil of the gun, the maximum yelocity of recoil,
and the rate of acceleration of recoil from the beginning to the end
of the motion. By means of an instrument furnished with a micro-
scope and micrometers, the length and amplitude, and the angle at
which the curved line cut the_ central line, were measured. -At each
intersection (according to the inventor) the velocity could be deduced.
The motion at any intersection being compounded of the greatest
velocity of the fork, while passing through the midpoint of the
vibration and the yelocity of recoil, the tangent made by the curve
with the straight line represents the ratio of the velocity of the fork
to the velocity of recoil. If a be the amplitude of vibration, con-
sidered constant, v the vejocity of the fork at the midpoint of its
path, r the velocity of recoil, a the angle made by the tangent to the
curve with the straight line at the point of intersection, and / the line
of a complete vibration; then, v = 2ira/t; r=/tan a.

F. Jervis-Smith's tram chronograph (Patents, 1894, l %97< I93)
was devised for measuring periods of time varying from about one-
fourth to one twenty-thousandth part of a second (Proc.
Roy. Soc., 1889, 45, p. 452; The Tram Chronograph, by
F. Jervis-Smith, F.R.S.). It consists of a metal girder
having a T-shaped end. This carries two parallel steel rails, the
edges of which lie in the same vertical plane. The girder, which is
slightly inclined to the horizontal plane, is geometrically supported,
being carried at its end, and at the extremities of the T-piece, on a
V-groove, trihedral hole and plane. A carriage or tram furnished
with three grooved wheels runs on the rails, and a slightly smoked
glass plate is attached to its vertical side. The tram in the original
instrument was propelled by a falling weight, but in an improved
form one or more spiral springs are employed. All time traces are
made immediately after the propelling force has ceased to act. The
tram is brought to rest by a gradually applied brake, consisting
of two crossed leather bands stretched by two springs; a projection
from the tram runs between the bands, and brings it to rest with
but little lateral pressure. When, for certain physiological experi-
ments, a low velocity of traverse is required, a heavy fly-wheel is
mounted on the tram and geared to its wheels. A pillar also mounted
geometrically, placed vertically in front of the carriage, carries the
electromagnet style or signals and tuning-fork which can be brought
into contact with the glass by means of a lever. Also styli are used
which depend for their action on the displacement of one or more
wires under tension or torsion carrying a current in a magnetic field,
the condition being such that no magnetic lag due to iron armatures
and cores exists. Two motions of a slide on the pillar, viz. of rotation
and translation, allow a number of observations to be made. The
traces are counted out on a sloping glass desk, and the time of
flight of a projectile between two or more screens is found. When

Jerrls-

Smith.

CHRONOGRAPH

very close readings are required, they are made by means of a
traversing geometric micrometer microscope. When the distance
between the screens is known, and also the time of flight, the mid-
point velocity is found by applying Bashforth's formula. When the
velocity of shot from a shot-gun has to be found, a thin wire stretched
across the muzzle takes the place of the first screen, and a thin sheet
of metal or cardboard carrying an electric contact, or a Branly
coherer, the conductivity of which is restored by means of an induced
current, takes the place of the second screen. The electric firing
circuit is provided with a safety key attached by a cord to the man
who loads the gun and prepares the electric fuse. The firing circuit
is closed by inserting the key in a switch at the rear of the gun,
thus preventing him from getting into the line of fire when the gun
is fired by the chronograph. The tram, when the instrument is
adjusted, has a practically constant velocity of traverse.

The polarizing photo-chronograph, designed and used by A. C.
Crehore and G. O. Squier -at the United States Artillery School
(Trans. Amer. Inst. Elect. Eng. vol. 14, and Journal
United States Artillery, 1895, 6, p. 271), depends for its
indications upon the rotation of a beam of light by a
magnetic field, produced by a solenoidal current which is opened
ana closed by the passage of the projectile. The general arrangement
is as follows: A beam of light from an electric lamp traverses a
lens, then a Nicol prism, next a glass cylinder furnished with plane
glass ends and coiled with insulated wire, then an analyser and two
lenses, finally impinging on a photographic plate to which rotation
is given by an electric motor, the plane of rotation being perpen-
dicular to the direction of the beam of light. The same plate also
records the shadow of a pierced projection attached to a tuning-
fork, light from the electric lamp being diverted by a mirror for this
purpose. The solenoid used to produce a magnetic field across the
glass cylinder, which is filled with carbon bisulphide, is in circuit
with a dynamo, resistances, and the screens on the gun range. It is
a well-known phenomenon in physics that when, with the above-
mentioned combination of polarizing Nicol prism and analyser, the
light is shut off by rotating the analyser, it is instantly restored when
the carbon bisulphide is placed in a magnetic field. This phenomenon
is utilized in this instrument. The projectile, by cutting the wire
screens, causes the magnetic field to cease and light to pass. By
means of an automatic switch the projectile, after cutting a screen,
restores the electric circuit, so that successive records are registered.
After a record has been made it is read by means of a micrometer
microscope, the angle moved through by the photographic disk is
found, and hence the time period between two events. In the photo-
chronograph described in Untersuchungen tiber die Vibration des
Gewehrlaufs, by C. Cranz and K. R. Koch (Munich, 1899), also
note on the same, Nature, 61, p. 58, a sensitive plate moving in a
straight line receives the record of the movement of the barrels of
firearms when discharged. It was mainly used, to determine the
" angle or error of departure " in ballistics.

In a second chronograph by Watkin (" Chronographs and their
Application to Gun Ballistics," Proc. Roy. Inst., 1896), a metal drum,
Watkin. divided on its edge so that when a vernier is used a minute
of angle may be read, is rotated rapidly by a motor at a
practically uniform speed. The points of a row of steel-pointed
pins, screwed into a frame of ebonite, can be brought within ^ in.
of the surface of the drum. Each pin is a part of the secondary
circuit of an induction coil, the space between the pins and the drum
forming spark-gaps. The drum is rubbed over with a weak solution
of paraffin wax in benzol, which causes the markings produced by
the sparks to be well defined. The records are read by means of a
fine hair stretched along the drum and just clear of it, the dots
being located under the hair by means of a lens. The velocity of
rotation is found by obtaining spark marks, due to the primary
circuits of two induction coils being successively broken by a weight
falling and breaking the two electric circuits of the coils in succession
at a known distance apart. This chronograph has been used for
finding the velocity of projectiles after leaving the gun, and also for
finding the rate at which a shot traverses the bore. For the latter
purpose the shot successively cuts insulated wires fixed in plugs
screwed into the gun at known intervals; each wire forms a part
of the primary of an induction coil, and as each is cut a dot is made
on the rotating drum by the induced spark.

In the chronograph of Marcel Deprez, a cylinder for receiving
records is driven at a high velocity, 4 to 5 metres per second surface
Deprez. velocity. The velocity is determined by means of an.
electrically-driven tuning-fork, the traces being read by
means of a vernier gauge. A mercury speed indicator of the Rams-
bottom type enables the rotation to be continuously controlled
(A. Favarger, L'Electricite et ses applications a la chronomttrie).

Astronomical Chronographs. The astronomical chronograph is
an instrument whereby an observer is enabled to register the time
Dent. f transit of a star on a sheet of paper attached to a re-

volving cylinder. A metal cylinder covered with a sheet of
paper is rotated by clockwork controlled by a conical pendulum, or
by a centrifugal clock governor such as is used for driving a telescope.
By means of a screw longer than the cylinder, mounted parallel
with the axis of the cylinder and rotated by the clockwork, a carriage
is made to traverse close to the paper. In some instruments this
carriage is furnished with a metal point, and in others with a stylo-

graphic ink pen. The point or pen is made to touch the paper by an
electromagnet, the electric current of which is closed by the observer
at the transit instrument, and a mark is recorded on the revolving
cylinder. The movement of the same point or pen is also controlled
by a standard clock, so that at the end of each second a mark is
made. The cylinder makes one revolution per minute, and the
minute is indicated by the omission of the mark. In E. J. Dent's
form (Nature, 23, p. 9) continuous observations can be recorded for
6| hours. The conical pendulum used to govern the rotation of
the cylinder was the invention of Sir G. B. Airy. The lower end is
geared to a metal plate which sweeps through an annular trough
filled with glycerin and water. When the path of the pendulum
exceeds a certain aiameter it causes the plate to enter the liquid more
deeply, its motion being thereby checked ; also, when the pendulum
moves in a smaller circle the plate is lifted out of the liquid and the
resistance is diminished in the same proportion as the force. The
compensatory action is considerable; doubling the driving power
produces no perceptible difference in the time. To prevent the
injury of the conical pendulum and the wheel work by any sudden
check of the cylinder, a ratch-wheel connexion is placed between
the cylinder and the train of wheel work; this enables the pendulum
to run on until it gradually comes to rest. The pendulum, which
weighs about i81b, is compensated, and makes one revolution
in two seconds; it is suspended from a bracket by means of two
flexible steel springs placed at right angles to one another.

The observatory of Washburn, University of Wisconsin, is
furnished with a chronograph of the same type as that of Dent
(Annals Harvard Coll. Obs. vol. i. pt. ii. p. 34), but in this instrument
the rotation of the cylinder is controlled by a double conical pen-
dulum governor of peculiar construction. When the balls fly out
beyond a certain point, one of them engages with a hook attached
to a brass cylinder which embraces the vertical axle loosely. When
this mass is pulled aside the work done on it diminishes the speed of
the governor. The pendulum ball usually strikes the hook from 60
to 70 times per minute. Governors on this principle were adopted
by Alvan Clark for driving heliostats in the United States Transit of
Venus Expedition, 1874.

In the astronomical chronograph designed by Sir Howard Grubb
(Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., July 1888), the recording cylinders two in
number are driven by a weight acting on a train of wheel orubb.
work controlled by an astronomical telescope governor.
The peculiar feature of this instrument is that the axle is geared to
a shaft which communicates motion to the cylinders through a
mechanism whereby the speed of rotation is constantly corrected
by a standard clock. Should the rotation fall below the correct
speed it is automatically accelerated, and if its speed of rotation
rises above the correct one it is retarded. The accelerator and
retarder are thrown into action by electromagnets, controlled by a
" detector " mounted on the same shaft. The rather complicated
mechanism employed to effect the correction is described and fully
illustrated in the reference given. The cylinders are covered with
paper, but all the markings are made with a stylographic pen. The
marks indicating seconds are dots, but those made by the observer
are short lines. When an observation is about to be made the
observer first notes the hour and minute, and, by pressing a contact
key attached to a flexible cord at the transit instrument, marks
the paper with a letter in Morse telegraph characters, indicating
the hour and minute; he then waits till a micrometer wire cuts a
star and at the instant closes the circuit, so that the second and
fraction of a second are registered on the chronograph paper. When
a set of observations have been taken, the paper is removed from
the cylinder, and the same results are obtained by applying a
suitably divided rule to the marked paper, fractions of a second
being estimated by applying a piece of glass ruled with eleven
straight lines converging to a point. The ends of these lines on
the base of the triangle so formed are equidistant on one edge of
the glass, so that when the first and last lines are so placed as to
coincide with the beginning and end of the markings of a second,
that second is'divided into ten equal parts. The base of the triangle
is always kept parallel with the line of dots. The papers, after they
have been examined and the results registered, are kept for reference.
In the astronomical chronograph of Hipp, used in determining
longitudes, the movement cf a recording cylinder is regulated by
means of a toothed wheel, the last of a clockwork train, ...

controlled by a vibrating metal tongue; this important
feature is described in detail in Favarger's work cited above.

Acoustic Chronographs. In the chronograph devised by H. V.
Regnault (Acad. des Sc., 1868) to determine the velocity of sound
propagated through a great length of pipe, a band of R el mauti.
paper 27 mm. wide was continuously unrolled from a
Dobbin by means of an electromagnetic engine. In its passage over a
pulley it passed over a smoky lamp flame, which covered it with a
thin deposit of carbon. It next passed over a cylinder in contact
with the style of a tuning-fork kept in vibration by electromagnets
placed on either side of its prongs, the current being interrupted by
the fork ; it was also in contact with an electric signal controlled by
a standard clock. Also an electromagnetic signal marked the
beginning and end of a time period. Thus three markings were
registered on the band, viz. the time of the pendulum, the vibrations
of the fork, and the marking of the signal due to the opening and

CHRONOLOGY

305

dosing of the current by electrical contacts attached to diaphragms
on which the sound wave acted. The contacts consisted of minute
hammers resting on metal points fixed to the centre of diaphragms
which closed the end of the experimental pipes. The signal marked
the instant at which a sound wave impinged on a diaphragm. The
markings on the paper band gave the period of time between two
events, and the number of vibrations of the tuning-fork per second
was estimated by means of markings due to the clock._ The sound
wave was usually originated by firing a pistol into the pipe furnished
with diaphragms and contact pieces.

In the chronographic use of the Morse telegraph instrument
(Stewart and Gee, Elementary Practical Phys. p. 234) a circuit is
. , arranged which includes a seconds' pendulum furnished

dPBrrv w a ^ ne P' at ' num w ' re below the bob, which sweeps
*"*' through a small mass of mercury forming a part of the
circuit. There is a Morse key for closing the circuit. A fast-running
Morse instrument and a battery are placed across this circuit as a
shunt. A succession of dots is made on the paper ribbon by the circuit
being closed by the pendulum, and the space between each adjacent
dot indicates a period of one second's duration. Also, when the key
is depressed, a mark is made on the paper. To measure a period of
time, the key is depressed at the beginning and end of the period,
causing two dots to be made on the ribbon; the interval between
these, when measured by the intervals due to the pendulum, gives the
length of the period in seconds, and also in fractions of a second, when
the seconds' interval is subdivided into convenient equal parts.
This apparatus has been used in determination of the velocity of
sound. In the break circuit arrangement of pendulum key and Morse
instrument the markings appear as breaks in a line which would other-
wise be continuous. This combination was employed by Professors
W. E. Ayrton and J. Perry in their determination of the acceleration
of gravity at Tokio. 1877-1878 (Proc. Phys. Soc. Land, 3, p. 268).

fn the tuning-fork ejectro-chronograph attributed to Hipp a
metal cylinder covered with smoked glazed paper is rotated uniformly

by clockwork, a tuning-fork armed with a metallic style

being so adjusted that it makes a clear fine line on the
smoked paper. The tuning-fork is placed in the secondary circuit
of an induction coil, so that when the primary circuit is broken an
induced spark removes a speck of black from the paper and leaves
a mark. The time period is deduced by counting the number of
vibrations and fractions of vibration of the tuning-fork as recorded
by a sinuous line on the cylinder. In later forms of this instrument
the cylinder advances as it rotates, and a spiral line is traced. To
obtain good results the spark must be very small, for when large
it often leaps laterally from the end of the style, and does not give
the true position of the style when the circuit is broken. The same
arrangement of tuning-fork and revolving cylinder, with the addition

of a standard clock, has been used by A. M. Mayer (Trans.

Nat. Acad. Set. U.S.A. vol. iii.) and others for calibrating
tuning-forks, and comparing their vibrations directly with the beats
of the pendulum of a standard clock the rate of which is known.
The pendulum marks and breaks the primary circuit by carrying a
small platinum wire through a small mercury meniscus. Better and
apparently certain contacts can be obtained from platinum contact-
pieces, brought together above the pendulum by means of a toothed
wheel on the scape-wheel arbor. Sparking at the contact points
is greatly reduced by placing a couple of lead plates in dilute sulphuric
acid as a shunt across the battery circuit.

For Physiological Purposes. A. Pick's pendulum myograph or
muscle-trace recorder is described in Vierteljahrsschr. der naturforsch.
_. Ges. in Zurich, 1862, S. 307, and in Text-book of Physiology,

M. Foster, pp. 42, 45. It was used to obtain a record
of the contraction of a muscle when stimulated. In many respects
the instrument is similar to the electro-ballistic chronograph of
Navez. A long pendulum, consisting of a braced metal frame,
carries at its lower end a sheet of smoked glass. The pendulum
swings about an axis supported by a wall bracket. Previous to an
experiment, the pendulum is held on one side of its lowest position
by a spring catch ; when this is depressed it is free to swing. At the
end o: its swing it engages with another spring catch. In front of
the moving glass plate a tuning-fork is fixed, also a lever actuated
by the muscle to be ejectrically stimulated. When the pendulum
swings through its arc, it knocks over the contact key in the primary
circuit of an induction coil, the secondary of which is in connexion
with the muscle. The smoked plate receives the traces of the style
of the tuning-fork and of the lever attached to the muscle, and also
the trace of an electromagnetic signal which marks the instant at
which the primary circuit is broken. After the traces are made,
they are ruled through with radial lines, cutting the three traces,
and the time jntervals between different parts of the muscle curve
are measured in terms of the period of vibration of the tuning-fork,
as in other chronographs in which the tuning-fork is employed.

In the spring myograph of E. Du Bois Reymond (Munk's Physio-
logic des Menschen, p. 398) a smoked glass plate attached to a metal
DuBols r d '? shot P v * spiral spring along two guides with a
Keymoad. ^'ocity which is not uniform. The traces of a style

moved by the muscle under examination, and of a tuning-
fork, are recorded on the glass plate, the shooter during its traverse
knocking over one or more electric keys, which break the primary cir-
cuit of an induction coil, the induced current stimulating the muscle.

In the photo-electric chronograph devised by G. J. Burch, F.R.S.
(Journ. of Physiology, 1 8, p. 1 25 ; Electrician, 37,0. 436) , the rapid move-
ments of the column of mercury in a capillary electrometer
used in physiological research are recorded on a sensitive
plate moving at a uniform angular velocity. The trace of the vibrat-
ing prongs of a tuning-fork of known period is also recorded on the
plate, the light used being that of the electric arc. The images of
the meniscus of the mercury column and of the moving fork are
focused on the plate by a lens. Excellent results have been obtained
with this instrument.

An important development of a branch of chronography is due
to E. J. Marey (Cpmptes rendus, 7. aoflt 1882, and Le Mouvemenl, par
E. J. Marey, Paris, 1894), who employed a photographic
plate for receiving successive pictures of moving objects,
at definite times, when investigating the movements of animals, birds,
fishes, insects, and also microscopic objects such as vorticellae. The
instrument in one_ of its forms consisted of a camera and lens. In
front of the sensitive plate and close to it a disk, pierced with radial
slits, revolved at a given angular velocity, and each time a slit
passed by the plate was exposed. But since, in the time of passage
of the space between the slits, the object had moved by a certain
amount across the field of view, a fresh impression was produced at
each exposure. The object, well illuminated by sunlight, moved in
front of a black background. Sinca the angular velocity of the disk
was known, and the number of slits, the time between the successive
positions of the object was also known.

Marey (La Methode graphique, pp. 133, 142, 456), by means of
pneumatic signals and a rotating cylinder covered with smoked
glazed paper, measured the time of the movements of the limbs of
animals. The instrument consists of a recording cylinder rotated
at a uniform angular velocity by clockwork controlled by a fan
governor, and pneumatic signal, constructed thus. One end of
a closed shallow cylinder, about 4 cm. dia., is furnished with a
stretched rubber membrane. A light lever, moving about an axis
near the edge of the cylinder, is attached to the centre of the mem-
brane by a short rod, its free end moving as the membrane is dis-
tended. The cylinder is connected by a flexible tube with a similar
cylinder and membrane, but without a lever, which is attached to
that part of the body of the animal the movement of which is under
investigation. The system is full of air, so that when the membrane
attached to the animal is compressed, the membrane which moves
the lever is distended and the lever moved. Its end, which
carries a scribing point, marks the smoked paper on the rotating
cylinder. The pneumatic signal is called by Marey " tambour I
levier."

References to Chronographic Methods: (l) Chronographs used in
Physiology : Helmholtz, " On Methods of measuring very small
Portions of Time," Phil. Mag. (1853), 6 : Id., Verhandlungen der
physikalisch-medicinischen Gesellschaft in Wurzburg (1872) ; Harless,
' Das Attwood'sche Myographion," Abhandlungen der k. bayerischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften (1862); Id., Ftul-Myographion auf-
gestellt in der Wiener Weltausstettung in der Abteilungfur das Unter-
richtswesen von Ungarn (Budapest, 1873); Hensen, Myographion
mit vibratorischer Bewegung," Arbeiten aus dem Kieler physiol.
Instit. (1868); Briicke, Sitzungsber. d Wien. Acad. (1877); PflOger,
" Myographion ohne Bewegung," Untersuchungenuber die Physiologic
des Electrotonus (1859); Pouillet, Compt. rend. (1844); I. Munk,
Physiologic des Menschen (for Pfliiger's cylinder governed by conical
pendulum); J. G. M'Kendrick, Life in Motion (1892) (for early
form of cylinder chronograph by Thomas Young) ; Stirling, Outlines
of Practical Physiology (for reaction-time chronographs of F. Galton
and Exner). (2) Chronographs used in gun work and for other
purposes: Sabine, Phil. Mag. (1876); Moisson, Notice sur la
chronpgraphie systeme Schultz (Paris, 1875); Paul la Cour, La Roue
phonique (Copenhagen. 1878) ; Mach, " Collected Papers on Chrono-
graphs," Nature, 42, p. 250; C. V. Boys, " Bullets photographed in
Flight," Nature, 47, p. 415; Pneumatic Tube Co., Paris, " Chrono-
graph," Nature, 9, p. 105; G. C. Foster, " Laboratory Chronograph,"
Nature, 13, p. 139; E. S. Holden, "Astronomical Chronograph,"
Nature, 26, p. 368; D'Arsonval, La Lumiere electrique (1887); Dunn,
" The Photo-retardograph," Journal United States Artillery, 8, p. 20;
E. J. Marey, La Methode graphique (for Deprez accelerpgraphe) ;
Werner Siemens, " Electric Spark Chronograph," Wied. Ann.
(1845)- 66. (F.J.J.-S.)

CHRONOLOGY (Gr. xpoTOXo-yia, computation of time,
Xflbvos), the science which treats of time, its object being to
arrange and exhibit the various events which have occurred
in the history of the world in the order of their succession,
and to ascertain the intervals of time between them. The
term " chronology " is also used of the order in time itself, as
adopted, and of the system by which the order is fixed.

The preservation of any record, however rude, of the lapse of
time implies some knowledge of the celestial motions, by which
alone time can be accurately measured, and some advancement
in the arts of civilized life, which could be attained only by the
accumulated experience of many generations (see TIME). Before

306

CHRONOLOGY

the invention of letters the memory of past transactions could
not be preserved beyond a few years with any tolerable degree
of accuracy. Events which greatly affected the physical
condition of the human race, or were of a nature to make
a deep impression on the minds of the rude inhabitants of the
earth, might be vaguely transmitted through several ages
by traditional narrative; but intervals of time, expressed by
abstract numbers, and these constantly varying besides, would
soon escape the memory. The invention of the art of
writing afforded the means of substituting precise and per-
manent records for vague and evanescent tradition; but in the
infancy of the world, mankind had learned neither to estimate
accurately the duration of time, nor to refer passing events to
any fixed epoch.

For these reasons the attempt at an accurate chronology of
the early ages of the world is only of recent origin. After
political relations began to be established, the necessity of
preserving a register of passing seasons and years would soon
be felt, and the -practice of recording important transactions
must have grown up as a necessary consequence of social life.
But of these deliberate early records a very small portion only
has escaped the ravages of time and barbarism.

The earliest written annals of the Greeks, Etruscans and
Romans are irretrievably lost. The traditions of the Druids
perished with them. A Chinese emperor has the credit of burning
" the books " extant in his day (about 220 B.C.), and of burying
alive the scholars who were acquainted with them. And a
Spanish adventurer destroyed the picture records which were
found in the pueblo of Montezuma.

Of the more formal historical writings in which the first
ineffectual attempts were made in the direction of systematic
chronology we have no knowledge at first-hand. Of Hellanicus,
the Greek logographer, who appears to have lived through the
greater part of the sth century B.C., and who drew up a chrono-
logical list of the priestesses of Here at Argos; of Ephorus, who
lived in the 4th century B.C., and is distinguished as the first
Greek who attempted the composition of a universal history ;
and of Timaeus, who in the following century wrote an elaborate
history of Sicily, in which he set the example of using the
Olympiads as the basis of chronology, the works have perished
, and our meagre knowledge of their contents is derived only from
fragmentary citations in later writers. The same fate has
befallen the works of Berossus and Manetho, Eratosthenes and
Apollodorus. Berossus, a priest of Belus living at Babylon in
the 3rd century B.C., added to his historical account of Babylonia
a chronological list of its kings, which he claimed to have compiled
from genuine archives preserved in the temple. Manetho,
like-wise a priest, living at Sebennytus in Lower Egypt in the
3rd century B.C., wrote in Greek a history of Egypt, with an
account of its thirty dynasties of sovereigns, which he professed
to have drawn from genuine archives in the keeping of the
priests. Of these works fragments only, more or less copious
and accurate, have been preserved. Eratosthenes, who in the
latter half of the 2nd century B.C. was keeper of the famous
Alexandrian library, not only made himself a great name by
his important work on geography, but by his treatise entitled
Chronographia, one of the first attempts to establish an exact
scheme of general chronology, earned for himself the title of
" father of chronology." His method of procedure, however,
was usually conjectural; and guess-work, however careful,
acute and plausible, is still guess-work and not testimony.
Apollodorus, an Athenian who flourished in the middle of the
2nd century B.C., wrote a metrical chronicle of events, ranging
from the supposed period of the fall of Troy to his own day.
These writers were followed by other investigators and
systematizers in the same field, but their works are lost. Of the
principal later writers whose works are extant, and to whom
we owe what little knowledge we possess of the labours of their
predecessors, mention will be made hereafter.

The absence or incompleteness of authentic records, however,
is not the only source of obscurity and confusion in the chronology
of remote ages. There can be no exact computation of time or

placing of events without a fixed point or epoch from which the
reckoning takes its start. It was long before this was apprehended.
When it began to be seen, various epochs were selected by various
writers; and at first each small separate community had its
own epoch and method of time-reckoning. Thus in one city
the reckoning was by succession of kings, in another by archons
or annual magistrates, in a third by succession of priests. It
seems now surprising that vague counting by generations should
so long have prevailed and satisfied the wants of inquiring men,
and that so simple, precise and seemingly obvious a plan as
counting by years, the largest natural division of time, did not
occur to any investigator before Eratosthenes.

Precision, which was at first unattainable for want of an epoch,
was afterwards no less unattainable from the multiplicity, and
sometimes the variation, of epochs. But by a natural process
the mischief was gradually and partially remedied. The ex-
tension of intercourse between the various small groups or
societies of men, and still more their union in larger groups, made
a common epoch necessary, and led to the adoption of such a
starting point by each larger group. These leading epochs
continued in use for many centuries. The task of the chronologer
was thus simplified and reduced to a study -and comparison of
dates in a few leading systems.

The most important of these systems in what we call ancient
times were the Babylonian, the Greek and the Roman. The
Jews had no general era, properly so called. In the history
of Babylonia, the fixed point from which time was reckoned
was the era of Nabonassar, 747 B.C. Among the Greeks the
reckoning was by Olympiads, the point of departure being the
year in which Coroebus was victor in the Olympic Games, 776 B.C.
The Roman chronology started from the foundation of the city,
the year of which, however, was variously given by different
authors. The most generally adopted was that assigned by
Varro, 753 B.C. It is noteworthy how nearly these three great
epochs approach each other, all lying near the middle of the
Sth century B.C. But it is to be remembered that the beginning
of an era and its adoption and use as such are not the same thing,
nor are they necessarily synchronous. Of the three ancient eras
above spoken of, the earliest is that of the Olympiads, next that
of the foundation of Rome, and the latest the era of Nabonassar.
But in order of adoption and actual usage the last is first. It is
believed to have been in use from the year of its origin. It is
not known when the Romans began to use their era. The
Olympiads were not in current use till about the middle of the
3rd century B.C., when Timaeus, as already mentioned, set the
example of reckoning by them.

Even after the adoption in Europe of the Christian era, a
great variety of methods of dating national, provincial and
ecclesiastical grew up and prevailed for a long time in different
countries, thus renewing in modern times the difficulties ex-
perienced in ancient times from diversities of reckoning. An
acquaintance with these various methods is indispensable to the
student of the charters, chronicles and legal instruments of the
middle ages.

In reckoning years from any fixed epoch in constant succession,
the number denoting the years is necessarily always on the
increase. But rude nations and illiterate people seldom attach
any definite idea to large numbers. Hence it has been a practice,
very extensively followed, to employ cycles or periods, consisting
of a moderate number of years, and to distinguish and reckon
the years by their number in the cycle. The Chinese and other
nations of Asia reckon, not only the years, but also the months
and days, by cycles of sixty. The Saros of the Chaldaeans, the
Olympiad of the Greeks, and the Roman Indiction are instances
of this mode of reckoning time. Several cycles were formerly
known in Europe; but most of them were invented for the
purpose of adjusting the solar and lunar divisions of time, and
were rather employed in the regulation of the calendar than
as chronological eras. They are frequently, however, of very
great use in fixing dates that have been otherwise imperfectly
expressed, and consequently form important elements of
chronology. (W. L. R. C.)

CHRONOLOGY

307

Modern Results of Archaeological Research.

When Queen Victoria came to the English throne, 4004 B.C.
was still accepted, in all sobriety, as the date of the creation of
the world. Perhaps no single statement could more vividly
emphasize the change in the point of view from which scholars
regard the chronology of ancient history than the citation of
this indisputable fact. To-day, though Bibles are still printed
with the year 4004 B.C. in the margin of the first chapter of
Genesis, no scholar would pretend to regard this reference
seriously. On the contrary, the scholarship of to-day regards
the fifth millennium B.C. as well within the historical period for
such nations as the Egyptians and the Babylonians. It has
come to be fully accepted that when we use such a phrase as
" the age of the world " we are dealing with a period that must
be measured not in thousands but in millions of years; and that
to the age of man must be allotted a period some hundreds of
times as great as the five thousand and odd years allowed by the
old chronologists. This changed point of view, needless to say,
basnet been reached without ardent and even bitter controversy.
Yet the transformation is unequivocal; and the revised concep-
tioa no longer seems to connote the theological implications that
were at first ascribed to it. It has now become obvious that the
data afforded by the Hebrew writings should never have been
regarded as sufficiently accurate for the purpose of exact historical
computations: that, in short, no historian working along modern
scientific lines could well have made the mistake of supposing
that the genealogical lists of the Pentateuch afforded an adequate
chronology of world-history. But it should not be forgotten
that to many generations of close scholarship these genealogical
lists seemed to convey such knowledge in the most precise terms,
and that at so recent a date as, for example, the year in which
Queen Victoria came to the throne, it was nothing less than a
rank heresy to question the historical accuracy and finality of
chronologies which had no other source or foundation.

This changed point of view regarding the chronology of history
may without hesitation be ascribed to the influence of evidence
obtained in a single field of inquiry, the field, namely, of archaeo-
logy. No doubt the evidence as to the age of the earth and as
to the antiquity of man was gathered by a class of workers not
formally included in the ranks of the archaeologist: workers
commonly spoken of as palaeontologists, anthropologists,
ethnologists and the like. But the distinction scarcely covers a
real difference. The scope of the archaeologist's studies must
include every department of. the ancient history 'of man as
preserved in antiquities of whatever character, be they tumuli
along the Baltic, fossil skulls and graven bones from the caves
of France, the flint implements, pottery, and mummies of Egypt,
tablets and bas-reliefs from Mesopotamia, coins and sculptures
of Greece and Rome, or inscriptions, waxen tablets, parchment
rolls, and papyri of a relatively late period of classical antiquity.
If at one time the monuments of Greece and Rome claimed the
almost undisputed attention of the archaeologist, that time has
long since passed. For the most important historical records
that have come to us in recent decades we have to thank the
Orientalist, though the classical explorer has been by no means
idle. It will be sufficient here to point out in general terms the
import of the message of archaeological discovery in the Victorian
Era in its bearings upon the great problems of world-history.

A start was made through the efforts of the palaeontologists
and geologists, with only indirect or incidental aid from the
Chroo- archaeologists. The new movement began actively
oiogyof with James Hutton in the later years of the i8th
andeat century, and was forwarded by the studies of William
Smith in England and of Cuvier in France; but the
really efficient champion of the conception that the earth is very
old was Sir Charles Lyell, who published the first edition of his
epoch-making Principles of Geology only a few years before
Queen Victoria came to the throne. Lyell demonstrated to the
satisfaction, or perhaps it should rather be said to the dis-
satisfaction, of his contemporaries that the story of the geological
ages as recorded in the strata of the earth becomes intelligible

only when vast stretches of time are presupposed. Of course
the demonstration was not accepted at once. On the contrary,
the champions of the tradition that the earth was less than six
thousand years old held their ground most tenaciously, and the
earlier years of the Victorian v era were years of bitter controversy.
The result of the contest was never in doubt, however, for the
geological evidence, once it had been gathered, was unequivocal;
and by about the middle of the century it was pretty generally
admitted that the age of the earth must be measured by an utterly
different standard from that hitherto in vogue. This concession,
however, by no means implied a like change of view regarding
the age of man. A fresh volume of evidence required to be
gathered, and a new controversy to be waged, before the old
data for the creation of man could be abandoned. Lyell again
was in the forefront of the progressive movement, and his work
on The Antiquity of Man, published in 1863, gave currency for
the first time to the new opinions. The evidence upon which
these opinions were based had been gathered by such anthro-
pologists as Schmerling, Boucher de Perthes and others, and
it had to do chiefly with the finding of implements of human
construction associated with the remains of extinct animals in
the beds of caves, and with the recovery of similar antiquities
from alluvial deposits the great age of which was demonstrated
by their depth. Every item of the evidence was naturally
subjected to the closest scrutiny, but at last the conservatives
were forced reluctantly to confess themselves beaten. Their
traditional arguments were powerless before the array of data
marshalled by the new science of prehistoric archaeology. Look-
ing back even at the short remove of a single generation, it is
difficult to appreciate how revolutionary was the conception of
the antiquity of man thus inculcated. It rudely shocked the
traditional attitude of scholarship towards the history of our
race. It disturbed the most cherished traditions and the most
sacred themes. It seemed to threaten the very foundations of
religion itself. Yet the present generation accepts the antiquity
of man as a mere matter of fact. Here, as so often elsewhere,
the heresy of an elder day has come to seem almost an axiomatic
truth.

If we go back in imagination to the beginning of the Victorian
era and ask what was then known of the history of Ancient
Egypt, Mesopotamia and Asia Minor, we find ourselves con-
fronted with a startling paucity of knowledge. The key to the
mysteries of Egyptian history had indeed been found, thanks
to the recent efforts of Thomas Young and Champollion, but the
deciphering of inscriptions had not yet progressed far enough
to give more than a vague inkling of what was to follow. It
remained, then, virtually true, as it had been for two thousand
years, that for all that we could learn of the history of the Old
Orient in pre-classical days, we must go solely to the pages of
the Bible and to a few classical authors, notably Herodotus and
Diodorus. A comparatively few pages summed up, in language
often vague and mystical, all that the modern world had been
permitted to remember of the history of the greatest nations of
antiquity. To these nations the classical writers had ascribed
a traditional importance, the glamour of which still lighted their
names, albeit revealing them in the vague twilight of tradition
rather than in the clear light of history. It would have been a
bold, not to say a reckless, dreamer who dared predict that any
future researches could restore to us the lost knowledge that had
been forgotten for more than two millenniums. .Yet the Victorian
era was scarcely ushered in before the work of rehabilitation
began, which was to lead to the most astounding discoveries
and to an altogether unprecedented extension of historical
knowledge. Early in the 'forties the Frenchman Botta, quickly
followed by Sir Henry Layard, began making excavations on the
site of ancient Nineveh, the name and fame of which were a
tradition having scarcely more than mythical status. The spade
of the discoverer soon showed that all the fabled glories of the
ancient Assyrian capital were founded on realities, and evidence
was afforded of a state of civilization and culture such as few
men supposed to have existed on the earth before the Golden Age
of Greece. Not merely were artistic sculptures and bas-reliefs

3 o8

CHRONOLOGY

found that demonstrated a high development of artistic genius,
but great libraries were soon revealed, books consisting of
bricks of various sizes, or of cylinders of the same material,
inscribed while in the state of clay with curious characters
which became indelible when baking transformed the clay into
brick. No one was able to guess, even in the vaguest way, the
exact interpretation of these odd characters; but, on the other
hand, no one could doubt that they constituted a system of
writing, and that the piles of inscribed tablets were veritable
books. There were numerous sceptics, however, who did not
hesitate to assert that the import of the message so obviously
locked in these curious inscriptions must for ever remain an
absolute mystery. Here, it was said, were inscriptions written
in an unknown character and in a language that for at least two
thousand years had been absolutely forgotten. In such circum-
stances nothing less than a miracle could enable human ingenuity
to fathom the secret. Yet the feat pronounced impossible by
mid-century scepticism was accomplished by contemporary
scholarship, amidst the clamour of opposition and incredulity.
Its success contains at once a warning to those doubters who are
always crying out that we have reached the limitations of
knowledge, and an encouragement and stimulus to would-be
explorers of new intellectual realms.

In a few words the manner of the discovery was this. It
appears at a glance that the Assyrian written character consists
of groups of horizontal, vertical or oblique strokes. The
characters thus composed, though so simple as to their basal
twit, are appallingly complex in their elaboration. The Assyrians
with all their culture, never attained the stage of analysis which
demonstrates that only a few fundamental sounds are involved
in human speech, and hence that it is possible to express all the
niceties of utterance with an alphabet of little more than a score
of letters. Halting just short of this analysis, the Assyrian
ascribed syllabic values to the characters of his script, and hence,
instead of finding twenty odd characters sufficient, he required
about five hundred. There was a further complication in that
each one of these characters had at least two different phonetic
values; and there were other intricacies of usage which, had they
been foreknown by inquirers in the middle of the ipth century,
might well have made the problem of decipherment seem an
utterly hopeless one. Fortunately it chanced that another
people, the Persians, had adopted the Assyrian wedge-shaped
stroke as the foundation of a written character, but making that
analysis of which the Assyrians had fallen short, had borrowed
only so many characters as were necessary to represent the
alphabetical sounds. This made the problem of deciphering
Persian inscriptions a relatively easy one. In point of fact this
problem had been partially solved in the early days of the igth
century, thanks to the sagacious guesses of the German philo-
logist Grotefend. Working with some inscriptions from Perse-
polis which were found to contain references to Darius and
Xerxes, Grotefend had established the phonetic values of certain
of the Persian characters, and his successors were perfecting
the discovery just about the time when the new Assyrian finds
were made. It chanced that there existed on the polished
surface of a cliff at Behistun in western Persia a tri-lingual
inscription which, according to Diodorus, had been made by
Queen Semiramis of Nineveh, but which, as is now known, was
.really the work of King Darius. One of the languages of this
inscription was Persian; another, as it now appeared, was
Assyrian, the language of the newly discovered books from the
libraries of Nineveh. There was reason to suppose that the
inscriptions were identical in meaning; and fortunately it
proved, when the inscriptions were made accessible to investiga-
tion through the efforts of Sir Henry Rawlinson, that the Persian
inscription contained a large number of proper names. It was
well known that proper names are usually transcribed from one
language into another with a tolerably close retention of their
original sounds. For example, the Greek names Ptolemaios
and Kleopatra became a part of the Egyptian language and
appeared regularly in Egyptian inscriptions after Alexander's
general became king of Egypt. Similarly, the Greek names

Kyros, Dareios anAXerxes were as close an imitationaspracticable
of the native names of these Persian monarchs. Assuming,
then, that the proper names found in the Persian portion of the
Behistun inscription occurred also in the Assyrian portion,
retaining virtually the same sound in each, a clue to the phonetic
values of a large number of the Assyrian characters was obviously
at hand. Phonetic values known, Assyrian was found to be a
Semitic language cognate to Hebrew.

These clues were followed up by a considerable number of
investigators, with Sir Henry Rawlinson in the van. Thanks
to their efforts, the new science of Assyriology came into being,
and before long the message of the Assyrian books had ceased to
be an enigma. Of course this work was not accomplished in a
day or in a year, but, considering the difficulties to be overcome,
it was carried forward with marvellous expedition. In 1857 the
new scholarship was put to a famous test, in which the challenge
thrown down by Sir George Cornewall Lewis and Ernest Renan
was met by Rawlinson, Hincks, Oppert and Fox Talbot in a
conclusive manner. The sceptics had declared that the new
science of Assyriology was itself a myth: that the investigators,
self -deceived, had in reality only invented a language and read
into the Assyrian inscriptions something utterly alien to the
minds of the Assyrians themselves. But when a committee of
the Royal Asiatic Society, with George Grote at its head, decided
that the translations of an Assyrian text made independently
by the scholars just named were at once perfectly intelligible
and closely in accord with one another, scepticism was silenced,
and the new science was admitted to have made good its claims.

Naturally the early investigators did not fathom all the
niceties of the language, and the work of grammatical investiga-
tion has gone on continuously under the auspices of a constantly
growing band of workers. Doubtless much still remains to be
done; but the essential thing, from the present standpoint,
is that a sufficient knowledge of the Assyrian language has been
acquired to ensure trustworthy translations of the cuneiform
texts. Meanwhile, the material found by Botta and Layard,
and other successors, in the ruins of Nineveh, has been constantly
augmented through the efforts of companies of other investigators,
and not merely Assyrian, but much earlier Babylonian and
Chaldaean texts in the greatest profusion have been brought to
the various museums of Europe and America. The study of
these different inscriptions has utterly revolutionized our
knowledge of Oriental history. Many of the documents are
strictly historical in their character, giving full and accurate
contemporary accounts of events that occurred some thousands of
years ago. Exact dates are fixed for long series of events that
previously were quite unknown. Monarchs whose very names
had been forgotten are restored to history, and the records of their
deeds inscribed under their very eyes are before us, contem-
porary documents such as neither Greece nor Rome could boast,
nor any other nation, with the single exception of Egypt, until
strictly modern times. There are, no doubt, gaps in the record;
there are long periods for which the chronology is still uncertain.
Naturally there is an increasing vagueness as one recedes farther
into the past, and for the earlier history of Chaldaea there is great
uncertainty. Nevertheless, the Assyriologist speaks with a good
deal of confidence of dates as remote as 3800 B.C.,the time ascribed
to King Sargon, who was once regarded as a mythical person,
but is now known to have been an actual monarch. Indeed,
there are tablets in the British Museum labelled 4500 B.C. ; and
later researches, particularly those of the expedition of the
University of Pennsylvania at Nippur, have brought us evidence
which, interpreted with the aid of estimates as to the average rate
of accumulation of dust deposits, leads to the inference that a
high state of civilization had been attained in Mesopotamia at
least 9000 years ago.

While the Assyriologists have been making these astonishing
revelations, the Egyptologists have not been behindhand.
Such scholars as Lepsius, Brugsch, de Roug6, Lenormant, Birch,
Mariette, Maspero and Erman have perfected the studies of
Young and Champollion; while at the same time these and a
considerable company of other explorers, most notable of whom

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309

are Gardner Wilkinson and Professor Flinders Petrie, have
brought to light a vast accumulation of new material, much
of which has the highest importance from the standpoint of the
historian. Lists of kings found on the temple wall at Abydos,
in the fragments of the Turin papyrus and elsewhere, have
cleared up many doubtful points in the lists of Manetho, and
at the same time, as Professor Petrie has pointed out, have proved
to us how true a historian that much-discussed writer was.
Manetho, it will be recalled, was the Egyptian who wrote the
history of Egypt in Greek in the time of the Ptolemies. His work
in the original unfortunately perished, and all that we know
of it we learn through excerpts made by a few later classical
writers. These fragments have until recently, however, given
us our only clue to the earlier periods of Egyptian history.
Until corroboration was found in the Egyptian inscriptions
themselves, not only were Manetho's lists in doubt, but scepticism
had been carried to the point of denying that Manetho himself
had ever existed. This is only one of many cases where the
investigations of the archaeologist have proved not iconoclastic
but reconstructive, tending to restore confidence in classical
traditions which the scientific historians of the age of Niebuhr
and George Cornewall Lewis regarded with scepticism.

As to the exact dates of early Egyptian history there is rather
more of vagueness than for the corresponding periods of Mesopo-
tamia. Indeed, approximate accuracy is not attained until we are
within sixteen hundred years of our own era; but the sequence
of events of a period preceding this by two thousand years is
well established, and the recent discoveries of Professor Petrie
carry back the record to a period which cannot well be less than
five thousand, perhaps not less than six thousand years B.C.
Both from Egypt and Mesopotamia, then, the records of the
archaeologist have brought us evidence of the existence of a
highly developed civilization for a period exceeding by hundreds,
perhaps by thousands, of years the term which had hitherto
been considered the full period of man's existence.

We may note at once how these new figures disturb the histori-
cal balance. If our forerunners of eight or nine thousand
years ago were in a noonday glare of civilization, where shall we
look for the much-talked-of " dawnings of history " ? By this
new standard the Romans seem our contemporaries in latter-day
civilization; the " Golden Age " of Greece is but of yesterday;
the pyramid-builders are only relatively remote. The men who
built the temple of Bel at Nippur, in the year (say) 5000 B.C.,
must have felt themselves at a pinnacle of civilization and culture.
As Professor Mahaffy has suggested, the era of the Pyramids
may have been the veritable autumn of civilization. Where,
then, must we look for its springtime ? The answer to that
question must come, if it come at all, from what we now speak
of as prehistoric archaeology; the monuments from Memphis
and Nippur and Nineveh, covering a mere ten thousand years or
so, are the records of recent history.

The efforts of the students of Oriental archaeology have been
constantly stimulated by the fact that their studies brought
Anhae- them more or less within the field of Bible history.
ologyand A fair proportion of the workers who have delved so
enthusiastically in the fields of Egyptian and Assyrian
history. exploration would never have taken up the work at all
but for the hope that their investigations might substantiate
the Hebrew records. For a long time this hope proved illusory,
and in the case of Egyptian archaeology the results have proved
disappointing even up to the very present. Considering the
important part played by the Egyptian sojourn of the Hebrews,
as narrated in the Scriptures, it was certainly not an over-
enthusiastic prediction that the Egyptian monuments when fully
investigated would divulge important references to Joseph,
to Moses, and to the all-important incidents of the Exodus; but
half a century of expectant attention in this direction has led
only to disappointment. It would be rash, considering the
buried treasures that may yet await the future explorer, to assert
that such records as those in question can never come to light.
But, considering the fulness of the contemporary Egyptian
records of the XlXth dynasty that are already known, it becomes

increasingly doubtful whether the Hebrews in Egypt played so
important a part in history, when viewed from the Egyptian
standpoint, as their own records had seemed to imply. As the
forgotten history of Oriental antiquity has been restored to us,
it has come to be understood that, politically speaking, the
Hebrews were a relatively insignificant people, whose chief
importance from the standpoint of material history was derived
from the geographical accident that made them a sort of buffer
between the greater nations about them. Only once, and for
a brief period, hi the reigns of David and Solomon did the
Hebrews rise to anything like an equal plane of political import-
ance with their immediate neighbours. What gave them a
seeming importance in the eyes of posterity was the fact that
the true history of the Egyptians, Mesopotamians, Arabians
and Hittites had been well-nigh forgotten. The various litera-
tures of these nations were locked from view for more than two
thousand years, while the literature of Israel had not merely
been preserved, but had come to be regarded as inspired and
sacred among all the cultured nations of the Western world.
Now that the lost literatures have been restored to us, the status
of the Hebrew writings could not fail to be disturbed. Their very
isolation had in some measure accounted for their seeming
importance.

All true historical perspective is based upon comparison, and
where only a single account has been preserved of any event or
of any period of history, it is extremely difficult to judge that
account with historical accuracy. An illustration of this truth
is furnished in profane history by the account which Thucydides
has given us of the Peloponnesian War. For most of the period
in question Thucydides is the only source; and despite the in-
herent merits of a great writer, it can hardly be doubted that
the tribute of almost unqualified praise that successive genera-
tions of scholars have paid to Thucydides must have been in
some measure qualified if, for example, a Spartan account of the
Peloponnesian War had been preserved to us. Professor Mahaffy
has pointed out that many other events in Greek history are
viewed by us in somewhat perverted perspective because the great
writers of Greece were Athenians rather than Spartans or Thebans.
Even in so important a matter as the great conflict between
Persia and Greece it has been suggested more than once that we
should be able to gain a much truer view were Persian as well as
Greek accounts accessible.

Not many years ago it would have been accounted a heresy to
suggest that the historical books of the Old Testament had
conveyed to our minds estimates of Oriental history that suffered
from this same defect; but to-day no one who is competent to
speak with authority pretends to doubt that such is really the
fact. Even conservative students of the Bible urge that its
historical passages must be viewed precisely in the light of any
other historical writings of antiquity; and the fact that the
oldest Hebrew manuscript dates only from the 8th century A.D.,
and therefore of necessity brings to us the message of antiquity
through the fallible medium of many generations of copyists, is
far more clearly kept in mind than it formerly was. Every
belief of mankind is in the last analysis amenable to reason, and
finds its origin in evidence that can appeal to the arbitrament of
common sense. This evidence may in certain cases consist
chiefly of the fact that generations of our predecessors have taken
a certain view regarding a certain question; indeed most of our
cherished beliefs have this foundation. But when such is the
case, mankind has never failed in the long run to vindicate its
claim to rationality by showing a readiness to give up the old
belief whenever tangible evidence of its fallaciousness was
forthcoming. The case of the historical books of the Old Testa-
ment furnishes no exception. These had been sacred to almost a
hundred generations of men, and it was difficult for the eye of
faith to see them as other than absolutely infallible documents.
Yet the very eagerness with which the champions of the Hebrew
records searched for archaeological proofs of their validity was a
tacit confession that even the most unwavering faith was not
beyond the reach of external evidence. True, the believer sought
corroboration with full faith that he would find it; but the very

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fact that he could think such external corroboration valuable
implied, however little he may have realized it, the subconscious
concession that he must accept external evidence at its full
value, even should it prove contradictory. If, then, an Egyptian
inscription of the XlXth dynasty had come to hand in which the
names of Joseph and Moses, and the deeds of the Israelites as a
subject people who finally escaped from bondage by crossing the
Red Sea, were recorded in hieroglyphic characters, such a
monument would have been hailed with enthusiastic delight by
every champion of the Pentateuch, and a wave of supreme
satisfaction would have passed over all Christendom. It is not
too much, then, to say that failure to find such a monument has
caused deep disappointment to Bible scholars everywhere. It
does not follow that faith in the Bible record is shaken, although
in some quarters there has been a pronounced tendency to regard
the history of the Egyptian sojourn as mythical; yet it cannot be
denied that Egyptian records, corroborating at least some phases
of the Bible story, would have been a most welcome addition to
ur knowledge. Some recent finds have, indeed, seemed to make
inferential reference to the Hebrews, and the marvellous collec-
tion of letters of the XVIIIth dynasty found at Tel el-Amarna
letters to which we shall refer later have the utmost importance
as proving a possible early date for the Mosaic accounts. But
such inferences as these are but a vague return for the labour
expended, and an almost cruelly inadequate response to seemingly
well-founded expectations.

When we turn to the field of Babylonian and Assyrian archaeo-
logy, however, the case is very different. Here we have docu-
ments in abundance that deal specifically with events more or less
referred to in the Bible. The records of kings whose names
hitherto were known to us only through Bible references have
been found in the ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, and personages
hitherto but shadowy now step forth as clearly into the light of
kistory as an Alexander or a Caesar. Moreover, the newly
discovered treasures deal with the beliefs of the people as well as
with their history proper. The story of the books now spoken of
as the " Creation " and " Deluge" tablets of the Assyrians, in the
British Museum, which were discovered in the ruins of Nineveh
by Layard and by George Smith, has been familiar to every one
for a good many years. The acute interest which they excited
when George Smith deciphered their contents in i872has to some
extent abated, but this is only because scholars are now pretty
generally agreed as to their bearing on the corresponding parts of
Genesis. The particular tablets in question date only from about
the 7th century B.C., but it is agreed among Assyriologists that
they are copies of older texts current in Babylonia for many
centuries before, and it is obvious that the compilers of Genesis
had access to the Babylonian stories. In a word, the Hebrew
Genesis shows unequivocal evidence of Babylonian origin, but, in
the words of Professor Sayce, it is but " a paraphrase and not a
translation." However disconcerting such a revelation as this
would have been to the theologians of an elder day, the Bible
scholars of our own generation are able to regard it with entire
composure.

From the standpoint of the historian even greater interest
attaches to the records of the Assyrian and Babylonian kings
when compared with the historical books of the Old Testament.
For some centuries the inhabitants of Palestine were subject to
periodical attacks from the warlike inhabitants of Mesopotamia,
as even the most casual reader of the Bible is aware. When it
became known that the accounts of these invasions formed a part
of the records preserved in the Assyrian libraries, historian and
theologian alike waited with breathless interest for the exact
revelations in store; and this time expectation was not dis-
appointed. As, one after another, the various tablets and
cylinders and annalistic tablets have been translated, it has
become increasingly clear that here are almost inexhaustible
fountains of knowledge, and that sooner or later it may be
possible to check the Hebrew accounts of the most important
periods of their history with contemporaneous accounts written
from another point of view. It is true that the cases are not very
numerous where precisely the same event is described from

opposite points of view, but, speaking in general terms rather than
of specific incidents, we are already able to subject considerable
portions of history to this test. The records of Shalmaneserll.,
Tiglath-Pileser III. and Sennacherib, kings of Assyria, of
Nebuchadrezzar, king of Babylon, and of Cyrus, king of Persia,
all contain direct references to Hebrew history. An obelisk of
Shalmaneser II. contains explicit reference to the tribute of
Jehu of Samaria, and graphically depicts the Hebrew captives.
Tiglath-Pileser III., a usurper who came to the throne of Assyria
in 745 B.C., and whose earlier name of Pul proved a source of
confusion to the later Hebrew writers, left records that have
served to clear up the puzzling chronology of a considerable
period of the history of Samaria. Most interesting of all, perhaps,
are the annals of Sennacherib, the destruction of whose hosts by
the angel of God is so strikingly depicted in the Book of Kings.
The court historian of Sennacherib naturally does not dwell upon
this event, but he does tell of an invasion and conquest of Palestine.
The Hebrew account of the death of Sennacherib is corroborated
by a Babylonian inscription. Here, however, there is an interest-
ing qualification. The account in the Book of Kings is so phrased
that one might naturally infer from it that Sennacherib was
assassinated by his sons immediately after his return from the
disastrous campaign in Palestine; but in point of fact, as it now
appears, the Assyrian king survived that campaign by twenty
years. One cannot avoid the suspicion that in this instance the
Hebrew chronicler purposely phrased his account to convey the
impression that Sennacherib's tragic end was but the slightly
delayed culmination of the punishment inflicted for his attack
upon the " chosen people." On the other hand, the ambiguity
may be quite unintentional, for the Hebrew writers were
notoriously lacking in the true historical sense, which shovs
itself in a full appreciation of the value of chronology.

One of tha most striking instances of the way in which mistakes
of chronology may lead to the perversion of historical records is
shown in the Book of Daniel in connexion with the familiar
account of the capture of Babylon by Cyrus. Within the past
generation records of Cyrus have been brought to light, as well as
records of the conquered Babylonian king himself, which show
that the Hebrew writers of the later day had a peculiarly befogged
impression of a great historical event their misconception being
shared, it may be added, by the Greek historian Herodotus.
When the annalistic tablet of Cyrus was translated, it was made
to appear, to the consternation of Bible scholars, that the city of
Babylon had capitulated to the Persian or more properly to the
Elamite conqueror without a struggle. It appeared, further,
that the king ruling in Babylon at the time of the capitulation
was named not Belshazzar, but Nabonidos. This king, as appears
from his own records, had a son named Belshazzar, who com-
manded Babylonian armies in outlying provinces, but who never
came to the throne. Nothing could well be more disconcerting
than such a revelation as this. It is held, however, that the
startling discrepancies are not so difficult to explain as may
appear at first sight. The explanation is found, so the Assyrio-
logist assures us, in the fact that both Hebrew and Greek
historians, writing at a considerable interval after the events, and
apparently lacking authentic sources, confused the peaceful
occupation of Babylon by Cyrus with its siege and capture by a
successor to that monarch, Darius Hystaspes. As to the con-
fusion of Babylonian names in which, by the way, the Hebrew
and Greek authors do not agree it is explained that the general,
Belshazzar, was perhaps more directly known in Palestine than
his father the king. But the vagueness of the Hebrew knowledge
is further shown by the fact that Belshazzar, alleged king, is
announced as the son of Nebuchadrezzar (misspelled Nebuchad-
nezzar in the Hebrew writings), while the three kings that reigned
after Nebuchadrezzar, and before Nabonidos usurped the throne,
are quite overlooked.

Our present concern with the archaeological evidence thus
briefly outlined, and with much more of the kind, may be summed
up in the question: What in general terms is the inference to
be drawn by the world-historian from the Assyrian records in
their bearings upon the Hebrew writings ? At first sight this

CHRONOLOGY

might seem an extremely difficult question to answer. Indeed,
to answer it to the satisfaction of all concerned might well be
pronounced impossible. Yet it would seem as if a candid and
impartial historian could not well be greatly in doubt in the
matter. On the one hand, the general agreement everywhere
between the Hebrew accounts and contemporaneous records
from Mesopotamia proves beyond cavil that, broadly speaking,
the Bible accounts are historically true, and were written by
persons who in the main had access to contemporaneous docu-
ments. On the other hand, the discrepancies as to details, the
confusion as to exact chronology, the manifest prejudice and
partizanship, and the obvious limitations of knowledge make it
clear that the writers partook in full measure of the shortcomings
of other historians, and that their work must be adjudged by
ordinary historical standards. As much as this is perhaps
conceded by most, if not all, schools of Bible criticism of to-day.
Professor Sayce, one of tie most distinguished of modern
Assyriologists, writing as an opponent of the purely destructive
" Higher Criticism," demands no more than that the Book of
Genesis " shall take rank by the side of the other monuments of
the past as the record of events which have actually happened
and been handed on by credible men "; that it shall, in short,
be admitted to be " a collection of ancient documents which have
all the value of contemporaneous testimony," but which being
in themselves " wrecks of vast literatures which extended over
the Oriental world from a remote epoch," cannot be understood
aright " except in the light of the contemporaneous literature
of which they form a portion." From the point of view implied
by such words as these, it is only necessary to recall the mental
attitude of our grandfathers to appreciate in some measure
the revolution in thought that has been wrought in this field
within the last half-century, largely through the instrumentality
of Oriental archaeology.

We have seen that the general trend of Oriental archaeology
has been reconstructive rather than iconoclastic. Equally true
Archae- ^ tn i s f recent classical archaeology. Here no such
oiogyaad revolution has been effected as that which virtually
classical created anew the history of Oriental antiquity; yet
bbtoiy. tne beings o f t ne new knowledge are similar in kind
if different in degree. The world had never quite forgotten the
history of the primitive Greeks as it had forgotten the Mesopo-
tamians, the Himyaritic nations and the Hittites; but it
remembered their deeds only in the form of poetical myths and
traditions. These traditions, finding their clearest 1 delineation
in the lines of Homer, had been subjected to the analysis of the
critical historians of the early decades of the igth century, and
their authenticity had come to be more than doubted. The
philological analysis of Wolf and his successors had raised doubts
as to the very existence of Homer, and at one time the main
current of scholarly opinion had set strongly in the direction of
the belief that the Iliad and the Odyssey were in reality but
latter-day collections of divers recitals that had been handed
down by word of mouth from one generation to another of bards
through ages of illiteracy. It was strenuously contended that
the case could not well be otherwise, inasmuch as the art of
writing must have been quite unknown in Greece until after
the alleged age of the traditional Homer, whose date had been
variously estimated at from 1000 to 800 B.C. by less sceptical
generations. It had come to be a current belief that the Iliad
was first committed to writing in the age of Peisistratus. A
prominent controversialist, F. A. Paley, even went so far as to
doubt whether a single written copy of the Iliad existed in Greece
at the time of the Peloponnesian War. The doubts thus cast
upon the age when the Homeric poems first assumed the fixed
form of writing were closely associated with the universal
scepticism as to the historical accuracy of any traditions whatever
regarding the early history of Greece. Cautious historians had
come to regard the so-called " Heroic Age " as a prehistoric
period regarding which nothing definite was known, or in all
probability could be known. It was ably argued by Sir George
Cornewall Lewis, in connexion with his inquiries into early Roman
history, that a verbal tradition is not transmitted from one

generation to another in anything like an authentic form for a
longer period than about a century. If, then, the art of writing
was unknown in Greece before, let us say, the 6th century B.C.,
it would be useless to expect that any events of Grecian history
prior to about the ?th century B.C. could have been transmitted
to posterity with any degree of historical accuracy.

Notwithstanding the allurements of the subject, such con-
servative historians as Grote were disposed to regard the problems
of early Grecian history as inscrutable, and to content themselves
with the recital of traditions without attempting to establish
their relationship with actual facts. It remained for the more
robust faith of a Schliemann to show that such scepticism was
all too faint-hearted, by proving that at such sites as Tiryns,
Mycenae and Hissarlik evidences of a very early period of Greek
civilization awaited the spade of the excavator. Thanks to the
enthusiasm of Schliemann and his successors, we can now
substitute for the mythical " Age of Heroes " a historical
" Mycenaean Age " of Greece, and give tangible proof of its
relatively high state of civilization. Schliemann may or may not
have been correct in identifying one of the seven cities that he
unearthed at Hissarlik as the fabled Troy itself, but at least his
efforts sufficed to give verisimilitude to the Homeric story.
With the lessons of recent Oriental archaeology in mind, few
will be sceptical enough to doubt that some such contest as that
described in the Iliad actually occurred. And now, thanks to
the efforts of a large company of workers, notably Dr Arthur
Evans and his associates in Cretan exploration, we are coming
to speak with some confidence not merely of a .Mycenaean but
of a pre-Mycenaean Age.

As yet we see these periods somewhat darkly. The illuminative
witness of written records is in the main denied us here. Some
most archaic inscriptions have been indeed found by the explorers
in Crete, but these for the present serve scarcely any other
purpose than to prove the antiquity of the art of writing among
a people who were closely in touch with the inhabitants of
Hellas proper. Most unfortunately for posterity, the Greeks
wrote mainly on perishable materials, and hence the chief records
even of their later civilization have vanished. The only fragments
of Greek manuscripts antedating the Christian era that have
been preserved to us have been found in Egypt, where a hospitable
climate granted them a term of existence not to be hoped for
elsewhere. No fragment of these papyri, indeed, carries us
further back than the age of the Ptolemies; but the Greek
inscriptions on the statues of Rameses II. at Abu-Simbel, in
Nubia, give conclusive proof that the art of writing was widely
disseminated among the Greeks at least three centuries before
the age of Alexander. This carries us back towards the traditional
age of Homer.

The Cretan inscriptions belong to a far older epoch, and are
written in two non-Grecian scripts of undetermined affinities.
Here, then, is direct evidence that the Aegean peoples of the
Mycenaean Age knew how to write, and it is no longer necessary
to assume that the verses of the Iliad were dependent on mere
verbal transmission for any such period as has been supposed.

But even were direct evidence of the knowledge of the art of
writing in Greece of the early day altogether lacking, none but
the hardiest sceptic could doubt, in the light of recent archaeo-
logical discoveries elsewhere, that the inhabitants of ancient
Hellas of the " Homeric Age " must have shared with their
contemporaries the capacity to record their thought in written
words. We have seen that Oriental archaeology has in recent
generations revolutionized our conceptions of the antiquity
of civilization. We have seen that written documents have been
preserved in Mesopotamia to which such a date as 4500 B.C. may
be ascribed with a good deal of confidence; and that from the
third millennium B.C. a flood of contemporary literary records
comes to us both from Egypt and Mesopotamia. But until
recently it had been supposed that Hellas was shut out entirely
from this Oriental culture. Historians have found it hard to
dispel the idea that civilization in Greece was a very late develop-
ment, and that the culture of the age of Solon sprang, in fact,
suddenly into existence, as it seems to do in the records of the

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historian. But the excavations that have given us a knowledge
of the Mycenaean Age have proved conclusively, not alone that
civilization existed in Greece in an early day, but that this
civilization was closely linked with the civilization of Egypt.
Not only have antiquities been found in Crete that point to
Egyptian inspiration, but quite recently Professor Petrie has
found at Tel el-Amarna Mycenaean pottery. The latter find has
a peculiar significance, since the date of the Tel el-Amarna
collection is definitely fixed between the years 140x3 and 1370 B.C.

It is demonstrated, then, that as early as the beginning of
the I4th century B.C. the Mycenaean civilization was in touch
with the ancient civilization of Egypt. One must not infer
from this, however, that the two civilizations met on anything
like an equality. Indeed, in the wonderful Tel-el-Amarna
collection there is a suggestive absence of literary documents
from the Aegean that demands a word of notice. The Tel el-
Amarna collection, it will be recalled, consists of the royal
archives of King Amenophis IV. of the XVIIIth Egyptian
dynasty, who in the latter years of his reign chose to be known
as Akhenaton, " the glory of the solar disk." This monarch
had retired from Thebes and established his court on the site
now known as Tel el-Amarna, where he founded the city which
existed only during the brief period of thirty years ending with
the death of the monarch about 1370 B.C. The date of the
documents found in the royal library is, therefore, fixed within
very narrow limits. The documents in question consist chiefly
of letters, and constitute one of the most important of archaeo-
logical finds. These letters came to the king from almost every
part of western Asia, including Palestine and Phoenicia, Baby-
lonia and Asia Minor. Strangely enough, all the letters are
written in the Babylonian character, and most of them are in
the Babylonian language. They afford, therefore, most striking
evidence of a widespread diffusion of Babylonian culture.
Incidentally they prove, to the utter confusion of a certain school
of Bible critics, that the art of writing was familiarly known in
Canaan, and that Egypt and western Asia were in full literary
connexion with one another, long before the time of the Exodus.
Hence all the elaborate arguments based on the supposition that
Moses probably could not write fall to the ground. On the other
hand, the absence of letters from Mycenae among the tablets
of Tel el-Amarna must be regarded as at least suggestive.
Seemingly the widespread Babylonian culture had not reached
the Aegean peoples; yet these peoples cannot have been wholly
ignorant of things with which commercial intercourse brought
them in contact. The point is of no very great significance,
however, since no one has pretended that the Western civilization
compared with the Eastern in point of antiquity; and in any
event, no amount of negative evidence weighs a grain in the
balance against the positive evidence of the Cretan inscriptions.

The researches of the archaeologist are, in short, tending to
reconstruct the primitive classical history; and here, as in the
Orient, it is evident that historians of the earlier day were
constantly blinded by a misconception as to the antiquity of
civilization. Such a fruitage as that of Greek culture of the age
of Pericles does not come to maturity without a long period of
preparation. Here, as elsewhere, the laws of evolution hold,
permitting no sudden stupendous leaps. But it required the
arduous labours of the archaeologist to prove a proposition that,
once proven, seems self-evident. CH. S. Wi.)

Eras and Periods.

In the article Calendar (q.v.), that part of chronology is treated
which relates to the measurement of time, and the principal
methods are explained that have been employed, or are still in
use, for adjusting the lunar months of the solar year, as well as
the intercalations necessary for regulating the civil year according
to the celestial motions. But it is necessary to notice here the
different Eras and Periods that have been employed by historians,
and by the different nations of the world, in recording the succes-
sion of time and events, to fix the epochs at which the eras
respectively commenced, to ascertain the form and the initial
day of the year made use of, and to establish their correspondence

with the years of the Christian era. These elements will enable
us to convert, by a simple arithmetical operation, any historical
date, of which the chronological characters are given according to
any era whatever, into the corresponding date in the Christian era.

Julian Period. Although the Julian period (the invention
of Joseph Scaliger, in 1582) is not, properly speaking, a chrono-
logical era, yet, on account of its affording considerable facilities
in the comparison of different eras with one another, and in
marking without ambiguity the years before Christ, it is very
generally employed by chronologers. It consists of 7980 Julian
years; and the first year of the Christian era corresponded with
the year 4714 of the Julian period.

Olympiads. The Olympic games, so famous in Greek history,
were celebrated once every four years, between the new and full
moon first following the summer solstice, on the small plain
named Olympia in Elis, which was bounded on one side by the
river Alpheus, on another by the small tributary stream the
Cladeus, and on the other two sides by mountains. The games
lasted five days. Their origin, lost in the dimness of remote
antiquity, was invested by priestly legends with a sacred char-
acter. They were said to have been instituted by the Idaean
Heracles, to commemorate his victory over his four brothers in
a foot-race. According to a tradition, possibly more authentic,
they were re-established by Iphitus, king of Elis, in concert with
the Spartan Lycurgus and Cleosthenes of Pisa. The practice was
long afterwards adopted of designating the Olympiad, or period
of four years, by the name of the victor in the contests of the
stadium, and of inscribing his name in the gymnasium of
Olympia. The first who received this honour was Coroebus,
The games in which Coroebus was victor, and which form the
principal epoch of Greek history, were celebrated about the time
of the summer solstice 776 years before the common era of the
Incarnation, in the 3938th year of the Julian period, and twenty-
three years, according to the account of Varro, before the
foundation of Rome.

Before the introduction of the Metonic cycle, the Olympic
year began sometimes with the full moon which followed, at
other times with that which preceded the summer solstice, because
the year sometimes contained 384 days instead of 354. But
subsequently to its adoption, the year always commenced with
the eleventh day of the moon which followed the solstice. In
order to avoid troublesome computations, which it would be
necessary to recommence for every year, and of which the results
differ only by a few days, chronologers generally regard the ist
of July as the commencement of the Olympic year. Some
authors, however, among whom are Eusebius, Jerome and
the historian Socrates, place its commencement at the ist of
September; these, however, appear to have confounded the
Olympic year with the civil year of the Greeks, or the era of the
Seleucidae.

It is material to observe, that as the Olympic years and periods
begin with the 1st of July, the first six months of a year of our era
correspond to one Olympic year, and the last six months to another.
Thus, when it is said that the first year of the Incarnation corre-
sponds to the first of the 195th Olympiad, we are to understand that
it is only with respect to the last six months of that year that the
correspondence takes place. The first six months belonged to the
fourth year of the I94th Olympiad. In referring dates expressed
by Olympiads to our era, or the contrary, we must therefore dis-
tinguish two cases.

ist. When the event in question happened between the ist of
January and the ist of the following July, the sum of the Olympic
year and of the year before Christ is always equal to 776. The year
of the era,_ therefore, will be found by subtracting the number of
the Olympic year from 776. For example, Varro refers the founda-
tion of Rome to the 2 ist of April of the third year of the sixth
Olympiad, and it is required to find the year before our era. Since
five Olympic periods have elapsed, the third year of the sixth
Olympiad is 5X4+3=23; therefore, subtracting 23 from 776,
we have 753, which is the year before Christ to which the foundation
of Rome is referred by Varro.

2nd. When the event took place between the summer solstice and
the ist of January following, the sum of the Olympic year and of the
year before Christ is equal to 777. The difference, therefore, between
777 and the year in one of the dates will give the year in the other
date. Thus, the moon was eclipsed on the 27th of August, a little
before midnight, in the year 413 before our era; and it is required

CHRONOLOGY

to find the corresponding year in the Olympic era. Subtract 413
from 777, the remainder is 364; and 364 divided by four gives 01
without a remainder; consequently the eclipse happened in the
fourth year of the ninety-first Olympiad, which is the date to which
it is referred by Thucydides.

If the year is after Christ, and the event took place in one of the
first six months of the Olympic year, that is to say, between July
and January, we must subtract 776 from the number of the Olympic
year to find the corresponding year of our era ; but if it took place
in one of the last six months of the Olympic year, or between January
and July, we must deduct 777. The computation by Olympiads
seldom occurs in historical records after the middle of the 5th
century of our era.

The names of the months were different in the different Grecian
states. The Attic months, of which we possess the most certain
knowledge, were named as follows:

Hecatombaeon. Gamelion.

Metageitnion. Anthesterion.

Boedromion. Elaphebolion.

Pyanepsion. Munychion.

Maemacterion. Thargelion.

Poseideon. Scirophorion.

Era of the Foundation of Rome. After the Olympiads, the
era most frequently met with in ancient history is that of the
foundation of Rome, which is the chronological epoch adopted
by all the Roman historians. There are various opinions respect-
ing the year of the foundation of Rome, (i) Fabius Pictor places
it in the latter half of the first year of the eighth Olympiad,
which corresponds with the 3967th of the Julian period, and with
the year 747 B.C. (2) Polybius places it in the second year of the
seventh Olympiad, corresponding with 3964 of the Julian period,
and 750 B.C. (3) M. Porcius Cato places it in the first year of
the seventh Olympiad, that is, in 3963 of the Julian period, and

751 B.C. (4) Verrius Flaccus places it in the fourth year of the
sixth Olympiad, that is, in the year 3962 of the Julian period, and

752 B.C. (5) Terentius Varro places it in the third year of the
sixth Olympiad, that is, in the year 3961 of the Julian period, and
7 53 B .C. A knowledge of these different computations isnecessary,
in order to reconcile the Roman historians with one another,
and even any one writer with himself. Livy in general adheres
to the epoch of Cato, though he sometimes follows that of Fabius
Pictor. Cicero follows the account of Varro, which is also in
general adopted by Pliny. Dionysius of Halicarnassus follows
Cato. Modern chronologers for the most part adopt the account
of Varro, which is supported by a passage in Censorinus, where it
is stated that the 99ist year of Rome commenced with the
festival of the Palilia, in the consulship of Ulpius and Pontianus.
Now this consulship corresponded with the 238th year of our
era; therefore, deducting 238 from 991, we have 753 to denote
the year before Christ. The Palilia commenced on the 2ist of
April; and ah 1 the accounts agree in regarding that day es the
epoch of the foundation of Rome.

The Romans employed two sorts of years, the civil year, which
was used in the transaction of public and private affairs, and the
consular year, according to which the annals of their history have
been composed. The civil year commenced with the calends of
January, but this did not hold a fixed place in the solar year till the
time of Julius Caesar(see CALENDAR). The installation of the consuls
regulated the commencement of the consular year. The initial
day of the consulate was never fixed, at least before the 7th century
of Rome, but varied with the different accidents which in times of
political commotion so frequently occurred to accelerate or retard
the elections. Hence it happens that a consular year, generally
speaking, comprehends a part not only of two Julian years, but
also of two civil years. The consulate is the date employed by the
Latin historians generally, and by many of the Greeks, down to the
6th century of our era.

In the era of Rome the commencement of the year is placed at the
2ist of April: an event therefore which happened in the months
of January, February, March, or during the first twenty days of
April, in the year (for example) 500 of Rome, belongs to the civil
year 501. Before the time of the Decemvirs, however, February was
the last month of the year. Many authors confound the year of
Rome with the civil year, supposing them both to begin on the 1st
of January. Others again confound both the year of Rome and the
civil year with the Julian year, which in fact became the civil year
after the regulation of the calendar by Julius Caesar. Through a
like want of attention, many writers also, particularly among the
moderns, have confounded the Julian and Olympic years, by making
an entire Julian year correspond to an entire Olympic year, as if
both had commenced at the same epoch. Much attention to these
particulars is required in the comparison of ancient dates.

The Christian Era. The Christian or vulgar era, called also
the era of the Incarnation, is now almost universally employed
in Christian countries, and is even used by some Eastern nations.
Its epoch or beginning is the ist of January in the fourth year
of the lo.jth Olympiad, the 753rd from the foundation of Rome,
and the 47i4th of the Julian period. This epoch was introduced
in Italy in the 6th century, by Dionysius the Little, a Roman
abbot, and began to be used in Gaul in the 8th, though it
was not generally followed in that country till a century later.
From extant charters it is known to have been in use in England
before the close of the 8th century. Before its adoption the usual
practice in Latin countries was to distinguish the years by their
number in the cycle of Indiction.

In the Christian era the years are simply distinguished by the
cardinal numbers; those before Christ being marked B.C. (Before
Christ), or A.C. (Ante Christum), and those after Christ A.D.
(Anno Domini). This method of reckoning tune is more con-
venient than those which employ cycles or periods of any length
whatever; but it still fails to satisfy in the simplest manner
possible all the conditions that are necessary for registering the
succession of events. For, since the commencement of the era
is placed at an intermediate period of history, we are compelled
to resort to a double manner of reckoning, backward as well
as forward. Some ambiguity is also occasioned by the want
of uniformity in the method of numbering the preceding years.
Astronomers denote the year which preceded the first of our era
by o, and the year previous to that by i B.C.; but chronologers,
in conformity with common notions, call the year preceding the
era i B.C., the previous year 2 B.C., and so on. By reckoning
in this manner, there is an interruption in the regular succession
of the numbers; and in the years preceding the era, the leap
years, instead of falling on the fourth, eighth, twelfth, &c., fall,
or ought to fall, on the first, fifth, ninth, &c.

In the chronicles of the middle ages much uncertainty fre-
quently arises respecting dates on account of the different epochs
assumed for the beginning of the Christian year. Dionysius,
the author of the era, adopted the day of the Annunciation,
or the 25th of March, which preceded the birth of Christ by nine
months, as the commencement of the first year of the era. This
epoch therefore precedes that of the vulgar era by nine months
and seven days. This manner of dating was followed in some
of the Italian states, and continued to be used at Pisa even down
to the year 1745. It was also adopted in some of the Papal
bulls; and there are proofs of its having been employed in France
about the middle of the nth century. Some chroniclers, who
adhere to the day of the Annunciation as the commencement of
the year, reckon from the 25th of March following our epoch,
as the Florentines in the loth century. Gregory of Tours, and
some writers of the 6th and 7th centuries, make the year begin
sometimes with the ist of March, and sometimes with the ist of
January. In France, under the third race of kings, it was usual
to begin the year with Easter; and this practice continued at
least till the middle of the i6th century, for an edict was issued
by Charles IX. in the month of January 1663, ordaining that the
beginning of the year should thenceforth be considered as taking
place on the ist of January. An instance is given, in L'Art de
vrifier les dates, of a date in which the year is reckoned from
the 1 8th of March; but it is probable that this refers to the
astronomical year, and that the i8th of March was taken for
the day of the vernal equinox. In Germany, about the nth
century, it was usual to begin the year at Christmas; and this
practice also prevailed at Milan, Rome and other Italian cities,
in the i3th, i4th and isth centuries.

In England, the practice of placing the beginning of the year
at Christmas was introduced in the yth century, and traces
of it are found even in the I3th. Gervase of Canterbury, who
lived in the I3th century, mentions that almost all writers of his
country agreed in regarding Christmas day as the first of the year,
because it forms, as it were, the term at which the sun finishes
and recommences his annual course. In the I2th century,
however, the custom of beginning the civil year with the day of
the Annunciation, or the' 25th of March, began to prevail, and

3M-

CHRONOLOGY

continued to be generally followed from that time till the re-
formation of the calendar in 175*. The historical year has
always been reckoned by English authors to begin with the ist
of January. The liturgic year of the Church of England com-
mences with the first Sunday of Advent.

A knowledge of the different epochs which have been chosen
for the commencement of the year in different countries is
indispensably necessary to the right interpretation of ancient
chronicles, charters and other documents in which the dates
often appear contradictory. We may cite an example or two.
It is well known that Charles the Great was crowned emperor
at Rome on Christmas day in the year 800, and that he died in
the year 814, according to our present manner of reckoning.
But in the annals of Metz and Moissac, the coronation is stated
to have taken place in the year Soi, and his death in 813. In
the first case the annalist supposes the year to begin with Christ-
mas, and accordingly reckons the 25th of December and all the
following days of that month to belong to 801, whereas in the
common reckoning they would be referred to the year 800.
In the second case the year has been supposed to begin with the
2$th of March, or perhaps with Easter; consequently the first
three months of the year 814, reckoning from the ist of January,
would be referred to the end of the year 813. The English
Revolution is popularly called the Revolution of 1688. Had
the year then begun, as it now does, with the ist of January, it
would have been the revolution of 1689, William and Mary
being received as king and queen in February in the year 1689;
but at that time the year was considered in England as beginning
on the 25th of March. Another circumstance to which it is
often necessary to pay attention in the comparison of dates,
is the alteration of style which took place on the adoption of the
Gregorian Calendar (see CALENDAR).

Era of Ike Creation of the World. As the Greek and Roman
methods of computing time were connected with certain pagan
rites and observances which the Christians held in abhorrence,
the latter began at an early period to imitate the Jews in reckon-
ing their years from the supposed period of the creation of the
world. Various computations were made at different times, from
Biblical sources, as to the age of the world; and Des Vignoles, in
the preface to his Chronology of Sacred History, asserts that he
collected upwards of two hundred different calculations, the
shortest of which reckons only 3483 years between the creation of
the world and the commencement of the vulgar era and the
longest 6984. The so-called era of the creation of the world is
therefore a purely conventional and arbitrary epoch; practically,
it means the year 4004 B.C., this being the date which, under the
sanction of Archbishop Usher's opinion, won its way, among its
hundreds of competitors, into general acceptance.

Jewish Year and Eras. Before the departure of the Israelites
from Egypt their year commenced at the autumnal equinox; but
in order to solemnize the memory of their deliverance, the month
of Nisan or Abib, in which that event took place, and which falls
about the time of the vernal equinox, was afterwards regarded as
the beginning of the ecclesiastical or legal year. In civil affairs,
and in the regulation of the jubilees and sabbatical years, the
Jews still adhere to the ancient year, which begins with the month
Tisri, about the time of the autumnal equinox.

After their dispersion the Jews were constrained to have
recourse to the astronomical rules and cycles of the more en-
lightened heathen, in order that their religious festivals might be
observed on the same days in all the countries through which
they were scattered. For this purpose they adopted a cycle of
eighty-four years, which is mentioned by several of the ancient
fathers of the church, and which the early Christians borrowed
from them for the regulation of Easter. This cycle seems to be
neither more nor less than the Calippic period of seventy-six
years, with the addition of a Greek octaeteris, or period of eight
years, in order to disguise its true source, and give it an appear-
ance of originality. In fact, the period of Calippus containing
2 7>759 days, and the octaeteris 2922 days, the sum, which is
30,681, is exactly the number of days in eighty-four Julian years.
But the addition was very far from being an improvement on the

work of Calippus; for instead of a difference of only five hours
and fifty-three minutes between the places of the sun and moon,
which was the whole error of the Calippic period, this difference,
in the period of eighty-four years, amounted to one day, six hours
and forty-one minutes. Buccherius places the beginning of this
cycle in the year 162 B.C.; Prideaux in the year 291 B.C. Accord-
ing to the account of Prideaux, the fifth cycle must have begun in
the year 46 of our era; and it was in this year, according to St
Prosperus, that the Christians began to employ the Jewish cycle
of eighty-four years, which they followed, though not uniformly,
for the regulation of Easter, till the time of the Council of Nice.

Soon after the Nicene council, the Jews, in imitation of the
Christians, abandoned the cycle of eighty-four years, and
adopted that of Meton, by which their lunisolar year is regulated
at the present day. This improvement was first proposed by
Rabbi Samuel, rector of the Jewish school of Sora hi Mesopotamia,
and was finally accomplished in the year 360 of our era by Rabbi
Hillel, who introduced that form of the year which the Jews at
present follow, and which, they say, is to endure till the coming of
the Messiah.

Till the i5th century the Jews usually followed the era of the
Seleucidae or of Contracts. Since that time they have generally
employed a mundane era, and dated from the 'creation of the
world, which, according to their computation, took place 3760
years and about three months before the beginning of our era.
No rule can be given for determining with certainty the day on
which any given Jewish year begins without entering into the
minutiae of their irregular and complicated calendar.

Era of Constantinople. This era, which is still used hi the
Greek Church, and was followed by the Russians till the time of
Peter the Great, dates from the creation of the world. The
Incarnation falls in the year 5509, and corresponds, as in our era,
with the fourth year of the i94th Olympiad. The civil year
commences with the ist of September; the ecclesiastical year
sometimes with the 2ist of March, sometimes with the ist of
April. It is not certain whether the year was considered at
Constantinople as beginning with September before the separa-
tion of the Eastern and Western empires.

At the commencement of our era there had elapsed 5508 years
and four months of the era of Constantinople. Hence the first
eight months of the Christian year i coincide with the Con-
stantinopolitan year 5509, while the last four months belong to
the year 5510. In order, therefore, to find the year of Christ
corresponding to any given year in the era of Constantinople, we
have the following rule: If the event took place between the ist
of January and the end of August subtract 5508 from the given
year; but if it happened between the ist of September and the
end of the year, subtract 5509.

Era of Alexandria. The chronological computation of Julius
Africanus was adopted by the Christians of Alexandria, who
accordingly reckoned 5500 years from the creation of Adam to
the birth of Christ. But in reducing Alexandrian dates to the
common era it must be observed that Julius Africanus placed
the epoch of the Incarnation three years earlier than it is placed hi
the usual reckoning, so that the initial day of the Christian era
fell in the year 5503 of the Alexandrian era. This correspondence,
however, continued only from the introduction of the era till the
accession of Diocletian, when an alteration was made by dropping
ten years in the Alexandrian account. Diocletian ascended the
imperial throne in the year of Christ 284. According to the
Alexandrian computation, this was the year 5787 of the world,
and 287 of the Incarnation; but on this occasion ten years were
omitted, and that year was thenceforth called the year 5777 of the
world, and 277 of the Incarnation. There are, consequently, two
distinct eras of Alexandria, the one being used before and the
other after the accession of Diocletian. It is not known for what
reason the alteration was made; but it is conjectured that it was
for the purpose of causing a newrevolution of the cycle of nineteen
years (which was introduced into the ecclesiastical computation
about this time by Anatolius, bishop of Hierapolis) to begin with
the firsf year of the reign of Diocletian. In fact, 5777 being
divided by 19 leaves i for the year of the cycle. The Alexandrian

CHRONOLOGY

era continued to be followed by the Copts in the isth century,
and is said to be still used in Abyssinia.

Dates expressed according to this era are reduced to the
common era by subtracting 5502, up to the Alexandrian year
5786 inclusive, and after that year by subtracting 5492; but if
the date belongs to one of the four last months of the Christian
year, we must subtract 5503 till the year 5786, and 5493 after
that year.

Mundane Era of Antioch. The chronological reckoning of
Julius Africanus formed also the basis of the era of Antioch,
which was adopted by the Christians of Syria, at the instance
of Panodorus, an Egyptian monk, who flourished about the
beginning of the 4th century. Panodorus struck off ten years
from the account of Julius Africanus with regard to the years of
the world, and he placed the Incarnation three years later,
referring it to the fourth year of the I94th Olympiad, as in the
common era. Hence the era of Antioch differed from the original
'era of Alexandria by ten years; but after the alteration of the
latter at the accession of Diocletian, the two eras coincided. In
reckoning from the Incarnation, however, there is a difference
of seven years, that epoch being placed, in the reformed era of
Alexandria, seven years later than in the mundane era of Antioch
or in the Christian era.

As the Syrian year began in autumn, the year of Christ
corresponding to any year in the mundane era of Antioch is
found by subtracting 5492 or 5493 according as the event falls
between January and September or from September to January.

Era of Nabonassar. This era is famous in astronomy, having
been generally followed by Hipparchus and Ptolemy. It is
believed to have been in use from the very time of its origin;
for the observations of eclipses which were collected in Chaldaea
by Callisthenes, the general of Alexander, and transmitted by
him to Aristotle, were for the greater part referred to the beginning
of the reign of Nabonassar, founder of the kingdom of the
Babylonians. It is the basis of the famous Canon of kings, also
called Mathematical Canon, preserved to us in the works of
Ptolemy, which, before the astonishing discoveries at Nineveh,
was the sole authentic monument of Assyrian and Babylonian
history known to us. The epoch from which it is reckoned is
precisely determined by numerous celestial phenomena recorded
by Ptolemy, and corresponds to Wednesday at mid-day, the
26th of February of the year 747 before Christ. The year was
in all respects the same as the ancient Egyptian year. On
account of the difference in the length of the Julian and Baby-
lonian years, the conversion of dates according to the era of
Nabonassar into years before Christ is attended with considerable
trouble. The surest way is to follow a comparative table.
Frequently the year cannot be fixed with certainty, unless we
know also the month and the day.

The Greeks of Alexandria formerly employed the era of
Nabonassar, with a year of 365 days; but soon after the reforma-
tion of the calendar of Julius Caesar, they adopted, like other
Roman provincials, the Julian intercalation. At this time the
first of Thoth had receded to the 2gth of August. In the year
136 of our era, the first of Thoth in the ancient Egyptian year
corresponded with the 2oth of July, between which and the
29th of August there are forty days. The adoption of the Julian
year must therefore have taken place about 160 years before
the year 136 of our era (the difference between the Egyptian
and Julian years being one day in four years), that is to say,
about the year 25 B.C. In fact, the first of Thoth corresponded
with the zgth of August in the Julian calendar, in the years 25,
24, 23 and 22 B.C.

Era of the Seleucidae, or Macedonian Era. The era of the
Seleucidae dates from the time of the occupation of Babylon
by Seleucus Nicator, 311 years before Christ, in the year of Rome
442, and twelve years after the death of Alexander the Great.
It was adopted not only in the monarchy of the Seleucidae but
in general in all the Greek countries bordering on the Levant,
was followed by the Jews till the isth century, and is said to
be used by some Arabians even at the present day. By the
Jews it was called the Era of Contracts, because the Syrian

governors compelled them to make use of it in civil contracts;
the writers of the books of Maccabees call it the Era of Kings.
But notwithstanding its general prevalence in the East for
many centuries, authors using it differ much with regard to
their manner of expressing dates, in consequence of the different
epochs adopted for the beginning of the year. Among the
Syrian Greeks the year began with the month Elul, which
corresponds to our September. The Nestorians and Jacobites
at the present day suppose it to begin with the following month,
or October. The author of the first book of Maccabees makes
the era commence with the month Nisan, or April; and the
author of the second book with the first Tishrin, or October.
Albategni, a celebrated Arabian astronomer, dates from the
ist of October. Some of the Arabian writers, as Alfergani,
date from the ist of September. At Tyre the year was counted
from the igth of our October, at Gaza from the 28th of the same
month, and at Damascus from the vernal equinox. These dis-
crepancies render it extremely difficult to determine the exact
correspondence of Macedonian dates with those of other eras;
and the difficulty is rendered still greater by the want of uni-
formity in respect of the length of the year. Some authors who
follow the Macedonian era, use the Egyptian or vague year of
365 days; Albategni adopts the Julian year of 365$ days.

According to the computation most generally followed, the
year 31 2 of the era of the Seleucidae began on the ist of September
in the Julian year preceding the first of our era. Hence, to reduce
a Macedonian date to the common era, subtract 311 years and
four months.

The names of the, Syrian and Macedonian
correspondence with the Roman months, are as

Syrian.

Elul.

Tishrin I.

Tishrin II.

Canun I.

Canun II.

Sabat.

Adar.

Nisan.

Ayar.

Haziran.

Tamus.

Ab.

Macedonian.
Gorpiaeus.
Hyperberetaeus.
Dius.
Apellaeus.
Audynaeus.
Peritius.
Dystrus.
Xanthicus.
Artemisius.
Daesius.
Panemus.
Lous.

months, and their
follows :
English.
September.
October.
November.
December.
January.
February.
March.
April.
May.

June,
uly.
August.

Era of Alexander. Some of the Greek historians have assumed
as a chronological epoch the death of Alexander the Great, in
the year 325 B.C. The form of the year is the same as in the
preceding era. This era has not been much followed; but it
requires to be noticed in order that it may not be confounded
with the era of the Seleucidae.

Era of Tyre. The era of Tyre is reckoned from the igth of
October, or the beginning of the Macedonian month Hyper-
beretaeus, in the year 126 B.C. In order, therefore, to reduce
it to the common era, subtract 125; and when the date is B.C.,
subtract it from 126. Dates expressed according to this era
occur only on a few medals, and in the acts of certain councils.

Caesarean Era of Antioch. This era was established to com-
memorate the victory obtained by Julius Caesar on the plains
of Pharsalia, on the gth of August in the year 48 B.C., and the
7o6th of Rome. The Syrians computed it from their month
Tishrin I.; but the Greeks threw it back to the month Gorpiaeus
of the preceding year. Hence there is a difference of eleven
months between the epochs assumed by the Syrians and the
Greeks. According to the computation of the Greeks, the 49th
year of the Caesarean era began in the autumn of the year
preceding the commencement of the Christian era; and, accord-
ing to the Syrians, the 49th year began in the autumn of the
first year of the Incarnation. It is followed by Evagrius in his
Ecclesiastical History.

Julian Era. The Julian era begins with the ist of January,
forty-five years B.C. It was designed to commemorate the
reformation of the Roman calendar by Julius Caesar.

Era of Spain, or of the Caesars. The conquest of Spain by
Augustus, which was completed in the thirty-ninth year B.C.,
gave r,ise to this era, which began with the first day of the following

CHRONOLOGY

year, and was long used in Spain and Portugal, and generally
in all the Roman provinces subdued by the Visigoths, both in
Africa and the South of France. Several of the councils of
Carthage, and also that of Aries, are dated according to this era.
After the 9th century it became usual to join with it in public
acts the year of the Incarnation. It was followed in Catalonia
till the year 1 180, in the kingdom of Aragon till 1350, in Valencia
till 1358, and in Castile till 1382. In Portugal it is said to have
been in use so late as the year 1415, or 1422, though it would
seem that after the establishment of the Portuguese monarchy,
no other era was used in the public acts of that country than that
of the Incarnation. As the era of Spain began with the ist'of
January, and the months and days of the year are those of the
Julian calendar, any date is reduced to the common era by
subtracting thirty-eight from the number of the year.

Era of Actium, and Era of Augustus. This era was established
to commemorate the battle of Actium, which was fought on the
3rd of September, in the year 31 B.C., and in the isth of the Julian
era. By the Romans the era of Actium was considered as
beginning on the ist of January of the i6th of the Julian era,
which is the 3Oth B.C. The Egyptians, who used this era till the
time of Diocletian, dated its commencement from the beginning
of their month Thoth, or the 2gth of August; and the Eastern
Greeks from the 2nd of September. By the latter it was also
called the era of Antioch, and it continued to be used till the
9th century. It must not be confounded with the Caesarean
era of Antioch, which began seventeen years earlier. Many of the
medals struck by the city of Antioch- in honour of Augustus are
dated according to this era.

Besides the era of Actium, there was also an Augustan era,
which began four years later, or 27 B.C., the year in which
Augustus prevailed on the senate and people of Rome to decree
him the title of Augustus, and to confirm him in the supreme
power of the empire.

Era of Diocletian, or Era of Martyrs. It has been already
stated that the Alexandrians, at the accession of the emperor
Diocletian, made an alteration in their mundane era, by striking
off ten years from their reckoning. At the same time they estab-
lished a new era, which is still followed by the Abyssinians and
Copts. It begins with the 29th of August (the first day of the
Egyptian year) of the year 284 of our era, which was the first of
the reign of Diocletian. The denomination of Era of Martyrs,
subsequently given to it in commemoration of the persecution
of the Christians, would seem to imply that its commencement
ought to be referred to the year 303 of our era, for it was in that
year that Diocletian issued his famous edict; but the practice
of dating from the accession of Diocletian has prevailed. The
ancient Egyptian year consisted of 365 days; but after the
introduction of the Julian calendar, the astronomers of Alexandria
adopted an intercalary year, and added six additional days
instead of five to the end of the last month of every fourth year.
The year thus became exactly similar to the Julian year. The
Egyptian intercalary year, however, does not correspond to the
Julian leap year, but is the year immediately preceding; and
the intercalation takes place at the end of the year, or on the 29th
of August. Hence the first three years of the Egyptian inter-
calary period begin on the 29th of our August, and the fourth
begins on the 3oth of that month. Before the end of that year
the Julian intercalation takes place, and the beginning of the
following Egyptian year is restored to the 2gth of August.
Hence to reduce a date according to this era to our own reckoning,
it is necessary, for common years, to add 283 years and 240 days;
but if the date belongs to the first three months of the year
following the intercalation, or, which is the same thing, if in the
third year of the Julian cycle it falls between the 3Oth of August
and the end of the year, we must add 283 years and 241 days.
The Ethiopians do not reckon the years from the beginning of
the era in a consecutive series, but employ a period of 532 years,
after the expiration of which they again begin with i . This is the
Dionysian or Great Paschal Period, and is formed by the multi-
plication of the numbers 28 and 19, that is, of the solar and lunar
cycles, into each other.

The following are the names of the Ethiopian or Abyssinian
months, with the days on which they begin in the Julian calendar,
or old style :

29th August. Magabit

28th September^ Miazia .

28th October. Gimbot .

27th November. Sene.

27th December. Hamle .

26th January. Nahasse

Mascaram

Tikraith

Hadar

Tacsam

Tir .

Yacatit

25th February.
27th March.
26th April.
26th May.
25th June.
25th July.

The additional or epagomenal days begin on the 24th of August.
In intercalary years the first seven months commence one day later.
The Egyptian months, followed by the modern Copts, agree with
the above in every respect excepting the names.

Indiction. The cycle of Indiction was very generally followed
in the Roman empire for some centuries before the adoption
of the Christian era. Three Indictions may be distinguished;
but they differ only in regard to the commencement of the year.

1. The Constantinopolilan Indiction, like the Greek year,
commenced with the month of September. This was followed
in the Eastern empire, and in some instances also in France.

2. The Imperial or Constantinian Indiction is so called because
its establishment is attributed to Constantine. This was also
called the Caesarean Indiclion. It begins on the 24th of Sep-
tember. It is not infrequently met with in the ancient chronicles
of France and England.

3. The Roman or Pontifical Indiction began on the 2th of
December or ist of January, according as the Christian year
was held to begin on the one or other of these days. It is often
employed in papal bulls, especially after the time of Gregory VII.,
and traces of its use are found in early French authors.

Era of the Armenians. The epoch of the Armenian era is
that of the council of Tiben, in which the Armenians consum-
mated their schism from the Greek Church by condemning the
acts of the council of Chalcedon; and it corresponds to Tuesday,
the 9th of July of the year 552 of the Incarnation. In their
civil affairs the Armenians follow the ancient vague year of the
Egyptians; but their ecclesiastical year, which begins on the
nth of August, is regulated in the same manner as the Julian
year, every fourth year consisting of 366 days, so that Easter
and the other festivals are retained at the same place in the
seasons as well as in the civil year. The Armenians also make
use of the mundane era of Constantinople, and sometimes conjoin
both methods of computation in the same documents. In their
correspondence and transactions with Europeans, they generally
follow the era of the Incarnation, and adopt the Julian year.

To reduce the civil dates of the Armenians to the Christian era,
proceed as follows. Since the epoch is the 9th of July, there were
176 days from the beginning of the Armenian era to the end of
the year 552 of our era; and since 552 was a leap year, the year
553 began a Julian . intercalary period. Multiply, therefore,
the number of Armenian years elapsed by 365 ; add the number
of days from the commencement of the current year to the
given date; subtract 176 from the sum, and the remainder will
be the number of days from the ist of January 553 to the given
date. This number of days being reduced to Julian years, add
the result to 552, and the sum gives the day in the Julian year,
or old style.

In the ecclesiastical reckoning the year begins on the nth of
August. To reduce a date expressed in this reckoning to the
Julian date, add 551 years, and the days elapsed from the ist of
January to the loth of August, both inclusive, of the year 552
that is to say (since 532 is a leap year), 223 days. In leap years
one day must be subtracted if the date falls between the ist of
March and loth of August.

The following are the Armenian ecclesiastical months with their
correspondence with those of the Julian calendar:

I. Navazardi begins nth August.

2. Hori

3. Sahmi .

4. DreThari

5. Kagoths

6. Aracz .

7. Maleei .

8. Arcki .
9- Angi

loth September,
loth October.

9th November.

9th December.

8th January.

7th February.

9th March.

8th April.

CHRONOLOGY

10. Mariri 8th May.

11. Marcacz 7th Tune.

12. Herodiez . ... 7th July.

To complete the year five complementary days are added in
common years, and six in leap years.

The Mahommedan Era, or Era of the Hegira. The era in use
among the Turks, Arabs and other Mahommedan nations is
that of the Hegira or Hejra, the flight of the prophet from Mecca
to Medina, 622 A.D. Its commencement, however, does not, as
is sometimes stated, coincide with the very day of the flight,
but precedes it by sixty-eight days. The prophet, after leaving
Mecca, to escape the pursuit of his enemies, the Koreishites, hid
himself with his friend Abubekr in a cave near Mecca, and there
lay for three days. The departure from the cave and setting out
on the way to Medina is assigned to the ninth day of the third
month, Rabia I. corresponding to the 22nd of September of
the year 622 A.D. The era begins from the first day of the month
of Muharram preceding the flight, or first day of that Arabian
year which coincides with Friday, July 16, 622 A.D. It is
necessary to remember that by astronomers and by some
historians the era is assigned to the preceding day, July 15.
It is stated by D'Herbelot that the era of the Hegira was in-
stituted by Omar, the second caliph, in imitation of the Christian
era of the martyrs.

Era of Yazdegerd, or Persian or Jelalaean Era. This era begins
with the elevation of Yazdegerd III. to the throne of Persia, on
the i6th of June in the year of our era 632. Till the year 1079
the Persian year resembled that of the ancient Egyptians, con-
sisting of 365 days without intercalation; but at that time the
Persian calendar was reformed by Jelal ud-Dln Malik Shah,
sultan of Khorasan, and a method of intercalation adopted
which, though less convenient, is considerably more accurate
than the Julian. The intercalary period is 33 years, one day
being added to the common year seven times successively at the
end of four years, and the eighth intercalation being deferred till
the end of the fifth year. This era was at one period universally
adopted in Persia, and it still continues to be followed by the
Parsees of India. The months consist of thirty days each, and
each day is distinguished by a different name. According to
Alfergani, the names of the Persian months are as follows:
Afrudin-meh. Merded-meh. Adar-meh.

Ardisascht-meh. Schaharir-meh. Di-meh.

Cardi-meh. Mahar-meh. Behen-meh.

Tir-meh. Aben-meh. Affirer-meh.

The five additional days (in intercalary years six) are named
Musteraca.

As it does not appear that the above-mentioned rule of inter-
calation was ever regularly followed, it is impossible to assign
exactly the days on which the different years begin. In some
provinces of India the Parsees begin the year with September,
in others they begin it with October. We have stated that the
era began with the i6th June 632. But the vague year, which
was followed till 1079, anticipated the Julian year by one day
every four years. In 447 years the anticipation would amount to
about 112 days, and the beginning of the year would in conse-
quence be thrown back to near the beginning of the Julian year
632. To the year of the Persian era, therefore, add 631, and the
sum will be the year of our era in which the Persian year begins.
Chinese Chronology. From the time of the emperor Yao,
upwards of 2000 years B.C., the Chinese had two different years,
a civil year, which was regulated by the moon, and an astro-
nomical year, which was solar. The civil year consisted in
general of twelvemonths or lunations, but occasionally a thir-
teenth was added in order to preserve its correspondence with
the solar year. Even at that early period the solar or astro-
nomical year consisted of 365^ days, like our Julian year; and
it was arranged in the same manner, a day being intercalated
every fourth year.

According to the missionary Gaubil, the Chinese divided the
day into 100 ke, each ke into 100 minutes, and each minute into
100 seconds. This practice continued to prevail till the i?th
century, when, at the instance of the Jesuit Scb.aH, president of
the tribunal of mathematics, they adopted the European method

of dividing the day into twenty-four hours, each hour into sixty
minutes, and each minute into sixty seconds. The civil day
begins at midnight and ends at the midnight following.

Since the accession of the emperors of the Han dynasty,
206 B.C., the civil year of the Chinese has begun with the first day
of that moon in the course of which the sun enters into the sign
of the zodiac which corresponds with our sign Pisces. From the
same period also they have employed, in the adjustment of
their solar and lunar years, a period of nineteen years, twelve
of which are common, containing twelve lunations each, and the
remaining seven intercalary, containing thirteen lunations. It
is not, however, precisely known how they distributed their
months of thirty and twenty-nine days, or, as they termed them,
great and small moons. This, with other matters appertaining
to the calendar, was probably left to be regulated from time to
time by the mathematical tribunal.

The Chinese divide the time of a complete revolution of the
sun with regard to the solstitial points into twelve equal portions,
each corresponding to thirty days, ten hours, thirty minutes.
Each of these periods, which is denominated a tele", is subdivided
into two equal portions called chung-ki and tsie-ki, the chung-ki
denoting the first half of the tsil, and the tsie-ki the latter half.
Though the tseS are thus strictly portions of solar time, yet what
is remarkable, though not peculiar to China, they give their name
to the lunar months, each month or lunation having the name of
the chung-ki or sign at which the sun arrives during that month.
As the tsee is longer than a synodic revolution of the moon, the
sun cannot arrive twice at a chung-ki during the. same lunation;
and as there are only twelve Is'ee, the year can contain only
twelve months having different names. It must happen some-
times that in the course of a lunation the sun enters into no new
sign; in this case the month is intercalary, and is called by the
same name as the preceding month.

For chronological purposes, the Chinese, in common with some
other nations of the east of Asia, employ cycles of sixty, by means of
which they reckon their days, moons and years. The days are
distributed in the calendar into cycles of sixty, in the same manner
as ours are distributed into weeks, or cycles of seven. Each day of
the cycle has a particular name, and as it is a usual practice, in
mentioning dates, to give the name of the day along with that of
the moon and the year, this arrangement affords great facilities in
verifying the epochs of Chinese chronology. The order of the days
in the cycle is never interrupted by any intercalation that may be
necessary for adjusting the months or years. The moons of the civil
year are also distinguished by their place in the cycle of sixty ; and
as the intercalary moons are not reckoned, for the reason before
stated, namely, that during one of these lunations the sun enters
into no new sign, there are only twelve regular moons in a year,
so that the cycle is renewed every five years. Thus the first moon of
the year 1873 being the first of a new cycle, the first moon of every
sixth year, reckoned backwards or forwards from that date, as 1868,
1863, &c., or 1877, 1882, &c., also begins a new lunar cycle of sixty
moons. In regard to the years, the arrangement is exactly the same.
Each has a distinct number or name which marks its place in the
cycle, and as this is generally given in referring to dates, along with the
sther chronological characters of the year, the ambiguity which arises
from following a fluctuating or uncertain epoch is entirely obviated.

The cycle of sixty is formed of two subordinate cycles or series of
:haracters, one of ten and the other of twelve, which are joined
together so as to afford sixty different combinations. The names of
the characters in the cycle often, which are called celestial signs, are
I. Kea; 2. Yih; 3. Ping; 4. Ting; 5. Woo;
6. Ke; 7. Kang; 8. Sin; 9. Jin; 10. Kwei;
and in the series of 12, denominated terrestrial signs,

I. Tsze; 2. Chow; 3. Yin; 4. Maou; 5. Shin; 6. Sze;
7. Woo; 8. We; 9. Shin; 10. Yew; n. Seuh; 12. Hae.'

The name of the first year, or of the first day, in the sexagenary
cycle is formed by combining the first words in each of the above
series; the second is formed by combining the second of each series,
and so on to the tenth. For the next year the first word of the first
series is combined with the eleventh of the second, then the second
of the first series with the twelfth of the second, after this the third
of the first series with the first of the second, and so on till the sixtieth
combination, when the last of the first series concurs with the last
of the second. Thus Kea-tsze is the name of the first year, Yih-
Chow that of the second, Kea-seuh that of the eleventh, Yih-hae
that of the twelfth, Ping-tsze that of the thirteenth, and so on. The
order of proceeding is obvious.

In the Chinese history translated into the Tatar dialect by order
>f the emperor K'ang-hi, who died in 1721, the characters of the cycle
begin to appear at the year 2357 B.C. From this it has been inferred

3 i8

CHRUDIM CHRYSANTHEMUM

that the Chinese empire was established previous to that epoch;
but it is obviously so easy to extend the cycles backwards indefinitely,
that the inference can have very little weight. The characters given
to that year 2357 B.C. are Kea-shin, which denote the 4ist of the
cycle. We must, therefore, suppose the cycle to have begun 2397
B c or forty years before the reign of Yao. This is the epoch
assumed by the authors of L'Art At verifier Its dates. The mathe-
matical tribunal has, however, from time immemorial counted the
first year of the first cycle from the eighty-first of Yao, that is
to say, from the year 2277 B.C.

Since the year 163 B.C. the Chinese writers have adopted the
practice of dating the year from the accession of the reigning emperor.
An emperor, on succeeding to the throne, gives a name to the years
of his reign. He ordains, for example, that they shall be called Ta-te.
In consequence of this edict, the following year is called the first of
Ta-te, and the succeeding years the second, third, fourth, &c., of
Ta-te, and so on, till it pleases the same emperor or his successor to
ordain that the years shall be called by some other appellation.
The periods thus formed are called by the Chinese Nien-hao. Accord-
ing to this method of dating the years a new era commences with
every reign ; and the year corresponding to a Chinese date can only
be found when we have before us a catalogue of the Nien-hao, with
their relation to the years of our era.

For Hindu Chronology, see the article under that heading.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. In addition to the early Greek writings already
named, there are the forty books (some fifteen only extant in their
entirety) of universal history compiled (about 8 B.C.) by Diodorus
Siculus, and arranged in the form of annals; the Pentabiblos of
Julius Africanus (about 220-230 A.D.) ; the treatise of Censorinus
entitled De die natali, written 238 A.D.; the Chronicon, in two
books, of Eusebius Pamphili, bishop of Caesarea (about 325 A.D.),
distinguished as the first book of a purely chronological character
which has come down to us; and three important works forming
parts of the Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae, namely, the
Chronographia of Georgius Syncellus (800 A.D.), the Chronographia
of Johannes Malalas (9th century), and the Chronicon Paschale.

Among works on Chronology, the following, which are arranged
in the order of their publication, have an historical interest, as leading
up to the epoch of modern research :

1583. De Emendations Temporum, by Joseph Scaliger, in which
were laid the foundations of chronological science.

1603. Opus Chronologicum, by Sethus Calvisius.

1627. De Doclrina Temporum, by Petavius (Denis Petau), with
its continuation published in 1630, and an abridgment entitled
Rationarium Temporum, in 1633-1634.

1650. Annales Veteris et Novi Testamenti, by Archbishop Ussher,
whose dates have by some means gained a place in the authorized
version of the Bible.

1651. Regia Epitome Historiae Sacrae et Profanae, by Philippe
Labile, of which a French version was also published.

1669. Institutionum Chronologicarum libri duo, by Bishop
Beveridge.

1672. Chronicus Canon Aegyptiacus, Ebraicus, et Graecus, by Sir
John Marsham.

1687. L'AntiquiU des temps retablie et defendue, by Paul Pezron,
with its Defense, 1691.

1701. De Veteribus Graecorum Romanorumque Cyclis, by Henry
Dodwell.

1728. The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms amended, by Sir
Isaac Newton, remarkable as an attempt to construct a system on
new bases, independent of the Greek chronologers.

1738. Chronologie de I'histoire sainte, by Alphonse des Vignolles.

1744. Tablettes chronologiques de I'histoire universelle, by N.
Lenglet-Dufresnoy.

1750. The first edition in one vol. 4to of L'Art de verifier les
dates, which in its third edition (1818-1831) appeared in 38 vols.
8vo, a colossal monument of the learning and labours of various
members of the Benedictine Congregation of Saint-Maur.

1752. Chronological Antiquities, by John Jackson.

1754. Chronology and History of the World, by John Blair; new
dition, much enlarged (1857).

1784. A System of Chronology, by Playfair.

1799. Handbuch der Geschichte der Staaten des Alterthums, by
A. H. L. Heeren.

1803. Handbuch der alien Geschichte, Geographie, und Chronologie,
by G. G. Bredow, with his Historische Tabellen.

1809-1814. New Analysis of Chronology, by William Hales.

1819. Annales Veterum "Regnorum, by C. G. Zumpt.

1821. Tableaux historigues, chronologiques, et geographiques, by
Buret de Longchamps.

1824-1834. Fasti Hellenici, and 1845-1850, Fasti Romani, by H.
Fynes Clinton. Epitomes of these elaborate works were published,
1851-1853.

1825-1826. Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chrono-
logie, by Christian Ludwig Ideler ; and his Lehrbuch der Chronologie,
(1831).

1833. The Chronology of History, by Sir Harris Nicolas.

1852. Fasti Temporis Catholici, by Edward Greswell; and by
the same author (1854), Origines Kalendariae Italicae; and 1862,
Origines Kalendariae Hellenicae.

More modern works are the Encyclopaedia of Chronology, by B. B.
Woodward and W. L. R. Gates (1872); and J. C. Macdonald's
Chronologies and Calendars (1897). But see the separate historical
articles in this work. (W. L. R. C.)

CHRUDIM, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 74 m. E.S.E. of
Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 13,017, mostly Czech. It has an
important horse market, besides manufactures of sugar, spirits,
beer, soda-water and agricultural machinery. There are also
steam corn-mills and saw-milk. Chrudim is mentioned as the
castle of a gaugraf as early as 993 . The new to wn was founded by
Ottokar II., who settled many Germans in it and gave it many
privileges. After 1421 Chrudim was held by the Hussites, and
though Ferdinand I. confiscated most of the town property, it
prospered greatly till the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War.
In 1625 the greater part of its Hussite inhabitants left the town,
which suffered much later on from the Swedes. Chrudim was the
birthplace of Joseph Ressel (1793-1857), honoured in Austria as
the inventor of the screw propeller.

CHRYSANTHEMUM 1 (Chrysanthemum si-nense; nat. ord.
Compositae), one of the most popular of autumn flowers. It is a
native of China, whence it was introduced to Europe. The first
chrysanthemum in England was grown at Kew in 1790, whither
it had been sent by Mr Cels, a French gardener. It was not,
however, till 1825 that the first chrysanthemum exhibition took
place in England. The small-flowered pompons, and the gro-
tesque-flowered Japanese sorts, are of comparatively recent date,
the former having originated from the Chusan daisy, a variety
introduced by Mr Fortune in 1846, and the latter having also been
introduced by the same traveller about 1862. The Japanese kinds
are unquestionably the most popular for decorative purposes as
well as for exhibition. They afford a wide choice in colour, form,
habit and times of flowering. The incurved Chinese kinds are
severely neat-looking flowers in many shades of colour. The
anemone-flowered kinds have long outer or ray petals, the interior
or disk petals being short and tubular. These are to be had in
many pleasing colours. The pompon kinds are small flowered, the
petals being short. The plants are mostly dwarf in habit. In
the single varieties the outer or ray florets alone are large and
attractively coloured.

Plants for the Border. As a border plant out of doors the chrysan-
themum is of the easiest culture. It is an exceptionally good town
plant. By a judicious selection of varieties, flowers may be produced
in abundance and in considerable variety from August to the end of
November, and in favourable seasons well on towards Christmas.
Since 1890 when the English market was flooded with French raised
varieties of exceptional merit, the border chrysanthemum has taken
first place among hardy autumn flowering plants. Most of the
varieties then introduced have been superseded by many excellent
kinds raised in Britain.

Propagation. The old English method of dividing the plants
in March or early April may be followed where better means of
propagation are not practicable. Many of the best border varieties
are shy in producing new growths (suckers) from the rootstock,
and are in consequence not amenable to this method. It is better
to raise the plants from cuttings. This may be begun in January for
the early flowering sorts, the late kinds being propagated during
February and March. They will root quite well in a cold frame, if
protected during frosty weather by litter or other similar material.
If the frame can be heated at will so as to maintain a fairly even
temperature of from 40 to 50 Fah., roots will be made more quickly
and with more certainty. A still better method is to improvise a
frame near the glass in a greenhouse, where the temperature is not
raised above 50 by artificial heat. This has the advantage of being
accessible in all weathers. The bottom of the frame is covered with
sifted coal ashes or coco-nut fibre, on which the shallow boxes or
pots used in propagating are placed. These are well drained with
broken crocks, the bottoms of the boxes being drilled to allow water
to pass out quickly. The soil should consist of about equal parts of
fibrous loam and leaf-mould, half a part of coarse silver-sand, and
about a quart of vegetable ash from the garden refuse heap to each
bushel o_f the compost. The whole should be passed through a
quarter inch sieve and thoroughly mixed. The coarse leaf-mould,
&c., from the sieve should be spread thinly over the drainage, and
the boxes or pots filled almost to the rims with the compost, and

1 The Gr. xpv<riv6fiMv (xpvobs, gold, and &v6tiu>v, flower) was the
herbalists' name for C. segetum, the " corn marigold," with its
yellow bloom, and was transferred by Linnaeus to the genus, being
commonly restricted now to the species C. sinense.

CHRYSANTHIUS CHRYSIPPUS

3*9

covered, if possible, with a thin layer of silver-sand. It should be
pressed firmly, watered with a fine rose, and allowed to drain for an
hour. The cuttings should then be dibbled into the boxes in rows,
just clear, the soil being gently pressed around each. Short stout
shoots which arise directly from the rootstock make the best cuttings.
In their absence cuttings from the stems are used. The ideal length
for a cutting is about 2j in. Cut the stem squarely with a sharp knife
just below a joint, and remove the lower leaves. Insert as soon as
possible and water with a fine rose to settle the soil around them.
The soil is not allowed to become dry. The cuttings should be
looked over daily, decayed leaves removed, and surplus moisture,
condensed on the glass, wiped away. Ventilate gradually as rooting
takes place, and, when well rooted, transfer singly into pots about
3 in. in diameter, using as compost a mixture of two parts loam,
one part leaf-mould, half a part coarse silver-sand, and a gallon of
vegetable ash to every bushel of the compost. Return to the
frames and keep close for a few days to allow the little plants to
recover from the check occasioned by the potting. Ventilation
should be gradually increased until the plants are able to bear full
exposure during favourable weather, without showing signs of
distress by flagging. They should be carefully protected at all
times from cold cutting winds. In April, should the weather be
favourable, the plants may be transferred to the borders, especially
should the positions happen to be sheltered. If this is not practicable,
another shift will be necessary, this time into pots about 5 in. in
diameter. The soil should be similar to that advised for the previous
potting, enriched with half a part of horse manure that has been
thoroughly sweetened by exposure. Plant out during May. All
borders intended for chrysanthemums should be well dug and
manured. The strong growing kinds should be planted about 3 ft.
apart, the smaller kinds being allowed a little less room.

In the summer, water in dry weather, syringe in the evenings
whenever practicable, and keep the borders free from weeds by
surface hoeings; stake and tie the plants as required, and pinch out
the tips of the shoots until they have become sufficiently bushy
by frequent branching. Pinching should not be practised later than
the end of June.

Pot Plants for Decoration. A list of a few of the thousands of
varieties suitable for this purpose would be out of place here;
new varieties are being constantly introduced, for these the reader
is referred to trade catalogues.

The most important considerations for the beginner are (a) the
choice of colours ; (b) the types of flowers ; (c) the height and habits
of the varieties. Generally speaking, very tall varieties and those
of weak growth and delicate constitutions should be avoided. The
majority of the varieties listed for exhibition purposes are also
suitable for decoration, especially the Japanese kinds. Propagation
and early culture are substantially as for border plants.

As soon as the s-in. pots are filled with roots, no time should be
lost in giving them the final shift. Eight-in. pots are large enough
for the general stock, but very strong growers may be given a larger
size. The soil, prepared a fortnight in advance, should consist of
four parts fibrous loam, one part leaf-mould, one part horse manure
prepared as advised above, half a part coarse silver-sand, half a part
of vegetable ash, and a quart of bone-meal or a sprinkling of basic
slag to every bushel of the mixture. Mix thoroughly and turn over
at intervals of three or four days. Pot firmly, working the soil well
around the roots with a lath. The main stake for the support ot
the plant should now be given; other and smaller stakes may later
be necessary when the plants are grown in a bushy form, but their
number should not be overdone. The stakes should be as tew as
possible consistent with the safety of the shoots, which should
be looped up loosely and neatly. The plants should be placed in their
summer quarters directly after potting. Stand them in rows in a
sunny situation, the pots clear of one another, sufficient room being
allowed between the rows for the cultivator to move freely among
them. The main stakes are tied to rough trellis made by straining
wire in two rows about 2 ft. apart between upright poles driven
into the ground. Coarse coal ashes or coke breeze are the best
materials to stand the pots on, there being little risk of worms
working through into the pots. The plants, which are required to
produce as many flowers as possible, should have their tips pinched
out at frequent intervals, from the end of March or beginning of
April to the last week in June, for the main season kinds; and about
the middle of July for the later kinds.

Towards the end of July the plants will need feeding at the roots
with weak liquid manure, varied occasionally by a very slight
dusting of soluble chemical manure such as guano. The soil should
be moderately moist when manure is given. In order that the flowers
may be of good form, all lateral flower buds should be removed as
soon _ as they are large enough to handle, leaving only the bud
terminating each shoot. Towards the end of September earlier
should the weather prove wet and cold remove the plants to well-
ventilated greenhouses where they are intended to flower. Feeding
should be continued until the flowers are nearly half open, when it
may be gradually reduced. The large mop-headed blooms seen at
exhibitions in November are grown in the way described, but only
one or two shoots are allowed to develop on a plant, each shoot
eventually having only one bloom.

The chrysanthemum is subject to the attack of black aphis and

green-fly. These pests may be destroyed, out of doors, by syringing 1
with quassia and soft soap solutions, by dusting the affected parts
with tobacco-powder, and indoors also by fumigating. Mildew
generally appears after the plants are housed. It may be destroyed
by dusting the leaves attacked with sublimed sulphur. Rust is a
fungoid disease of recent years. It is best checked by syringing
the plants with liver of sulphur (l oz. to 3 gallons of water) occasion-
ally, a few weeks before taking the plants into the greenhouse.
Earwigs and slugs must be trapped and destroyed.

Flowers for Exhibition. Flowers of exhibition standard must be
as broad and as deep as the various varieties are capable of pro-
ducing; they must be irreproachable in colour. They must also
exhibit the form peculiar to the variety when at its best, very few
kinds being precisely alike in this respect. New varieties are in-
troduced in large numbers annually, some of which supplant the
older kinds. The cultivator must therefore study the peculiarities
of several new kinds each year if he would be a successful ex-
hibitor.

For lists of varieties, &c. see the catalogues of chrysanthemum
growers, the gardening Press, and the excellent cultural pamphlets
which are published from time to time.

CHRYSANTHIUS, a Greek philosopher of the 4th century A.D.,
of the school of lamblichus. He was one of the favourite pupils of
Aedesius, and devoted himself mainly to the mystical side of
Neoplatonism (g.v.). The emperor Julian (q.v.) went to him by
the advice of Aedesius, and subsequently invited him to come to
court, and assist in the projected resuscitation of Hellenism. But
Chrysanthius declined on the strength of unfavourable omens, as
he said, but probably because he realized that the scheme was
unlikely to bear fruit. For the same reason he abstained from
drastic religious reforms in his capacity as high-priest of Lydia.
As a result of his moderation, he remained high-priest till his
death, venerated alike by Christians and pagans. His wife
Melite, who was associated with him in the priestly office, was a
kinswoman of Eunapius the biographer.

CHRYSELEPHANTINE (Gr. xpwr6s, gold, and iAitfos, ivory),
the architectural term given to statues which were built up on a
wooden core, with ivory representing the flesh and gold the
drapery. The two most celebrated examples are those by
Pheidias of the statue of Athena in the Parthenon and of Zeus in
the temple at Olympia.

CHRYSENE Ci 8 H 12 , a hydrocarbon occurring in the high
boiling fraction of the coal tar distillate. It is produced in small
quantity in the distillation of amber, on passing the vapour of
phenyl-naphthyl-methane through a red-hot tube, on heating
indene, or by passing the mixed vapours of coumarone and
naphthalene through a red-hot tube. It crystallizes in plates or
octahedra (from benzene), which exhibit a violet fluorescence,
and melt at 250 C. Chromic acid in glacial acetic acid solution
oxidizes it to chrysoquinone Ci8H 10 O 2 , which when distilled with
lead oxide gives chrysoketone CnHioO. When chrysene is fused
with alkalis, chrysenic acid, Ci 7 Hi 2 O3, is produced, which on
heating gives /3-phenyl-naphthalene. On heating chrysene
with hydriodic acid and red phosphorus to 260 C., the hydro-
derivatives CisHzs and CigH^ are produced. It gives characteristic
addition products with picric acid and dinitroanthraquinone.
Impure chrysene is of a yellow colour; hence its name (xpfwws,
golden yellow).

CHRYSIPPUS (c. 280-206 B.C.), Greek philosopher, the third
great leader of the Stoics. A native of Soli in Cilicia (Diog.
Laert. vii. 179), he was robbed of his property and came to
Athens, where he studied possibly under Zeno, certainly under
Cleanthes. It is said also that he became a pupil of Arcesilaus
and Lacydes, heads of the Middle Academy. This impartiality
in his early studies is the key of his philosophic work, the
dominant characteristic of which is comprehensiveness rather
than originality. He took the doctrines of Zeno and Cleanthes
and crystallized them into a definite system; he further defended
them against the attacks of the Academy. His polemic skill
earned for him the title of the " Column of the Portico."
Diogenes Laertius says, " If the gods use dialectic, they can use
none other than that of Chrysippus "; tl /ii) yap fjv Xptonrros,
oiiK &v %v Sroa (" Without Chrysippus, there had been
no Porch "). He excelled in logic, the theory of knowledge,
ethics and physics. His relations with Cleanthes, contempor-
aneously criticized by Antipater, are considered under STOICS.

320

CHRYSOBERYL CHRYSOPRASE

He is said to have composed seven hundred and fifty treatises,
fragments alone of which survive. Their style, we are told, was
unpolished and arid in the extreme, while the argument was
lucid and impartial.

See G. H. Haftedorn, Moralia Chrysippea (1685), Ethica Chrysippi
(1715); J- F- Richter, De Chrystppo Stoico fastuoso (1738); F.
Baguet, De Chrysippi vita doctrina et reliquiis 1,1822); C. Petersen,
Philosophiae Chrysippeae fundamenta (1827); A. Gercke, "Chry-
sippea" in Janrbiicher fur Philologie, suppl. vol. xiv. (1885); R.
Nicolai, Delogicis Chrysippi libris (1859) ; Christos Aronis, Xplwrros
ypawiaruti? (1885); R. Hirzel, Untersuchungen zw Ciceros philo-
sophischen Schriften, ii. (1882); L. Stein, Die Psychologie der Stoa
(1886); A. B. Krische, Forschungen auf dem Gebiete der alien
Philosophic (1840); J. E. Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol. i. 149.

CHRYSOBERYL, a yellow or green gem-stone, remarkable for
its hardness, being exceeded in this respect only by the diamond
and corundum. The name suggests that it was formerly regarded
as a golden variety of beryl; and it is notable that though differ-
ing widely from beryl it yet bears some relationship to it inasmuch
as it contains the element beryllium. In chrysoberyl, however,
the beryllium exists as an alumina te, having the formula BeAl 2 O4,
orBeO-AljOj. The analysis of a specimen of Brazilian chrysoberyl
gave alumina 78-10, beryllia 17-94, and ferric oxide 4-88%.
The typical yellow colour of the stone inclines in many cases to
pale green, occasionally passing into shades of dark green and
brown. The iron usually present in the mineral seems responsible
for the green colour. Chrysoberyl is often mistaken by its colour
for chrysolite (q.v.), and has indeed been termed Oriental
chrysolite. In its crystalline forms it bears some relationship to
chrysolite, both crystallizing in the orthorhombic system, but it
is a much harder and a denser mineral. As the two stones are apt
to be confounded, it may be convenient to contrast their chief
characters:

Chrysoberyl. Chrysolite.

Hardness 8-5 6-5 to 7

Specific Gravity . . . 3-65 to 3-75 3-34 to 3-37
Chemical Composition . . BeAljOi. MgjSiO*.

Chrysoberyl is not infrequently cloudy, opalescent and
chatoyant, and is then known as " cymophane " (Gr. /cDjua, a
" cloud "). The cloudiness is referable to the presence of
multitudes of microscopic cavities. Some of the cymophane,
when cut with a convex surface, forms the most valuable kind of
cat's-eye (see CAT'S-EYE). A remarkable dichroic variety of
chrysoberyl is known as alexandrite (q.v.).

Most chrysoberyl comes from Brazil, chiefly from the district of
Minas Novas in the state of Minas Geraes, where it occurs as
small water-worn pebbles. The cymophane is mostly from the
gem-gravels of Ceylon. Chrysoberyl is known as a constituent of
certain kinds of granite, pegmatite and gneiss. In the United
States it occurs at Haddam, Conn.; Greenfield Centre, near
Saratoga Springs, N.Y.; and in Manhattan island. It is known
also in the province of Quebec, Canada, and has been found near
Gwelo in Rhodesia. (F. W. R.*)

CHRYSOCOLLA, a hydrous copper silicate occurring as a
decomposition product of copper ores. It is never found as
crystals, but always as encrusting and botryoidal masses with a
microcrystalline structure. It is green or bluish-green in colour,
and often has the appearance of opal or enamel, being translucent
and having a conchoidal fracture with vitreous lustre; some-
times it is earthy in texture. Not being a definite crystallized
substance, it varies widely in chemical composition, the copper
oxide (CuO), for example, varying in different analyses from
17 to 67%; the formula is usually given as CuSiO 3 +2H 2 O.
The hardness (2-4) and specific gravity (2-0-2-8) are also variable.
It has recently been suggested that the material may really be a
mixture of more than one hydrous copper silicate, since differences
in the microcrystalline structure of the different concentric
layers of which the masses are built up may be detected.
Various impurities (silica, &c.) are also commonly present, and
several varieties have been distinguished by special names:
thus dillenburgite, from Dillenburg in Nassau, contains copper
carbonate; demidoffite and cyanochalcite contain copper
phosphate; and pilarite contains alumina (perhaps as allophane).
The mineral occurs in the upper parts of veins of copper ores,

and has resulted from their alteration by the action of waters
containing silica in solution. Pseudomorphs of chrysocolla after
various copper minerals (e.g. cuprite) are not uncommon. It is
found in most copper mines.

The name chrysocolla (from xpvaas, gold, and <c6XXa, glue)
was applied by Theophrastus and other ancient writers to
materials used in soldering gold, one of which, from the island
of Cyprus, may have been identical with the mineral now known
by this name. Borax, which is used for this purpose, has also
been called chrysocolla.

A mineral known as pitchy copper-ore (Ger. Kupferpechen),
and of some importance as an ore of copper, is usually classed as a
variety of chrysocolla containing much admixed limonite. It is
dark brown to black in colour, with a dull to glassy or resinous
lustre, and resembles pitch in appearance. In thin sections it is
translucent and optically isotropic, and recent examinations
seem to prove that it is a homogeneous mineral and not a
mechanical mixture of chrysocolla and limonite. (L. J. S.)

CHRYSOLITE, a transparent variety of olivine, used as a
gem-stone and often called peridot. The name chrysolite,
meaning " golden stone " (xpvtros and Xi0os), has been applied
to various yellowish gems, notably to topaz, to some kinds of
beryl and to chrysoberyl. The true chrysolite of the modern
mineralogist is a magnesium silicate, referable to the species
olivine. It is appropriate to call the lighter coloured stones
inclining to yellow chrysolite, and the darker green stones
peridot. Certain kinds of topaz, from the Schneckenstein in
Saxony, are known as Saxon chrysolite; while moldavite,
a substance much like a green obsidian, is sometimes called
water chrysolite or pseudo-chrysolite.

See CHRYSOBERYL; OLIVINE; PERIDOT.

CHRYSOLORAS, MANUEL [or EMMANUEL] (c. 1355-1415),
one of the pioneers in spreading Greek literature in the West,
was born at Constantinople of a distinguished family, which
had removed with Constantino the Great to Byzantium. He
was a pupil of Gemistus (q.v.). In 1393 he was sent to Italy by
the emperor Manuel Palaeologus to implore the aid of the
Christian princes against the Turks. He returned to Constanti-
nople, but at the invitation of the magistrates of Florence he
became about 1395 professor of the Greek language in that city,
where he taught three years. He became famous as a translator
of Homer and Plato. Having visited Milan and Pa via, and resided
for several years at Venice, he went to Rome upon the invitation
of Bruni Leonardo, who had been his pupil, and was then secretary
to Gregory XII. In 1408 he was sent to Paris on an important
mission from the emperor Manuel Palaeologus. In 1413 he went
to Germany on an embassy to the emperor Sigismund, the
object of which was to fix a place for the assembling of a general
council. It was decided that the meeting should take place at
Constance; and Chrysoloras was on his way thither, having
been chosen to represent the Greek Church, when he died suddenly
on the isth of April 1415. Only two of his works have been
printed, his Erolemata (published at Venice in 1484), which was
the first Greek grammar in use in the 'West, and Epistolae III.
de comparatione veleris et novae Romae.

JOHN CHRYSOLORAS, a relative of the above (variously described
as his nephew, brother or son), who, like him, had studied and
taught at Constantinople, and had then gone to Italy, shared
Manuel's reputation as one of those who spread the influence
of Greek letters in the West. His daughter married Filelfo (q.v.).

CHRYSOPRASE (Gr. \pvate, gold, and irpdaav, leek), a name
applied by modern mineralogists to an apple-green variety of
chalcedony or hornstone, used as an ornamental stone. The
colour is due to the presence of nickel, probably in the form of a
hydrous silicate. By exposure to a moderate heat, or to strong
light, the chrysoprase becomes paler, or even colourless, but it
may regain its colour by absorption of moisture. Chrysoprase
is a mineral of rather limited distribution. Most of it comes
from the neighbourhood of Frankenstein in Silesia, where it
occurs in association with altered serpentine. It is found to a
limited extent at Revdinsk, near Ekaterinburg, in the Urals;
and it occurs also in India. It is known, too, at several localities

CHRYSOSTOM

321

in North America, notably at Nickel Mount, Douglas county,
Oregon, where it occurs in nickeliferous serpentine.

The chrysoprase of the moderns is certainly not the cltryso-
prasius of Pliny, or the xP Vff " r P affos f Greek writers. The
ancient stone was not improbably our chrysoberyl, and it is
doubtful whether the modern chrysoprase was known until a
comparatively late period. The chrysoprase of Kosemiitz, near
Frankenstein in Silesia, was discovered in 1740, and used by
Frederick the Great in the decoration of the palace of Sans
Souci at Potsdam. But at a much earlier date the Silesian
chrysoprase was used for mural decoration at the Wenzel chapel
at Prague. Chrysoprase was a favourite stone in England at
the beginning of the igth century, being set round with small
brilliants and used for brooches and rings. At the present time
it is said to be regarded by some as a " lucky stone." Much
commercial chrysoprase is chalcedony artificially stained by
impregnation with a green salt of nickel. (F. W. R.*)

CHRYSOSTOM. St John Chrysostom (Xpwr6oTO/>s, golden-
mouthed), the most famous of the Greek Fathers, was born of
a noble family at Antioch, the capital of Syria, about A.D. 345
or 347. At the school of Libanius the sophist he gave early
indications of his mental powers, and would have been the
successor of his heathen master, had he not been stolen away,
to use the expression of his teacher, to a life of piety (like
Augustine, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Theodoret) by the
influence of his pious mother Anthusa. After his baptism (about
370) by Meletius, the bishop of Antioch, he gave up all his
forensic prospects, and buried himself in an adjacent desert,
where for nearly ten years he spent a life of ascetic self-denial
and theological study, to which he was introduced by Diodorus,
bishop of Tarsus, a famous scholar of the Antiochene type.
Illness, however, compelled him to return to the world; and the
authority of Meletius gained his services to the church. He was
ordained deacon in his thirty-fifth year (381), and afterwards
presbyter (386) at Antioch. On the death of Nectarius he was
appointed archbishop of Constantinople by Eutropius, the
favourite minister of the emperor Arcadius. He had, ten years
before this, only escaped promotion to the episcopate by a very
questionable stratagem which, however, he defends in his
instructive and eloquent treatise De Sacerdotio. As a presbyter,
he won high reputation by his preaching at Antioch, more especi-
ally by his homilies on The Statues, a course of sermons delivered
when the citizens were justly alarmed at the prospect of severe
measures being taken against them by the emperor Theodosius,
whose statues had been demolished in a riot.

On the archiepiscopal throne Chrysostom still persevered in
the practice of monastic simplicity. The ample revenues which
his predecessors had consumed in pomp and luxury he diligently
applied to the establishment of hospitals; and the multitudes
who were supported by his charity preferred the eloquent
discourses of their benefactor to the amusements of the theatre
or of the circus. His homilies, which are still preserved, furnish
ample apology for the partiality of the people, exhibiting the
free command of a pure and copious vocabulary, an inexhaustible
fund of metaphors and similitudes, giving variety and grace to
the most familiar topics, with an almost dramatic exposure of
the folly and turpitude of vice, and a deep moral earnestness.
His zeal as a bishop and eloquence as a preacher, however,
gained him enemies both in the church and at the court. The
ecclesiastics who were parted at his command from the lay-
sisters (whom they kept ostensibly as servants), the thirteen
bishops whom he deposed for simony and licentiousness at a
single visitation, the idle monks who thronged the avenues to
the court and found themselves the public object of his scorn all
conspired against the powerful author of their wrongs. Their
resentment was inflamed by a powerful party, embracing the
magistrates, the ministers, the favourite eunuchs, the ladies
of the court, and Eudoxia the empress herself, against whom the
preacher thundered daily from the pulpit of St Sophia. A
favourable pretext for gratifying their revenge was discovered
in the shelter which Chrysostom had given to four Nitrian monks,
known as the tall brothers, who had come to Constantinople on

VI. II

being excommunicated by their bishop, Theophilus of Alexandria,
a man who had long circulated in the East the charge of Origenism
against Chrysostom. By Theophilus's instrumentality a synod
was called to try or rather to condemn the archbishop; but
fearing the violence of the mob in the metropolis, who idolized
him for the fearlessness with which he exposed the vices of their
superiors, it held its sessions at the imperial estate named " The
Oak " (Synodus ad quercum), near Chalcedon, where Rufinus
had erected a stately church and monastery. A bishop and a
deacon were sent to accuse the archbishop, and presented to him
a list of charges, in which pride, inhospitality and Origenism
were brought forward to procure the votes of those who hated
him for his austerity, or were prejudiced against him as a sus-
pected heretic. Four successive summonses were signified to
Chrysostom, but he indignantly refused to appear until four of
his notorious enemies were removed from the council. Without
entering into any examination of the charges brought before
them, the synod condemned him on the ground of contumacy,
and, hinting that his audacity merited the punishment of treason,
called on the emperor to ratify and enforce their decision. He
was immediately arrested and hurried to Nicaea in Lithynia.

As soon as the news of his banishment spread through the
city, the astonishment of the people was quickly exchanged for
a spirit of irresistible fury, which was increased by the occurrence
of an earthquake. In crowds they besieged the palace, and had
already begun to take vengeance on the foreign monks and
sailors who had come from Chalcedon to the metropolis, when, at
the entreaty of Eudoxia, the emperor consented tt> his recall.
His return was graced with all the pomp of a triumphal entry,
but in two months after he was again in exile. His fiery zeal
could not blind him to the vices of the court, and heedless of
personal danger he thundered against the profane honours that
were addressed almost within the precincts of St Sophia to the
statue of the empress. The haughty spirit of Eudoxia was
inflamed by the report of a discourse commencing with the
words " Herodias is again furious; Herodias again dances;
she once more demands the head of John "; and though the
report was false, it sealed the doom of the archbishop. A new
council was summoned, more numerous and more subservient
to the wishes of Theophilus; and troops of barbarians were
quartered in the city to overawe the people. Without examining
it, the council confirmed the former sentence, and, in accordance
with canon 12 of the Synod of Antioch (341), pronounced his
deposition for having resumed his functions without their
permission.

He was hurried away to the desolate town of Cucusus (Cocysus) ,
among the ridges of Mount Taurus, with a secret hope, perhaps,
that he might be a victim to the Isaurians on the march, or to
the more implacable fury of the monks. He arrived at his
destination in safety; and the sympathies of the people, which
had roused them to fire the cathedral and senate-house on the
day of his exile, followed him to his obscure retreat. His influence
also became more powerfully felt in the metropolis than before.
In his solitude he had ample leisure for forming schemes of
missionary enterprise among Persians and Goths, and by his
correspondence with the different churches he at once baffled
his enemies and gave greater energy to his friends. This roused
the emperor to visit him with a severer punishment, though
Innocent I. of Rome and the emperor Honorius recognized his
orthodoxy and besought his return. An order was despatched
for his removal to the extreme desert of Pityus; and his guards
so faithfully obeyed their instructions that, before he reached
the sea-coast of the Euxine, he expired at Comana in Pontus,
in the year 407. His exile gave rise to a schism in the church, and
the Johannists (as they were called) did not return to communion
with the archbishop of Constantinople till the relics of the saint
were, 30 years after, brought back to the Eastern metropolis with
great pomp and the emperor publicly implored forgiveness
from Heaven for the guilt of his ancestors. The festival of St
Chrysostom is kept in the Greek Church on the i3th of
November, and in the Latin Church on the 27th of January.

In his general teaching Chrysostom elevates the ascetic

322

CHUB CHUDE

element in religion, and in his homilies he inculcates the need of
personal acquaintance with the Scriptures, and denounces
ignorance of them as the source of all heresy. If on one or two
points, as, for instance, the invocation of saints, some germs of
subsequent Roman teaching may be discovered, there is a want
of anything like the doctrine of indulgences or of compulsory
private confession. Moreover, in writing to Innocent, bishop of
Rome, he addresses him as a brother metropolitan, and sends the
same letter to Venerius, bishop of Milan, and Chromatius, bishop
of Aquileia. His correspondence breathes a most Christian spirit,
especially in its tone of charity towards his persecutors. In
exegesis he is a pure Antiochene, basing his expositions upon
thorough grammatical study, and proceeding from a knowledge
of the original circumstances of composition to a forceful and
practical application to the needs of his day and of all time.
With his exegetical skill (he was inferior in pure dogma to Theo-
dore of Mopsuestia) he united a wide sympathy and a marvellous
power of oratory.

The voluminous works of Chrysostom fall into three groups.
To the days of his early desert life is probably to be assigned the
treatise On Priesthood, a book full of wise counsel. To the years
of his presbyterate and episcopate belong the great mass of
homilies and commentaries, among which those On the Statues,
and on Matthew, Romans and Corinthians, stand out pre-
eminently. His letters belong to the last years, the time of
exile, and with his other works are valuable sources for the history
of his time.

The manuscripts are very numerous, and many of them are of
great antiquity, as are the Syriac and other translations. The
best edition is that of Bernard de Montfaucon in 13 vols. fol. (1718-
1738), reproduced with some improvements by Migne (Patrol.
Grace, xlvii.-lxiv.) ; but this edition is greatly indebted to the one
issued more than a century earlier (1612) by Sir Henry Savile,
provost of Eton College, from a press established at Eton by himself,
which Hallam (Lit. of Europe, iii. 10, n) calls " the first work of
learning, on a great scale, published in England." F. Field admir-
ably edited 5. Matthew (Cambridge, 1839) and Epistles of S. Paul
(Oxford, 1849-1855). J. A. Bengel's edition of De Sacerdolio (1725)
has been often reprinted (e.g. Leipzig, 1887).

As authorities for the life, the most valuable are the ecclesiastical
histories of Socrates, Sozomen and Theodoret; and amongst the
moderns, Erasmus, Cave, Lardner and Tillemont, with the church
history of Neander, and his monograph on the Life and Times of
Chrysostom, translated by J. C. Stapleton. More recent are the
lives by W. R. W. Stephens (London, 1871), R. W. Bush (London,
1885) and A. Peuch (Paris, 1891). F. W. Farrar's romance Gathering
Clouds gives a good picture of the man and his times. For mono-
graphs on special points such as Chrysostom's theological position
and his preaching, see the very full bibliography in E. Preuschen's
article in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyk. iv. ; also A. Harnack, Hist-
of Dogma, iii. and iv. Some of the commentaries and homilies are
translated in the Oxford Library of the Fathers.

CHUB (Leuciscus cephalus), a fish of the Cyprinid family,
belonging to the same genus as the roach and dace. It is one of
the largest of its family, attaining a length of 2 ft. and a weight
of 5 to 7 Ib. It does not avoid running waters, and is fond of
insects, taking the fly readily, but its flesh, like that of the other
Leucisci, is tasteless and full of bones. It is common in Great
Britain and the continent of Europe. In America the name
of " chub " is given to some other members of the family, and
commonly to the horned dace (Semnotilus atromaculatus) ;
well-known varieties are the river chub (Hybopsis kenluckiensis)
and Columbia river chub (Mylochilus caurinus).

CHUBB, CHARLES (d. 1845), English locksmith, started a
hardware business at Winchester, subsequently removing to
Portsea. Here he improved on the "detector" lock (q.v.),
originally patented in 1818 by his brother, Jeremiah Chubb.
He soon moved to London and then to Wolverhampton, where
he employed two hundred hands. In 1835 he patented a process
intended to render safes (q.v.) burglar-procf and fireproof, and
subsequently established a large safe-factory in London. He
died on the i6th of May 1845, an d was succeeded in the business
by his son, John Chubb (1816-1872), who patented various
improvements in the products of the firm and largely increased
its output. The factories were combined under one roof in a
model plant, and the business grew to enormous proportions.

After John Chubb 's death the business was converted into a
limited company under the management of his three sons.

CHUBB, THOMAS (1679-1746), English deist, the son of a
maltster, was born at East Harnham, near Salisbury, on the 29th
of September 1679. The death of his father (1688) cut short his
education, and in 1694 he was apprenticed to a glove-maker in
Salisbury, but subsequently entered the employment of a tallow-
chandler. He picked up a fair knowledge of mathematics and
geography, but theology was his favourite study. His habit of
committing his thoughts to writing gave him a clear and
fluent style. He made his first appearance as an author in the
Arian controversy. A dispute having arisen about Whiston's
Argument in favour of the supremacy of the one God and Father,
he wrote an essay, The Supremacy of the Father Asserted, which
Whiston pronounced worthy of publication, and it was printed
in 1715. A number of tracts followed, which were collected in
1730. For several years Chubb lived in the house of Sir Joseph
Jekyll, master of the rolls, in what capacity it is not known;
there are stories of his having waited at table as a servant out of
livery. His love of independence drew him back to Salisbury,
where by the kindness of friends he was enabled to devote the
rest of his days to his studies. He died on the 8th of February
1746. Chubb is interesting mainly as showing that the ration-
alism of the intellectual classes had taken considerable hold upon
the popular mind. Though he acquired little renown in England
he was regarded by Voltaire and others as among the most
logical of the deist school (see DEISM). His principal works are
A Discourse Concerning Reason (1731), The True Gospel of Jesus
Christ (1739), and Posthumous Works, 2 vols. (1748), the last
containing " The Author's Farewell to his Readers."

CHUBUT, a territory of the southern Argentine Republic,
part of what was formerly called Patagonia, bounded N. by
Rio Negro, S. by Santa Cruz, E. by the Atlantic and W. by Chile.
Pop. (1895) 3748; (1904, estimate) 9060; area, 93,427 sq. m.
Except for the valleys in the Andean foothills, which are fertile
and well forested, and the land along the banks of the Chubut
river, which flows entirely across the territory from the Andes
to the Atlantic, the country is a barren waste, covered with
pebbles and scanty clumps of dwarfed vegetation, with occasional
shallow saline lakes. The larger rivers are the Chubut and the
Senguerr, the latter flowing into Lake Colhuapi. There are a
number of large lakes among the Andean foothills, the best
known of which are Fontana, La Plata and General Paz, and,
in the interior, Colhuapi or Colhue and Musters, the latter named
after the English naval officer who traversed Patagonia in 1870.
Petroleum was found at Comodoro Rivadavia, in the S. part of
the territory, toward the close of 1907, at a depth of 1768 ft.
Chubut is known chiefly by the Welsh colony near the mouth
of the Chubut river. The chief town of the Welsh, Rawson, is
the capital of the territory, and Port Madryn on Bahia Nueva is
its best port. Other colonies have been founded in the fertile
valleys of the Andean foothills, but their growth is greatly
impeded by lack of transportation facilities. (See further

PAfAGONIA.)

CHUDE, a tribal name used in both a special and a general
sense, (i) It was the name given by the Russians to certain
Esthonian tribes with whom they came in contact as they spread
gradually over their present empire. It would seem that the
northern Chudes are the Vepsas, of whom about 21,000 are said
to live near Lake Onega and in the northern parts of the govern-
ment of Novgorod, and that the southern Chudes are the Votes
who occupy about thirty parishes in north-west Ingria. (2) As
the Russians advanced eastwards they extended the name to
various tribes whom they considered to be like the Esthonians,
and in popular use it has come to be applied to any ancient non-
Russian people in Siberia, at least as far east as the Altai. In
particular, ancient mines, tumuli and the metal work often found
in them are commonly known as Chudish. Some investigators
have used the word in a more restricted sense of Permian anti-
quities and their builders, but it seems to be a popular expression
not corresponding to any historical or scientific division of
mankind.

CHUGUYEV CHUNAR

323

CHUGUYEV, a town of Russia, in the government of Kharkov,
25 m. E.S.E. of the town of Kharkov, on the right bank of the
northern Donets. It is a place of some strategic importance,
and had in 1897 a population of 11,877.

CHUKCHI, CHANKTUS (" Men ") or TUSKI (" Brothers " or
"Confederates"), a Mongoloid people inhabiting the north-
easternmost portion of Siberia on the shores of the Arctic Ocean
and Bering Sea. They are settled in small groups along the
Arctic coast between the Bering Straits and the Kolyma river,
or wander as far inland as the Anadyr basin. Though their
territory embraces some 300,000 odd sq. m., the most trust-
worthy estimates put their numbers at but a few thousands.
They were first carefully studied by the members of the Nor-
denskjold expedition (1878-79), who describe them as tall, lean,
with somewhat irregular features hence de Quatrefages classes
them as " Allophylian Whites." The accounts of their physical
characteristics are somewhat confused owing to the presence of
the true Eskimo in the Chukchi domain. The typical Chukchi
is round-headed, and thus distinct from the long-headed Eskimo,
with broad, flat features and high cheek-bones. The nose is
often so buried between the puffed cheeks that a ruler might be
laid across the face without touching it. The lips are thick, and
the brow low. The hair is coarse, lank and black. The general
muscular development is good, though usually the body is stunted.
It has been suggested that they emigrated from the south,
possibly from the Amur basin. In their arctic homes they long
carried on war with the Ongkilon (Ang-kali) aborigines, gradually
merging with the survivors and also mixing both with the
Kusmen Koryaks (q.v.) and the Chuklukmuit Eskimo settled
on the Asiatic side of Bering Strait. Their racial characteristics
make them an ethnological link between the Mongols of central
Asia and the Indians of America. Some authorities affiliate them
to the Eskimo because they are believed to speak an Eskimo
dialect. But this is merely a trade jargon, a hotchpotch of
Eskimo, Chukchi, Koryak, English and even Hawaiian. The true
Chukchi language, of which Nordenskjold collected a thousand
words, is distinct from Eskimo and akin to Koryak, and Nordens-
kjold sums the problem up with the remark " this race settled
on the primeval route between the Old and New World bears an
unmistakable stamp of the Mongols of Asia and the Eskimo and
Indians of America."

The Chukchi are divided into the " Fishing Chukchi," who
have settled homes on the coast, and the " Reindeer Chukchi,"
who are nomads. The latter breed reindeer (herds of more than
10,000 are not uncommon), live on the flesh and milk, and are
generally fairly prosperous; while the fishing folk are very poor,
begging from their richer kinsfolk hides to make tents and
clothes. The Chukchi were formerly warlike and vigorously
resisted the Russians, but to-day they are the most peaceable of
folks, amiable in their manners, affectionate in family life and
good-humoured. But this gentleness does not prevent them from
killing off the old and infirm. They believe in a future life, but
only for those who die a violent death. Thus it is regarded as
an act of filial piety for a son to kill his parent or a nephew his
uncle. This tribal custom is known as kamitok; and of it Mr
Harry de Windt writes (Through the Gold Fields of Alaska to
Bering Strait, 1898), " The doomed one takes a lively interest in
the proceedings, and often assists in the preparation for his own
death. The execution is always preceded by a feast, where seal
and walrus meat are greedily devoured, and whisky consumed
till all are intoxicated. A spontaneous burst of singing and the
muffled roll of walrus-hide drums then herald the fatal moment.
At a given signal a ring is formed by the relations and friends, the
entire settlement looking on from the background. The exe-
cutioner (usually the victim's son or brother) then steps forward,
and placing his right foot behind the back of the condemned,
slowly strangles him to death with a walrus thong. A kamitok
took place during the latter part of our stay." The Chukchi are
nominally Christians, but sacrifice animals to the spirits of the
rivers and mountains, and also practise Shamanism. In personal
habits the people are indescribably filthy. They are polygamous,
but the women are treated kindly. The children are specially

petted, and are so wrapped up to protect them from the cold that
they have been described as resembling huge balls crossed by a
bar, their arms having to remain outstretched owing to the bulk
of their wrappings. Chukchi women are often tattooed with two
black-blue convex lines running from the eye to the chin. Since
their adoption of Christianity the men sometimes have a Latin
cross tattooed on their chins. The Chukchi burn their dead or
expose them on platforms to be devoured by ravens.

See Harry de Windt, Through the Gold Fields of Alaska to Bering
Strait (1898); Dittmar, " Ober die Koriaken u. ihnen nahe ver-
wandten Tchouktchen," in Bui. Acad. Sc. (St Petersburg), xii. p. 99;
Hooper, Ten Months among l]ie Tents of the Tuski; W. H. Dall,
Contributions to North American Ethnology, vol. i. (1877).

CHULALONGKORN, PHRA PARAMINDR MAHA (1853-
1910), king of Siam, eldest son of King Maha Mongkut, was born
on the zist of September 1853. His full signature, used in all
important state documents, consists of twenty-seven names, but
it is by the first four that he is usually known. Educated in his
childhood by English teachers, he acquired a good knowledge of
the English language and of Western culture. But his surround-
ings were purely oriental, and his boyhood was spent, according
to custom, in a Buddhist monastery. He succeeded to the
throne on the death of his father, ist October 1868, and was
crowned on the nth of November following, a ceremony
marked by the innovation of permitting the presence of Euro-
peans. Until his majority in 1873 the government was carried
on by a regent, the young king retiring to a Buddhist monastery,
and later making a tour through India and the Dutch East
Indies, an undertaking until then without precedent among the
potentates of eastern Asia. He had no sooner taken the reins of
power than he gave evidence of his recognition of the importance
of modem culture by abolishing slavery in Siam. He simplified
court etiquette, no longer demanding, for example, that his
subjects should approach him on hands and knees. Still more
important, in view of the numerous races and creeds included
among his subjects, was the proclamation of liberty of conscience.
This was followed by the erection of schools and hospitals, the
construction of roads and railways, and the further development
of the army and fleet which his father had initiated. To him
Siam is indebted for its standard coinage, its postal and telegraph
service, and for the policing, sanitation and electric-lighting of
Bangkok. Several of his sons, including the crown prince, were
educated in England, and in the summer of 1897 he himself
visited England, arriving at Portsmouth in his yacht on the 2gth
of July. On the 4th of August he was received by Queen Victoria
at Osborne. After a tour in Great Britain he proceeded to
Berlin, Brussels, and the Hague and Paris. (See also SIAM.)

CHUMBI VALLEY, a valley connecting Tibet (q.v.) with the
frontier of British India. Lying on the southern slopes of the
Himalayas at an altitude of about 9500 ft. above the sea, the
valley is wedged in between Bhutan and Sikkim, and does not
belong geographically but only politically to Tibet. This was the
route by which the British mission of 1904 advanced. Before the
date of that expedition the valley had acquired a reputation for
beauty and fertility, which was subsequently found to be only
comparative in relation to the barrenness of the rest of the
Tibetan frontier. The summer months, though not hot, are
relaxing and enervating.

CHUNAR, or CHUNARGHUR, a town and ancient fortress of
India, in the district of Mirzapur, in the United Provinces,
situated on the south bank of the Ganges. Pop. (1901) 9926.
The fort occupies a conspicuous site on the summit of an abrupt
rock which commands the river. It was at one time a place of
great strength, and still contains a magazine, and is fortified with
batteries. In the old citadel on the height, the remains of a
Hindu palace with some interesting carvings indicate the former
importance of the place. The town, which consists of one or two
straggling streets, contains a handsome English church. Chunar
is first mentioned in the i6th century, when in possession of Sing
Joanpore. In 1530 it became the residence of Shere Shah the
Afghan, and forty-five years later was recovered by the emperor
Akbar after sustaining a siege of six months. It fell into the

CHUNCHO CHURCH, G. E.

hands of the English under General Carnac in 1763 after a
prolonged resistance which caused considerable loss to the
assailants. A treaty with the nawab of Oudh was signed
here by Warren Hastings on behalf of the East India Company
in September 1781.

CHUNCHO, a tribe of South American Indians, living in the
forests east of Cuzco, central Peru. They are a fierce and savage
people who have preserved their independence. They are said to
be akin to their neighbours the Antis. They dwell in communal
houses, and live chiefly by huating. Chuncho has also been used
to describe one of three aboriginal stocks of Peru, the others being
Quichua and Aymara.

CH'UNGK'ING, a city in the province of Szech'uen, China,
on the left bank of the Yangtsze, at its point of junction with
the Kialing, in 29 33' N., and 107 2' E. It is surrounded by a
crenelated stone wall, which is 5 m. in circumference and is
pierced by nine gates. It is the commercial centre for the trade,
not only of Szech'uen, but of all south-western China. The one
highway between Szech'uen and the eastern provinces is the
Yangtsze river route, as owing to the mountainous nature of
the intervening country land transit is almost impracticable.
The import trade brought up by large junks from Ich'ang, and
consisting of cotton cloth, yarn, metals and foreign manufactures,
centres here, and is distributed by a class of smaller vessels up
the various rivers of the provinces. Native produce, such as
yellow silk, white wax, hides, rhubarb, musk and opium, is here
collected and repacked for conveyance to Hankow, Shanghai
or other parts of the empire. The city was opened to foreign
trade by convention with the British government in 1891, with
the proviso, however, that foreign steamers should not be at
liberty to trade there until Chinese-owned steamers had succeeded
in ascending the river. This restriction was abolished by the
Japanese treaty of 1895, which declared Ch'ungk'ing open on
the same terms as other ports. After that date the problem of
steam navigation on the section of the river between Ich'ang
and Ch'ungk'ing occupied attention. By 1907 a small steamer
had been navigated up the rapids, but it remained a question
how far steam navigation could be made a practical success.
The trade was carried on by native craft, hauled up against the
strength of the current in the worst places by a line of trackers
on the bank. The great rise in the river during the summer
months, at Ch'ungk'ing ordinarily 70 ft. and occasionally as
much as 96 ft., added to the difficulties. The population of
Ch'ungk'ing, including the city of Kiangpei on the opposite
bank of the Kialing river, is about 300,000. The foreign residents
are very few. In 1898 the value of the trade passing through
the maritime customs was 2,614,000, and in 1904 4,214,568, of
which imports counted for 2,644,777 and exports for 1,569,791.

CHUPATTY, an Anglo-Indian term for an unleavened cake
of bread. The word represents the Hindustani chapati, and is
applied to the usual form of native bread, the staple food of
upper India. The chupatty is generally made of coarse wheaten
flour, patted flat with the hand, and baked upon a griddle. In
the troubled times that preceded the mutiny of 1857 chupatties
were circulated from village to village throughout India,
apparently as a token of discontent.

CHUPRIYA (sometimes written Tiupriia; Croatian Cuprya),
the capital of the Morava department of Servia, on the railway
from Belgrade to Nish, and on the right bank of the Morava,
which is navigable up to this point by small sailing-vessels.
Pop. (1900) about 6000. Some of the finest Servian cattle are
bred in the neighbouring lowlands, and the town has a consider-
able trade in plums and other farm-produce. A light railway,
leading to several important collieries, runs for 13 m. through
the beech-forests and mountains on the east. Cloth is woven
at Parachin, 5 m. S.; and Yagodina, 8 m. W. by N., is an im-
portant market town. Among the foothills of the Golubinye
Range, 7 m. E.N.E., is the 14th-century Ravanitsa monastery,
with a ruined fort and an old church their walls and frescoes
pitted by Turkish bullets. There is a legend that here the
Servian tsar Lazar (1374-1389) was visited by an angel, who
bade him choose between an earthly and a heavenly crown. In

accordance with his choice, Lazar fell fighting at Kossovo, and
was buried at Ravanitsa; his body being afterwards transferred,
through fear of the Turks, to another Ravanitsa, in eastern
Slavonia. His crucifix is treasured among the monastic archives,
which also contain a charter signed by Peter the Great of Russia
(1672-1725). Manasia (Manasiya), the still more celebrated
foundation of Stephen, the son and successor of Lazar, lies 12 m.
N. of Ravanitsa. Built in a cleft among the hills which line the
river Resava, an affluent of the Morava, this monastery is enclosed
in a fortress, whose square towers, and curtain without loopholes
or battlements, remain largely intact. Within the curtain stand
the monastic buildings, a large garden and a cruciform chapel,
with many curious old stone carvings, half hidden beneath
whitewash. Numerous gifts from the Russian court, such as
gospels lettered in gold and silver relief, or jewelled crucifixes, are
preserved on the spot; but the valuable library was removed,
in the 1 5th century, to Mount Athos.

CHUQUISACA, a department of S.E. Bolivia, bounded N.
by Cochabamba and Santa Cruz, E. by Santa Cmz and Brazil,
S. by Tarija, and W. by Potosi. It lies partly upon the eastern
plateau of Bolivia and partly upon the great plains of the upper
La Plata basin; area, 26,418 sq. m. The Pilcomayo, a large
tributary of the Paraguay, crosses N.W. to S.E. the western part
of the department. The climate of the lowlands is hot, humid
and unhealthy, but that of the plateau is salubrious, though
subject to greater extremes in temperature and rainfall. The
seasons are sharply divided into wet and dry, the eastern plains
becoming great lagoons during the wet season, and parched
deserts during the dry. The mineral resources are important,
but are less developed than those of Potosi and Oruro. Grazing
is the principal industry of the plains, and cattle, sheep, goats
and llamas are raised and cereals grown in the fertile valleys of
the plateau. Three rough highways connect the department
with its neighbours on the N. and W., and pack animals are the
common means of transporting merchandise. The population
was estimated at 204,434 in 1900, and is largely composed of
Indians and mestizos. The plateau Indians are generally Aymaras.
but on the eastern plains there are considerable settlements of
partly civilized Chiriguanos, of Guarani origin. The depart-
ment is divided into four provinces, the greater part of the
lowlands being unsettled and without effective political
organization. Its principal towns are Sucr6, Camargo, Padilla
and Yotala.

CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900), American
landscape painter, was born at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 4th
of May 1826. He was a pupil of Thomas Cole at CatskilJ, New
York, where his first pictures were painted. Developing unusual
technical dexterity, Church from the beginning sought for his
themes such marvels of nature as Niagara Falls, the Andes, and
tropical forests he visited South America in 1853 and 1857,
volcanoes in eruption, and icebergs, the beauties of which he
portrayed with great skill in the management of light, colour, and
the phenomena of rainbow, mist and sunset, rendering these
plausible and effective. In their time these paintings awoke the
wildest admiration and sold for extravagant prices, collectors in
the United States and in Europe eagerly seeking them, though
their vogue has now passed away. In 1849 Church was made a
member of the National Academy of Design. His " Great Fall at
Niagara " (1857) is in the Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington,
D.C., and a large " Twilight " is in the Walters Gallery, Baltimore,
Maryland. Among his other canvases are " Andes of Ecuador "
(1855), "Heart of the Andes" (1859), "Cotopaxi" (1862),
" Jerusalem " (1870), and " Morning in the Tropics " (1877).
He died on the 7th of April 1900, at his house on the Hudson
river above New York City, where he had lived and worked for
many years. He was the most prominent member of the so-
called " Hudson River School " of American artists.

CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835-1910), American geographer,
was born in New Bedford, Massachusetts, on the 7th of December
1835. He was educated as a civil engineer, and was early
engaged on the Hoosac Tunnel. In 1858 he joined an exploring
expedition to South America. During the American Civil War he

CHURCH, SIR R. CHURCH, R. W.

325

served (1862-1863) in the Army of the Potomac, rising to the
command of a brigade and the rank of colonel; and in 1866-1867
he was war correspondent of the New York Herald in Mexico.
He explored the Amazon (1868-1879), and gradually became the
leading authority on that region of South America, being
appointed United States commissioner to report on Ecuador in
1880, and visiting Costa Rica in 1895 to report on its debt and
railways. He wrote extensively on South and Central American
geography, and became a vice-president of the Royal Geographical
Society (London), and in 1898 president of the geographical
section of the British Association.

CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784-1873), British military officer
and general in the Greek army, was the son of a Quaker, Matthew
Church of Cork. He was born in 1784, and at the age of sixteen
ran away from home and enlisted in the army. For this violation
of its principles he was disowned by the Society of Friends, but
his father bought him a commission, dated the 3rd of July 1800,
in the I3th (Somersetshire) Light Infantry. He served in the
demonstration against Ferrol, and in the expedition to Egypt
under Sir Ralph Abercromby in 1 801 . After the expulsion of the
French from Egypt he returned home, but came back to the
Mediterranean in 1805 among the troops sent to defend the
island of Sicily. He accompanied the expedition which landed in
Calabria, and fought a successful battle against the French at
Maida on the 6th of July 1806. Church was present on this
occasion as captain of a recently raised company of Corsican
Rangers. His zeal attracted the notice of his superiors, and he
had begun to show his capacity for managing and drilling foreign
levies. His Corsicans formed part of the garrison of Capri from
October 1806 till the island was taken by an expedition directed
against it by Murat, in September 1808, at the very beginning of
his reign as king of Naples. Church, who had distinguished
himself in the defence, returned to Malta after the capitulation.

In the summer of 1809 he sailed with the expedition sent to
occupy the Ionian Islands. Here he increased the reputation he
had already gained by forming a Greek regiment in English pay.
It included many of the men who were afterwards among the
leaders of the Greeks in the War of Independence. Church
commanded this regiment at the taking of Santa Maura, on which
occasion his left arm was shattered by a bullet. During his slow
recovery he travelled in northern Greece, and Macedonia, and to
Constantinople. In the years of the fall of Napoleon (1813 and
1814) he was present as English military representative with the
Austrian troops until the campaign which terminated in the
expulsion of Murat from Naples. He drew up a report on the
Ionian Islands for the congress of Vienna, in which he argued in
support, not only of the retention of the islands under the
British flag, but of the permanent occupation by Great Britain of
Parga and of other formerly Venetian coast towns on the main-
land, then in the possession of Ali Pasha of lannina. The peace
and the disbanding of his Greek regiment left him without
employment, though his reputation was high at the war office, and
his services were recognized by the grant of a companionship of
the Bath. In 1817 he entered the service of King Ferdinand of
Naples as lieutenant-general, with a commission to suppress the
brigandage then rampant in Apulia. Ample powers were given
him, and he attained a full measure of success. In 1820 he was
appointed governor of Palermo and commander-in-chief of the
troops in Sicily. The revolution which broke out in that year
led to the termination of his services in Naples. He escaped from
violence in Sicily with some difficulty. At Naples he was im-
prisoned and put on his trial by the government, but was
acquitted and released in January 1821; and King George IV. con-
ferred on him a knight commandership of the Hanoverian order.

The rising of the Greeks against the Turks, which began at this
time, had his full sympathy from the first. But for some years he
had to act only as the friend of the insurgents in England. In
1827 he took the honourable but unfortunate step of accepting
the commandership-in-chief of the Greek army. At the point of
anarchy and indiscipline to which they had now fallen, the
Greeks could no longer form an efficient army, and could look for
salvation only to foreign intervention. Sir Richard Church, who

landed in March, was sworn " archistrategos " on the isth of
April 1827. But he could not secure loyal co-operation or
obedience. The rout of his army in an attempt to relieve the
acropolis of Athens, then besieged by the Turks, proved that it
was incapable of conducting regular operations. The acropolis
capitulated, and Sir Richard turned to partisan warfare in
western Greece. Here his activity had beneficial results, for it
led to a rectification in 1832, in a sense favourable to Greece, of
the frontier drawn by the powers in 1830 (see his Observations
on an Eligible Line of Frontier for Greece, London, 1830). Church
had, however, surrendered his commission, as a protest against
the unfriendly government of Capo d'Istria, on the 2sth of August
1829. He lived for the rest of his life in Greece, was created
general of the army in 1854, and died at Athens on the 3Oth of
March 1873. Sir Richard Church married in 1826 Elizabeth
Augusta Wilmot-Horton, who survived him till 1878.

See Sir Richard Church, by Stanley Lane Poole (London, 1890);
Sir Richard Church in Italy and Greece, by E. M. Church (Edinburgh,
1895), based on family papers (an Italian version, Brigantaggio e
societa seerete nelle Puglie, 1817-1828, executed under the direction
of Carlo Lacaita, appeared at Florence in 1899). The MS. Corre-
spondence and Papers of Sir Richard Church, in 29 vols., now in
the British Museum (Add. MSS. 36543-36571), contain invaluable
material for the history of the War of Greek Independence, in-
cluding a narrative of the war during Church's tenure of the
command, which corrects many errors in the published accounts and
successfully vindicates Church's reputation against the strictures of
Finlay, Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, and other historians of the war
(see Cam. Mod. Hist. x. p. 804). (D. H.)

CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815-1890), English divine,
son of John Dearman Church, brother of Sir Richard Church (q.v.) ,
a merchant, was born at Lisbon on the 25th of April 1815,
his early years being mostly spent at Florence. After his
father's death in 1828 he was sent to a school of a pronounced
evangelical type at Redlands, Bristol, and went in 1833 to
Wadham College, Oxford, then an evangelical college. He took
first-class honours in 1836, and in 1838 was elected fellow of
Oriel. One of his contemporaries, Richard Mitchell, commenting
on this election, said: " There is such a moral beauty about
Church that they could not help taking him." He was appointed
tutor of Oriel in 1839, and was ordained the same year. He was
an intimate friend of J. H. Newman at this period, and closely
allied to the Tractarian party. In 1841 No. 90 of Tracts for the
Times appeared, and Church resigned his tutorship. In 1844-
1845 he was junior proctor, and in that capacity, in concert with
his senior colleague, vetoed a proposal to censure Tract 90 publicly.
In 1846 Church, with others, started The Guardian newspaper,
and he was an early contributor to The Saturday Review. In
1850 he became engaged to Miss H. F. Bennett, of a Somerset-
shire family, a niece of George Moberly, bishop of Salisbury.
After again holding the tutorship of Oriel, he accepted in 1852
the small living of Whatley in Somersetshire, near Frome, and
was married in the following year. He was a diligent parish
priest and a serious student, and contributed largely to current
literature. In 1869 he refused a canonry at Worcester, but in
1871 he accepted, most reluctantly (calling it " a sacrifice en
pure perte ") , the deanery of St Paul's, to which he was nominated
by W. E. Gladstone.

His task as dean was a complicated one. It was (i) the restora-
tion of the cathedral; (2) the adjustment of the question of the
cathedral revenues with the Ecclesiastical Commissioners; (3)
the reorganization of a conservative cathedral staff with
anomalous vested rights. He described the intention of his
appointment to be " that St Paul's should waken up from its
long slumber." The first year that he spent at St Paul's was,
writes one of his friends, one of " misery " for a man who loved
study and quiet and the country, and hated official pomp
and financial business and ceremonious appearances. But he
performed his difficult and uncongenial task with almost in-
credible success, and is said never to have made an enemy or a
mistake. The dean was distinguished for uniting in a singular
degree the virtues of austerity and sympathy. He was pre-
eminently endowed with the faculty of judgment, characterized
by Canon Scott Holland as the gift of " high and fine and sane

326

CHURCH

and robust decision." Though of unimpressive stature, he had
a strong magnetic influence over all brought into contact with
him, and though of a naturally gentle temperament, he never
hesitated to express censure if he was convinced it was deserved.
In the pulpit the voice of the dean was deliberately monotonous,
and he employed no adventitious gesture. He may be described
as a High Churchman, but of an essentially rational type, and
with an enthusiasm for religious liberty that made it impossible
for him to sympathize with any unbalanced or inconsiderate
demands for deference to authority. He said of the Church of
England that there was " no more glorious church in Christen-
dom than this inconsistent English Church." The dean often
meditated resigning his office, though his reputation as an
ecclesiastical statesman stood so high that he was regarded in
1882 as a possible successor to Archbishop Tait. But his health
and mode of life made it out of the question. In 1888 his only
son died; his own health declined, and he appeared for the last
time in public at the funeral of Canon Liddon in 1890, dying on
9th December .1890, at Dover. He was buried at Whatley.

The dean's chief published works are a Life of St Anselm
(1870), the lives of Spenser ( 1879) and Bacon(i 884) inMacmillan's
" Men of Letters " series, an Essay on Dante (1878), The Oxford
Movement (1891), together with many other volumes of essays
and sermons. A collection of his journalistic articles was
published in 1897 as Occasional Papers. In these writings he
exhibits a great grasp of principles, an accurate mastery of detail,
and the same fusion of intelligent sympathy and dispassionate
judgment that appeared in his handling of business. His style
is lucid, and has the charm of austerity. He stated that he had
never studied style per se, but that he had acquired it by the
exercise of translation from classical languages; that he watched
against the temptation of using unreal and fine words; that he
employed care in his choice of verbs rather than in his use of
adjectives; and that he fought against self-indulgence in writing
just as he did in daily life. His sermons have the same quality
of self-restraint. His private letters are fresh and simple, and
contain many unaffected epigrams; in writing of religious
subjects he resolutely avoided dogmatism without ever sacrificing
precision. The dean was a man of genius, whose moral stainless-
ness and instinctive fire were indicated rather than revealed
by his writings.

See Life and Letters of Dean Church, by his daughter, M. C. Church
(1895); memoir by H. C. Beeching in Diet. Nat. Biog.; and D. C.
Lathbury, Dean Church (1907). (A. C. BE.)

CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr.
KvpiaKov [oSifM], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many
Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms
Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov,
Bulg. cerkova, Czech cirkev, Finn, kirkko, &c.), a word originally
applied to the building used for Christian worship, and subse-
quently extended to the Christian community (ecclesia) itself.
Similarly the Greek word ecclesia (aocXTjata), " assembly," was
very early transferred from the community to the building, and
is used in both senses, especially in the modern Romance and
Celtic languages (e.g. Fr. eglise, Welsh eghtrys, &c.).

(i) Church Architecture. From the strictly architectural
point of view the subject of church building, including the
development of the various styles and the essential features of
the construction and arrangement of churches, is dealt with
elsewhere (see ARCHITECTURE; ABBEY; BASILICA). It is, how-
ever, impossible to understand the development of church
architecture without realizing its intimate connexion with that of
the doctrine, organization and ritual of the Christian Church as a
religious community, and a brief sketch of this connexion may be
given here by way of introduction to the more technical treatment
of the subject. In general it may be said of church architecture,
more truly than of any other, that artistically it is " frozen
music." It is true that at all times churches have been put to
secular uses; in periods of unrest, as among the Nestorian
Christians now, they were sometimes built to serve at need as
fortresses; their towers were used for beacons, their naves for
meetings on secular affairs. But as a rule, and especially in the

great periods of church architecture, their builders were un-
trammelled by any utilitarian considerations; they built for the
glory of God, for their own glory perhaps, in honour of the saints;
and their work, where it survives, is (as it were) a petrification of
their beliefs and ideals. This is, of course, more true of the
middle ages than of the times that preceded and followed them;
the Church under the Roman empire hardly as yet realized the
possibilities of " sermons in stones," and took over, with little
change, the model of the secular and religious buildings of pagan
Rome; the Renaissance, essentially a neo-pagan movement,
introduced disturbing factors from outside, and, though develop-
ing a style very characteristic of the age that produced it,
started that archaeological movement which has tended in
modern times to substitute mere imitations of old models for any
attempt to express in church architecture the religious spirit of
the age.

The earliest type of Christian Church, out of which the others
developed, was the basilica. The Church, emerging in the 4th
century into imperial favour, and established as part of the
organization of the Roman empire, simply adopted that type of
secular official building which she found convenient for her
purposes. The clergy, now Roman officials, vested in the robes
of the civil dignitaries (see VESTMENTS), took their seats in the
apse of the basilica where the magistrates were wont to sit, in
front of them the holy table, facing the congregation. The
cancelli, the lattice or bar, which in the civil tribunal had divided
the court from the litigants and the public, now served to separate
clergy and laity. This arrangement still survives in some of the
ancient churches of Rome; it has been revived in many
Protestant places of worship. It symbolized principally an
official distinction; but with the theocratizing of the empire in
the East and its decay in the West the accentuation of the mystic
powers of the clergy led to a more complete separation from the
laity, a tendency which left its mark on the arrangements of the
churches. In the East the cancelli, under the influence possibly
of the ritual of the Jewish temple, developed into the iconostasis,
the screen of holy pictures, behind the closed doors of which the
supreme act of the eucharistic mystery is hidden from the lay
people. In the West the high altar was moved to the east end
(the presbyterium) with a space before it for the assisting deacons
and subdeacons (the chancel proper) railed off as a spot peculiarly
holy (now usually called the sanctuary); between this and the
nave, where the laity were, was the choir, with seats for the
clergy on either side. The whole of this space (sanctuary and
choir) came to be known as the " chancel." This was divided
from the nave, sometimes by an arch forming part of the structure
of the building, sometimes by a screen, or by steps, sometimes by
all three (see CHANCEL). The division of churches into chancel
and nave, the outcome of the sacramental and sacerdotal spirit of
the Catholic Church, may be taken as generally typical of church
construction in the medieval West, though there were exceptions,
e.g. the round churches of the Templars. There were, however,
further changes, the result partly of doctrinal developments,
partly of that passion for symbolism which by the I3th century
had completed the evolution of the Catholic ritual. Transepts
were added, to give to the ground-plan of the building the
figure of the cross. The insistence on the unique efficacy of the
sacrifice of the altar led to the multiplication of masses, and so of
altars, which were placed in the transepts or aisles or in chapels,
dedicated to the saints whose relics they enshrined. The chief of
these subsidiary chapels, that of the Blessed Virgin (or Lady
chapel), behind the high altar, was often of large size. Finally,
for the convenience of processions, the nave and chancel aisles
were carried round behind the high altar as ambulatories.

The Romanesque churches, still reminiscent of antique models,
had preserved all the simplicity of the ancient basilicas with
much more than their grandeur; but the taste for religious
symbolism which culminated in the I3th century, and the
imaginative genius of the northern peoples, transformed them
into the marvellous dreams in stone of the " Gothic " period.
Churches now became, in form and decoration, epitomes of the
Christian scheme of salvation as the middle ages understood it.

CHURCH

327

In the plan of the buildings and their decoration everything still
remained subordinate to the high altar; but though on this and
its surroundings ornament was most lavishly expended, the
churches wherever wealth permitted were covered within and
without with sculpture or painting: scenes from the Old and
New Testaments, from the lives of saints, even from every-day
life; figures of the Almighty, of Christ, of the Virgin Mother, of
apostles, saints, confessors; pictures of the joys of heaven and
the torments of hell; and outside, grimacing from every angle,
demons and goblins, amusing enough to us but terrible to the age
that set them there, visible embodiments of the evil spirits driven
from within the sacred building by the efficacy of the holy rites.

In considering the origins of medieval churches, moreover, it
must be borne in mind that as a general rule their builders were
not actuated by the motives usual in modern times, at least
among Protestants. The size of churches was not determined
by the needs of population but by the piety and wealth of the
founders; and the same applies to their number. Often they
were founded as acts of propitiation of the Almighty or of the
saints, and the greater their size and splendour the more effective
they were held to be for their purpose. Local rivalry, too,
played a large part, one wealthy abbey building " against "
another, much in the same way as modern business houses
endeavour to outshine each other in the magnificence of their
buildings. Of all the mixed motives that went to the evolution
of church architecture in the middle ages, this rivalry in ostenta-
tion was probably the most fertile in the creation of new forms.
A volume might be written on the economic effects of this locking
up of vast capital in unproductive buildings. In Catholic
countries (notably in Ireland) great churches are still built out
of the savings of a poverty-stricken peasantry; and from this
point of view the destruction of churches in the i6th century
was probably a benefit to the world. This, however, is a con-
sideration altogether alien to the Christian spirit, the aspiration
of which is to lay up treasures not on earth but in heaven.

The Reformation was a fateful epoch in the history of church
architecture. The substitution of the Bible for the Mass destroyed
the raison d'etre of churches as the middle ages had made them.
Pictures and stories, carved or painted, seemed no longer
necessary now that the open Bible was in the hands of the common
people; they had been too often prostituted, moreover, to
idolatrous uses, and " idolatry " was the worst of blasphemies
to the re-discoverers of the Old Testament. Save in some parts
of Germany, where the influence of Luther saved the churches
from wreck, an iconoclastic wave spread over the greater part
of Western Europe, wherever the "new religion" prevailed;
everywhere churches were cleared of images and reduced to the
state of those described by William Harrison in his Description
of England (1570), only the " pictures in glass " being suffered
in some cases to survive for a while " by reason of the extreme
cost of replacing them." The structures of the churches, however,
remained; and these, even in countries which departed furthest
from the Catholic system, served in some measure to keep its
tradition alive. Protestantism has, indeed, produced a distinctive
church architecture, i.e. the conventicle type, favoured more
especially by the so-called " Free Churches." Its distinctive
features are pulpit and auditorium, and it is symbolical of the
complete equality of ministers and congregation. In general,
however, Protestant builders have been content to preserve or
to adapt the traditional models. It would be interesting in this
connexion to trace the reverse effect of church architecture upon
church doctrine. In England, for instance, the chancels were
for the most part disused after the Reformation (see Harrison,
op. cit.), but presently they came into use again, and on the
Catholic revival in the Church of England in the ipth century
it is certain that the medieval churches exercised an influence
by giving a sense of fitness, which might otherwise have been
lacking, to the restoration of medieval ritual. A similar tendency
has of late years been displayed in the Established Church of
Scotland.

Churches, as the outcome of the organization of the Catholic
Church, are divided into classes as " cathedral," " conventual "

and " collegiate," " parochial " and " district " churches. It
must be noted, however, that the term cathedral (?..), ecclesi-
astically applicable to any church which happens to be a bishop's
see, architecturally connotes a certain size and dignity, and is
sometimes applied to churches which have never been, or have
long ceased to be, bishop's seats. (W. A. P.)

(2) The Religious Community. In the sense of Christian
community (ecclesia) the word " Church " is applied in a narrow
sense to any one of the numerous separate organizations into
which Christendom is divided (e.g. Roman Catholic Church,
Orthodox Eastern Church, Church of England, Evangelical
[Lutheran] Church) these are dealt with under their several
headings and in a comprehensive sense (with which we are now
concerned) to the general body of all those " who profess and
call themselves Christians." Religion, according to the old
definition, is the bond which binds the soul of man to God. 1
It begins as the relation of a tribe to its God. Personal religious
conviction grows out of the tribal (corporate) religious bond.
But the social instinct is strong. Men owning the same religious
convictions will naturally draw together into some sort of associa-
tion. Using the word religion to cover all the imperfect ways
in which men have felt after God, we note that in every cast-
men have found the need alike of a teacher and of fellowship.
Thus the idea of a church as " the pillar and ground of the truth "
(i Tim. iii. 15) corresponds to some of the primary needs of man.
Even at Stonehenge, the oldest relic of prehistoric religion in
England, where we picture in imagination the worship of the
rising sun, nature worship degraded to a horrible depth by human
sacrifice, we find struggling for expression the idea- of a corporate
religious life. From all the lower levels where superstition and
cruelty reign, from the depths of fear inspired by fetichism, we
look on to the higher level of Judaism as the progressive religion
of the old world. This does not mean that we shut our eyes to
the ideals of Greek philosophers, with whom morality was
constantly outgrowing religion. " The vision of an ideal state
which the master-mind of Plato contemplated, but thought too
good ever to become true in actual realization, is full of aspirations
which the Christian Church claims to satisfy. The problems of
the relations of the life of the State and the life of the individual,
which Aristotle ever suggests and never solves, are problems
with which the Christian Church has at least attempted to
deal." 2

From the beginning of the history of the Jewish race the idea
that the world is a kingdom under the rule of God began to find
expression. The conception of Israel as " a kingdom of priests
and an holy nation " (Exod. xix. 6) bore witness to it. The idea
of kingship from the first was that of a ruler representing God.
As time went on and even the dynasty of David failed in the
persons of unworthy representatives to maintain this ideal, both
psalmists and prophets taught the people to look beyond the
earthly kingdom to the spiritual kingdom of which it was a type.
But even Isaiah tended to think of the spiritual life and worship
of the nation as a department of political organization only,
controlled by the king and his princes. It was reserved for
Jeremiah, in the darkest days of his life, to build up the ideal of a
spiritual society which should weld Israel together, to proclaim a
new covenant (xxxi. 31-34) which Jehovah would make with
Israel when representatives of the previously exiled ten tribes
should return with the exiles of Judah. This prophecy is
instinct with the growing sense of the personal responsibility of
individual men brought into communion with God. The
religion of Israel from this time of the captivity ceased to be a
merely national religion connected with particular forms of
sacrifice in a particular land. The synagogues which traced their
origin to the time of Ezekiel, when the sacrificial cultus was
impossible, extended this ideal yet further. During the centuries
preceding the birth of Christ there grew up an apocalyptic
literature which regarded as a primary truth the conception of a

1 Lactantius, Inst. Div. iy. 28 " Vinculo pietatis obstricti, Deo
religati sumus unde ipsa religio nomen accepit." The etymology may
be wrong, but this is the popular sense of the word.

2 Darwell Stone, The Christian Church, p. 1 8.

CHURCH

kingdom of righteousness ruled over by a present God. The
preaching of John the Baptist was thus in sympathy with the
ideals of his generation, though the sternness of the repentance
which he set forth as the necessary preparation for entrance into
the new kingdom of heaven, which was to be made visible on
earth, was not less repugnant to the men of his day than of later
times. Christ's own teaching and that of his disciples began with
the proclamation of the kingdom of God (or of heaven) (Luke iv.
43, viii. i, ix. 2; Matt. x. 7)., That he intended it to find
outward expression in a visible society appears from the careful
way in which he trained the apostles to become leaders hereafter,
crowning that work by the institution of the sacraments of
baptism and the Eucharist. " It was not from accident or for
convenience that Christ formed a society." 1 His parables even
more than his sermons reveal the principles of his endeavour.
But he seldom used the word ecclesia, church, which became the
universal designation of his society.

All the more emphatic is Christ's use of the term ecclesia upon
the distinct advance in faith made by the apostles when St Peter
as their spokesman confessed him to be " the Christ, the Son of
the living God " (Matt. xvi. 16). Instantly came the reply, " I
say unto thee, that thou art Petros (rockman), and on this Pelra
(rock) I will build my ecclesia (church) ; and the gates of Hades
shall not prevail against it." On the rock of a human character,
ennobled by faith in his divine Sonship, he could raise the church
of the future, which should be at the same time continuous with
the old, new in spiritual power, one in worship and in work.

To the Jew the word ecclesia as used in the Septuagint suggested
the assembly of the congregation of Israel. To a Greek it
suggested the assembly of freeborn citizens in a city state.
Without ceasing to be the congregation of Jehovah, it would
claim for itself all the hopes of an ideal state over which Greek
philosophers had sighed in vain.

Opinions differ upon the question whether the apostles were
chosen as representatives of the ecclesia to be founded (Hort) or
as men fitted to become its duly authorized teachers and leaders
from the beginning (Stone). But as Mr Stone well puts it, " It
would not be a necessary inference (from Dr Hort's opinion] that
there ought to be no ministry in the Christian Church." 2

At first the church was limited to the Christian believers in the
city of Jerusalem, then by persecution their company was broken
up, and, since those who were scattered went everywhere
preaching the word, the conception was enlarged to include all
" of the way " (Acts ix. 2) in the Holy Land. A new epoch
began from the return of St Paul and St Barnabas to Antioch
after their first missionary journey, when they called together the
church and narrated theif experiences, and told how " God had
opened to the Gentiles the door of faith "(Actsxiv. 27). Hitherto
the term Church had been " ideally conterminous " with the
Jewish Church. Now it was to contain members who had never
in any sense belonged to the Jewish Church. Thus the way was
opened for new developments and for illimitable extension.
St Paul, in his address to the elders at Ephesus (Acts xx. 28),
adapted the words of Ps. Ixxiv. 2, " Remember thy congregation,
which thou hast purchased of old," claiming for the Christian
ecclesia the title of God's ancient ecclesia. But he never, how-
ever fiercely opposed by Judaizers, set a new ecclesia of Christ in
opposition to the old. We wait, however, for the Epistles of his
captivity at Rome to find the full meaning of the idea of the
church dawning uoon his imagination. " Here at least, for the
first time in the Acts and Epistles, we have the ecclesia spoken of
in the sense of the one universal ecclesia, and it comes more from
the theological than from the historical side; i.e. less from the
actual circumstances of the actual Christian communities than
from a development of thoughts respecting the place and office of
the Son of God: his headship was felt to involve the unity of all
those who were united to him." 3 Similar development of the
idea of the one ecclesia as including all members of all local

1 Ecce Homo, ed. 5, p. 87. Cf. the interesting comparison between
Socrates and Christ.

2 Op. cit. p. 262.

* Hort, The Christian Ecclesia, p. 148.

ecclesiae does not lead St Paul to regard membership of the
universal church as invisible.

But the mere history of the word ecclesia does not exhaust the
subject. We must take into account not only the idea of the
visible actual church, but also the ideal pictured by St Paul in the
metaphors of the Body (Rom. xii. 5), the Temple (i Cor. iii.
10-15) and the Bride of Christ (2 Cor. xi. 2). The actual church
is always falling short of its profession; but its successive reforma-
tions witness to the strength of its longing after the beauty of
holiness.

Membership in the actual church is acquired through baptism
" in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost "
(Matt, xxviii. 19). The references in the New Testament to
baptism " in the name of Jesus " (or the Lord Jesus) (Acts ii.
38, viii. 16, x. 48, xix. 5; Rom. vi. 3; Gal. iii. 27), which are
by some critics taken to refer to a primitive Christological
baptismal formula, seem to refer to the confession made by the
baptized, or to the new relationship into which they are brought
as " members of Christ." 4 Candidates for baptism were exhorted
to prepare for it by repentance and faith (Acts ii. 38). The
laying on of hands (Heb. vi. 2), in the rite called in later times
confirmation, followed baptism (Acts viii. 17). In the modern
Greek Church it is administered by priests with oil which has
been consecrated by the bishop, in the Roman Church by the
bishop himself. Such use of the chrism can be traced from the
2nd century. The Anglican Church retains only the Biblical
symbolism of " the blessing of the hand." Presbyterians and
other Protestant churches have abandoned the use, except the
Lutherans. We need not here trace the history of Christian
worship, in daily services (Acts ii. 46), or on the Lord's Day
(Acts xx. 7), meeting for the Lord's Supper (i Cor. xi. 17-34), or
for mutual edification in prayer, praise and prophecy (i Cor. xiv.).
These things represent the ideal of Christendom. In the words of
an eminent Roman Catholic scholar, Monsignor Duchesne,
" Faith unites, theology often separates." It must be our task to
summarize the leading ideas of the church in which all Christians
are agreed.

(a) The first is certainly fellowship with Christ and with the
brethren. The early Christians earnestly believed that their
life was " hidden with Christ in God " (Col. iii. 3), and found in
their union with Christ the lasting and strongest motive of love
to the brethren. Such fellowship is attributed by St Paul
pre-eminently to the work of the Holy Spirit (2 Cor. xiii. 14).
Its strength is shown in England in the growing readiness of the
different religious bodies to co-operate in movements for the puri-
fying of public morality and for the better observance of Sunday.

(b) The second is unity. We have seen how St. Paul was led
on to grasp the conception of one church universal manifested
in all the local churches. Its unity is not purely accidental in
that individuals have been forced to act together under pressure
of chance circumstances. Nor is the ideal of unity adopted
simply because experience teaches that " union is strength."
Nor is it even based on the philosophical conception ot the
incompleteness of the individual life. As Dr Sanday finely
says, " If the church is in something more than mere metaphor
the Body of Christ, if there is circulating through it a continual
flow and return of spiritual forces, derived directly from him, if
the Spirit which animates the Body is one, then the Body itself
also must be in essence one. It has its centre not on earth but in
heavenly places, where Christ sitteth at the right hand of God." 5

(c) Thirdly, there is no question that the Lord intended the
one fellowship of his saints to be a vi-sible fellowship. The idea
of an invisible church has only commended itself in dark hours
when men despaired of unity even as an ideal. The view of
Zwingli and Calvin in the i6th century was not by any means
acceptable to other reformers. Luther distinguished between
the Spiritual Church, which he identified with the Communion
of Saints, and the Corporeal Church, the outward marks of which
are Baptism, Sacrament and Gospel. But he regarded them

4 For a full defence of the authenticity of Matt, xxviii. 19, see
Riggenbach, Der trinitarische Taufbefehl (Gutersloh, 1903).
6 The Conception of Priesthood, p. 13.

CHURCH ARMY

329

as different aspects of the same ohurch, and Melanchthon was
even more explicit.' As the saint purified in heaven is he who
struggled with his sins on earth, so is the church triumphant one
with the church militant. In Dr Lindsay's words, " it is one of
the privileges of faith, when strengthened by hope and by love,
to see the glorious ideal in the somewhat poor material reality.
It was thus that St Paul saw the universal Church of Christ
made visible in the Christian community of Corinth." 2

But it is at this point that we come to the dividing line which
has been drawn by different conceptions of catholicity. Dr
Lindsay goes on to argue that all insistence on the principle of
historical continuity, whether urged by members of the Anglican
or the Roman Catholic Church, as upholders of episcopacy, is a
deliberate return to the principle of Judaism, which declared
that no one who was outside the circle of the " circumcised,"
no matter how strong his faith nor how the fruits of the Spirit
were manifest in his life and deeds, could plead " the security
of the Divine Covenant." Without entering into controversy
it must suffice to point out that, from the point of view of all
episcopal churches, the ministry of the bishops succeeding the
ministry of the apostles, however it came to pass, was for fifteen
centuries accepted as the pledge of unity. This principle, how-
ever, of continuity in ministry, belongs to a different department
of Christian thought from the sacrament of baptism, which really
corresponds to the Jewish rites of admission to the covenant.
And it has been an established principle of the undivided church
since the 3rd century, the bishop of Rome in this case upholding
against St Cyprian the view which subsequent generations have
ratified as Catholic truth, that baptism by whomsoever admin-
istered is valid if water is used with the right words. From this
point, alas, divergence begins.

(d) The fourth element is authority. Probably all Christians
can agree in the statement that the Christian democracy is also
a theocracy, that Christ is the source of all authority. There
are three passages in the Gospel which claim notice: (i.) the
promise to St Peter ( Matt. xvi. 1 8 f ) , as spokesman for the apostles,
of the key of the household of God, of power to admit and exclude;
(ii.) the promise (Matt, xviii. 1 5-20) probably given to the Twelve,
regarding offences against the peace of the society, advocating
exclusion only when brotherly appeals had failed; (iii.) the
commission of the whole ecclesia or of the Christian ministry
(John xx. 22, 23). Again the root difference between the
Presbyterian and Episcopalian conceptions of the church comes
to light. Is the authority of the church manifested in the
decisions which a local church arrives at by a majority of votes,
or in the decisions of apostles and prophets after taking counsel,
of the episcopate in later times, ratified by common consent of
Christendom? As has been well said, " the church is primarily
a witness the strength of its authority lies in the many sides
from which the witness comes." It witnesses to the Divine
Life of Christ as a power of the present and of the future as of
the past, ministered in the Word and sacraments.

(e) The church is a sacerdotal society. St Paul delighted to
represent it as the " ideal Israel," and St John echoes the thought
in the words of praise (Rev. i. 5, 6), " Unto him that hath loved
us ... and made us to be a kingdom, and priests unto his
God and Father." This idea of the priesthood of the whole
church has three elements the divine element, the human
element and self-sacrifice. The promise that Christians should
be temples of the living God has been fulfilled. As Dr Milligan
has said very well, " It is not only in things to which we commonly
confine the word miracle that the Divine appears. It may ap-
pear not less in the whole tone and spirit of the Church's life,
in the varied Christian virtues of her members, in the general
character of their Christian work, and in the grace received by
them in the Christian sacraments. When that life is exhibited,
as it ought to be, in its distinctively heavenly character, it bears
witness to the presence of a power in Christian men which no
mere recollection of a past example, however heroic or beautiful,

1 The Conception of Priesthood, p. 29.

Lindsay, The Church and the Ministry in the Early Centuries,
p. 17.

can supply. The difficulties of exhibiting and maintaining it
are probably far greater now than they were in the apostolic age;
and as nothing but a present divine support can enable us to
overcome these, so, when they are overcome, a testimony is given
to the fact that God is with us."'

But this life is to be a human life still, to be in touch with all
that is noble and of good report in art and literature, keenly
interested in all the discoveries of science, active in all movements
of social progress. It cannot, however, be denied that to live
such a life, divine in its powers and human in its sympathies,
demands daily and hourly self-sacrifice. As the author of the
Imitation of Christ put it long ago, " There is no living in love
without pain." The thought of self-sacrifice has been emphasized
from the earliest times in the liturgies. By a true instinct the
early Christian writers called widows and orphans the altar of
God on which the sacrifices of almsgiving are offered up. 4 Such
works of charity, however, represent only one of the channels
by which self-sacrifice is ministered, to which all prayers and
thanksgiving and instruction of psalms, prophecy and preaching
contribute. Thus in the Eucharist the offering of the church is
made one with the offering of the Great High Priest. 6

All this represents an ideal. It suggests in a modern form
the perpetual paradox of the Christian life: we are what we are
to be. The church is the divine society in which all other religious
associations are eventually to find their home. The prayer,
" Thy kingdom come," embraces all spiritual forces which make
for righteousness. They were acknowledged in Christ's words,
" He that is not against you is for you " (Luke ix. 50). But
the divisions of Christendom testify to the harm done by undue
insistence on the claims of the individual to gain scope to extend
the kingdom in his own way. As in a choir all the resources ol
an individual voice are used to strengthen the general effect, so
must the individual lose his life that he may find it, witnessing
by his share in the common service of the church to the ultimate
unity of knowledge and harmony of truth.

For the various conceptions of the church as an organized body
see CHURCH HISTORY, sec. 3, and the articles on the various
churches. (A. E. B.)

CHURCH ARMY, an English religious organization, founded
in 1882 by the Rev. Wilson Carlile (afterwards prebendary of
St Paul's) , who banded together in an orderly army of " soldiers "
ad " officers " a few working men and women, whom he and
others trained to act as " Church of England evangelists "
among the outcasts and criminals of the Westminster slums.
Previous experience had convinced him that the moral condition
of the lowest classes of the people called for new and aggressive
action on the part of the Church, and that this work was most
effectively done by laymen and women of the same class as those
whom it was desired to touch. " Evangelistic zeal with Church
order " is the principle of the Church Army, and it is essentially a
working men's and women's mission to working people. As the
work grew, a training institution for evangelists was started in
Oxford, but soon moved (1886) to London, where, in Bryanston
Street near the Marble Arch, the headquarters of the army are
now established. Working men are trained as evangelists, and
working women as mission sisters, and are supplied to the clergy.
The men evangelists have to pass an examination by the arch-
deacon of Middlesex, and are then (since 1896) admitted by the
bishop of London as " lay evangelists in the Church " ; the
mission sisters must likewise pass an examination by the diocesan
inspector of schools. All Church Army workers (of whom there
are over 1800 of one kind and another) are entirely under the
control of the incumbent of the parish to which they are sent.
They never go to a parish unless invited, nor stay when asked to
go by the parish priest. Officers and sisters are paid a limited
sum for their services either by the vicar or by voluntary local
contributions. Church Army mission and colportage vans
circulate throughout the country parishes, if desired, with

3 The Ascension, p. 254.

4 Polycarp, Phil. 4; cf. Tertullian, Ad Uxor. i. 7.

' This teaching is not confined to Episcopalian writers. It has
been finely expressed from the Presbyterian standpoint by Dr
Milligan, op. cit. p. 265 ff. ; cf. Lindsay, p. 37.

330

CHURCH CONGRESS CHURCH HISTORY

itinerant evangelists, who hold simple missions, without charge,
and distribute literature. Each van missioner has a clerical
" adviser." Missions are also held in prisons and workhouses, at
the invitation of the authorities. In 1888 (before the similar work
of the Salvation Army was inaugurated) the Church Army
established labour homes in London and elsewhere, with the
object of giving a " fresh start in life " to the outcast and destitute.
These homes deal with the outcast and destitute in a plain,
straightforward way. They demand that the persons should
show a desire for amendment; they subject them to firm
discipline, and give them hard work; they give them decent
clothes, and strive to win them to a Christian life. The- inmates
earn their board and lodging by piece-work, for which they are
paid at the current trade rates, while by a gradually lessening
scale of work and pay they are stimulated to obtain situations
for themselves and given time to seek for them. There are about
1 20 homes in London and the provinces, and 56 % of the inmates
are found to make these the successful beginning of an honest
self-supporting life. The Church Army has lodging homes,
employment bureaus, cheap food depots, old clothes department,
dispensary and a number of other social works. Every winter
employment is found for a great number of the unemployed in
special depots, among them being the King's Labour Tents and
the Queen's Labour Relief Depots. There is also an extensive
emigration system, under which many hundreds (3000 in 1906) of
carefully tested men and families, of good character, chiefly of
the unemployed class, are placed in permanent employment in
Canada through the agency of the local clergy. The whole of the
work is done in loyal subordination to the diocesan and parochial
organization of the Church of England.
See Edgar Rowans, Wilson Carlile and the Church Army.

CHURCH CONGRESS, an annual meeting of members of the
Church of England, lay and clerical, to discuss matters religious,
moral or social, in which the church is interested. It has no
legislative authority, and there is no voting on the questions
discussed. The first congress was held in 1861 in the hall of
King's College, Cambridge, and was the outcome of the revival of
convocation in 1852. The congress is under the presidency of the
bishop in whose diocese it happens to be held. Recent places of
meeting are Brighton (1901), Northampton (1902), Bristol (1903),
Liverpool (1904), Weymouth (1905), Barrow-in-Furness (1906),
Great Yarmouth (1907), Manchester (1908), Swansea (1909").
The meetings of the congress have been mainly remarkable as
illustrating the wide divergences of opinion and practice in the
Church of England, no less than the broad spirit of tolerance which
has made this possible and honourably differentiates these
meetings from so many ecclesiastical assemblies of the past. The
congress of 1908 was especially distinguished, not only for the
expression of diametrically opposed views on such questions as
the sacrifice of the mass or the " higher criticism," but for the
very large proportion of time given to the discussion of the
attitude of the Church towards Socialism and kindred subjects.

CHURCH HISTORY. The sketch given below of the evolution
of the Christian Church (see CHURCH) may well be prefaced by a
Church summary of the history of the great Church historians,
historians, concerning whom fuller details are given in separate
articles. Hegesippus wrote in the 2nd century a
collection of memoirs containing accounts of the early days of
the church, only fragments of which are extant. The first real
church history was written by Eusebius of Caesarea in the early
part of the 4th century. His work was continued in the 5th
century by Philostorgius, Socrates, Sozomen and Theodoret, and
in later centuries by Theodorus Lector, Evagrius, Theophanes
and others. In the I4th century Nicephorus Callisti undertook a
complete church history which covers in its extant form the first
six centuries. In the West Eusebius' History was translated into
Latin by Rufinus, and continued down to the end of the 4th
century. Augustine's City of God, published in 426, was an
apologetic, not an historical work, but it had great influence in
our field, for in it he undertook to answer the common heathen
accusation that the growing misfortunes of the empire were due to
the prevalence of Christianity and the forsaking of the gods of

Rome. It was to sustain Augustine's thesis that Orosius pro-
duced in 417 his Hisloriarum libri seplem, which remained the
standard text-book on world history during the middle ages.
About the same time Sulpicius Severus wrote his Historia Sacra,
covering both biblical and Christian history. In the 6th century
Cassiodorus had a translation made of the histories of Socrates,
Sozomen and Theodoret, which were woven into one continuous
narrative and brought down to 5 18. The work was known as the
Historia Ecclesiastica Tripartita, and constituted during the
middle ages the principal text-book of church history in the West.
Before writing his history Eusebius produced a world chronicle
which was based upon a similar work by Julius Africanus and is
now extant only in part. It was continued by Jerome, and
became the basis of the model for many similar works of the 5th
and following centuries by Prosper, Idatius, Marcellinus Comes,
Victor Tununensis and others. Local histories containing more
or less ecclesiastical material were written in the 6th and following
centuries by Jordanes (History of the Goths), Gregory of Tours
(History of the Franks), Isidore of Seville (History of the Goths,
Vandals and Suevi), Bede (Ecclesiastical History of England),
Paulus Diaconus (History of the Lombards), and others. Of the
many historians of the middle ages, besides the authors of
biographies, chronicles, cloister annals, &c., may be mentioned
Haymo, Anastasius, Adam of Bremen, Ordericus Vitalis, Honorius
of Autun, Otto of Freising, Vincent of Beauvais and Antoninus of
Florence.

The Protestant reformation resulted in a new development
of historical writing. Polemic interest led a number of Lutheran
scholars of the i6th century to publish the Magdeburg Centuries
( 1 5 59 ff . ) , in which they undertook to show the primitive character
of the Protestant faith in contrast with the alleged corruptions of
Roman Catholicism. In this design they were followed by many
other writers. The opposite thesis was maintained by Baronius
(Annales Ecclesiastici, 1588 ff.), whose work was continued
by a number of Roman Catholic scholars. Other notable Roman
Catholic historians of the I7th and i8th centuries were Natalis
Alexander, Bossuet, Tillemont, Fleury, Dupin and Ceillier.

Church history began to be written in a genuinely scientific
spirit only in the i8th century under the leadership of Mosheim,
who is commonly called the father of modern church history.
With wide learning and keen critical insight he wrote a number
of historical works of which the most important is his Instituliones
Hist. Eccles. (1755; best English trans, by Murdock). He was
followed by many disciples, among them Schroeckh (Chrislliche
Kirchengeschichte, 1772 fif. in 45 vols.). Other notable names
of the 1 8th century are Semler, Spittler, Henke and Planck.

The new historical spirit of the igth century did much for
church history. Among the greatest works produced were those
of J. C. L. Gieseler (Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte, 1824 ff.,
best Eng. tr. revised and edited by H. B. Smith), exceedingly
objective in character and still valuable, particularly on account
of its copious citations from the sources; Neander (Allgemeine
Geschichte der christlichen Religion und Kirche, 1825 ff., Eng. tr.
by Torrey), who wrote in a sympathetic spirit and with special
stress upon the religious side of the subject, and has been followed
by many disciples, for instance, Hagenbach, Schaff and Herzog;
and Baur (Das Christenthum und die chrislliche Kirche, 1853
ff.), the most brilliant of all, whose many historical works were
dominated by the principles of the Hegelian philosophy and
evinced both the merits and defects of that school. Baur has
had tremendous influence, even though many of his positions
have been generally discredited. The problems particularly
of the primitive history were first brought into clear light by
him, and all subsequent work upon the subject must acknowledge
its indebtedness to him.

A new era was opened by the publication in 1857 of the second
edition of Ritschl's Entstehung der altkatholischen Kirche, in
which he broke away from the Tubingen school and introduced
new points of view that have revolutionized the interpretation
of the early church. Of recent works the most important are
the Kirchengeschichte of Carl Miiller (1892 ff.) and that of W.
Moller (1889 ff., second edition by von Schuberth, 1898 ff.,

CHURCH HISTORY

Church.

greatly enlarged and improved), the translation of the latter
(1892 ff.) being the most useful text-book in English. Of modern
Roman Catholic works may be mentioned those by J. A. Mohler,
T. B. Alzog, F. X. Kraus, Cardinal Joseph von Hergenrother
and C. J. von Hefele (edited by Knopfler.)

In addition to these general works on church history should
be named the histories of doctrine by Harnack, Loofs, Seeberg
and Fisher; and on the early Church the works on the apostolic
age by Weizsacker (1886, English translation 1894), McGiffert
(1897), and Bartlet (1899); Renan's Hisloire des origines du
christianisme (1867 ff., in 7 vols., translated in part); Pfleiderer's
Urchristenthum (1887); S. Cheetham's History of the Christian
Church during the first Six Centuries (1894); Wernle's Anfange
unserer Religion (1901; Eng. tr. 1902 ff.); Rainy's Ancient
Catholic Church (1902); Knopf's N achapostolisches Zeitalter
(1905); Duchesne's Hisloire ancienne de l'glise (vol. i.,
1906). (A. C. McG.)

In the following account of the historical evolution of the
History Church, the subject will be treated in three sections:
of the (A) The ancient Church to the beginning of the pontifi-
cate of Gregory the Great (A.D. 590); (B) The Church
in the middle ages; (C) The modern Church.

A. THE ANCIENT CHURCH

i. Origin and Growth. The crucifixion of Jesus Christ resulted
in the scattering of his followers, but within a short time they
became convinced that he had risen from the dead, and would
soon return to set up the expected Messianic kingdom, and so
to accomplish the true work of the Messiah (cf. Acts i. 6 ff.).
They were thus enabled to retain the belief in his Messiahship
which his death had threatened to destroy permanently. This
belief laid upon them the responsibility of bringing as many of
their countrymen as possible, to recognize him as Messiah, and
to prepare themselves by repentance and righteousness for the
coming kingdom (cf. Acts ii. 21, 38, iii. 19 sq.). It was with
the sense of this responsibility that they gathered again in
Jerusalem, the political and religious metropolis of Judaism.
In Jerusalem the new movement had its centre, and the church
established there is rightly known as the mother church of
Christendom. The life of the early Jewish disciples, so far as
we are able to judge from our meagre sources, was very much
the same as that of their fellows. They continued faithful to
the established synagogue and temple worship (cf. Acts iii. i),
and did not think of founding a new sect, or of separating from
the household of Israel (cf. Acts x. 14, xv. 5, xxi. 21 sq.).
There is no evidence that their religious or ethical ideals differed
in any marked degree from those of the more serious-minded
among their countrymen, for the emphasis which they laid upon
the need of righteousness was not at all uncommon. In their
belief, however, in the Messiahship of Jesus, and their consequent
assurance of the speedy establishment by him of the Messianic
kingdom, they stood alone. The first need of the hour, therefore,
was to show that Jesus was the promised Messiah in spite of his
crucifixion, a need that was met chiefly by testimony to the
resurrection, which became the burden of the message of the
early disciples to their fellow-countrymen (cf. Acts ii. 24 ff.,
iii. 15 ff., v. 31). It was this need which led also to the develop-
ment of Messianic prophecy and the ultimate interpretation of
the Jewish Bible as a Christian book (see BIBLE). The second
need of the hour was to bring the nation to repentance and
righteousness in order that the kingdom might come (cf. Acts
iii. 19). The specific gospel of Jesus, the gospel of divine father-
hood and human brotherhood, received no attention in the
earliest days, so far as our sources enable us to judge.

Meanwhile the new movement spread quite naturally beyond
the confines of Palestine and found adherents among the Jews of
the dispersion, and at an early day among the Gentiles as well.
Many of the latter had already come under the influence of
Judaism, and were more or less completely in sympathy with
Jewish religious principles. Among the Christians who did most
to spread the gospel in the Gentile world was the apostle Paul,
whose conversion was the greatest event in the history of the early

Church. In his hands Christianity became a new religion, fitted
to meet the needs of all the world, and freed entirely of the local
and national meaning which had hitherto attached to it. Accord-
ing to the early disciples Jesus was the Jewish Messiah, and had
significance only in relation to the expected Messianic kingdom.
To establish that kingdom was his one great aim. For the
Gentiles he had no message except as they might become members
of the family of Israel, assuming the responsibilities and enjoying
the privileges of proselytes. But Paul saw in Jesus much more
than the Jewish Messiah. He saw in Christ the divine Spirit, who
had come down from heaven to transform the lives of men, all of
whom are sinners. Thus Jesus had the same significance for one
man as for another, and Christianity was meant as much for
Gentiles as for Jews. The kingdom of which the early disciples
were talking was interpreted by Paul as righteousness and peace
and joy in the Holy Ghost (Rom. xiv. 17), a new principle of
living, not a Jewish state. But Paul taught also, on the basis of a
religious experience and of a distinct theory of redemption (see
McGiffert's Apostolic Age, ch. iii.), that the Christian is freed
from the obligation to observe the Jewish law. He thus did away
with the fundamental distinction between Jews and Gentiles.
The transformed spiritual life of the believer expresses itself not in
the observance of the Jewish law, but in love, purity and peace.
This precipitated a very serious conflict, of which we learn some-
thing from the Epistle to the Galatians and the Book of Acts
(xv. and xxii.). Other fundamental principles of Paul's failed of
comprehension and acceptance, but the belief finally prevailed
that the observance of Jewish law and custom was unnecessary,
and that in the Christian Church there is no distinction between
the circumcised and the uncircumtised. Those Jewish Christians
who refused to go with the rest of the Church in this matter lived
their separate life, and were regarded as an heretical sect known
as the Ebionites.

It was Christianity in its universal form which won its great
victories, and finally became permanently established in the
Roman world. The appeal which it made to that world was
many-sided. It was a time of moral reformation, when men were
awaking to the need of better and purer living. To all who felt
this need Christianity offered high moral ideals, and a tremendous
moral enthusiasm, in its devotion to a beloved leader, in its
emphasis upon the ethical possibilities of the meanest, and in its
faith in a future life of blessedness for the righteous. It was a
time of great religious interest, when old cults were being revived
and new ones were finding acceptance on all sides. Christianity,
with its one God, and its promise of redemption and a blessed
immortality based upon divine revelation, met as no other
contemporary faith did the awakening religious needs. It was a
time also of great social unrest. With its principle of Christian
brotherhood, its emphasis upon the equality of all believers in
the sight of God, and its preaching of a new social order to be set
up at the return of Christ, it appealed strongly to multitudes,
particularly of the poorer classes. That it won a permanent
success, and finally took possession of the Roman world, was due
to its combination of appeals. No one thing about it commended
it to all, and to no one thing alone did it owe its victory, but to
the fact that it met a greater variety of needs and met them more
satisfactorily than any other movement of the age. Contributing
also to the growth of the Church was the zeal of its converts, the
great majority of whom regarded themselves as missionaries and
did what they could to extend the new faith. Christianity was
essentially a proselytizing religion, not content to appeal simply
to one class or race of people, and to be one among many faiths,
but believing in the falsity or insufficiency of all others and eager
to convert the whole world. Moreover, the feeling of unity
which bound Christians everywhere together and made of them
one compact whole, and which found expression before many
generations had passed in a strong organization, did much for the
spread of the Church. Identifying himself with the Christian
circle from the 2nd century on, a man became a member of a
society existing in all quarters of the empire, every part conscious
of its oneness with the larger whole and all compactly organized
to do the common work. The growth of the Church during the

332

CHURCH HISTORY

earlier centuries was chiefly in the middle and lower classes, but
it was not solely there. No large number of the aristocracy were
reached, but in learned and philosophical circles many were won,
attracted both by Christianity's evident ethical power and by its
philosophical character (cf. the Apologists of the 2nd century).
That it could seem at once a simple way of living for the common
man and a profound philosophy of the universe for the speculative
thinker meant much for its success. 1

But it did not win its victory without a struggle. Superstition,
misunderstanding and hatred caused the Christians trouble for
many generations, and governmental repression they had to
suffer occasionally, as a result of popular disturbances. No
systematic effort was made by the imperial authorities to put an
end to the movement until the reign of Decius (250-251), whose
policy of suppression was followed by Diocletian (303 ff.) and
continued for some years after his abdication. In spite of all
opposition the Church steadily grew, until in 311 the emperor
Galerius upon his death-bed granted toleration (see Eusebius,
H.E. x.4, and Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum, 34), and in
313 the emperors Constantine and Licinius published the edict of
Milan, proclaiming the principle of complete religious liberty, and
making Christianity a legal religion in the full sense (see Eusebius
x. 5, and Lactantius 48. Seeck, Zeitschrifl fur Kirchengeschichte,
xii. 381 sq., has attempted to show that the edict of Milan had no
significance, but without success).

Constantine, recognizing the growing strength of the Church
and wishing to enlist the loyal support of the Christians, treated
them with increasing favour, and finally was baptized upon his
death-bed (337). Under his successors, except during the brief
reign of Julian (361-363), when the effort was made to reinstate
paganism in its former place of supremacy, the Church received
growing support, until, under Theodosius the Great (379-395),
orthodox Christianity, which stood upon the platform adopted at
Nicaea in 325, was finally established as the sole official religion of
the state, and heathen worship was put under the ban. The union
between Church and State thus constituted continued unbrokenin
the East throughout the middle ages. The division of the Empire
resulted finally in the divisionof the Church, which was practically
complete by the end of the 6th century, but was made official and
final only in 1054, and the Eastern and Western halves, the Greek
Catholic and the Roman Catholic Churches, went each its separate
way. (See Theodosian Code, book 16, for the various imperial
edicts relating to the Church, and for fuller particulars touching
the relation between Church and Empire see the articles CON-
STANTINE; GRATIAN; THEODOSIUS; JUSTINIAN.)

For a long time after the establishment of Christianity as the
state religion, paganism continued strong, especially in the
country districts, and in some parts of the world had more
adherents than Christianity, but at length the latter became, at
any rate nominally, the faith of the whole Roman world. Mean-
while already before the beginning of the 3rd century it went
beyond the confines of the Empire in Asia, and by the end of our
period was strong in Armenia, Persia, Arabia and even farther
east. It reached the barbarians on the northern and western
borders at an early day, and the Goths were already Christians of
the Arian type before the great migrations of the 4th century
began. Other barbarians became Christian, some in their own
homes beyond the confines of the Empire, some within the Empire
itself, so that when the hegemony of the West passed from the
Romans to the barbarians the Church lived on. Thenceforth for
centuries it was not only the chief religious, but also the chief
civilizing, force at work in the Occident. Losing with the dissolu-
tion of the Western Empire its position as the state church, it
became itself a new empire, the heir of the glory and dignity of
Rome, and the greatest influence making for the peace and unity
of the western world.

2. The Christian Life. The most notable thing about the life of

1 Upon the spread of the Church during the early centuries see
especially Harnack's Mission und Ausbreiiung des Christenthums in
den ersten drei Jahrhunderten. An interesting parallel to the spread
of Christianity in the Roman empire is afforded by the contem-
porary Mithraism. See Cumont's Les Mysteres de Mithra (IQOO),
Eng. tr. The Mysteries of Mithra (1903).

the early Christians was their vivid sense of being a people of God,
called and set apart. The Christian Church in their thought was a
divine, not a human, institution. It was founded and controlled
by God, and even the world was created for its sake (cf. the
Shepherd of Hermas, Vis. ii. 4, and 2 Clement 14). This con-
ception, which came over from Judaism, controlled all the life of
the early Christians both individual and social. They regarded
themselves as separate from the rest of the world and bound
together by peculiar ties. Their citizenship was in heaven, not on
earth (cf. Phil. iii. 20, and the epistle to Diognetus, c. 5), and the
principles and laws by which they strove to govern themselves
were from above. The present world was but temporary, and
their true life was in the future. Christ was soon to return, and
the employments and labours and pleasures of this age were of
small concern. Some went so far as to give up their accustomed
vocations, and with such Paul had to expostulate in his epistles to
the Thessalonians. A more or less ascetic mode of life was also
natural under the circumstances. Not necessarily that the
present world was evil, but that it was temporary and of small
worth, and that a Christian's heart should be set on higher things.
The belief that the Church was a supernatural institution found
expression in the Jewish notion of the presence and power of the
Holy Spirit. It was believed among the Jews that the Messianic
age would be the age of the Spirit in a marked degree, and this
belief passed over into the Christian Church and controlled its
thought and life for some generations. The Holy Spirit was
supposed to be manifest in various striking ways, in prophecy,
speaking with tongues and miracle working. In this idea Paul
also shared, but he carried the matter farther than most of his
contemporaries and saw in the Spirit the abiding power and
ground of the Christian life. Not simply in extraordinary
phenomena, but also in the everyday life of Christians, the Holy
Spirit was present, and all the Christian graces were the fruits
(cf. Gal. v. 22). A result of this belief was to give their lives a
peculiarly enthusiastic or inspirational character. Theirs were
not the everyday experiences of ordinary men, but of men lifted
out of themselves and transported into a higher sphere. With
the passing of time the early enthusiasm waned, the expectation
of the immediate return of Christ was widely given up, the
conviction of the Spirit's presence became less vivid, and the
conflict with heresy in the 2nd century led to the substitution of
official control for the original freedom (see below). The late 2nd
century movement known as Montanism was in essence a revolt
against this growing secularization of the Church, but the move-
ment failed, and the development against which it protested was
only hastened. The Church as an institution now looked forward
to a long life upon earth and adjusted itself to the new situation,
taking on largely the forms and customs of the world in which it
lived. This did not mean that the Church ceased to regard itself
as a supernatural institution, but only that its supernatural
character was shown in a different way. A Christian was still
dependent upon divine aid for salvation, and his life was still
supernatural at least in theory. Indeed, the early conviction of
the essential difference between the life of this world and that of
the next lived on, and, as the Church became increasingly a world-
institution, found vent in monasticism, which was simply the
effort to put into more consistent practice the other-worldly life,
and to make more thoroughgoing work of the saving of one's
soul. Contributing to the same result was the emphasis upon the
necessity of personal purity or holiness, which Paul's contrast
between flesh and spirit had promoted, and which early took the
supreme place given by Christ to love and service. The growing
difficulty of realizing the ascetic ideal in the midst of the world,
and within the world-church, inevitably drove multitudes of those
who took their religion seriously to retire from society and to
seek salvation and the higher life, either in solitude, or in company
with kindred spirits.

There were Christian monks as early as the 3rd century, and
before the end of the 4th monasticism (q.v.) was an established
institution both in East and West. The monks and nuns
were looked upon as the most consistent Christians, and were
honoured accordingly. Those who did not adopt the monastic life

CHURCH HISTORY

333

endeavoured on a lower plane and in a less perfect way to realize
the common ideal, and by means of penance to atone for the
deficiencies in their performance. The existence of monasticism
made it possible at once to hold up a high moral standard before
the world and to permit the ordinary Christian to be content with
something lower. With the growth of clerical sacerdotalism the
higher standard was demanded also of the clergy, and the
principle came to be generally recognized that they should live
the monastic life so far as was consistent with their active duties
in the world. The chief manifestation of this was clerical celi-
bacy, which had become widespread already in the 4th century.
Among the laity, on the other hand, the ideal of holiness found
realization in the observance of the ordinary principles of
morality recognized by the world at large, in attendance upon
the means of grace provided by the Church, in fasting at stated
intervals, in eschewing various popular employments and amuse-
ments, and in almsgiving and prayer. Christ's principle of love
was widely interpreted to mean chiefly love for the Christian
brotherhood, and within that circle the virtues of hospitality,
charity and helpfulness were widely exercised; and if the
salvation of his own soul was regarded as the most important
affair of every man, the service of the brethren was recognized as
an imperative Christian duty. The fulfilling of that duty was one
of the most beautiful features of the life of the early Church, and
it did perhaps more than anything else to make the Christian
circle attractive.

3. Worship. The primitive belief in the immediate presence of
the Spirit affected the religious services of the Church. They were
regarded in early days as occasions for the free exercise of spiritual
gifts. As a consequence the completest liberty was accorded to
all Christians to take such part as they chose, it being assumed
that they did so only under the Spirit's prompting. But the
result of this freedom was confusion and discord, as is indicated
by Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians (see chapters xi., xiv.).
This led to the erection of safeguards, which should prevent the
continuance of the unseemly conditions (on Paul's action in
the matter, see McGiffert's Apostolic Age, p. 523). Particular
Christians were designated to take charge of the services, and
orders of worship were framed out of which grew ultimately
elaborate liturgies (see LITURGY). The Lord's Supper first took
on a more stereotyped character, and prayers to be used in
connexion with it are found already in the Didache (chapters ix.
and x.). The development cannot here be traced in detail.
It may simply be said that the general tendency was on the one
hand toward the elaboration and growing magnificence of the
services, especially after the Church had become a state institu-
tion and had taken the place of the older pagan cults, and on the
other hand toward the increasing solemnity and mystery of
certain parts, particularly the eucharist, the sacred character of
which was such as to make it sacrilegious to admit to it the
unholy, that is, outsiders or Christians under discipline (cf.
Didache, ix.) . It was, in fact, from the Lord's table that offending
disciples were first excluded. Out of this grew up in the 3rd or
4th century what is known as the arcani discipline, or secret
discipline of the Church, involving the concealment from the
uninitiated and unholy of the more sacred parts of the Christian
cult, such as baptism and the eucharist, with their various
accompaniments, including the Creed and the Lord's Prayer.
The same interest led to the division of the services into two
general parts, which became known ultimately as the missa
catechumenorum and the missa fidelium, that is, the more public
service of prayer, praise and preaching open to all, including the
catechumens or candidates for Church membership, and the
private service for the administration of the eucharist, open
only to full members of the Church in good and regular standing.
Meanwhile, as the general service tended to grow more elaborate,
the missa fidelium tended to take on the character of the
current Greek mysteries (see EUCHARIST; Hatch, Influence
of Greek Ideas and Usages upon the Christian Church, 1890;
Anrich, Das antike Mysterienwesen in seinem Einfluss auf
das Christentum, 1894; Wobbermin, Religionsgeschichtliche
Studien zur Frage der Beeinflussung des U rchristentums durch

das antike Mysterienwesen, 1896). Many of the terms in common
use in them were employed in connexion with the Christian rites,
and many of the conceptions, particularly that of sharing in
immortality by communion with deity, became an essential
part of Christian doctrine. Thus the early idea of the services,
as occasions for mutual edification through the interchange of
spiritual gifts, gave way in course of time to the theory that they
consisted of sacred and mysterious rites by means of which
communion with God is promoted. The emphasis accordingly
came to be laid increasingly upon the formal side of worship, and
a value was given to the ceremonies as such, and their proper
and correct performance by duly qualified persons, i.e. ordained
priests, was made the all-important thing.

4. The Church and the Sacraments. According to Paul, man
is flesh and so subject to death. Only as he becomes a spiritual
being through mystical union with Christ can he escape death
and enjoy eternal life in the spiritual realm. In the Epistle to
the Ephesians the Christian Church is spoken of as the body of
Christ (iv. 12 ff., v. 30); and Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, early
in the 2nd century, combined the two ideas of union with Christ,
as the necessary condition of salvation, and of the Church as the
body of Christ, teaching that no one could be saved unless he
were a member of the Church (cf . his Epistle to the Ephesians 4,

5, 15; Trail. 7; Phil. 3, 8; Smyr. 8; Magn. 2, 7). Traces of the
same idea are found in Irenaeus (cf. Adv. Haer. iii. 24, I, iv.
26, 2), but it is first clearly set forth by Cyprian, and receives
from him its classical expression in the famous sentence " Salus
extra ecclesiam non est" (Ep. 73, 21; cf. also Ep. 4, 4; 74,7; and
De unilate ecclesiae, 6: " habere non potest Deum patrem qui
ecclesiam non habet matrem "). The Church thus became the
sole ark of salvation, outside of which no one could be saved.

Intimately connected with the idea of the Church as an ark
of salvation are the sacraments or means of grace. Already as
early as the 2nd century the rite of baptism had come to be
thought of as the sacrament of regeneration, by means of which
a new divine nature is born within a man (cf. Irenaeus, Adv.
Haer. i. 21, i, iii. 17, i; and his newly discovered Demonstration
of the Apostolic Teaching, chap. 3), and the eucharist as the
sacrament of the body and blood of Christ, feeding upon which
one is endowed with immortality (cf. Irenaeus, Adv. Haer. iv.
18, 5, v. 2, 2). In the early days the Church was thought of as
a community of saints, all of whose members were holy, and as
a consequence discipline was strict, and offenders excluded from
the Church were commonly not readmitted to membership but
left to the mercy of God. The idea thus became general that
baptism, which had been almost from the beginning the rite of
entrance into the Church, and which was regarded as securing
the forgiveness of all pre-baptismal sins, should be given but once
to any individual. Meanwhile, however, discipline grew less
strict (cf. the Shepherd of Hermas, Vis. v. 3; M. iv. 7; Sim. viii.

6, ix. 19, 26, &c.) ; until finally, under the influence of the idea
of the Church as the sole ark of salvation, it became the custom
to readmit all penitent offenders on condition that they did
adequate penance. Thus there grew up the sacrament of penance,
which secured for those already baptized the forgiveness of
post-baptismal sins. This sacrament, unlike baptism, might be
continually repeated (see PENANCE). In connexion with the
sacraments grew up also the theory of clerical sacerdotalism.
Ignatius had denied the validity of a eucharist administered
independently of the bishop, and the principle finally established
itself that the sacraments, with an exception in cases of emergency
in favour of baptism, could be performed only by men regularly
ordained and so endowed with the requisite divine grace for
their due administration (cf. Tertullian, De Exhort, cast. 7; De
Bapl. 7, 17; De Praescriptione Haer. 41; and Cyprian, Ep. 67.
For the later influence of the Donatist controversy upon the
sacramental development see DONATISTS). Thus the clergy as
distinguished from the laity became true priests, and the latter
were made wholly dependent upon the former for sacramental
grace, without which there is ordinarily no salvation (sec ORDER,
HOLY).

5. Christian Doctrine. Two tendencies appeared in the thought

334

CHURCH HISTORY

of the primitive Church, the one to regard Christianity as a law
given by God for the government of men's lives, with the promise
of a blessed immortality as a reward for its observance; the
other to view it as a means by which the corrupt and morta!
nature of man is transformed, so that he becomes a spiritual
and holy being. The latter tendency appeared first in Paul
afterwards in the Gospel and First Epistle of John, in Ignatius
of Antioch and in the Gnostics. The former found expression
in most of our New Testament writings, in all of the apostolic
fathers except Ignatius, and in the Apologists of the 2nd century.
The two tendencies were not always mutually exclusive, but
the one or the other was predominant in every case. Towards
the end of the and century they were combined by Irenaeus,
bishop of Lyons. To him salvation bears a double aspect,
involving both release from the control of the devil and the
transformation of man's nature by the indwelling of the Divine.
Only he is saved who on the one hand is forgiven at baptism and
so released from the power of Satan, and then goes on to live in
obedience to the divine law; and on the other hand receives in
baptism the germ of a new spiritual nature and is progressively
transformed by feeding upon the body and blood of the divine
Christ in the eucharist. This double conception of salvation
and of the means thereto was handed down to the Church of
subsequent generations and became fundamental in its thought.
Christianity is at once a revealed law which a man must keep,
and by keeping which he earns salvation, and a supernatural
power whereby his nature is transformed and the divine quality
of immortality imparted to it. From both points of view
Christianity is a supernatural system without which salvation is
impossible, and in the Christian Church it is preserved and
mediated to the world.

The twofold conception referred to had its influence also upon
thought about Christ. The effect of the legal view of Christianity
was to make Christ an agent of God in the revelation of the
divine will and truth, and so a subordinate being between God
and the world, the Logos of current Greek thought. The effect
of the mystical conception was to identify Christ with God in
order that by his incarnation the divine nature might be brought
into union with humanity and the latter be transformed. In this
case too a combination was effected, the idea of Christ as the
incarnation of the Logos or Son of God being retained and yet
his deity being preserved by the assertion of the deity of the
Logos. The recognition of Christ as the incarnation of the Logos
was practically universal before the close of the 3rd century,
but his deity was still widely denied, and the Arian controversy
which distracted the Church of the 4th century concerned the
latter question. At the council of Nicaea in 325 the deity of
Christ received official sanction and was given formulation in
the original Nicene Creed. Controversy continued for some
time, but finally the Nicene decision was recognized both in
East and West as the only orthodox faith. The deity of the Son
was believed to carry with it that of the Spirit, who was associated
with Father and Son in the baptismal formula and in the
current symbols, and so the victory of the Nicene Christology
meant the recognition of the doctrine of the Trinity as a part of
the orthodox faith (see especially the writings of the Cappadocian
fathers of the late 4th century, Gregory of Nyssa, Basil and
Gregory Nazianzen).

The assertion of the deity of the Son incarnate in Christ raised
another problem which constituted the subject of dispute in
the Christological controversies of the 4th and following centuries.
What is the relation of the divine and human natures in Christ?
At the council of Chalcedon in 451 it was declared that in the
person of Christ are united two complete natures, divine and
human, which retain after the union all their properties unchanged.
This was supplemented at the third council of Constantinople
in 680 by the statement that each of the natures contains a will,
so that Christ possesses two wills. The Western Church accepted
the decisions of Nicaea, Chalcedon and Constantinople, and so
the doctrines of the Trinity and of the two natures in Christ
were handed down as orthodox dogma in West as well as
East.

Meanwhile in the Western Church the subject of sin and grace,
and the relation of divine and human activity in salvation,
received especial attention; and finally, at the second council of
Orange in 529, after both Pelagianism and semi-Pelagianism had
been repudiated, a moderate form of Augustinianism was adopted,
involving the theory that every man as a result of the fall is in
such a condition that he can take no steps in the direction of
salvation until he has been renewed by the divine grace given in
baptism, and that he cannot continue in the good thus begun
except by the constant assistance of that grace, which is mediated
only by the Catholic Church. This decision was confirmed by
Pope Boniface II.. and became the accepted doctrine in the
Western Church of the middle ages. In the East, Augustine's
predestinationism had little influence, but East and West were
one in their belief that human nature had been corrupted by the
fall, and that salvation therefore is possible only to one who has
received divine grace through the sacraments. Agreeing as they
did in this fundamental theory, all differences were of mino;
concern.

In general it may be said that the traditional theology of the
Churchtookits material fromvarious sources Hebrew, Christian,
Oriental, Greek and Roman. The forms in which it found
expression were principally those of Greek philosophy on the one
hand and of Roman law on the other (see CHRISTIANITY).

6. Organization. The origin and early development of
ecclesiastical organization are involved in obscurity. Owing to
the once prevalent desire of the adherents of one or another
polity to find support in primitive precept or practice, the ques-
tion has assumed a prominence out of proportion to its' real im-
portance, and the few and scattered references in early Christian
writings have been made the basis for various elaborate theories.

In the earliest days the Church was regarded as a divine
institution, ruled not by men but by the Holy Spirit. At the
same time it was believed that the Spirit imparted different gifts
to different believers, and each gift fitted its recipient for the
performance of some service, being intended not for his own good
but for the good of his brethren (cf. i Cor. xii.; Eph. iv. n).
The chief of these was the gift of teaching, that is, of understand-
ing and interpreting to others the will and truth of God.
Those who were endowed more largely than their fellows with
this gift were commonly known as apostles, prophets and
teachers (cf. Acts xiii. i; i Cor. xii. 28; Eph. ii. 20, iii. 5,
iv. ii ; Didache, xi.). The apostles were travelling missionaries
or evangelists. There were many of them in the primitive
Church, and only gradually did the term come to be applied
exclusively to the twelve and Paul. There is no sign that the
apostles, whether the twelve or others, held any official position
in the Church. That they had a large measure of authority of
course goes without saying, but it depended always upon their
brethren's recognition of their possession of the divine gift of
apostleship, and the right of Churches or individuals to test their
claims and to refuse to listen to them if they did not vindicate
their divine call was everywhere recognized. Witness, for instance,
Paul's reference to false apostles in 2 Cor. xi. 13, and his efforts to
establish his own apostolic character to the satisfaction of the
Corinthians and Galatians (i Cor. ix. i ff.; 2 Cor. x. 13; Gal. i.
8 ff.); witness the reference in Rev. ii. 2 to the fact that the
Church at Ephesus had tried certain men who claimed to be
apostles and had found them false, and also the directions given
in the Didache for testing the character of those who travelled
about as apostles. The passage in the Didache is especially
significant: " Concerning the apostles and prophets, so do ye
according to the ordinance of the gospel. Let every apostle
when he cometh to you be received as the Lord. But he shall not
abide more than a single day, or if there be need a second likewise.
But if he abide three days he is a false prophet. And when the
apostle departeth let him receive nothing save bread until he
findeth shelter. But if he ask money he is a false prophet " (ch.
xi.). It is clear that a man who is to be treated in this way by the
congregation is not an official ruler over it.

Between the apostles, prophets and teachers no hard-and-fast
ines can be drawn. The apostles were commonly missionary

CHURCH HISTORY

335

prophets, called permanently or temporarily to the special work
of evangelization (cf. Acts xiii. i; Did. xi.), while the teachers
seem to have been distinguished both from apostles and prophets
by the fact that their spiritual endowment was less strikingly
supernatural. The indefiniteness of the boundaries between the
three classes, and the free interchange of names, show how far
they were from being definite offices or orders within the Church.
Apostleship, prophecy and teaching were only functions, whose
frequent or regular exercise by one or another, under the inspira-
tion of the Spirit, led his brethern to call him an apostle, prophet
or teacher.

But at an early day we find regular officers in this and that
local Church, and early in the 2nd century the three permanent
offices of bishop, presbyter and deacon existed at any rate in Asia
Minor (cf. the Epistles of Ignatius of Antioch). Their rise was
due principally to the necessity of administering the charities of
the Church, putting an end to disorder and confusion in the
religious services, and disciplining offenders. It was naturally to
the apostles, prophets and teachers, its most spiritual men, that
the Church looked first for direction and control in all these
matters. But such men were not always at hand, or sometimes
they were absorbed in other duties. Thus the need of sub-
stitutes began to be felt here and there, and as a consequence
regular offices within the local Churches gradually made their
appearance, sometimes simply recognized as charged with
responsibilities which they had already voluntarily assumed
(cf.i. Cor. xvi. 15), sometimes appointed by an apostle or prophet
or other specially inspired man (cf. Acts xiv. 23; Titus i. 5; I
Clement 44), sometimes formally chosen by the congregation
itself (cf. Acts vi., Did. xi.). These men naturally acquired more
and more as time passed the control and leadership of the Church
in all its activities, and out of what was in the beginning more or
less informal and temporary grew fixed and permanent offices,
the incumbents of which were recognized as having a right to rule
over the Church, a right which once given could not lawfully be
taken away unless they were unfaithful to their trust. Not
continued endowment by the Spirit, but the possession of an
ecclesiastical office now became the basis of authority. The
earliest expression of this genuinely official principle is found in
Clement's Epistle to the Corinthians, ch. xliv. Upon these
officers devolved ultimately not only the disciplinary, financial
and liturgical duties referred to, but also the still higher function
of instructing their fellow-Christians in God's will and truth, and
so they became the substitutes of the apostles, prophets and
teachers in all respects (cf. i Tim. iii. 2, v. 17; Titus i. 9; Did.
15; i Clement 44; Justin's first Apology, 67).

Whether in the earliest days there was a single officer at the
head of a congregation, or a plurality of officers of equal
authority, it is impossible to say with assurance. The few
references which we have look in the latter direction (cf., for
instance, Acts vi.; Phil. i. i; i Clement 42, 44; Did. 14), but we
are not justified in asserting that they represent the universal
custom. The earliest distinct evidence of the organization of
Churches under a single head is found in the Epistles of Ignatius
of Antioch, which date from the latter part of the reign of
Trajan (c. 1 1 6) . Ignatius bears witness to the presence in various
Churches of Asia Minor of a single bishop in control, with whom
are associated as his subordinates a number of elders and deacons.
This form of organization ultimately became universal, and
already before the end of the 2nd century it was established in
all the parts of Christendom with which we are acquainted,
though in Egypt it seems to have been the exception rather than
the rule, and even as late as the middle of the 3rd century many
churches there were governed by a plurality of officers instead
of by a single head (see Harnack, Mission und Ausbreitung des
Chrislenthums, pp. 337 seq.). Where there were one bishop and a
number of presbyters and deacons in a church, the presbyters
constituted the bishop's council, and the deacons his assistants
in the management of the finances and charities and in the
conduct of the services. (Upon the minor orders which arose
in the 3rd and following centuries, and became ultimately a
training school for the higher clergy, see Harnack, Texte und

Unlersuchungen, ii. 5; English translation under the title of
Sources of the Apostolic Canons, 1895.)

Meanwhile the rise and rapid spread of Gnosticism produced
a great crisis in the Church of the 2nd century, and profoundly
affected the ecclesiastical organization. The views of the
Gnostics, and of Marcion as well, seemed to the majority of
Christians destructive of the gospel, and it was widely felt that
they were too dangerous to be tolerated. The original dependence
upon the Spirit for light and guidance was inadequate. The
men in question claimed to be Christians and to enjoy divine
illumination as truly as anybody, and so other safeguards
appeared necessary. It was in the effort to find such safeguards
that steps were taken which finally resulted in the institution
known as the Catholic Church. The first of these steps was the
recognition of the teaching of the apostles (that is, of the twelve
and Paul) as the exclusive standard of Christian truth. This
found expression in the formulation of an apostolic scripture
canon, our New Testament, and of an apostolic rule of faith, of
which the old Roman symbol, the original of our present Apostles'
Creed, is one of the earliest examples. Over against the claims
of the Gnostics that they had apostolic authority, either oral or
written, for their preaching, were set these two standards, by
which alone the apostolic character of any doctrine was to be
tested (cf. Irenaeus, Adv. Haer. i. 10, iii. 3, 4; and Tertullian,
De Prescription Haer. passim). But these standards proved
inadequate to the emergency, for it was possible, especially by
the use of the allegorical method, to interpret them in more than
one way, and their apostolic origin and authority were not
everywhere admitted. In view of this difficulty, it was claimed
that the apostles had appointed the bishops as their successors,
and that the latter were in possession of special divine grace
enabling them to transmit and to interpret without error the
teaching of the apostles committed to them. This is the famous
theory known as " apostolic succession." The idea of the
apostolic appointment of church officers is as old as Clement
of Rome (see i Clement 44), but the use of the theory to guarantee
the apostolic character of episcopal teaching was due to the
exigencies of the Gnostic conflict. Irenaeus (Adv. Haer. iii.
3 ff., iv. 26, iv. 33, v. 20), Tertullian (De prescription, 32),
and Hippolytus (Philosophumena, bk. i., preface) are our earliest
witnesses to it, and Cyprian sets it forth clearly in his epistles
(e.g. Ep. 33, 43, 59,66, 69). The Church was thus in possession not
only of authoritative apostolic doctrine, but also of a permanent
apostolic office, to which alone belonged the right to determine
what that doctrine is. The combination of this idea with that
of clerical sacerdotalism completed the Catholic theory of the
Church and the clergy. Saving grace is recognized as apostolic
grace, and the bishops as successors of the apostles become its
sole transmitters. Bishops are therefore necessary to the very
being of the Church, which without them is without the saving
grace for the giving of which the Church exists (cf. Cyprian, Ep.
33, " ecclesia super episcopos constituitur " ; 66, " ecclesia in
episcopo " ; also Ep. 59, and De unitate cedes. 17).

These bishops were originally not diocesan but congregational,
that is, each church, however small, had its own bishop. This is
the organization testified to by Ignatius, and Cyprian's insistence
upon the bishop as necessary to the very existence of the Church
seems to imply the same thing. Congregational episcopacy was
the rule for a number of generations. But after the middle of
the 3rd century diocesan episcopacy began to make its appear-
ance here and there, and became common in the 4th century
under the influence of the general tendency toward centralization,
the increasing power of city bishops, and the growing dignity of
the episcopate (cf. canon 6 of the council of Sardica, and canon
57 of the council of Laodicea; and see Harnack, Mission und
Ausbreitung, pp. 319 seq.). This enlargement of the bishop's
parish and multiplication of the chuches under his care led to a
change in the functions of the presbyterate. So long as each
church had its own bishop the presbyters constituted simply
his council, but with the growth of diocesan episcopacy it became
the custom to put each congregation under the care of a particular
presbyter, who performed within it most of the pastoral duties

33 6

CHURCH HISTORY

formerly discharged by the bishop himself. The presbyters,
however, were not independent officers. They Were only
representatives of the bishop, and the churches over which they
were set were all a part of his parish, so that the Cyprianic
principle, that the bishop is necessary to the very being of the
Church, held good of diocesan as well as of congregational
episcopacy. The bishop alone possessed the right to ordain;
through him alone could be derived the requisite clerical grace;
and so the clergy like the laity were completely dependent upon
him.

The growth of the diocesan principle promoted the unity of the
churches gathered under a common head. But unity was carried
much further than this, and finally resulted in at least a nominal
consolidation of all the churches of Christendom into one whole.
The belief in the unity of the entire Church had existed from the
beginning. Though made up of widely scattered congregations,
it was thought of as one body of Christ, one people of God. This
ideal unity found expression in many ways. Intercommunica-
tion between the various Christian communities was very active.
Christians upon a journey were always sure of a warm welcome
and hospitable entertainment from their fellow-disciples.
Messengers and letters were sent freely from one church to
another. Missionaries and evangelists went continually from
place to place. Documents of various kinds, including gospels
and apostolic epistles, circulated widely. Thus in various ways
the feeling of unity found expression, and the development of
widely separated parts of Christendom conformed more or less
closely to a common type. It was due to agencies such as these
that the scattered churches did not go each its own way and
become ultimately separate and diverse institutions. But this
general unity became official, and expressed itself in organization,
only with the rise of the conciliar and metropolitan systems.
Already before the end of the 2nd century local synods were held
in Asia Minor to deal with Montanism, and in the 3rd century
provincial synods became common, and by the council of Nicaea
(canon 5) it was decreed that they should be held twice every year
in every province. Larger synods representing the churches of a
number of contiguous provinces also met frequently; for instance,
in the early 4th century at Elvira, Ancyra, Neo-Caesarea and
Arlei, the last representing the entire Western world. Such
gatherings were especially common during the great doctrinal
controversies of the 4th century. In 325 the first general or
ecumenical council, representing theoretically the entire Christian
Church, was held at Nicaea. Other councils of the first period
now recognized as ecumenical by the Church both East and West
are Constantinople I. (381), Ephesus (431), Chalcedon (451),
Constantinople II. (553). All these were called by the emperor,
and to their decisions he gave the force of law. Thus the
character of the Church as a state institution voiced itself in
them. (See COUNCIL.)

The theory referred to above, that the bishops are successors of
the apostles, and as such the authoritative conservators and
interpreters of apostolic truth, involves of course the solidarity of
the episcopate, and the assumption that all bishops are in
complete harmony and bear witness to the same body of doctrine.
This assumption, however, was not always sustained by the facts.
Serious disagreements even on important matters developed
frequently. As a result the ecumenical council came into
existence especially for the purpose of settling disputed questions
of doctrine, and giving to the collective episcopate the opportunity
to express its voice in a final and official way. At the council of
Nicaea, and at the ecumenical councils which followed, the idea
of an infallible episcopate giving authoritative and permanent
utterance to apostolic and therefore divine truth, found clear
expression, and has been handed down as a part of the faith of the
Catholic Church both East and West. The infallibility of the
episcopate guarantees the infallibility of a general council in
which not the laity and not the clergy in general, but the bishops
as successors of the apostles, speak officially and collectively.

Another organized expression of the unity of the Church was
found in the metropolitan system, or the grouping of the churches
of a province under a single head, who was usually the bishop of

the capital city, and was known as the metropolitan bishop.
The Church thus followed in its organization the political divisions
of the Empire (cf. for instance canon 12 of the council of Chalcedon,
which forbids more than one metropolitan see in a province; also
canon 17 of the same council: "And if any city has been or
shall hereafter be newly erected by imperial authority, let the
arrangement of ecclesiastical parishes follow the political and
municipal forms ") These metropolitan bishops were common
in the East before the end of the 3rd century, and the general
existence of the organization was taken for granted by the council
of Nicaea (see canons 4, 6, 7). In the West, on the other hand, the
development was much slower.

Meanwhile the tendency which gave rise to the metropolitan
system resulted in the grouping together of the churches of a
number of contiguous provinces under the headship of the bishop
of the most important city of the district, as, for instance,
Antioch, Ephesus, Alexandria, Rome, Milan, Carthage, Aries.
In canon 6 of the council of Nicaea the jurisdiction of the bishops
of Alexandria, Rome and Antioch over a number of provinces is
recognized. At the council of Constantinople (381) the bishop of
Constantinople or New Rome was ranked next after the bishop
of Rome (canon 3), and at the council of Chalcedon (451) he was
given authority over the churches of the political dioceses of
Pontus, Asia and Thrace (canon 28). To the bishops of Rome,
Constantinople, Antioch and Alexandria was added at the council
of Chalcedon (session 7) the bishop of Jerusalem, the mother
church of Christendom, and the bishops thus recognized as
possessing supreme jurisdiction were finally known as patriarchs.

Meanwhile the Roman episcopate developed into the papacy,
which claimed supremacy over the entire Christian Church, and
actually exercised it increasingly in the West from the sth century
on. This development was forwarded by Augustine, who in his
famous work De civitate Dei identified the Church with the
kingdom of God, and claimed that it was supreme over all the
nations of the earth, which make up the civitas terrena or earthly
state. Augustine's theory was ultimately accepted everywhere
in the West, and thus the Church of the middle ages was regarded
not only as the sole ark of salvation, but also as the ultimate
authority, moral, intellectual and political. Upon this doctrine
was built, not by Augustine himself but by others who came after
him, the structure of the papacy, the bishop of Rome being
finally recognized as the head under Christ of the civitas Dei, and
so the supreme organ of divine authority on earth (see PAPACY
and POPE).

Historical Sources of the First Period. These are of the same
general character for Church history as for general history on the
one hand monumental, on the other hand documentary- Among the
monuments are churches, catacombs, tombs and inscriptions of
various kinds, few antedating the 3rd century, and none adding
greatly to the knowledge gained from documentary sources (see
De Rossi, Roma sotteranea, 1864 ff., and its English abridgment
by Northcote and Brownlow, 1870; Andre Perate, L'Archeologie
chrelienne, 1892; W. Lowrie, Monuments of the Early Church, 1901,
with good bibliography). The documents comprise imperial edicts,
rescripts, &c., liturgies, acts of councils, decretals and letters of
bishops, references in contemporary heathen writings, and above all
the works of the Church Fathers. Written sources from the 1st and
2nd centuries are relatively few, comprising, in addition to some
scattered allusions by outsiders, the New Testament, the Apostolic
Fathers, the Greek Apologists, Clement of Alexandria, the old
Catholic Fathers (Irenaeus, Tertullian and Hippolytus) and a few
Gnostic fragments. For the 3rd, and especially the 4th and following
centuries, the writers are much more numerous; for instance, in the
East, Origen and his disciples, and later Eusebius of Caesarea,
Athanasius, Apollinaris, Basil and the two Gregories, Cyril of
Jerusalem, Epiphanius, Chrysostom, Ephraim the Syrian, Cyril
Alexandria, Pseudo-Dionysius; in the West, Novatian, Cyprian,
Commodian, Arnobius, Lactantius, Hilary, Ambrose, Rufinus,
Jerome, Augustine, Prosper, Leo the Great, Cassian, Vincent of
Lerins, Faustus, Gennadius, Ennodius, Avitus, Caesarius, Fulgentius
and many others.

There are many editions of the works of the Fathers in the original,
the most convenient, in spite of its defects, being that of J. P. Migne
(Patrologia Graeca, 166 vols., Paris, 1857 ff. ; Patrologia Latino,
221 vols., 1844 ff.). Of modern critical editions, besides those con-
tainmg the_ works of one or another individual, the best are the
Berlin edition of the early Greek Fathers (Die griechischen christ-
lichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei Jahrhunderte, 1897 ff.), and th

CHURCH HISTORY

337

Vienna edition of the Latin Fathers (Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasti-
corum Latinorum, 1867 ff.)i both of first-rate importance. There
is a convenient English translation of most of the writings of the
ante-Nicene Fathers by Roberts and Donaldson (Ante-Nicene
Christian Library, 25 vols., Edinburgh, 1868 ff., American reprint
in nine vols., 1886 ff.). A continuation of it, containing selected
works of the Nicene and post-Nicene period, was edited by Schaff
and others under the title A Select Library of Nicene and post-Nicene
Fathers (series I and 2; 28 vols., Buffalo and New York, 1886 ff.).
On early Christian literature, in addition to the works on Church
history, see especially the monumental Geschichte der altchristlichen
Litteralur bis Eusebius, by Harnack (1893 ff.). The brief Geschichte
der altchristlichen Litteralur in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten, by
G. Kriiger (1895, English translation 1897) is a vary convenient
summary. Bardenhewer's Patrologie (1894) a "d his Geschichte der
altkirchlichen Litteratur (1902 ff.) should also be mentioned. See
also Smith and Wace's invaluable Dictionary of Christian Biography
(1877 ff.). (A.C.McG.)

B. THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES

The ancient Church was the church of the Roman empire.
It is true that from the 4th century onwards it expanded beyond
the borders of that empire to east and west, north and south;
but the infant churches which gradually arose in Persia and
Abyssinia, among some of the scattered Teutonic races, and
among the Celts of Ireland, were at first not co-operating factors
in the development of Christendom: they received without
giving in return. True historic life is only to be found within the
church of the Empire.

The middle ages came into being at the time when the political
structure of the world, based upon the conquests of Alexander
the Great and the achievements of Julius Caesar, began to
disintegrate. They were present when the believers in Mahomet
held sway in the Asiatic and African provinces which Alexander
had once brought under the intellectual influence of Hellenism ;
while the Lombards, the West Goths, the Franks and the Anglo-
Saxons had established kingdoms in Italy, Spain, Gaul and
Britain. The question is: what was the position of the Church
in this great change of circumstances, and what form did the
Church's development take from this time onwards? In
answering this question we must consider East and West separ-
ately; for their histories are no longer coincident, as they had
been in the time of the Roman dominion.

I. THE EAST, (a) The Orthodox Church. Ancient and medieval
times were not separated by so deep a gulf in the East as in the
West; for in the East the Empire continued to exist, although
within narrow limits, until towards the end of the middle ages.
Constantinople only fell in 1453. Ecclesiastical Byzantinism is
therefore not a product of the middle ages: it is the outcome of
the development of the eastern half of the empire from the time of
Constantine the Great. Under Justinian I. all ils essential
features were already formed: imperial power extended equally
over State and Church; indeed, care for the preservation of
dogma and for the purity of the priesthood was the chief duty of
the ruler. To fulfil this duty was to serve the interests of both
State and people; for thus " a fine harmony is established, and
whatever good exists becomes the portion of the whole human
race." Since the emperor ruled the Church there was no longer
any question of independence for the bishops, least of all for the
patriarch in Constantinople; they were in every respect sub-
ordinate to the emperor.

The orthodoxy of the Eastern Church was also a result of the
Church's development after the time of Constantine. In the long
strife over dogma the old belief of the Greeks in the value of
knowledge had made itself felt, and this faith was not extinct in
the Eastern Church. There is no doubt that in the beginning of
the middle ages both general and theological education stood
higher among the Greeks than in more western countries. In the
West there were no learned men who could vie with Photius

I'.ca. 820-891) in range of knowledge and variety of scientific
ittainment. But the strife over dogma came to an end with the
rth century. After the termination of the monothelite con-
:roversy (638-680), creed and doctrines were complete; it was
mly necessary to preserve them intact. Theology, therefore,
low resolved itself into the collection and renroduction of the

teaching of ancient authorities. The great dogmatist of the
Eastern Church, John of Damascus (ca. 699-753), who stood on
the threshold of the middle ages, formulated clearly and precisely
his working principle: to put forward nothing of his own, but to
present the truth according to the authority of the Bible and of
the Fathers of the Church. Later teachers, Euthymius Zigadenus
(d. circa 1120), Nicetas Choniates (d. circa 1200), and others,
proceeded further on the same .lines; Euthymius, in particular,
often uses an excerpt Instead of giving his own exposition.

This attitude towards dogma did not mean that it was less
prized than during the period of strife. On the contrary, the
sacred formulae were revered because they were believed to
contain the determination of the highest truths: the knowledge
of God and of the mystery of salvation. Yet it is intelligible
that religious interest should have concerned itself more keenly
with the mystic rites of divine worship than with dogma. Here
was more than knowledge; here were representations of a mystic
sensuousness, solemn rites, which brought the faithful into
immediate contact with the Divine, and guaranteed to them the
reception of heavenly powers. What could be of more importance
than to be absorbed in this transcendental world? We may
gauge the energy with which the Greek intellect turned in this
direction if we call to mind that the controversy about dogma
was replaced by the con troversy about images. This raged in the
Eastern Church for more than a century (726-843), and only
sank to rest when the worship of images was unconditionally
conceded. In this connexion the image was not looked upon
merely as a symbol, but as the vehicle of the presence and power
of that which it represented: in the image the invisible becomes
operative in the visible world. Christ did not seem to be Christ
unless he were visibly represented. What an ancient teacher had
said with regard to the worship of Christ as the revelation of the
Eternal Father " Honours paid to the earthly representative
are shared by the heavenly Archetype " was now transferred to
the painted image: it appeared as an analogy to the Incarnation.
It was for this reason that the victory of image worship was
celebrated by the introduction of the festival of the Orthodox
Faith.

It is consistent with this circle of ideas that initiation into the
profound mysteries of the liturgy was regarded, together with the
preservation of dogma, as the most exalted function of theology.
A beginning had been made, in the sth century, by the neo-
platonic Christian who addressed his contemporaries under the
mask of Dionysius the Areopagite. He is the first of a series of
theological mystics which continued through every century of
the middle ages. Maximus Confessor, the heroic defender of
Dyotheletism (d. 662), Symeon, the New Theologian (d. circa
1040), Nicolaus Cabasilas (d. 1371), and Symeon, like Nicholas,
archbishop of Thessalonica (d. 1429), were the most conspicuous
representatives of this Oriental mysticism. They left all the
dogmas and institutions of the Church untouched; aspiring
above and beyond these, their aim was religious experience.

It is this striving after religious experience that gives to the
Oriental monachism of the middle ages its peculiar character.
In the sth and 6th centuries Egypt and Palestine had been the
classic lands of monks and monasteries. But when, in conse-
quence of the Arab invasion, the monasticism of those countries
was cut off from intercourse with the rest of Christendom, it
decayed. Constantinople and Mount Athos gained proportion-
ately in importance during the middle ages. At Constantinople
the monastery of Studium, founded about 460, attained to
supreme influence during the controversy about images. On
Mount Athos the first monastery was founded in the year 963,
and in 1045 the number of monastic foundations had reached 180.
In Greek monachism the old Hellenic ideal of the wise man who
has no wants (avr6.pKfia) was from the first fused with the
Christian conception of unreserved self-surrender to God as the
highest aim and the highest good. These ideas governed it in
medieval times also, and in this way monastic life received a
decided bent towards mysticism: the monks strove to realize
the heavenly life even upon earth, their highest aim being the
contemplation of God and of His ways. The teachings of

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CHURCH HISTORY

Symeon " the New Theologian " on these matters lived on in the
cloisters; it was taken up by the Hesychasts of the I4th century,
and developed into a peculiar theory as to the perception of the
Divine Light. In spite of all opposition their teaching was
finally justified by the Eastern Church (sixth synod of Constanti-
nople, 1351). And rightly so, for it was the old Greek piety
minted afresh.

The Eastern Church, then, throughout the middle ages,
remained true in every particular to her ancient character. It
cannot be said that she developed as did the Western Church
during this period, for she remained what she had been; but she
freely developed her original characteristics, consistently, in
every direction. This too is life, though of a different type from
that of the West.

That there was life in the Eastern Church is also proved by the
fact that the power of expansion was not denied her. Through
her agency an important bulwark for the Christian faith was
created in the new nations which had sprung into existence since
the beginning of the middle ages: the Bulgarians, the Servians,
and the multifarious peoples grouped under the name of Russians.
There is a vast difference in national character between these
young peoples and the successors of the Hellenes; and it is there-
fore all the more significant to find that both the Church and
religious sentiment should in their case have fully preserved the
Byzantine character. This proves once more the ancient capacity
of the Greeks for the assimilation of foreign elements.

There was yet another outcome of this stubborn persistency
of a peculiar type the impossibility of continuing to share the
life of the Western Church. Neither in the East nor in the West
was a separation desired; but it was inevitable, since the lives
of East and West were moving in different directions. It was
the fall of Constantinople that first weakened the vital force
of the Eastern Church. May we hope that the events of modern
times are leading her towards a renaissance?

(b) The Nestorian and the Monophysite Churches. Since the
time when the church of eastern Syria had decided, in opposition
to the church of the Empire, to cling to the ancient views of
Syrian theologians therefore also to the teaching and person
of Nestorius her relations were broken off with the church in
western Syria and in Greek and Latin countries; but the power
of Nestorian, or, as it was termed, Chaldaic Christianity, was
not thereby diminished. Separated from the West, it directed
its energies towards the East, and here its nearest neighbour
was the Persian church. The latter followed, almost without
opposition, the impulse received from Syria; from the rule of
the patriarch Babaeus (Syr. Bab-hai, 498-503) she may be
considered definitely Nestorian. A certain number, too, of
Arabic Christians, believers living on the west coast of India,
the so-called Christians of St Thomas, and finally those belonging
to places nearer the middle of Asia (Merv, Herat, Samarkand),
remained in communion with the Nestorian church. Thus there
survived in mid- Asia a widely-scattered remnant, which, although
out of touch with the ancient usages of Christian civilization,
yet in no way lacked higher culture. Nestorian philosophers
and medical practitioners became the teachers of the great
Arabian natural philosophers of the middle ages, and the latter
obtained their knowledge of Greek learning from Syriac trans-
lations of the works of Greek thinkers.

Political conditions at the beginning of the middle ages
favoured the Nestorian church, and the fact that the Arabs
had conquered Syria, Palestine and Egypt, made it possible
for her to exert an influence on the Christians in these countries.
Of still more importance was the brisk commercial intercourse
between central Asia and the countries of the Far East; for
this led the Nestorians into China. The inscription of Si-ngan-fu
(before 781) proves a surprisingly widespread extension of the
Christian faith in that country. That it also possessed adherents
in southern Siberia we gather from the inscriptions of Semiryet-
chensk, and in the beginning of the nth century it found its
way even into Mongolia. Nowhere were the nations Christian,
but the Christian faith was everywhere accepted by a not
insignificant minority. The foundation of the Mongolian empire

in the beginning of the I3th century did not disturb the position
of the Nestorian church; but the revival of the Mahommedan
power, which was coincident with the downfall of the Mongolian
empire, was pregnant with disaster for her. The greater part
of Nestorian Christendom was now swallowed up by Islam, so
that only remnants of this once extensive church have survived
until modern times.

The middle ages were far more disastrous for the Monophysites
than for the Nestorians; in their case there was no alternation
of rise and decline, and we have only a long period of gradual
exhaustion to chronicle. Egypt was the home of Monophysitism,
whence it extended also into Syria. It was due to the great
Jacob of Edessa (Jacob Baradaeus, d. 578) that it did not succumb
to the persecution by the power of the Orthodox Empire, and
out of gratitude to him the Monophysite Christians of Syria
called themselves Jacobites. The Arab conquest (after 635)
freed the Jacobite church entirely from the oppression of the
Orthodox, and thereby assured its continuance. The church,
however, never attained any greater development, but on the
contrary continued to lose adherents from century to century.
While Jacob of Edessa is said to have ordained some 100,000
priests and deacons for his fellow-believers, in the i6th century
the Jacobites of Syria were estimated at only 50,000 families.

The Monophysite church of Egypt had a like fate. At the
time of the separation of the churches the Greeks here had re-
mained faithful to Orthodoxy, the Copts to Monophysitism.
Here too the Arab conquest (641) put an end to the oppression
of the native Christians by the Greek minority; but this did not
afford the Coptic church any possibility of vigorous development.
It succumbed to the ceaseless alternation of tolerance and
persecution which characterized the Arab rule in Egypt, and
the mass of the Coptic people became unfaithful to the Church.
At the time of the conquest of the country by the Turks (1517)
the Coptic church seems already to have fallen to the low
condition in which the ipth century found it. Though at the
time of the Arab conquest the Copts were reckoned at six
millions, in 1820 the Coptic Christians numbered only about
one hundred thousand, and it is improbable that their number
can have been much greater at the close of the middle ages. Only
in Abyssinia the daughter church of the Coptic church succeeded
in keeping the whole people in the Christian faith. This fact,
however, is the sole outcome of the history of a thousand years;
a poor result, if measured by the standard of the rich history
of the Western world, yet large enough not to exclude the hope
of a new development.

II. THE WEST, (a) The Early Middle Ages. The Catholic
Church as influenced by the Foundation of the Teutonic Slates.
While the Eastern Church was stereotyping those peculiar
characteristics which made her a thing apart, the Church of
the West was brought face to face with the greatest revolution
that Europe has ever experienced. At the end of the 6th century
all the provinces of the Empire had become independent king-
doms, in which conquerors of Germanic race formed the dominant
nationality. The remnants of the Empire showed an uncommonly
tough vitality. It is true that the Teutonic states succeeded
everywhere in establishing themselves; but only in England
and in the erstwhile Roman Germany did the Roman nationality
succumb to the Teutonic. In the other countries it not only
mantained itself, but was able to assimilate the ruling German
race; the Lombards, West Goths, Swabians, and even the
Franks in the greater part of Gaul became Romanized. Con-
sequently the position of the Christian Church was never seriously
affected. This is the great fact which stands out at the beginning
of the history of the Church in the middle ages. The continuity
of the political history of Europe was violently interrupted by
the Germanic invasion, but not that of the history of the Church.
For, in view of the facts above stated, it was of small significance"
that in Britain Christianity was driven back into the western
portion of the island still held by the Britons, and that in the
countries of the Rhine and Danube a few bishoprics disappeared.

This was of the less importance, as the Church immediately
made preparations to win back the lost territory. On the

CHURCH HISTORY

339

frontier line of ancient and medieval times stands the figure of
Gregory I., the incarnation as it were of the change that was
taking place: half Father of the Church, half medieval pope.
He it was who sent the monk Augustine to England, in order
to win over the Anglo-Saxons to the Christian faith. Augustine
was not the first preacher of the Gospel at Canterbury. A
Prankish bishop, Liudhard, had laboured there before his time;
but the mission of Augustine and his ordination as a bishop
were decisive in the conversion of the country and the estab-
lishment of the Anglo-Saxon church. On the continent
an extension of the Prankish supremacy towards the east had
already led to the advance of Christendom. Not only were the
bishoprics in the towns of the Rhine country re-established,
but as the Franks colonized the country on both sides of the
Main, they carried the Christian faith into the very heart of
Germany. Finally, the dependence of the Swabian and Bavarian
peoples on the Prankish empire paved the way for Christianity
in those provinces also. Celtic monks worked as missionaries
in this part of the country side by side with Franks. In England
it had not been possible to bring the old British and the young
Anglo-Saxon churches into friendly union; but in spite of this
the Celts did not abstain from working at the common tasks
of Christendom, and the continent has much to thank them for.
When the first century of the middle ages came to an end the
Church had not only reoccupied the former territory of the
Empire, she had already begun to overstep its limits.

In so doing she had remained as of old and had yet become
new. Creed and dogma, above all, remained unchanged. The
doctrinal decisions of the ancient Church remained the inde-
structible canon of belief, and what the theologians of the
ancient Church had taught was reverenced as beyond improve-
ment. The entire form of divine worship remained therefore
unaltered. Even where the Latin tongue was not understood
by the people, the Church preserved it in the Mass and in the
administration of the sacraments, in her exorcisms and in her
benedictions. Furthermore, the organization of ecclesiastical
offices remained unchanged: the division of the Church into
bishoprics and the grouping together of bishoprics into metro-
politan dioceses. Finally, the property and the whole social
status of the Church and of the hierarchy remained unchanged,
as did also the conviction that the perfection of the Christian
life was to be sought and found in the monastic profession.

Nevertheless, the new conditions did exercise the strongest
influence upon the character of the Church. The churches of
the Lombards, West Goths, Franks and Anglo-Saxons, all
counted themselves parts of the Catholic Church; but the
Catholic Church had altered its condition; it lacked the power
of organization, and split up into territorial churches. Under
the Empire the ecumenical council had been looked upon as
the highest representative organ of the Catholic Church; but
the earlier centuries of the middle ages witnessed the convocation
of no ecumenical councils. Under the Empire the bishop of
Rome had possessed in the Church an authority recognized and
protected by the State; respect for Rome and for the successor
of Saint Peter was not forgotten by the new territorial churches,
but it had altered in character; legal authority had become
merely moral authority; its wielder could exhort, warn, advise
but could not command.

On the other hand, the kings did command in the Church.

hey certainly claimed no authority over faith or doctrine, and
they too respected doctrinal law; but they succeeded in asserting
their rights to a practical share in the government of the Church.
The clergy and laity of a diocese together elected their bishop,
they had done before; but no one could become a bishop
gainst the will of the king, and the confirmation of their choice
rested with him. The bishops continued to meet in synods as
before, but the councils became territorial synods; they were
ailed together at irregular intervals by the king, and their
decisions obtained legal effect only by royal sanction.

In these circumstances the intrusion of Germanic elements
nto ecclesiastical law is easy to understand. This is most
dearly recognizable in the case of churches which arose alongside

the episcopal cathedrals. In the Empire all churches, and all
the property of the Church, were at the disposal of the bishops;
in Germanic countries, on the contrary, the territorial nobles
were looked upon as the owners of churches built upon their
lands, and these became " proprietary churches." The logical
consequence of this was that the territorial nobles claimed the
right of appointing clergy, and the enjoyment of the revenues
of these churches derived from the land (tithes). Even a certain
number of the monastic establishments came in this way into
the possession of the feudal landowners, who nominated abbots
and abbesses as they appointed the incumbents of their churches.

With these conditions, and with the diminution of the as-
cendancy of town over country that resulted from the Teutonic
conquests, is connected the rise of the parochial system in the
country. The parishes were further grouped together into rural
deaneries and archdeaconries. Thus the diocese, hitherto a
simple unit, became an elaborately articulated whole. The
bishopric of the middle ages bears the same name as that of the
ancient Church; but in many respects it has greatness that
is new.

This transformation of old institutions is the first great result
of Germanic influence in the Christian Church. It continues to
the present day in the universal survival of the parochial system.

In the middle ages the civilizing task of the Church was first
approached in England. This was the home of the Latin
Christian literature and theology of medieval times. Aldhelm
(d. 709) and the Venerable Bede (d. 735) were the first scholars
of the period. England was also the home of Winfrid Bonifatius
(d. 757). We are accustomed to look upon him -chiefly as a
missionary; but his completion of the conversion of the peoples
of central Germany (Thuringians and Hessians) and his share
in that of the Frisians, are the least part of his life-work. Of
more importance is the fact that, in co-operation with the bishops
of Rome, he carried out the organization of the church in Bavaria,
and began the reorganization of the Prankish church, which had
fallen into confusion and decay during the political disorders
of the last years of the Merovingians. It was Boniface, too,
who, with the aid of numerous English priests, monks and nuns,
introduced the literary culture of England into Germany.

Pippin (d. 768) and Charlemagne (d. 814) built on the founda-
tions laid by Winfrid. For the importance of Charlemagne's
work, from the point of view of the Church, consists also, not so
much in the fact that, by his conversion of the Saxons, the Avars
and the Wends in the eastern Alps, he substantially extended the
Church's dominions, as in his having led back the Prankish Church
to the fulfilment of her functions as a religious and civilizing
agent. This was the purpose of his ecclesiastical legislation.
The principal means to this end taken by him was the raising of
the status of the clergy. From the priests he demanded faithful-
ness in preaching and teaching, from the bishops the conscientious
government of their dioceses. The monasteries, too, learned
to serve the Church by becoming nurseries of literary and
theological culture. For the purpose of carrying out his ideas
Charlemagne gathered round him the best intellects of Europe.
None was more intimately associated with him than the Anglo-
Saxon Alcuin (d. 804); but he was only one among many.
Beside him are the Celts Josephus Scottus and Dungal, the
Lombards Paulinus and Paulus Diaconus, the West Goth
Theodulf and many Franks. Under their guidance theology
flourished in the Prankish empire. It was as little original as
that of Bede; for on the continent, too, scholars were content to
think what those of old had thought before them. But in so
doing they did not only repeat the old formulae; the ideas of the
men of old sprang into new life. This is shown by the searching
discussions to which the Adoptionist controversy gave rise. At
the same time, the controversy with the Eastern Church over the
adoration of images shows that the younger Western theology
felt itself equal, if not superior to the Greek. This was in fact the
case; for it knew how to treat the question, which divided the
Greeks, in a more dispassionate and practical manner than they.

The second generation of Prankish theologians did not lag
behind the first. Hrabanus of Fulda (who died archbishop of

340

CHURCH HISTORY

Mainz in 856) was in the range of his knowledge undoubtedly
Alcuin's superior. He was the first learned theologian produced
by Germany. His disciple, Abbot Walafrid Strabo of Reichenau
(d. 849), was the author of the Glossa Ordinaria, a work which
formed the foundation of biblical exposition throughout the
middle ages. France was still more richly provided with theo-
logians in the gth century: her most prominent names are
Hincmar, archbishop of Reims (d. 882), Bishop Prudentius of
Troyes (d. 861), the monks Servatus Lupus (d. 862), Radbert
Paschasius (d. circa 860), and Ratramnus (d. after 868) ; and the
last theologian who came into France from abroad, Johannes
Scotus Erigena (d. circa 880). The theological method of all
these was merely that of restatement. But the controversy
about predestination, which, in the 9th century, Hincmar and
Hrabanus fought out with the monk Gottschalk of Fulda, as well
as the discussions that arose from the definition of the doctrine of
transubstantiation of Radbert, enable us to gauge the intellectual
energy with which theological problems were once more being
handled.

Charlemagne followed his father's policy in carrying out his
ecclesiastical measures in close association with the bishops of
Rome. He renewed the donation of Pippin, and as Patrician he
took Rome under his protection. From Pope Adrian I. he
received the Dionyso-Hadriana, the Roman collection of material
bearing on the ancient ecclesiastical law. But the Teutonic
elements maintained their place in the law of the Prankish
Church; and this was not altered by the fact that, since Christmas
800, the king of the Franks and Lombards had borne the title of
Roman emperor. On the contrary, Rome itself was now for the
first time affected by the predominance of the new empire; for
Charlemagne converted the patriciate into effective sovereignty,
and the successor of St Peter became the chief metropolitan of
the Frankish empire.

There were, indeed, forces tending in the contrary direction;
and these were present in the Frankish empire. Evidence of this
is given by the canon law forgeries of the 9th century: the
capitula of Angelram, the Capitularies of Benedictus Levita (see
CAPITULARY), and the great collection of the Pseudo-Isidorian
Decretals. For the moment, however, this party met with no
success. Of more importance was the fact that at Rome the old
conditions, the old claims, and the old law were unforgotten.
Developing the ideas of Leo I., Gelasius I. and Gregory the
Great, Nicholas I. (858-867) drew a picture of the divine right
and unlimited power of the bishop of Rome, which anticipated
all that the greatest of his successors were, centuries later, actually
to effect. The time had not, however, yet come for the establish -
ment of the papal world-dominion. For, while the power of
Charlemagne's successors was decaying, the papacy itself became
involved in the confusion of the party strife of Italy and of the
city of Rome, and was plunged in consequence into such an abyss
of degradation (the so-called Pornocracy), that it was in danger of
forfeiting every shred of its moral authority over Christendom.

(b) Central Period of the Middle Ages. Dominance of the
Roman Spirit in the Church. After the accession of the House of
Saxony (919) , the national ecclesiastical system, founded upon the
principles of Carolingian law, developed in Germany with fresh
energy. The union in 962 by Otto I. of the revived Empire with
the German kingship brought the latter into uninterrupted
contact with the papacy. The revelation of the antagonism
between the German conception of ecclesiastical affairs and
Roman views of ecclesiastical law was sooner or later inevitable.
This was most obvious in the matter of appointment to bishoprics.
At Rome canonical election was alone regarded as lawful; in
Germany, on the other hand, developments since the time of
Charlemagne had led to the actual appointment of bishops being
in the hands of the king, although the form of ecclesiastical
election was preserved. For the transference of a bishopric a
special legal form was evolved that of investiture, the king
investing the bishop elect with the see by delivering to him the
ring and pastoral staff. No one found anything objectionable in
this; investiture with a bishopric was parallel with the appoint-
ment by a territorial proprietor to a patronal church.

The practice customary in Germany was finally transferred to
Rome itself. The desperate position of the papacy in the nth
century obliged Henry III. to intervene. When, on the 24th of
December 1046, after three rival popes had been set aside, he
nominated Suidgar, bishop of Bamberg, as bishop of Rome before
all the people in St Peter's, the papacy was bestowed in the same
way as a German bishopric; and what had occurred in this case
was to become the rule. By procuring the transference of the
patriciate from the Roman people to himself Henry assured his
influence over the appointment of the popes, and accordingly
also nominated the successors of Clement II.

His intervention saved the papacy. For the popes nominated
by him, Leo IX. in particular, were men of high character, who
exercised their office in a loftier spirit than their corrupt pre-
decessors. They placed themselves at the head of the movement
for ecclesiastical reform. But was it possible for the relation
between Empire and Papacy to remain what Henry III. had
made it?

The original sources of this reform movement lay far back,
in the time of the Carolingians. It has been pointed out how
Charlemagne pressed the monks into the service of his civilizing
aims. We admire this; but it is certain that he thereby alienated
monasticism from its original ideals. These, however, had far too
strong a hold upon the Roman world for a reaction against the
new tendency to be long avoided. This reaction began with the
reform of Benedict of Aniane (d. 821), the aim of which was to
bring the Benedictine order back to the principles of its original
rules. In the next century the reform movement acquired a
fresh centre in the Burgundian monastery of Cluny. The energy
of a succession of distinguished abbots and the disciples whom
they inspired succeeded in bringing about the victory of the
reforming ideas in the French monasteries; once more the rule
of St Benedict controlled the life of the monks. A large number
of the reformed monasteries attached themselves to the con-
gregation of Cluny, thus assuring the influence of reformed
monasticism upon the Church, and securing likewise its inde-
pendence of the diocesan bishops, since the abbot of Cluny was
subordinate of the pope alone. (See CLUNY; BENEDICTINES
and MONASTICISM.) At the same time that Cluny began to grow
into importance, other centres of the monastic reform movement
were established in Upper and Lower Lorraine; and before long
the activity of the Cluniac monks made itself felt in Italy. In
Germany Poppo of Stavelot (d. 1048) was a successful champion
of their ideas; in England Dunstan (d. 988 as archbishop of
Canterbury) worked independently, but on similar lines. Every-
where the object was the same: the supreme obligation of the
Rule, the renewal of discipline, and also the economic improve-
ment of the monasteries. The reform movement had originally
no connexion with ecclesiastical polities'; but that came later
when the leaders turned their attention to the abuses prevalent
among the clergy, to the conditions obtaining in the Church in
defiance of the ecclesiastical law. " Return to the canon law! "
was now the battle-cry. In the Cluniac circle was coined the
principle : Canonica auctoritas Dei lex est, canon law being taken
in the Pseudo-Isidorian sense. The programme of reform thus
included not only the extirpation of simony and Nicolaitism,
but also the freeing of the Church from the influence of the State,
the recovery of her absolute control over all her possessions,
the liberty of the Church and of the hierarchy.

As a result, the party of reform placed itself in opposition to
those ecclesiastical conditions which had arisen since the con-
version of the Teutonic peoples. It was, then, a fact pregnant
with the most momentous consequences that Leo IX. attached
himself to the party of reform. For, thanks to him and to the
men he gathered round him (Hildebrand, Humbert and others),
their principles were established in Rome, and the pope himself
became the leader of ecclesiastical reform. But the carrying
out of reforms led at once to dissensions with the civil power,
the starting-point being the attack upon simony.

Originally, in accordance with Acts viii. 18 et seq., simony
was held to be the purchase of ordination. In the 9th century
the interpretation was extended to include all acquisition of

CHURCH HISTORY

ecclesiastical offices or benefices for money or money's worth.
Since the landed proprietors disposed of churches and convents,
and the kings of bishoprics and abbeys, it became possible for
them too to commit the sin of simony; hence a final expansion,
in the nth century, of the meaning of the term. The Pseudo-
Isidorian idea being that all lay control over things ecclesiastical
is wrong, all transferences by laymen of ecclesiastical offices or
benefices, even though no money changed hands in the process,
were now classed as simony (Humbert, Adversus Simoniacos,
1057-1058). Thus the lord who handed over a living was a
simonist, and so too was the king who invested a bishop. On
this question the battle began. The Church at first refrained
from contesting the rights of the kndowners over their own
churches, and concentrated her attack upon investiture. In
1059 the new system of papal election introduced by Nicholas II.
ensured the occupation of the Holy See by a pope favourable to
the party of reform; and in 1078 Gregory VII. issued his pro-
hibition of lay investiture. In the years of conflict that followed
Gregory looked far beyond this point; he set his aim ever
higher; until, in the end, his idea was to concentrate all ecclesi-
astical power in the hands of the pope, and to raise the papacy
to the dominion of the world. Thus was to be realized the old
dream of Augustine : that of a Kingdom of God on earth under
the rule of the Church. But it was not given to Gregory to reach
this goal, and his successors had to return again to the strife
over investiture. The settlement of mi may be said to have
embodied the only solution of the great question that was right
in principle, since it pronounced in favour of a clear distinction
between the spiritual and temporal spheres. However, a solution
that was right in principle proved impossible in practice, and the
long struggle ended in a compromise by the Concordat of Worms
(1122). The essential part of this was that the Empire accepted
the canonical election of bishops, and allowed the metropolitan
to confer the sacred office by gift of ring and pastoral staff;
while the Church acknowledged that the bishop held his temporal .
rights from the Empire, and was therefore to be invested with
them by a touch from the royal sceptre. A similar solution was
arrived at in England. Henry I. also renounced his claim to
bestow ring and pastoral staff, but kept the right of induction
into the temporalities (1106-1107). In France the demands of
the Church were successful to the same degree as in England
and Germany, but without any conflict. Thus the Germanic
element in the law regarding appointment to bishoprics was
eliminated. Somewhat later it disappeared also in the case of
the churches of less importance, patronal rights over these being
substituted for the former absolute ownership. The pontificate
of Alexander III. (1150-1181) decided this.

Since the time of Charlemagne Germanic influence had pre-
ponderated in the West, as is shown in the expansion of the
Church no less than in matters of ecclesiastical law. The whole
progress of Christianity in Europe from the gth to the I2th
century was due if we exclude Eastern Christendom to the
Teutonic nations; neither the papacy nor the peoples of Latin
race were concerned in it. German priests and bishops carried
the Christian faith to the Czechs and the Moravians, laboured
among the Hungarians and the Poles, and won the wide district
between the Elbe and the Oder at once for Christianity and for
the German nation. Germany, too, was the starting-point for
the conversion of the Scandinavian countries, which was com-
pleted by English priests with the assistance of native princes.

But, even while the Teutonic peoples were thus taking the
lead, we can see the Latin races beginning to assert themselves.
The monastic reform movement was essentially Latin in origin ;
and even more significant was the fact that scholasticism, the
new theology, had its home in the Latin countries. Aristotelian
dialectics had always been taught in the schools; and reason as
well as authority had been appealed to as the foundation of
theology; but for the theologians of the gth and loth centuries,
whose method had been merely that of restatement, ratio and
aucloritas were in perfect accord. Then Berengar of Tours
(d. 1088) ventured to set up reason against authority: by reason
the truth must be decided. This involved the question of the

relation in theology of authority and reason, and of whether the
theological method is authoritative or rational. To these ques-
tions Berengar gave no answer; he was ruined by his opposition
to Radbert's doctrine of transubstantiation. The Lombard
Anselm (d. 1109), archbishop of Canterbury, was the first to deal
with the subject. He took as his starting-point the traditional
faith; but he was convinced that whoever has experience of the
truths of the faith would be able to understand them. In
accordance with this principle he pointed out the goal of theology
and the way to its attainment: the funjtion of theology is to
demonstrate dogmas sola rations.

It was a bold conception' too bold for the medieval world, for
which faith was primarily the obligation to believe. It was easy,
therefore, to understand why Anselm's method did not become
the dominant one in theology. Not he, but the Frenchman
Abelard (d. 1142), was the creator of the scholastic method.
Abelard, too, started from tradition; but he discovered that the
statements of the various authorities are very often in the relation
of sic el non, yes and no. Upon this fact he based his pronounce-
ment as to the function of theology: it must employ the dialectic
method to reconcile the contradictions of tradition, and thus to
shape the doctrines of the faith in accordance with reason. By
teaching this method Abelard created the implements for the
erection of the great theological systems of the schoolmen of the
1 2th and i3th centuries: Peter Lombard (d. 1160), Alexander
of Hales (d. 1245), Albertus Magnus (d. 1280), and Thomas
Aquinas (d. 1275). They adventured a complete exposition of
Christian doctrine that should be altogether ecclesiastical and
at the same time altogether rational. In so doing they set to
work at the same time to complete the development of ecclesi-
astical dogma; the formulation of the Catholic doctrine of the
Sacraments was the work of scholasticism.

Canon law is the twin-sister of scholasticism. At the very
time when Peter Lombard was shaping his Sentences, the monk
Gratian of Bologna was making a new collection of laws. It was
not only significant that in the Concordia discordantium canonum
ecclesiastical laws, whether from authentic or forged sources,
were gathered together without regard to the existing civil law;
of even greater eventual importance was the fact that Gratian
taught that the contradictions of the canon law were to be
reconciled by the same method as that used by theology to
reconcile the discrepancies of doctrinal tradition. Thus Gratian
became the founder of the science of canon law, a science which,
like the scholastic theology, was entirely ecclesiastical and
entirely rational (see CANON LAW).

Like the new theology and the new science of law, the new
monasticism was also rooted in Latin soil. In the first of the
new orders, that of the Cistercians (iog8), the old monastic
ideal set forth in the Rule of Benedict of Nursia still prevailed;
but in the constitution and government of the order new ideas
were at work. In the Premonstratensian order, however,
founded in 1120 by Norbert of Xanten, a new conception of
the whole function of monachism was introduced: the duty
of the priest-monk is not only to work out his own salvation,
but, by preaching and cure of souls, to labour for others. This
was the dominant idea of the order of friars preachers founded
in 1216, on the basis of the Premonstratensian rule, by Dominic
of Osma (see DOMINIC, SAINT, and DOMINICANS). It was also
the basis of the order of friars minor (Franciscans, q.v.), founded
in 1 2 10. For the foundation of Francis of Assisi came into
existence as a society of itinerant preachers: no one was more
deeply convinced than Francis of the duty of working for others,
and his own mission was, as he said, to win souls. But with
this idea he fused another, namely, that it is the task of the monk
to imitate the humility and poverty of Jesus; and his order
thus became a mendicant order. From the earliest times the
monks had renounced all private property, and no individual
monk, but only the order to which he belonged, could acquire
possessions. For Francis this was not enough: he put " holy
poverty " in place of renunciation of private property, and
allowed neither monk nor monastery to have any possessions
whatever; for only thus is the following of Jesus complete. So

342

CHURCH HISTORY

mighty was the impression made by the poverty of the Minorites,
that the Dominicans promptly followed their example and
likewise became mendicant.

This alone would serve to indicate the remarkable deepening
of the religious life that had taken place in the Latin countries.
Its beginning may be traced as early as the nth century (Pietro
Damiani, q.v.), and in the i2th century the most influential
exponent of this new piety was Bernard (q.v.) of Clairvaux,
who taught men to find God by leading them to Christ. Con-
temporary with him were Hugh (q.v.) of St Victor and his pupil
Richard (q.v.) of St Victor, both monks of the abbey of St Victor
at Paris, the aim of whose teaching, based on that of the Pseudo-
Dionysius, was a mystical absorption of thought in the Godhead
and the surrender of self to the Eternal Love. Under the influence
of these ideas, in part purely Christian and in part neo-platonic,
piety gained in warmth and depth and became more personal;
and though at first it flourished in the monasteries, and in those
of the mendicant orders especially, it penetrated far beyond
them and influenced the laity everywhere.

The new piety did not set itself in opposition either to the
hierarchy or to the institutions of the Church, such as the
sacraments and the discipline of penance, nor did it reject those
foreign elements (asceticism, worship of saints and the like)
which had passed of old time into Christianity from the ancient
world. Its temper was not critical, but aggressively practical.
It led the Romance nations to battle for Christendom. In the
nth and i2th centuries the chivalry of Spain and southern
France took up the struggle with the Moors as a holy war. In
the autumn of 1096 the nobles of France and Italy, joined by
the Norman barons of England and Sicily, set out to wrest the
Holy Land from the unbelievers; and for more than a century
the cry, " Christ's land must be won for Christ," exercised an
unparalleled power in Western Christendom.

All this meant a mighty exaltation of the Church, which ruled
the minds of men as she had hardly ever done before. Nor was
it possible that the position of the bishop of Rome, the supreme
head of the Western Church, should remain unaffected by it.
Two of the most powerful of the German emperors, Frederick
I. and his son Henry VI., struggled to renew and to maintain the
imperial supremacy over the papacy. The close relations between
northern Italy and the Empire, and the union of the sovereignty
of southern Italy with the German crown, seemed to afford the
means for keeping Rome in subjection. But Frederick I. fought
a losing battle, and when at the peace of Venice (1177) he
recognized Alexander III. as pope, he relinquished the hope of
carrying out his Italian policy; while Henry VI. died at the
early age of thirty-two (1197), before his far-reaching schemes
had been realized.

The field was thus cleared for the full development of papal
power. This had greatly increased since the Concordat of
Worms, and reached its height under Innocent III. (1198-1216).
Innocent believed himself to be the representative of God, and
as such the supreme possessor of both spiritual and temporal
power. He therefore claimed in both spheres the supreme
administrative, legislative and judicial authority. Just as he
considered himself entitled to appoint to all ecclesiastical offices,
so also he invested the emperor with his empire and kings with
their kingdoms. Not only did he despatch his decretals to the
universities to form the basis of the teaching of the canon law
and of the decisions founded upon it, but he considered himself
empowered to annul civil laws. Thus he annulled the Great
Charter in 1215. Just as the Curia was the supreme court of
appeal in ecclesiastical causes, so also the pope threatened
disobedient princes with deposition, e.g. the emperor Otto IV.
in 1 2 10, and John of England in 1212.

The old institutions of the Catholic Church were transformed
to suit the new position of the pope. From 1123 onward there
had again been talk of general councils; but, unlike those of
earlier times, these were assemblies summoned by the pope,
who confirmed their resolutions. The canonical election of
bishops also continued to be discussed; but the old electors,
i.e. the clergy and laity of the dioceses, were deprived of the

right of election, this being now transferred exclusively to the
cathedral chapters. The bishops kept their old title, but they
described themselves accurately as " bishops by grace of the
apostolic see," for they administered their dioceses as pleni-
potentiaries of the pope; and as time went on even the Church's
criminal jurisdiction became more and more concentrated in
the hands of the pope (see INQUISITION).

The rule of the Church by the Roman bishop had thus become
a reality; but the papal claim to supreme temporal authority
proved impossible to maintain, although Innocent III. had
apparently enforced it. The long struggle against Frederick
II., carried on by Gregory IX. (1227-1241) and Innocent IV.
(1243-1254), did not result in victory; no papal sentence,
but only death itself, deprived the emperor of his dominions;
and when Boniface VIII. (1294-1303), who in the bull Unam
Sanctam (1302) gave the papal claims to universal dominion
their classical form, quarrelled with Philip IV. of France about
the extension of the royal power, he could not but perceive that
the national monarchy had become a force which it was impossible
for the papacy to overcome.

(c) Close of the Middle Ages. Disintegration. While the
Church was yet at the height of her power the great revolution
began, which was to end in the disruption of that union between
the Temporal and the Spiritual which, under her dominion, had
characterized the life of the West. The Temporal now claimed
its proper rights. The political power of the Empire, indeed, had
been shattered; but this left all the more room for the vigorous
development of national states, notably of France and England.
At the same time intellectual life was enriched by a wealth of
fresh views and new ideas, partly the result of the busy inter-
course with the East to which the Crusades had given the first
impetus, and which had been strengthened and extended by
lively trade relations, partly of the revived study, eagerly
pursued, of ancient philosophy and literature (see RENAISSANCE).
Old forms became too narrow, and vigorously growing national
literatures appeared side by side with the universal Latin
literature. The life of the Church, moreover, was affected by the
economic changes due to the rise of the power of money as
opposed to the old economic system based upon land.

The effects of these changes made themselves felt on all sides,
in no case more strongly than in that of the papal claims to the
supreme government of the world. Theoretically they were still
unwaveringly asserted; indeed it was not till this time that they
received their most uncompromising expression (Augustinus
Triumphus, d. 1328; Alvarus Pelagius, d. 1352). After Boniface
VIII., however, no pope seriously attempted to realize them;
to do so had in fact become impossible, for from the time of their
residence at Avignon (1305-1377) the popes were in a state of
complete dependence upon the French crown. But even the
curialistic theory met everywhere with opposition. In France
Philip IV.'s jurists maintained that the temporal power was
independent of the spiritual. In Italy, a little later, Dante
championed the divine right of the emperor (De Monarchia,
1311). In Germany, Marsiglio of Padua and Jean of Jandun, the
literary allies of the emperor Louis IV., ventured to define anew
the nature of the civil power from the standpoint of natural law,
and to assert its absolute sovereignty (Defensor pads, c. 1352);
while the Franciscan William of Occam (d. 1349) examined, also
in Louis' interests, into the nature of the relation between the two
powers. He too concluded that the temporal power is inde-
pendent of the spiritual, and is even justified in invading the
sphere of the latter in cases of necessity.

While these thoughts were filling men's minds, opposition to
the papal rule over the Church was also gaining continually in
strength. The reasons for this were numerous, first among them
being the abuses of the papal system of finance, which had to
provide funds for the vast administrative machinery of the
Curia. There was also the boundless abuse and arbitrary
exercise of the right of ecclesiastical patronage (provisions,
reservations); and further the ever-increasing traffic in dis-
pensations, the abuse of spiritual punishments for worldly ends,
and so forth. No means, however, existed of enforcing any

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343

remedy until the papal schism occurred in 1378. Such a schism
as this, so intolerable to the ecclesiastical sense of the middle ages,
necessitated the discovery of some authority superior to the rival
popes, and therefore able to put an end to their quarrelling.
General councils were now once more called to mind; but these
were no longer conceived as mere advisory councils to the pope,
but as the highest representative organ of the universal Church,
and as such ranking above the pope, and competent to demand
obedience even from him. This was the view of the Germans
Conrad of Gelnhausen (d. 1390) and Heinrich of Langenstein (d.
1397), as also of the Frenchmen Pierre d'Ailli (d. 1420) and Jean
Charlier Gerson (d. 1429). These all recognized in the convoca-
tion of a general council the means of setting bounds to the
abuses in the government of the Church by an extensive reform.
The council of Pisa (1409) separated without effecting anything;
but the council of Constance (1414-1418) did actually put an end
to the schism. The reforms begun at Constance and continued
at Basel (1431-1449) proved, however, insufficient. Above all,
the attempt to set up the general council as an ordinary institu-
tion of the Catholic Church failed; and the Roman papacy,
restored at Constance, preserved its irresponsible and unlimited
power over the government of the Church. (See PAPACY;
CONSTANCE, COUNCIL or, and BASEL, COUNCIL or.)

Thus the attempt to reform the Church by means of councils
failed; but this very failure led to the survival of the desire for
reform. It was kept alive by the most various circumstances;
in the first instance by the attitude of the European states.
Thanks to his recognition by the powers, Pope Eugenius IV.
(1431-1447) had been victorious over the council of Basel; but
neither France nor Germany was prepared to forgo the reforms
passed by the council. France secured their validity, as far as
she herself was concerned, by the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges
(July 7, 1438); Germany followed with the Acceptation of Mainz
(March 26, 1439). The theory of the papal supremacy held by
the Curia was thus at least called in question.

The antagonism of the opposition parties was even more
pronounced. The tendencies which they represented had been
present when the middle ages were yet at their height; but the
papacy, while at the zenith of its power, had succeeded in
crushing the attacks made upon the creed of the Church by its
most dangerous foes, the dualistic Cathari. On the other hand it
had not been able to overcome the less radical opposition of the
" Poor Man of Lyons " (Waldo, d. c. 1217), and even in the isth
century stray supporters of the Waldensian teaching were to be
found in Italy, France and Germany, everywhere keeping alive
mistrust of the temporal power of the Church, of her priesthood
and her hierarchy. In England the hierarchy was attacked by
John Wycliffe (d. 1384), its greatest opponent before Luther.
Starting from Augustine's conception of the Church as the
community of the elect, he protested against a church of wealth
and power, a church that had become a political institution
instead of a school of salvation, and against its head, the bishop of
Rome. Wycliffe's ideas, conveyed to the continent, precipitated
the outbreak of the Hussite storm in Bohemia. The council of
Constance thought to quell it by condemnation of Wycliffe's
teaching and by the execution of John Huss (1415). But in vain.
The flame burst forth, not in Bohemia alone, where Huss's death
gave the signal for a general rising, but also in England among the
Lollards, and in Germany among those of Huss's persuasion, who
had many points of agreement with the remnant of the Waldenses.

(See Huss; WYCLIFFE; LOLLARDS; WALDENSES.)

This was open opposition; but there was besides another
opposing force which, though it raised no noise of controversy,
yet was far more widely severed from the views of the Church
than either Wycliffe or Huss: this was the Renaissance, which
began its reign in Italy during the I4th century. The Re-
naissance meant the emancipation of the secular world from
the domination of the Church, and it contributed in no small
measure to the rupture of the educated class with ecclesiastical
tradition. Beauty of form alone was at first sought, and found in
the antique; but, with the form, the spirit of the classical
attitude towards life was revived. While the Church, like a

' careful mother, sought to lead her children, never allowed to grow
up, safely from time into eternity, the men of the Renaissance
felt thjt they had come of age, and that they were entitled to
make themselves at home in this world. They wished to possess
the earth and enjoy it by means of secular education and culture,
and an impassable gulf yawned between their views of religion
and morality and those of the Church.

This return to the ideals of antiquity did not remain confined to
Italy, but the humanism of the northern countries presents no
close parallel to the Italian renaissance. However much it
agreed in admiration of the ancients, it differed absolutely in its
preservation of the fundamental ideas of Christianity. But
neither Reuchlin (d. 1522), Erasmus (d. 1536), Faber d'Etaples
(d. 1536), Thomas More (d. 1535), nor the numerous others who
were their disciples, or who shared their views, were in the least
degree satisfied with the conditions prevailing in the Church.
Their ideal was a return to that simplicity of primitive Christen-
dom which they believed they found revealed in the New
Testament and in the writings of the early Fathers.

To this theology could not point the way. Since the time of
Duns Scotus (d. 1308) theologians had been conscious of the
discrepancy between Aristotelianism and ecclesiastical dogma.
Faith in the infallibility of the scholastic system was thus shaken,
and the system itself was destroyed by the revival of philosophic
nominalism, which had been discredited in the IT th century by
the realism of the great schoolmen. It now found a bold sup-
porter in William of Occam (<?..), and through him became widely
accepted. But nominalism was powerless to inspire theology
with new life; on the contrary, its intervention only increased
the inextricable tangle of the hairsplitting questions with which
theology busied itself, and made their solution more and more
impossible.

Mysticism, moreover, which had no lack of noteworthy
supporters in the I4th and isth centuries, and the various new
departures in thought initiated by individual theologians such
as Nicolaus Cusanus (d. 1464) and Wessel Gansfort (d. 1489),
were not competent to restore to the Church what she had once
possessed in scholasticism that is to say, a conception of
Christianity in which all Christendom recognized the convictions
in which it lived and had its being.

This was all the more significant because Western Christendom
in the isth century was by no means irreligious. Men's minds
were agitated by spiritual questions, and they sought salvation
and the assurance of salvation, using every means prescribed
by the Church: confession and the communion, indulgences
and relics, pilgrimages and oblations, prayers and attendance
at church; none of all these were contemned or held cheap.
Yet the age had no inward peace.

After the failure of the attempts at reform by the councils,
the guidance of the Church was left undisturbed in the hands of
the popes, and they were determined that it should remain so.
In 1450 Eugenius IV. set up in opposition to the council of Basel
a general council summoned by himself, which met first at
Ferrara and afterwards at Florence. Here he appeared to score
a great success. The split between East and West had led in
the nth century to the rupture of ecclesiastical relations between
Rome and Constantinople. This schism had lasted since the
i6th of July 1054; but now a union with the Eastern Church
was successfully accomplished at Florence. Eugenius certainly
owed his success merely to the political necessities of the emperor
of the East, and his union was forthwith destroyed owing to its
repudiation by oriental Christendom; yet at the same time his
decretals of union were not devoid of importance, for in them the
pope reaffirmed the scholastic doctrine regarding the sacraments
as a dogma of the Church, and he spoke as the supreme head of
all Christendom.

This claim to the supreme government of the Church was to be
steadily maintained. In the year 1512 Julius II. called together
the fifth Lateran general council, which expressly recognized the
subjection of the councils to the pope (Leo X.'s bull Pastor
Aeternum, of the igth of December 1516), and also declared the
constitution Unam Sanclam (see above) valid in law.

344

CHURCH HISTORY

But the papacy that sought to win back its old position was
itself no longer the same as of old. Eugenius IV.'s successor,
Nicholas V. (1447-1455). was the first of the Renaissance popes.
Under his successors the views which prevailed at the secular
courts of the Italian princes came likewise into play at the Curia:
the papacy became an Italian princedom. Innocent VIII.,
Alexander VI., Julius II. were in many respects remarkable men,
but they were scarcely affected by the convictions of the Christian
faith. The terrible tragedy which was consummated on the 23rd
of May 1498 before the Palazzo Vecchio, in Florence, casts a
lurid light upon the irreconcilable opposition in which the wearers
of the papal dignity stood to medieval piety; for Girolamo
Savonarola was in every fibre a loyal son of the medieval Church.

Twenty years after Savonarola's death Martin Luther made
public his theses against indulgences. The Reformation which
thus began brought the disintegrating process of the middle
ages to an end, and at the same time divided Western Catholicism
in two. Yet we may say that this was its salvation; for the
struggle against Luther drove the papacy back to its ecclesiastical
duties, and the council of Trent established medieval dogma
as the doctrine of modern Catholicism in contradistinction to
Protestantism. (See also PAPACY; RENAISSANCE; REFORMA-
TION, and biographies of popes, &c.)

AUTHORITIES. For sources see U. Chevalier, Repertoire des
sources historiques du moyen-dge (Paris, 1903) ; A. Potthast, Biblio-
theca historica medii aevi (Berlin, 1896) ; W. Wattenbach, Deutsch-
lands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter (7th ed., Stuttgart, 1904);
A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de la France (Paris, 1901).
General Treatises: Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church
(12 yols., sth ed., New York, 1889-1892), vol. iy. Medieval Chris-
tianity, W. Moeller, Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte, vol. ii. Das
Mittelalter (Freiburg, 1891); H. H. Milman, History of Latin Chris-
tianity (6 vols., 2nded., London, 1857). Particular Treatises: J.
Lingard, The History and Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church
(2 vols. 3rd ed., London, 1845); E. Churton, The Early English
Church (London, 1878) ; A. Martineau, Church History in England
from the Earliest Times to the Reformation (London, 1878) ; W. Hunt,
The English Church from its Foundation to the Norman Conquest
(London, 1899) ; W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England
(3 vols., London, 1874-1878) ; A. Bellesheim, Geschichte der kathol.
Kirche in SchotUand (2 vols., Mainz, 1883; Engl. transl. with Notes
and Additions by O. H. Blair, 4 vols., Edinburgh, 1887-1890) ;
W. Stephen, History of the Scottish Church (Edinburgh, 1894-1896,
2 vols.); W. D. Killen, The Ecclesiastical History of Ireland (2 vols.,
London, 1875-1878); A. Bellesheim, Geschichte der kalh. Kirche
in Irland (3 vols., Mainz, 1890-1891) ; F. Rettberg, Kirchengeschichte
Deutschlands (2 vols. Gottingen, 1846, 1848); A. Hauck, Kirchen-
geschichte Deutschlands (4 vols., Leipzig, 3rd ed., 1904); Gallia
Christiana in provincias eccl, distribute. (16 and 3 vols., Paris, 1715-
1900); F. N. Fager, Histoire de I'eglise cathol. en France depuis son
origine (19 vols., Paris, 1862-1873); Ughelli, Italia sacra (10 vols.,
Venice, 1717-1722) ; P. Gams, Kirchengeschichte von Spanien
(5 vols., Regensburg, 1862-1879); H. Reuterdahl, Svenska Kyrkans
historic (3 vols., Lund, 1838-1863); A. v. Maurer, Die Bekehrung
des norwegischen Stammes (2 vols., Munich, 1855-1856) ; Bang,
Udsigt over den norske Kirkes historic under Katholicismen (Chris-
tiania, 1887) ; P. Gams, Scries episcoporum ecclesiae cathplicae
(Regensburg, 1873) ; C. Eubel, Hierarchia catholica medii aevi
(2 vols., Miinster, 1898, 1901); P. Hinschius, System des kath.
Kirchenrechts (6 vols., Berlin, 1869-1896); E. Friedberg, Lehrbuch
des Kirchenrechts (sth ed., Leipzig, 1903); U. Stutz, " Kirchen-
recht " (Holtzendorff-Kohler, Encyklopaedie der Rechtswissenschaft,
6th ed. II. Leipzig, 1904); B. Haureau, Histoire de la philosophic
scolaslique (Paris, 1872); F. Schwane, Dogmengeschichte der mit-
tleren Zeit (Freiburg, 1882) ; A. Ebert, Allgem. Geschichte der Literatur
des Mittelalters im Abendlande (3 vols., Leipzig, 1874-1887) ; C. F. v.
Hefele, Conciliengeschichte (2nd ed., 9 vols., Freiburg, 1873-1890).

(A. H.*)

C. THE MODERN CHURCH

The issue in 1 564 of the canons of the council of Trent marks
a very definite epoch in the history of the Christian Church.
Up till that time, in spite of the schism of East and West and of
innumerable heresies, the idea of the Church as Catholic, not only
in its faith but in its organization, had been generally accepted.
From this conception the Reformers had, at the outset, no
intention of departing. Their object had been to purify the
Church of medieval accretions, and to restore the primitive
model in the light of the new learning; the idea of rival
" churches," differing in their fundamental doctrines and in
their principles of organization, existing side by side, was as

abhorrent to them as to the most rigid partisan of Roman central-
ization. The actual divisions of Western Christendom are the
outcome, less of the purely religious influences of the Reformation
period than of the political forces with which they were associated
and confused. When it became clear that the idea of doctrinal
change would find no acceptance at Rome, the Reformers
appealed to the divine authority of the civil power against that
of the popes; and princes within their several states succeeded,
as the result of purely political struggles and combinations, in
establishing the form of religion best suited to their convictions
or their policy. Thus over a great part of Europe the Catholic
Church was split up into territorial or national churches, which,
whatever the theoretical ties which bound them together, were
in fact separate organizations, tending ever more and more to
become isolated and self-contained units with no formal inter-
communion, and, as the rivalry of nationalities grew, with
increasingly little even of intercommunication.

It was not, indeed, till the settlement of Westphalia in 1648,
after the Thirty Years' War, that this territorial division of
Christendom became stereotyped, but the process had been
going on for a hundred years previously; in some states, as in
England and Scotland, it had long been completed; in others,
as in South Germany, Bohemia and Poland, it was defeated
by the political and missionary efforts of the Jesuits and other
agents of the counter-Reformation. In any case, it received a
vast impetus from the action of the council of Trent. With the
issue of the Tridentine canons, all hope even of compromise
between the " new " and the " old " religions was definitely
closed. The anathema of the Roman Church had fallen upon all
the fundamental doctrines for which the Reformers had contended
and died; the right of free discussion within the limits of the
creeds, which had given room for the speculations of the medieval
philosophers, was henceforth curtailed and confined; and the
definitions of the schoolmen were for ever exalted by the authority
of Rome into dogmas of the Church. The Latin Church, which,
by combining the tradition of the Roman centralized organization
with a great elasticity in practice and in the interpretation of
doctrine, had hitherto been the moulding force of civilization in
the West, is henceforth more or less in antagonism to that
civilization, which advances in all its branches in science, in
literature, in art to a greater or less degree outside of and in
spite of her, until in its ultimate and most characteristic develop-
ments it falls under the formal condemnation of the pope,
formulated in the famous Syllabus of 1864. Considered from the
standpoint of the world outside, the Roman Church is, no less
than the Protestant communities, merely one of the sects into
which Western Christendom has been divided the most im-
portant and widespread, it is true, but playing in the general
life and thought of the world a part immeasurably less important
than that filled by the Church before the Reformation, and one
in no sense justifying her claim to be considered as the sole
inheritor of the tradition of the pre-Reformation Church.

If this be true of the Roman Catholic Church, it is still more
so of the other great communities and confessions which emerged
from the controversies of the Reformation. Of these the Anglican
Church held most closely to the tradition of Catholic organization ;
but she has never made any higher claim than to be one of " the
three branches of the Catholic Church," a claim repudiated by
Rome and never formally admitted by the Church of the East.
The Protestant churches established on the continent, even
where as in the case of the Lutherans they approximate more
closely than the official Anglican Church to Roman doctrine
and practice, make no such claim. The Bible is for them the
real source of authority in doctrine; their organization is part
and parcel of that of the state. They are, in fact, the state in its
religious aspect, and as such are territorial or national, not
Catholic. This tendency has been common in the East also,
where with the growth of racial rivalries the Orthodox Church
has split into a series of national churches, holding the same faith
but independent as to organization.

A yet further development, of comparatively recent growth,
has been the formation of what are now commonly called in

CHURCHILL, C.

345

England the " free churches." These represent a theory of the
Church practically unknown to the Reformers, and only reached
through the necessity for discovering a logical basis for the
communities of conscientious dissidents from the established
churches. According to this the Catholic Church is not a visibly
organized body, but the sum of all " faithful people " throughout
the world, who group themselves in churches modelled according
to their convictions or needs. For the organization of these
churches nodivine sanction is claimed, though all are theoretically
modelled on the lines laid down in the Christian Scriptures.
It follows that, while in the traditional Church, with its claim to
an unbroken descent from a divine original, the individual is
subordinate to the Church, in the " free churches " the Church
is in a certain sense secondary to the individual. The believer
may pass from one community to another without imperilling his
spiritual life, or even establish a new church without necessarily
incurring the reproach of schism. From this theory, powerful in
Great Britain and her colonies, supreme in the United States of
America, has resulted an enormous multiplication of sects.

It follows from the above argument that, from the period
of the Reformation onward, no historical account of the Christian
Church as a whole, and considered as a definite institution, is
possible. The stream of continuity has been broken, and divides
into innumerable channels. The only possible synthesis is that
of the Christianity common to all; as institutions, though they
possess many features in common, their history is separate and
must be separately dealt with. The history of the various
branches of the Christian Church since the Reformation will
therefore be found under their several titles (see ROMAN CATHOLIC
CHURCH; ENGLAND, CHURCH OF; PRESBYTERIANISM; BAPTISTS,
&c., &c.). (W. A. P.)

CHURCHILL, CHARLES (1731-1764), English poet and
satirist, was born in Vine Street, Westminster, in February 1731.
His father, rector of Rainham, Essex, held the curacy and
lectureship of St John's, Westminster, from 1733, and the son
was educated at Westminster school, where he became a good
classical scholar, and formed a close and lasting intimacy with
Robert Lloyd. Churchill was entered at Trinity College,
Cambridge, in 1749, but never resided. He had been refused at
Oxford, ostensibly on the unlikely ground of lack of classical
knowledge, but more probably because of a hasty marriage
which he had contracted within the rules of the Fleet in his
eighteenth year. He and his wife lived in his father's house,
and Churchill was afterwards sent to the north of England to
prepare for holy orders. He became curate of South Cadbury,
Somersetshire, and, on receiving priest's orders (1756), began to
act as his father's curate at Rainham. Two years later the elder
Churchill died, and the son was elected to succeed him in his
curacy and lectureship. His emoluments amounted to less than
100 a year, and he increased his income by teaching in a girls'
school. He fulfilled his various duties with decorum for a while,
but his marriage proved unfortunate, and he spent much of his
lime in dissipation in the society of Robert Lloyd. He was
separated from his wife in 1761, and would have been imprisoned
for debt but for the timely help of Lloyd's father, who had been
an usher and was now a master of Westminster school.

Churchill had already done some work for the booksellers,

nd his friend Lloyd had had some success with a didactic poem,
" The Actor." His intimate knowledge of the theatre was now
turned to account in the Rosciad, which appeared in March 1761.

This reckless and amusing satire described with the most dis-

oncerting accuracy the faults of the various actors and actresses
on the London stage. Its immediate popularity was no doubt

irgely due to its personal character, but its real vigour and
raciness make it worth reading even now when the objects of
Churchill's wit are many of them forgotten. The first impression

was published anonymously, and in the Critical Review, conducted
by Tobias Smollett, it was confidently asserted that the poem

vas the joint production of George Colman, Bonnell Thornton

nd Robert Lloyd. Churchill owned the authorship and immedi-
ately published an Apology addressed to the Critical Reviewers,
which, after developing the subject that it is only the caste of

authors that prey on their own kind, repeats the fierce attack
on the stage. Incidentally it contains an enthusiastic tribute to
Dryden, of whom Churchill was a not unworthy scholar. In
the Rosciad he had given warm praise to Mrs Pritchard, Mrs
Gibber and Mrs Clive, but no leading London actor, with the
exception of David Garrick, had escaped censure, and in the
A pology Garrick was clearly threatened. He deprecated criticism
by showing every possible civility to Churchill, who became a
terror to the actors. Thomas Davies wrote to Garrick attributing
his blundering in the part of Cymbeline " to my accidentally
seeing Mr Churchill in the pit, it rendering me confused and
unmindful of my business." Churchill's satire made him many
enemies, and inquiries into his way of life provided abundant
matter for retort. In Night, an Epistle to Robert Lloyd (1761),
he answered the attacks made on him, offering by way of defence
the argument that any faults were better than hypocrisy. His
scandalous conduct brought down the censure of the dean of
Westminster, and in 1763 the protests of his parishioners led
him to resign his offices, and he was free to wear his " blue coat
with metal buttons " and much gold lace without remonstrance
from the dean. The Rosciad had been refused by several pub-
lishers, and was finally published at Churchill's own expense.
He received a considerable sum from the sale, and paid his old
creditors in full, besides making an allowance to his wife.

He now became a close ally of John Wilkes, whom he regularly
assisted with the North Briton. The Prophecy of Famine: A
Scots Pastoral (1763), his next poem, was founded on a paper
written originally for that journal. This violent satire on
Scottish influence fell in with the current hatred of Lord Bute, and
the Scottish place-hunters were as much alarmed as the actors
had been. When Wilkes was arrested he gave Churchill a timely
hint to retire to the country for a time, the publisher, Kearsley,
having stated that he received part of the profits from the paper.
His Epistle to William Hogarth (1763) was in answer to the
caricature of Wilkes made during the trial. In it Hogarth's
vanity and envy were attacked in an invective which Garrick
quoted as " shocking. and barbarous." Hogarth retaliated by a
caricature of Churchill as a bear in torn clerical bands hugging a
pot of porter and a club made of lies and North Britons. The
Duellist (1763) is a virulent satire on the most active opponents of
Wilkes in the House of Lords, especially on Bishop Warburton.
He attacked Dr Johnson among others in The Ghost as " Pomposo,
insolent and loud, Vain idol of a scribbling crowd." Other
poems are " The Conference " (1763); " The Author " (1763),
highly praised by Churchill's contemporaries; " Gotham "
(1764), a poem on the duties of a king, didactic rather than
satiric in tone; "The Candidate" (1764), a satire on John
Montagu, fourth earl of Sandwich, one of Wilkes's bitterest
enemies, whom he had already denounced for his treachery in the
Duellist (Bk. iii.) as " too infamous to have a friend "; " The
Farewell" (1764); "The Times" (1764); "Independence,"
and an unfinished " Journey."

In October 1 764 he went to Boulogne to join Wilkes. There he
was attacked by a fever of which he died on the 4th of November.
He left his property to his two sons, and made Wilkes his literary
executor with full powers. Wilkes did little. He wrote an
epitaph for his friend and about half a dozen notes on his poems,
and Andrew Kippis acknowledges some slight assistance from him
in preparing his life of Churchill for the Biographia Britannica
(1780). There is more than one instance of Churchill's generosity
to his friends. In 1763 he found his friend Robert Lloyd in
prison for debt. He paid a guinea a week for his better mainten-
ance in the Fleet, and raised a subscription to set him free.
Lloyd fell ill on receipt of the news of Churchill's death, and died
shortly afterwards. Churchill's sister Patty, who was engaged to
Lloyd, did not long survive them. William Cowper was his
schoolfellow, and left many kindly references to him.

A partial collection of Churchill's poems appeared in 1763. They
are included in Chalmers's edition of the English poets, and were
edited (1804) by W. Tooke. This was reprinted in the Aldine
edition (1844). There is a revised edition (1892) in the same series,
The Poetical Works of Charles Churchill, with a Memoir by J. L.
I Hannay and copious notes by W. Tooke. For Churchill's biography,

34-6

CHURCHILL, LORD RANDOLPH

see Genuine Memoirs of Charles Churchill, with an account of and
observations on his writings; together with some Original letters . . .
between him and the author ( 1 765) ; A. Kippis, in Biographia Britannica
(1780); also John Forster in the Edinburgh Review January 1845).

CHURCHILL, LORD RANDOLPH HENRY SPENCER (1849-
1895), English statesman, third son of John, seventh duke of
Marl borough, by Frances, daughter of the third marquess of
Londonderry, was born at Blenheim Palace, on the I3th of
February 1849. His early education was conducted at home,
and at Mr Tabor's preparatory school at Cheam. In January
1863 he went to Eton, where he remained till July 1865. He was
not specially distinguished either in school work or games while at
Eton; his contemporaries describe him as a vivacious and rather
unruly lad. In October 1867 he matriculated at Merton College,
Oxford. He was fond of amusement, and had carried to Oxford
an early taste for sport which he retained throughout life. But
he read with some industry, and obtained a second class in
jurisprudence and modern history in 1870. In 1874 he was
elected to parliament in the Conservative interest for Woodstock,
defeating Mr George Brodrick, a fellow, and afterwards warden,
of Merton College. His maiden speech, delivered in his first
session, made no impression on the House.

It was not till 1878 that he forced himself into public notice as
the exponent of a species of independent Conservatism. He
directed a series of furious attacks against some of the occupants
of the front ministerial bench, and especially that " old gang "
who were distinguished rather for the respectability of their
private characters, and the unblemished purity of their Toryism,
than for striking talent. Mr Sclater-Booth (afterwards ist Lord
Basing), president of the Local Government Board, was the
especial object of his ire, and that minister's County Government
Bill was fiercely denounced as the " crowning dishonour to Tory
principles," and the " supreme violation of political honesty."
The audacity of Lord Randolph's attitude, and the vituperative
fluency of his invective, made him a parliamentary figure of some
importance before the dissolution of the 1874 parliament, though
he was not as yet taken quite seriously. In the new parliament of
1880 he speedily began to play a more notable role. With the
assistance of his devoted adherents, Sir Henry Drummond Wolff,
Sir John Gorst and occasionally of Mr Arthur Balfour, and one
or two others, he constituted himself at once the audacious
opponent of the Liberal administration and the unsparing
critic of the Conservative front bench. The " fourth party," as it
was nicknamed, was effective at first not so much in damaging the
government as in awakening the opposition from the apathy
which had fallen upon it after its defeat at the polls. Churchill
roused the Conservatives and gave them a fighting issue, by
putting himself at the head of the resistance to Mr Bradlaugh,
the member for Northampton, who, though an avowed atheist or
agnostic, was prepared to take the parliamentary oath. Sir
Stafford Northcote, the Conservative leader in the Lower House,
was forced to take a strong line on this difficult question by the
energy of the fourth party, who in this case clearly expressed the
views of the bulk of the opposition. The long and acrimonious
controversy over Mr Bradlaugh's seat, if it added little to the
reputation of the English legislature, at least showed that Lord
Randolph Churchill was a parliamentary champion who added to
his audacity much tactical skill and shrewdness. He continued
to play a conspicuous part throughout the parliament of 1880-
1885, dealing his blows with almost equal vigour at Mr Gladstone
and at the Conservative front bench, some of whose members,
and particularly Sir Richard Cross and Mr W. H. Smith, he
assailed with extreme virulence. From the beginning of the
Egyptian imbroglio Lord Randolph was emphatically opposed to
almost every step taken by the government. He declared that
the suppression of Arabi Pasha's rebellion was an error, and the
restoration of the khedive's authority a crime. He called Mr
Gladstone the " Moloch of Midlothian," for whom torrents of
blood had been shed in Africa. He was equally severe on the
domestic policy of the administration, and was particularly
bitter in his criticism of the Kilmainham treaty and the rapproche-
ment between the Gladstonians and the Parnellites. It is true

that for some time before the fall of the Liberals in 1885 he had
considerably modified his attitude towards the Irish question,
and was himself cultivating friendly relations with the Home
Rule members, and even obtained from them the assistance of
the Irish vote in the English constituencies in the general election.
By this time he had definitely formulated the policy of progressive
Conservatism which was known as " Tory democracy." He
declared that the Conservatives ought to adopt, rather than
oppose, reforms of a popular character, and to challenge the
claims of the Liberals to pose as the champions of the masses.
His views were to a large extent accepted by the official Con-
servative leaders in the treatment of the Gladstonian Franchise
Bill of 1884. Lord Randolph insisted that the principle of the
bill should be accepted by the opposition, and that resistance
should be focused upon the refusal of the government to combine
with it a scheme of redistribution. The prominent, and on the
whole judicious and successful, part he played in the debates on
these questions, still further increased his influence with the rank
and file of the Conservatives in the constituencies. At the same
time he was actively spreading the gospel of democratic Toryism
in a series of platform campaigns. In 1883 and 1884 he invaded
the Radical stronghold of Birmingham itself, and in the latter
year took part in a Conservative garden party at Aston Manor, at
which his opponents paid him the compliment of raising a serious
riot. He gave constant attention to the party organization, which
had fallen into considerable disorder after 1880, and was an active
promoter of the Primrose League, which owed its origin to the
happy inspiration of one of his own " fourth party " colleagues.
In 1884 the struggle between stationary and progressive
Toryism came to a head, and terminated in favour of the latter.
At the conference of the Central Union of Conservative Associa-
tions, Lord Randolph was nominated chairman, notwithstanding
the strenuous opposition of the parliamentary leaders of the
party. The split was averted by Lord Randolph's voluntary
resignation; but the episode had confirmed his title to a leading
place in the Tory ranks. It was further strengthened by the
prominent part he played in the events immediately preceding
the fall of the Liberal government in 1885; and when Mr
Childers's budget resolutions were defeated by the Conservatives,
aided by about half the Parnellites, Lord Randolph Churchill's
admirers were justified in proclaiming him to have been the
" organizer of victory." His services were, at any rate, far too
important to be refused recognition; and in Lord Salisbury's
cabinet of 1885 he was appointed to no less an office than that
of secretary of state for India. During the few months of his
tenure of this great post the young free-lance of Tory democracy
surprised the permanent officials and his own friends by the
assiduity with which he attended to his departmental duties and
the rapidity with which he mastered the complicated questions
of Indian administration. In the autumn election of 1885 he
contested Central Birmingham against Mr Bright, and though
defeated here, was at the same time returned by a very large
majority for South Paddington. In the contest which arose
over Mr Gladstone's Home Rule scheme, both in and out of
parliament, Lord Randolph again bore a conspicuous part, and
in the electioneering campaign his activity was only second to
that of some of the Liberal Unionists, the marquess of Hartington,
Mr Goschen and Mr Chamberlain. He was now the recognized
Conservative champion in the Lower Chamber, and when the
second Salisbury administration was formed after the general
election of 1886 he became chancellor of the exchequer and
leader of the House of Commons. His management of the
House was on the whole successful, and was marked by tact,
discretion and temper. But he had never really reconciled
himself with some of his colleagues, and there was a good deal
of friction in his relations with them, which ended with his
sudden resignation on the 2oth of December 1886. Various
motives influenced him in taking this surprising step; but the
only ostensible cause was that put forward in his letter to Lord
Salisbury, which was read in the House of Commons on
27th January. In this document he stated that his resignation
was due to his inability, as chancellor of the exchequer, to concui

CHURCHILL CHURCHING OF WOMEN

347

in the demands made on the treasury by the ministers at the
head of the naval and military establishments. It was commonly
supposed that he expected his resignation to be followed by the
unconditional surrender of the cabinet, and his restoration to
office on his own terms. The sequel, however, was entirely
different. The cabinet was reconstructed with Mr Goschen as
chancellor of the exchequer (Lord Randolph had " forgotten
Goschen," as he is said to have remarked), and Churchill's own
career as a Conservative chief was practically closed.

He continued, for some years longer, to take a considerable
share in the proceedings of parliament, giving a general, though
decidedly independent, support to the Unionist administration.
On the Irish question he was a very candid critic of Mr Balfour's
measures, and one of his later speeches, which recalled the
acrimonious violence of his earlier period, was that which he
delivered in 1890 on the report of the Parnell commission. He
also fulfilled the promise made on his resignation by occasionally
advocating the principles of economy and retrenchment in the
debates on the naval and military estimates. In April 1889,
on the death of Mr Bright, he was asked to come forward as a
candidate for the vacant seat in Birmingham, and the result
was a rather angry controversy with Mr Chamberlain, terminating
in the so-called " Birmingham compact " for the division of
representation of the Midland capital between Liberal Unionists
and Conservatives. But his health was already precarious,
and this, combined with the anomaly of his position, induced
him to relax his devotion to parliament during the later years
of the Salisbury administration. He bestowed much attention
on society, travel and sport. He was an ardent supporter of
the turf, and in 1889 he won the Oaks with a mare named the
Abbesse de Jouarre. In 1891 he went to South Africa, in search
both of health and relaxation. He travelled for some months
through Cape Colony, the Transvaal and Rhodesia, making
notes on the politics and economics of the countries, shooting
lions, and recording his impressions in letters to a London
newspaper, which were afterwards republished under the title
of Men, Mines and Animals in South Africa. He returned with
renewed energy, and in the general election of 1892 once more
flung himself, with his old vigour, into the strife of parties.
His seat at South Paddington was uncontested; but he was
active on the platform, and when parliament met he returned
to the opposition front bench, and again took a leading part in
debate, attacking Mr Gladstone's second Home Rule Bill with
especial energy. But it was soon apparent that his powers were
undermined by the inroads of disease. As the session of 1893
wore on his speeches lost their old effectiveness, and in 1894
he was listened to not so much with interest as with pity. His
last speech in the House was delivered in the debate on Uganda
in June 1894, and was a painful failure. He was, in fact, dying
of general paralysis. A journey round the world was undertaken
as a forlorn hope. Lord Randolph started in the autumn of
1894, accompanied by his wife, but the malady made so much
progress that he was brought back in haste from Cairo. He
reached England shortly before Christmas and died in London
on the 24th of January 1895.

Lord Randolph Churchill married, in January 1874, Jennie,
daughter of Mr Leonard Jerome of New York, U.S.A., by whom
he had two sons. In 1900 Lady Randolph Churchill married
Mr G. Cornwallis-West.

His elder son, WINSTON CHURCHILL (1874- ), was educated
at Harrow, and after serving for a few years in the army and
acting as a special correspondent in the South African War
(being taken prisoner by the Boers, Nov. 15, 1899, but escaping
on Dec. 12), was elected Unionist member of parliament for
Oldham in October 1900. As the son of his father, his political
future excited much interest. His views, however, as to the
policy of the Conservative party gradually changed, and having
during 1904-1905 taken an active part in assisting the Liberal
party in parliament, he stood for N.W. Manchester at the general
election (1906) and was triumphantly returned as a Liberal and
free-trader. He was made under-secretary for the colonies in
the new Liberal government. In this position he became as

conspicuous in parliament as he had already become on the
platform as a brilliant and aggressive orator, and no politician
of the day attracted more interest or excited more controversy.
He was promoted to cabinet rank as president of the Board of
Trade in Mr Asquith's government in April (1908), but was
defeated at the consequent by-election in Manchester after a con-
test which aroused the keenest excitement. He was then returned
for Dundee, and later in the year married. Miss Clementine Hozier.

An interesting and authoritative biography of Lord Randolph,
by his son Winston (who had already won his spurs as a writer in
his River War, 1899, and other books on his military experiences),
appeared in 1906; and a brief and intimate appreciation by Lord
Rosebery, inspired by this biography, was published a few months
later. Lord Randolph's earlier speeches were edited, with an
introduction and notes, by Louis Jennings (2 vols., London, 1889).
See also T. H. S. Escott, Randolph Spencer Churchill (1895); H. W.
Lucy, Diary of Two Parliaments (1892); and Mrs Cornwallis-West,
The Reminiscences of Lady Randolph Churchill (i.e. of the author)
(1908). ( S. J. L.)

CHURCHILL (MISSINNIPPI or ENGLISH), the name of a river
of the province of Saskatchewan and district of Keewatin,
Canada. It rises in La Loche (or Methy) lake, a small lake in
56 30' N. and 109 30' W., at an altitude of 1577 ft. above the
sea, and flows E.N.E. to Hudson's Bay, passing through a number
of lake expansions. Its principal tributaries are the Beaver
(350 m. long), Sandy and Reindeer rivers. Between Frog and
Methy portages (480 m.) it formed part of the old voyageur
route to the Peace, Athabasca, and Mackenzie. It is still
navigated by canoes, but has many rapids. Its principal affluent,
the Reindeer, discharges the waters of Reindeer Lake (1150 ft.
above the sea, with an area of 2490 sq. m.) and WoLTaston Lake
(altitude, 1300 ft.). The Churchill is 925 m. long. Fort Churchill,
at its mouth, is the best harbour in the southern portion of
Hudson's Bay. The portage of La Loche (or Methy), 12^ m.
in length, connects its head waters with the Clearwater river, a
tributary of the Athabasca, draining into the Arctic Ocean.

CHURCHING OF WOMEN, the Christian ceremony of thanks-
giving on the part of mothers shortly after the birth of
their children. It no doubt originated in the Mosaic regula-
tion as to purification (Lev. xii. 6). In ancient times the
ceremony was usual but not obligatory in England. In the
Greek and Roman Catholic Churches to-day it is imperative.
The custom is first mentioned in the pseudo-Nicene Arabic
canons. No ancient form of service exists, and that which
figures in the English prayer-book of to-day dates only from the
middle ages. Custom differs, but the usual date of churching
was the fortieth day after confinement, in accordance with the
Biblical date of the presentment of the Virgin Mary and the
Child Jesus at the Temple. It was formerly regarded as unlucky
for a woman to leave her house to go out at all after confinement
till she went to be churched. It was not unusual for the church-
ing service to be said in private houses. In Herefordshire it
was not considered proper for the husband to appear in church
at the service, or at all events in the same pew. In some parishes
there was a special pew known as " the churching seat." The
words in the rubric requiring the woman to come " decently
apparelled " refer to the times when it was thought unbecoming
for a woman to come to the service with the elaborate head-dress
then the fashion. A veil was usually worn, and in some parishes
this was provided by the church, for an inventory of goods
belonging to St Benet's, Gracechurch Street, in 1560, includes
" A churching cloth, fringed, white damask."

The " convenient place," which, according to the rubric, the
woman must occupy, was in pre-Reformation times the church-
door. In the first prayer-book of Edward VI., she was to be
" nigh unto the quire door." In the second of his books, she was
to be " nigh unto the place where the Table standeth." Bishop
Wren's orders for the diocese of Norwich in 1636 are " That
women to be churched come and kneel at a side near the Com-
munion Table without the rail, being veiled according to custom,
and not covered with a hat." In Devonshire churching was
sometimes called " being uprose." Churchings were formerly
registered in some parishes. In pre-Reformation days it was
the custom in England for women to carry lighted tapers when

348

CHURCH RATE CHURCHYARD, T.

being churched, in allusion to the Feast of the Purification of the
Virgin (February and), the day chosen by the Roman Catholic
church for the blessing of the candles for the whole year (see
CANDLEMAS). At her churching a woman was expected to make
some offering to the church, such as the chrisom or alb thrown
over the child at christening.

CHURCH RATE, the name of a tax formerly levied in each
parish in England and Ireland for the benefit of the parish
church. Out of these rates were defrayed the expenses of
carrying on divine service, repairing the fabric of the church,
and paying the salaries of the officials connected with it. The
church rates were made by the churchwardens, together with
the parishioners duly assembled after proper notice in the vestry
or the church. The rates thus made were recoverable in the
ecclesiastical court, or, if the arrears did not exceed 10 and no
questions were raised as to the legal liability, before two justices
of the peace. Any payment not strictly recognized by law made
out of the rate destroyed its validity. The church rate was a
personal charge imposed on the occupier of land or of a house
in the parish, and, though it was compulsory, much difficulty was
found in effectually applying the compulsion. This was especially
so in the case of Nonconformists, who had conscientious objec-
tions to supporting the Established Church; and in Ireland,
where the population was preponderatingly Roman Catholic, the
grievance was specially felt and resented. The agitation against
church rates led in 1868 to the passing of the Compulsory Church
Rates Abolition Act. By this act church rates are no longer
compulsory on the person rated, but are merely voluntary, and
those who are not willing to pay them are excluded from inquiring
into, objecting to, or voting in respect of their expenditure (s. 8).

CHURCHWARDEN, in England, the guardian or keeper of a
church, and representative of the body of the parish. The name
is derived from the original duty attached to the office, that of
the custody or guardianship of the fabric and furniture of the
church, which dates from the I4th century, when the responsi-
bility of providing for the repairs of the nave, and of furnishing
the utensils for divine service, was settled on the parishioners.
Churchwardens are always lay persons, and as they may, like
" artificial persons," hold goods and chattels and bring actions
for them, they are recognized in law as quasi-corporations.
Resident householders of a parish are those primarily eligible
as churchwardens, but non-resident householders who are
habitually occupiers are also eligible, while there are a few classes
of persons who are either ineligible or exempted. The appoint-
ment of churchwardens is regulated by the 8gth canon, which
requires that the churchwardens shall be chosen by the joint
consent of the ministers and parishioners, if it may be; but if
they cannot agree upon such a choice, then the minister is to
choose one, and the parishioners another. If, however, there
is any special custom of the place, the custom prevails, and the
most common custom is for the minister to appoint one, and
the parishioners another, and this has been established by
English statute, in the case of new parishes, by the Church
Building and New Parishes Acts 1818-1884. There are other
special customs recognized in various localities, e.g. in some of
the larger parishes in the north of England a churchwarden is
chosen for each township of the parish; in the old ecclesiastical
parishes of London both churchwardens are chosen by the
parishioners; in some cases they are appointed by the select
vestry, or by the lord of the manor, and in a few exceptional
cases are chosen by the outgoing churchwardens.

In general, churchwardens are appointed in Easter week,
usually Easter Monday or Easter Tuesday, but in new parishes
the first appointment must be within twenty-one days after the
consecration of the church, or two calendar months after the
formation of the parish, subsequent appointments taking place
at the usual time for the appointment of parish officers. Each
churchwarden after election subscribes before the ordinary a
declaration that he will execute his office faithfully.

The duties of churchwardens comprise the provision of
necessaries for divine service, so far as the church funds or
voluntary subscriptions permit, the collecting the offertory of

the congregation, the keeping of order during the divine service,
and the giving of offenders into custody; the assignment of
seats to parishioners; the guardianship of the movable goods of
the church; the preservation and repair of the church and
churchyard, the fabric and the fixtures; and the presentment of
offences against ecclesiastical law.

In the episcopal church of the United States churchwardens
discharge much the same duties as those performed by the
English officials; their duties, however, are regulated by canons
of the diocese, not by canons general. In the United States, too,
the usual practice is for the parishes to elect both the church-
wardens.

See Prideaux's Churchwarden's Guide (i6th ed., London, 1895);
Steer's Parish Law (6th ed., London, 1899) ; Blunt's Book of Church
Law (7th ed., London, 1894).

CHURCHYARD, THOMAS (c. 1520-1604), English author,
was born at Shrewsbury about 1520, the son of a farmer. He
received a good education, and, having speedily dissipated at
court the money with which his father provided him, he entered
the household of Henry Howard, earl of Surrey. There he
remained for four years, learning something of the art of poetry
from his patron; some of the poems he contributed later (1557)
to Songes and Sonetles may well date from this early period.
In 1541 he began his career as a soldier of fortune, being, he said,
" pressed into the service." He fought his way through nearly
every campaign in Scotland and the Low Countries for thirty
years. He served under the emperor Charles V. in Flanders
in 1542, returning to England after the peace of Crepy (1544).
In the Scottish campaign of 1547 he was present at the barren
victory of Pinkie, and in the next year was taken prisoner at
Saint Monance, but aided by his persuasive tongue he escaped
to the English garrison at Lauder, where he was once more
besieged, only returning to England on the conclusion of peace
in 1550. A broadside entitled Davy Dycars Dreamt, a short and
seemingly alliterative poem in the manner of Piers Plowman,
brought him into trouble with the privy council, but he was dis-
missed with a reprimand. This tract was the starting-point of
a controversy between Churchyard and a certain Thomas Camel.
The whole of the " flyting " was reprinted in 1560 as The
Contention betwixte Churchyard and Cornell.

In 1550 he went to Ireland to serve the lord deputy, Sir
Anthony St Leger, who had been sent to pacify the country.
Here Churchyard enriched himself at the expense, it is to be
feared, of the unhappy Irish; but in 1552 he was in England
again, trying vainly to secure a fortune by marriage with a rich
widow. After this failure he departed once more to the wars
to the siege of Metz (1552), and " trailed a pike " in the emperor's
army, until he joined the forces under William, Lord Grey of
Wilton, with whom he says he served eight years. Grey was in
charge of the fortress of Gaines, which was besieged by the duke
of Guise in 1558. Churchyard arranged the terms of surrender,
and was sent with his chief to Paris as a prisoner. He was not
released at the peace of Cateau Cambresis for lack of money to
pay his ransom, but he was finally set free on giving his bond
for the amount, an engagement which he repudiated as soon as
he was safely in England. He is not to be identified with the
T. C. who wrote for the Mirror for Magistrates (ed. 1559), " How
the Lord Mowbray . . . was banished . . . and after died
miserablie in exile," which is the work of Thomas Chaloner, but
" Shore's Wife," his most popular poem, appeared in the 1563
edition of the same work, and to that of 1587 he contributed the
Tragedie of Thomas Wolsey." These are plain manly com-
positions in the seven-lined Chaucerian stanza. Repeated
petitions to the queen for assistance produced at first fair words,
and then no answer at all. He therefore returned to active
service under Lord Grey, who was in command of an English
army sent (1560) to help the Scottish rebels, and in 1564 he served
in Ireland under Sir Henry Sidney. The religious disturbances
in the Netherlands attracted him to Antwerp, where as the
agent of William of Orange he allowed the insurgents to place
him at their head, and was able to save much property fron
destruction. This action made him so hated by the mob tr.

CHURCHYARD CHURL

349

he had to fly for his life in the disguise of a priest. In the next
year he was sent by the earl of Oxford to serve definitely under
the prince of Orange. After a year's service he obtained leave
to return to England, and after many adventures and narrow
escapes in a journey through hostile territory he embarked for
Guernsey, and thence for England. His patron, Lord Oxford,
disowned him, and the poet, whose health was failing, retired
to Bath. He appears to have made a very unhappy marriage
at this time, and returned to the Low Countries. Falling into
the hands of the Spaniards he was recognized as having had a
hand in the Antwerp disturbance, and was under sentence to be
executed as a spy when he was saved by the intervention of a
noble lady. This experience did not deter him from joining in
the defence of Zutphen in 1572, but this was his last campaign,
and the troubles of the remaining years of his life were chiefly
domestic.

Churchyard was employed to devise a pageant for the queen's
reception at Bristol in 1574, and again at Norwich in 1578.
He had published in 1 5 7 5 The firsts parte of Churchyarde's Chippes,
the modest title which he gives to his works. No second part
appeared, but there was a much enlarged edition in 1578. A
passage in Churchyarde's Chaise (1579) gave offence to Elizabeth,
and the author fled to Scotland, where he remained for three
years. He was only restored to favour about 1584, and in 1593
he received a small pension from the queen. The affectionate
esteem with which he was regarded by the younger Elizabethan
writers is expressed by Thomas Nashe, who says (Foure Letters
Confuted) that Churchyard's aged muse might well be " grand-
mother to our grandiloquentest poets at this present." Francis
Meres (Palladis Tamia, 1598) mentions him in conjunction with
many great names among " the most passionate, among us,
to bewail and bemoan the perplexities of love." Spenser, in
" Colin Clout's come home again," calls him with a spice of
raillery " old Palaemon " who " sung so long until quite hoarse
he grew." His writings, with the exception of his contributions
to the Mirror for Magistrates, are chiefly autobiographical in
character or deal with the wars in which he had a share.
They are very rare, and have never been completely reprinted.
Churchyard lived right through Elizabeth's reign, and was buried
in St Margaret's church, Westminster, on the 4th of April 1604.

The extant works of Churchyard, exclusive of commendatory
and occasional verses, include: A lamentable and pitifull Des-
cription of the wofull warres in Flanders (1578); A general
rehearsall of warres, called Churchyard's Chaise (1579), really a
completion of the Chippes, and containing, like it, a number of
detached pieces ; A light Bondel of livelie Discourses, called Church-
yardes Charge (1580); The Worthines of Wales (1587), a valuable
antiquarian work in prose and verse, anticipating Michael Drayton;
Churchyard's Challenge (1593); A Musicall Consort of Heavenly
harmtnie . . . culled Churchyards Charitie (1595); A True Discourse
Historicall, of the succeeding Governors in the Netherlands (1602).

The chief authority for Churchyard's biography is his own
" Tragical! Discourse of the unhappy man's life " (Churchyardes
Chippes). George Chalmers published (1817) a selection from his
works relating to Scotland, for which he wrote a useful life. See
also an edition of the Chippes (ed. J. P. Collier, 1870), of the Worthines
of Wales (Spenser Soc. 1876), and a notice of Churchyard by H. W.
Adnitt (Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological and Nat. Hist.
Soc., reprinted separately 1884).

CHURCHYARD, a piece of consecrated ground attached to a
parochial church, and used as a burial place. It is distinguished
from a cemetery (q.v.), which is also a place of burial, but is
separate and apart from any parochial church. A cemetery in
England is either the property of a private company, incorporated
by special act of parliament, or of a local authority, and is
subject to the Cemeteries Clauses Act 1847, incorporated in the
Public Health Acts. The practice of burying in churches or
churchyards is said to have been connected with the custom of
praying for the dead, and it would appear that the earlier practice
was burying in the church itself. In England, about the year
750, spaces of ground adjoining the churches were enclosed and
appropriated to the burial of those who had been entitled to
attend divine service in those churches.

The right to burial in the parish churchyard is a common law
right, controlled in many points by the provisions of the law

ecclesiastical. This double character is sufficient to explain
the controversy which has so long raged round the subject of
burials in England. Every man, according to the common law,
has a right to be buried in his own churchyard, or, as it is some-
times put, in the churchyard of the parish where he dies. But
the churchyard, as well as the church itself, is the freehold of the
parson, who can in many respects deal with it as if it were a
private estate. A statute of Edward I. (35, st. 2) speaks of the
churchyard as the soil of the church, and the trees growing in the
churchyard " as amongst the goods of the church, the which
laymen have no authority to dispose," and prohibits " the
parsons from cutting down such trees unless required for repairs."
Notwithstanding the consecration of the church and churchyard,
and the fact that they are the parson's freehold, a right of way
may be claimed through them by prescription. The right to
burial may be subject to the payment of a fee to the incumbent,
if such has been the immemorial custom of the parish, but not
otherwise. The spirit of the ancient canons regarded such burial
fees as of a simoniacal complexion, inasmuch as the consecrated
grounds were among the res sacrae a feeling which Lord Stowell
says disappeared after the Reformation. No person can be
buried in a church without the consent of the incumbent, except
when the owner of a manor-house prescribes for a burying-place
within the church as belonging to the manor-house. In the case
of Rex v. Taylor it was held that an information was grantable
against a person for opposing the burial of a parishioner; but
the court would not interpose as to the person's refusal to read
the burial service because he never was baptized that being
matter for the ecclesiastical court. Strangers (or persons not
dying in the parish) should not be buried, it appears, without the
consent of the parishioners or churchwardens, " whose parochial
right of burial is invaded thereby."

In Scotland the obligation of providing and maintaining the
churchyard rests on the heritors of the parish. The guardianship
of the churchyard belongs to the heritors and also to the kirk-
session, either by delegation from the heritors, or in right of its
ecclesiastical character. The right of burial appears to be strictly
limited to parishioners, although an opinion has been expressed
that any person dying in the parish has a right to be buried in
the churchyard. The parishioners have no power of managemen t .
The presbytery may interfere to compel the heritors to provide
due accommodation, but has no further jurisdiction. It is the
duty of the heritors to allocate the churchyard. The Scottish
law hesitates to attach the ordinary incidents of real property
to the churchyard, while English law treats the ground as the
parson's freehold. It would be difficult to say who in Scotland
is the legal owner of the soil. Various opinions appear to prevail,
e.g. as to grass growing on the surface and minerals found beneath.
The difficulty as to religious services does not exist. On the
other hand, the religious character of the ground is hostile to
many of the legal rights recognized by the English law.

See also BURIAL AND BURIAL ACTS; CEMETERY.

CHURL (A.S. ceorl, cognate with^the Ger. Kerl and with
similar words in other Teutonic languages), one of the two main
classes, eorl and ceorl, into which in early Anglo-Saxon society
the freemen appear to have been divided. In the course of time
the status of the ceorl was probably reduced; but although his
political power was never large, and in some directions his
freedom was restricted, it hardly seems possible previous to
the Norman Conquest to class him among the unfree. Some
authorities, however, accept this view. At all events it is certain
that the ceorl was frequently a holder of land, and a person of
some position, and that he could attain the rank of a thegn.
Except in Kent his wergild was fixed at two hundred shillings, or
one-sixth of that of a thegn, and he is undoubtedly the tivyhynde
man of Anglo-Saxon law. In Kent his wergild was considerably
higher, and his status probably also, but his position in this
kingdom is a matter of controversy. After the Norman Conquest
the ceorls were reduced to a condition of servitude, and the word
translates the villanus of Domesday Book, although it also covers
classes other than the vttlani. The form ceorl soon became cherl,
as in Havelok the Dane (ante 1300) and several times in Chaucer.

and subsequently churl. Taking a less technical sense than the
ceorl of Anglo-Saxon law, churl, or cherl was used in general to
mean a " man," and more particularly a " husband." In this
sense it was employed about 1000 in a translation of the New
Testament to render the word &vrjp (John iv. 16, 18). It was
then employed to describe a " peasant," and gradually began
to denote undesirable qualities. Hence comes the modern use
of the word for a low-born or vulgar person, particularly one with
an unpleasant, surly or miserly character.

See H. M. Chadwick, Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions (Cam-
bridge, 1905) ; F. Seebohm, Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law
(London, 1902).

CHURN (O. Eng. cyrin; found in various forms in most
Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch karn; according to the New
English Dictionary not connected with " quern," a mill), a vessel
in which butter is made, by shaking or beating the cream so as
to separate the fatty particles which form the butter from the
serous parts or buttermilk. Early churns were upright, and in
shape resembled the cans now used in the transport of milk,
to which the name " churn " is also given. The upright churn
was worked by hand by a wooden " plunger "; later came a
box-shaped churn with a " splasher " revolving inside and
turned by a handle. The modern type of churn, in large dairies
worked by mechanical means, either revolves or swings itself,
thus reverting to the most primitive method of butter-making,
the shaking or swinging of the cream in a skin-bag or a gourd.
(See DAIRY.)

CHUSAN, the principal island of a group situated off the
eastern coast of China, in 30 N. 122 E., belonging to the
province of Cheh-kiang. It lies N.W. and S.E., and has a
circumference of 51 m., the extreme length being 20, the extreme
breadth 10, and the minimum breadth 6 m. The island is
beautifully diversified with hill and dale, and well watered with
numerous small streams, of which the most considerable is the
Tungkiang, falling into the harbour of Tinghai. Most of the
surface is capable of cultivation, and nine teen- twentieths of
the inhabitants are engaged in agriculture. Wherever it is
possible to rear rice every other product is neglected; yet the
quantity produced is not sufficient for the wants of the inhabi-
tants. Millet, wheat, sweet potatoes, yams and tares are also
grown. The tea plant is found almost everywhere, and the
cotton plant is largely cultivated near the sea. The capital,
Tinghai, stands about half a mile from the southern shore, and
is surrounded by a wall nearly 3 m. in circuit. The ditch outside
the wall is interrupted on the N.W. side by a spur from a neigh-
bouring hill, which projects into the town, and forms an easy
access to an attacking force. The town is traversed by canals,
and the harbour, which has from 4 to 8 fathoms water, is land-
locked by several islands. Temple (or Joss-house) Hill, which
commands the town and harbour close to the beach, is 122 ft.
high. The population of the entire island is estimated at 250,000,
of which the capital contains about 40,000. Chusan has but few
manufactures; the chief are coarse cotton stuffs and agricultural
implements. There are salt works on the coast; and the
fisheries employ a number of the inhabitants. In Tinghai a
considerable business is carried on in carving and varnishing,
and its silver wares are in high repute. The principal exports
are fish, coarse black tea, cotton, vegetable tallow, sweet
potatoes, and some wheat. Chusan was occupied by the Japanese
during the Ming dynasty, and served as an important commercial
entrepot. It was taken by the British forces in 1840 and 1841,
and retained till 1846 as a guarantee for the fulfilment of the
stipulations of the treaty. It was also occupied by the British
in 1860.

CHUTE (Fr. for " fall," of water or the like; pronounced as
" shoot," with which in meaning it is identical), a channel or
trough, artificial or natural, down which objects such as timber,
coal or grain may slide from a higher to a lower level. The word
is also used of a channel cut in a dam or a river for the passage
of floating timber, and in Louisiana and on the Mississippi of
a channel at the side of a river, or narrow way between an island
and the shore. The " Water-Chute " or water tobogganing, is a

CHURN GIBBER, C. G.

Canadian pastime, which has been popular in London and else-
where. A steep wooden slope terminates in a shallow lake ; down
this run flat-bottomed boats which rapidly increase their velocity
until at the end of the " chute " they dash into the water.

CHUTNEY, or CHUTNEE (Hindustani chatni), a relish or
seasoning of Indian origin, used as a condiment. It is prepared
from sweet fruits such as mangoes, raisins, &c., with acid flavour-
ing from tamarinds, lemons, limes and sour herbs, and with a
hot seasoning of chillies, cayenne pepper and spices.

CHUVASHES, or TCHUVASHES, a tribe found in eastern Russia.
They form about one-fourth of the population of the government
of Kazan, and live in scattered communities throughout the
governments of Simbirsk, Samara, Saratov, Orenburg and Perm.
They have been identified with the Burtasses of the Arab
geographers, and many authorities think they are the descendants
of the ancient Bolgars. In general they physically resemble the
Finns, being round-headed, flat-featured and light-eyed, but they
have been affected by long association with the Tatar element.
In dress they are thoroughly Russianized, and they are nominally
Christians, though they cling to many of the Old Shamanistic
practices. They number some half a million. Their language
belongs to the Tatar or Turkish group, but has been strongly
influenced by the Finno-Ugrian idioms spoken round it.

See Schott, De Lingua Tschuwaschorum (Berlin, 1841).

CIALDINI, ENRICO (1811-1892), Italian soldier, politician and
diplomatist, was born at Castelvetro, in Modena, on the loth of
August 1811. In 1831 he took part in the insurrection at
Modena, fleeing afterwards to Paris, whence he proceeded to
Spain to fight against the Carlists. Returning to Italy in 1848,
he commanded a regiment at the battle of Novara. In 1859 he
organized the Alpine Brigade, fought at Palestro at the head of
the 4th Division, and in the following year invaded the Marches,
won the battle of Castelfidardo, took Ancona, and subsequently
directed the siege of Gaeta. For these services he was created
duke of Gaeta by the king, and was assigned a pension of 10,000
lire by parliament. In 1861 his intervention envenomed the
Cavour-Garibaldi dispute, royal mediation alone preventing a
duel between him and Garibaldi. Placed in command of the
troops sent to oppose the Garibaldian expedition of 1862, he
defeated Garibaldi at Aspromonte. Between 1862 and 1866 he
held the position of lieutenant-royal at Naples, and in 1864 was
created senator. On the outbreak of the war of 1866 he resumed
command of an army corps, but dissensions between him and La
Marmora prejudiced the issue of the campaign and contributed
to the defeat of Custozza. After the war he refused the command
of the General Staff, which he wished to render independent of
the war office. In 1867 he attempted unsuccessfully to form a
cabinet sufficiently strong to prevent the threatened Garibaldian
incursion into the papal states, and two years later failed in a
similar attempt, through disagreement with Lanza concerning
the army estimates. On the 3rd of August 1870 he pleaded in
favour of Italian intervention in aid of France, a circumstance
which enhanced his influence when in July 1876 he replaced
Nigra as ambassador to the French Republic. This position he
held until 1882, when he resigned on account of the publication
by Mancini of a despatch in which he had complained of arrogant
treatment by M. Waddington. He died at Leghorn, on the 8th of
September 1892. (H. W. S.)

CIBBER (or CIBERT), CAIUS GABRIEL (1630-1700), Danish
sculptor, was born at Flensburg. He was the son of the king's
cabinetmaker, and was sent to Rome at the royal charge while yet
a youth. He came to England during the Protectorate, or during
the first years of the Restoration. Besides the famous statues
of Melancholy and Raving Madness (" great Gibber's brazen
brainless brothers "), now at South Kensington, Gibber produced
the bas-reliefs round the monument on Fish Street Hill. The
several kings of England and the Sir Thomas Gresham executed
by him for the Royal Exchange were destroyed with the building
itself in 1838. Gibber was long employed by the fourth earl of
Devonshire, and many fine specimens of his work are to be seen
at Chatsworth. Under that nobleman he took up arms in 1688
for William of Orange, and was appointed in return carver to the

GIBBER, COLLEY

35 1

king's closet. He died rich, and, according to Horace Walpole,
built the Danish church in London, where he lies buried beside
his second wife, to whom he erected a monument. She was a
Miss Colley of Glaiston, grand-daughter of Sir Anthony Colley,
and the mother of his son Colley Gibber.

GIBBER, COLLEY (1671-1757), English actor and dramatist,
was born in London on the 6th of November 1671, the eldest son
of Caius Gabriel Gibber, the sculptor. Sent in 1682 to the free
school at Grantham, Lincolnshire, the boy distinguished himself
by an aptitude for writing verse. He produced an " Oration " on
the death of Charles II. whom he had seen feeding his ducks in
St James's Park, and an " Ode " on the accession of James II.
He was removed from school in 1687 on the chance of election to
Winchester College. His father, however, had not then presented
that institution with his statue of William of Wykeham, and the
son was rejected, although through his mother he claimed to be
of " founder's kin." The boy went to London, and indulged his
passion for the theatre. He was invited to Chatsworth, the seat
of William Cavendish, earl (afterwards duke) of Devonshire, for
whom his father was then executing commissions, and he was on
his way when the news of the landing of William of Orange was
eceived; father and son met at Nottingham, and Colley Gibber
vas taken into Devonshire's company of volunteer?. He served

the bloodless campaign that resulted in the coronation of the
ace of Orange, and on its conclusion presented a Latin petition

i the earl imploring his interest. The earl did nothing for him,
owever, and he enrolled himself (1690) as an actor in Betterton's
ompany at Drury Lane.

After playing " full three-quarters of a year " without salary,
as was then the custom of all apprentice actors, he was paid ten
shillings a week. His rendering of the little part of the chaplain
in Otway's Orphan procured him a rise of five shillings; and a
subsequent impersonation (1694) on an emergency, and at the
author's request, of Lord Touchwood in The Double Dealer,
advanced him, on Congreve's recommendation, to a pound
a week. On this, supplemented by an allowance of 20 a year
from his father, he contrived to live with his wife and family
he had married in 1693 and to produce a play, Love's Last
Shift, or the Fool in Fashion (1696). Of this comedy Congreve
said that it had " a great many things that were like wit in it ";
and Vanbrugh honoured it by writing his Relapse as a sequel.
Gibber played the part of Sir Novelty Fashion, and his perform-
ance as Lord Foppington, the same character renamed, in
Vanbrugh's piece, established his reputation as an actor. In 1698
he was assailed, with other dramatists, by Jeremy Collier in the
Short View. In November 1702 he produced, at Drury Lane,
She Wou'd and She Wou'd Not; or the Kind Impostor, one of his
best comedies; and in 1704, for himself and Mrs Oldfield, The
Careless Husband, which Horace Walpole classed, with Gibber's
Apology, as " worthy of immortality." In 1706 Gibber left
Drury Lane for the Haymarket, but when the two companies
united two years later he rejoined his old theatre through the
influence of his friend Colonel Brett, a shareholder. Brett made
over his share to Wilks, Estcourt and Gibber. Complaints
against the management of Christopher Rich led, in 1709, to the
Qosing of the theatre by order of the crown, and William Collier
obtained the patent. After a series of intrigues Collier was
ought out by Wilks, Doggett and Gibber, under whose manage-
nent Drury Lane became more prosperous than it ever had been.
1715 a new patent was granted to Sir Richard Steele, and
Jarton Booth was also added to the management. In 1717
libber produced the Nonjuror, an adaptation from Moliere's
e; the play, for which Nicholas Rowe wrote an abusive

ologue, ran eighteen nights, and the author received from
Jeorge I., to whom it was dedicated, a present of two hundred

lineas. Tartuff e became an English Catholic priest who incited
ebellion, and there is little doubt that the Whig principles

pressed in the Nonjuror led to Gibber's appointment as poet
aureate (1730). It also provoked the animosity of the Jacobite
nd Catholic factions, and was possibly one of the causes of
Pope's hostility to Gibber. Numerous " keys " to the Nonjuror
ppeared in i 7 18. In 17 20 Drury Lane was closed for three days

by order of the duke of Newcastle, ostensibly on account of the
refusal of the patentees to submit to the authority of the lord
chamberlain, but really (it is asserted) because of a quarrel
between Newcastle and Steele, in which the former demanded
Gibber's resignation. In 1726 Gibber pleaded the cause of the
patentees against the estate of Sir Richard Steele before Sir
Joseph Jekyll, master of the rolls, and won his case. In 1730
Mrs Oldfield died, and her loss was followed in 1732 by that of
Wilks; Gibber now sold his share in the theatre, appearing
rarely on the stage thereafter. In 1 740 he published An A pology
for the Life of Colley Gibber, Comedian . . . with an Historical
View of the Stage during his Own Time. " There are few," wrote
Goldsmith, " who do not prefer a page of Montaigne or Colley
Gibber, who candidly tell us what they thought of the world,
and the world thought of them, to the more stately memoirs
and transactions of Europe." But beside the personal interest,
this book contains criticisms on acting of enduring value, and
gives the best account there is of Gibber's contemporaries on
the London stage. Samuel Johnson, who was no friend of Gibber,
gave it grudging praise (see Boswell's Life of Johnson, ed.
Birkbeck Hill, vol. iii. p. 72).

In 1742 Gibber was substituted for Theobald as the hero of
Pope's Dunciad. Gibber had introduced some gag into the
Rehearsal, in which he played the part of Bayes, referring to the
ill-starred farce of Three Hours after Marriage (1717). This play
was nominally by Gay, but Pope and Arbuthnot were known
to have had a hand in it. Gibber refused to discontinue the
offensive passage, and Pope revenged himself in sarcastic
allusions in his printed correspondence, in the Epistle to Dr
Arbuthnot and in the Dunciad. To these, Gibber replied with
A Letter from Mr Gibber to Mr Pope, inquiring into the motives
that might induce him in his satirical works to be so frequently
fond of Mr Gibber's name (1742). Gibber scored with an " idle
story of Pope's behaviour in a tavern " inserted in this letter,
and gives an account of the original dispute over the Rehearsal.
By the substitution of Gibber for Theobald as hero of the Dunciad,
much of the satire lost its point. Gibber's faults certainly did not
include dullness. A new edition contained a prefatory discourse,
probably the work of Warburton, entitled " Ricardus Aristarchus,
or the Hero of the Poem," in which Gibber is made to look
ridiculous from his own Apology. Gibber replied in 1744 with
Another Occasional Letter . . ., and altogether he had the best
of the argument. When he was seventy-four years old he made
his last appearance on the stage as Pandulph in his own Papal
Tyranny in the Reign of King John (Covent Garden, isth of
February 1745), a miserable paraphrase of Shakespeare's play.
He died on the nth of December 1757.

Gibber's reputation has suffered unduly from the depreciation
of Pope and Johnson. " I could not bear such nonsense," said
Johnson of one of Gibber's odes, " and I would not let him read
it to the end." Fielding attacked Gibber's style and language
more than once in Joseph A ndrews and elsewhere. Nevertheless,
Gibber possessed wit, unusual good sense and tact; and in the
Apology he showed himself the most delicate and subtle critic
of acting of his time. He was frequently accused of plagiarism,
and did not scruple to make use of old plays, but he is said to
have been ashamed of his Shakespearian adaptations, one of
which, however, Richard III. (Drury Lane, 1700), kept its place
as the acting version until 1821. Gibber is rebuked for his mutila-
tion of Shakespeare by Fielding in the Historical Register for
1736, where he figures as Ground Ivy.

If Gibber had not as much wit as his predecessors, he displayed
in his best plays abundant animation and spirit, free from the
extreme coarseness of many of his contemporaries, and a thorough
knowledge of the requirements of the stage. His most successful
comedies kept their place in the acting repertory for a long time.
He was an excellent actor, especially in the r61e of the fashionable
coxcomb. Horace Walpole said that as Bayes in The Rehearsal
he made the part what it was intended to be, the burlesque
of a great poet, whereas David Garrick degraded him to a
" garretteer."

The Apology was edited in 1822 by E. Bellchambers and in 1889

352

CIBORIUM CIBRARIO

by R. W. Lowe, who printed with it other valuable theatrical books
and pamphlets. It is also included in Hunt and Clarke's Auto-
biographies (1826, &c.). (Jibber's Dramatic Works were published
in 1760, with an account of the life and writings of the author, and
again in 1777. Besides the plays already mentioned, he wrote
Woman's Wit, or the Lady in Fashion (1697), which was altered later
(1707) into The Schoolboy, or the Comical Rivals; Xerxes (1699), a
tragedy acted only once; The Provoked Husband (acted 1728),
completed from Vanbrugh's unfinished Journey to London; The
Rival Queens, with the Humours of Alexander the Great (acted 1710),
a comical tragedy; Damon and Phyllida (acted 1729), a ballad
opera; and adaptations from Beaumont and Fletcher, Dryden,
Moliere and Corneille. A bibliography of the numerous skits on
Gibber is to be found in Lowe's Bibliographical Account of English
Theatrical Literature.

Colley Cibber's son, THEOPHILUS CIBBER (1703-1758), also an
actor and playwright, was born on the 26th of November 1703.
In 1734 he was acting-manager at the Haymarket, and he
subsequently played at Drury Lane, Lincoln's Inn Fields and
Covent Garden. His best impersonation was as Pistol, but he
also distinguished himself in some of the fine-gentleman parts
affected by his father. He was one of the ringleaders in the
intrigues against John Highmore, who had bought a share in
the patent of Drury Lane from Colley Gibber. Theophilus Gibber,
with a number of other actors, seceded from Drury Lane,
and in thus depreciating the value of the patent, for which his
father had received a considerable sum, acted with doubtful
honesty. He contemplated the publication of an autobiography,
but was effectually dissuaded by the appearance ( 1 740) of a scath-
ing account of his career by an unknown author, entitled An
A pology for the Life of Mr 7*. ... C. ... supposed to be written
by himself. In 1753 he began The Lives and Characters of the
most Eminent Actors and Actresses of Great Britain and Ireland,
but he went no further than the life of Barton Booth. He wrote
some plays of no great merit. In 1753 appeared An Account of
the Lives of the Poets of Great Britain and Ireland, with the name
of " Mr Gibber " on the title page. The five volumes of Lives
are chiefly based on the earlier works of Gerard Langbaine and
Giles Jacob, and the MS. collections of Thomas Coxeter (1689-
1747). The book is said to have been largely written by Robert
Shiels, Dr Johnson's amanuensis. Theophilus Gibber perished
by shipwreck on his way to Dublin to play at the Theatre
Royal.

SUSANNAH MARIA CIBBER (1714-1766), wife of Theophilus,
was an actress of distinction. She was the daughter of a Covent
Garden upholsterer, and sister of Dr Arne (17-10-1778) the
composer. Mrs Gibber had a beautiful voice and began her career
in opera. She was the original Galatea in Handel's Ads and
Galatea, and the contralto arias in the Messiah are said to have
been written for her. She played Zarah in Aaron Hill's version
of Voltaire's Zaire in 1736, and it was as a tragic actress, not as a
singer, that her greatest triumphs were won. From Colley Gibber
she learned a sing-song method of declamation. Her mannerisms,
however, did not obscure her real genius, and she freed herself
from them entirely when she began to act with Garrick, with
whom she was associated at Drury Lane from 1753. She died on
the 3oth of January 1766. She married Theophilus Gibber in
1734, but lived with him but a short time. Appreciations of
Mrs Cibber's fine acting are to be found in many contemporary
writers, one of the most discriminating being in the Rosciad
of Charles Churchill.

Colley Cibber's youngest daughter, CHARLOTTE, married
Richard Charke, a violinist, from whom she was soon separated.
She began as an understudy to actresses in leading parts, but
quarrelled with her manager, Charles Fleetwood, on whom she
wrote a one-act skit, The Art of Management (1735). She also
wrote two comedies and two novels of small merit, and an un-
trustworthy, but amusing Narrative of Life of . . . Charlotte
Charke, . . . by herself (1755), reprinted in Hunt and Clarke's
Autobiographies (1822).

CIBOBIUM, a name in classical Latin for a drinking-vessel.
It is the latinized form of the Gr. Ki/Sajpiov, the cup-shaped
seed-vessel of the Egyptian water-lily, the seeds or nuts of which
were known as " Egyptian beans." In the early Christian

Church the ciborium was a canopy over the altar (q.v.), supported
on columns, and from it hung the receptacle in which was
reserved the consecrated wafer of the Eucharist. The use of
the word has probably been much influenced by the early false
connexion with cibus, food, cf. Agatio, bishop of Pisa (quoted
in Du Cange, Gloss, s.v.), " Ciborium vas esse ad ferendos cibos."
In the Eastern Church the columns rested on the altar itself, in
the Western they reached the ground. The name was early
transferred from the canopy to the vessel containing the reserved
sacrament, and in the Western Church the canopy was known
as a " baldaquin," Ital. baldacchino, from Baldacco, the Itilian
name of Bagdad, and hence applied to a rich kind of embroidered
tapestry made there and much used for canopies, &c. At the
present day it is usual in the Roman Church to use the term
" pyx " (TTIJ&S, properly a vessel made of boxwood) for the
receptacle for the reserved sacrament used in administering the
viaticum to the sick or dying. Medieval pyxes and ciboria are
often beautiful examples of the goldsmith's, enameller's and
metal-worker's craft. They take most usually the shape of a
covered chalice or of a cylindrical box with conical or cylindrical
cover surmounted by a cross. An exquisite ciborium fetched
6000 at the sale of the Jerdone Braikenridge collection at
Christie's in 1908. It is supposed to have come from Malmesbury
Abbey, and is probably of 13th-century English make. It is of
copper-gilt and ornamented with champleve enamels, apple and
chrysoprase green, scarlet, mauve and white, turquoise and
lapis lazuli, the flesh tints being of a pale jasper. Various
subjects from the Old and New Testament, such as the sacrifice
of Abel, the brazen serpent, the nativity, crucifixion and re-
surrection are. represented on circular medallions on the outside.
It is illustrated in colours in the catalogue of the exhibition of
the Burlington Fine Arts Club, 1897.

CIBRARIO, LUIGI, COUNT (1802-1870), Italian statesman
and historian, descended from a noble but impoverished Pied-
montese family, was born in Usseglia on the 23rd of February
1802. He won a scholarship at the age of sixteen, and was
teaching literature at eighteen. His verses to King Charles
Albert, then prince of Carignano, on the birth of his son Victor
Emmanuel, attracted the prince's attention and proved the
beginning of a long intimacy. He entered the Sardinian civil
service, and in 1824 was appointed lecturer on canon and civil
law. His chief interest was the study of ancient documents,
and he was sent to search the archives of Switzerland, France
and Germany for charters relating to the history of Savoy.
During the war of 1848, after the expulsion of the Austrians
from Venice, Cibrario was sent to that city with Colli to negotiate
its union with Piedmont. But the proposal fell through when
the news of the armistice between King Charles Albert and
Austria arrived, and the two delegates were made the objects
of a hostile demonstration. In October 1848 Cibrario was made
senator, and after the battle of Novara (March 1849), when
Charles Albert abdicated and retired to a monastery near Oporto,
Cibrario and Count Giacinto di Collegno were sent as representa-
tives of the senate to express the sympathy of that body with the
fallen king. He reached Oporto on the 28th of May, and afte
staying there for a month returned to Turin, which he reache<
just before the news of Charles Albert's death. In May 1852
he became minister of finance in the reconstructed d'Azeglio
cabinet, and later minister of education in that of Cavour. In
the same year he was appointed secretary to the order of SS
Maurizio and Lazzaro. It was he who in 1853 dictated the
vigorous memorandum of protest against the confiscation by
Austria of the property of Lombard exiles who had been
naturalized in Piedmont. He strongly supported Cavour's
Crimean policy (1855), and when General La Marmora departet
in command of the expeditionary force and Cavour took the war
office, Cibrario was made minister for foreign affairs. He con
ducted the business of the department with great skill, and ably
seconded Cavour in bringing about the admission of Piedmont
to the congress of Paris on an equal footing with the great powers
On retiring from the foreign office Cibrario was created count
In 1860 he acted as mediator between Victor Emmanuel's

CICADA CICERO

353

government and the republic of San Marino, and arranged a
treaty by which the latter's liberties were guaranteed. After
the war of 1866 by which Austria lost Venetia, Cibrario negotiated
with that government for the restitution of state papers and art
treasures removed by it from Lombardy and Venetia to Vienna.
He died in October 1870, near Said, on the lake of Garda.

His most important work was his Economia politico, del media
evo (Turin, 1839), which enjoyed great popularity at the time,
but is now of little value. His Schiavitii e servaggio (Milan,
1868-1869) gave an account of the development and abolition
of slavery and serfdom. Among his historical writings the
following deserve mention: Delle artigiierie dal 1300 al 1700
(Turin, 1847); Origini .... detta monarchic, di Savoia (Turin,
1854); Degli ordini cavallereschi (Turin, 1846); Degli ordini
religiosi (Turin, 1845); and the Memorie Segrete of Charles
Albert, written by order of Victor Emmanuel but afterwards
withdrawn. Cibrario was a good example of the loyal, industrious,
honest Piedmontese aristocrat of the old school.

His biography has been written by F. Odorici, // Conte L. Cibrario
(Florence, 1872). (L. V.*)

CICADA (Cicadidae) , insects of the homopterous division of
the Hemiptera, generally of large size, with the femora of the
anterior legs toothed below, two pairs of large clear wings, and
prominent compound eyes. Cicadas are chiefly remarkable for
the shrill song of the males, which in some cases may be heard
in concert at a distance of a quarter of a mile or more. The vocal
organs, of which there is a pair in the thorax, protected by an
opercular plate, are quite unlike the sounding organs of other
insects. Each consists in essence of a tightly stretched membrane
or drum which is thrown into a state of rapid vibration by a
powerful muscle attached to its inner surface and passing thence
downwards to the floor of the thoracic cavity. Although no
auditory organs have been found in the females, the song of the
males is believed to serve as a sexual call. Cicadas are also
noteworthy for their longevity, which so far as is known surpasses
that of all other insects. By means of a saw-like ovipositor the
female lays her eggs in the branches of trees. Upon hatching,
the young, which differ from the adult in possessing long antennae
and a pair of powerful fossorial anterior legs, fall to the ground,
burrow below the surface, and spend a prolonged subterranean
larval existence feeding upon the roots of vegetation. After
many years the larva is transformed into the pupa or nymph,
which is distinguishable principally by the shortness of its
antennae and the presence of wing pads. After a brief existence
the pupa emerges from the ground, and, holding on to a plant
stem by means of its powerful front legs, sets free the perfect
insect through a slit along the median dorsal line of the thorax.
In some cases the pupa upon emerging constructs a chimney of
soil, the use of which is not known. In one of the best-known
species, Cicada septemdecim, from North America, the life-cycle
is said to extend over seventeen years. Cicadas are particularly
abundant in the tropics, where the largest forms are found.
They also occur in temperate countries, and were well known
to the ancient Greeks and Romans. One species only is found
in England, where it is restricted to the southern counties but
is an insect not commonly met with.

CICELY, Myrrhis odorala (natural order Umbelliferae), a
perennial herb with a leafy hollow stem, 2 to 3 ft. high, much
divided leaves, whitish beneath, a large sheathing base, and
terminal umbels of small white flowers, the outer ones only of
which are fertile. The fruit is dark brown, long (J to I in.),
narrow and beaked. The plant is a native of central and southern
Europe, and is found in parts of England and Scotland in pastures,
usually near houses. It has aromatic and stimulant properties
and was formerly used as a pot-herb.

CICERO, the name of two families of ancient Rome. It may
perhaps be derived from deer (pulse), in which case it would be
analogous to such names as Lentulns, Tubero, Piso. Of one
family, of the plebeian Claudian gens, only a single member,
Gaius Claudius Cicero, tribune in 454 B.C., is known. The other
family was a branch of the Tullii, settled from an ancient period
Arpinum. This family, four of whose members are noticed

specially below, did not achieve more than municipal eminence
until the time of M. Tullius Cicero, the great orator.

i. MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO (106-43 B.C.), Roman orator and
politician, was born at Arpinum on the 3rd of January 106 B.C.
His mother, Helvia, is said to have been of good family. His
father was by some said to have been descended from Attius
Tullius, the Volscian host of Coriolanus, while spiteful persons
declared him to have been a fuller; in any case he was a Roman
knight with property at Arpinum and a house in Rome. His
health was weak, and he generally lived at Arpinum, where he
devoted himself to literary pursuits. Cicero spent his boyhood
partly in his native town and partly at Rome. The poet Archias,
he says, first inspired him with the love of literature. He was
much impressed by the teaching of Phaedrus, the Epicurean,
at a period before he assumed the toga virilis ; he studied
dialectic under Diodotus the Stoic, and in 88 B.C. attended the
lectures of Philo, the head of the Academic school, whose devoted
pupil he became. He studied rhetoric under Molo (Molon) of
Rhodes, and law under the guidance of Q. Mucius Scaevola,
the augur and jurisconsult. After the death of the augur, he
transferred himself to the care of Q. Mucius Scaevola, the
pontifex maximus, a still more famous jurisconsult, nephew of
the augur. His literary education at this period consisted largely
of verse-writing and making translations from Greek authors.
We hear of an early poem named Pontius Glaucus the subject
of which is uncertain, and of translations of Xenophon's Oecono-
mica and the Phenomena of Aratus. Considerable fragments of
the latter work are still extant. To this period also belongs his
de Inventione rhetorica, of which he afterwards spoke lightly
(de Oral. i. 5), but which enjoyed a great vogue in the middle
ages. Cicero also, according to Roman practice, received
military training. At the age of seventeen he served in the social
war successively under Pompeius Strabo and Sulla (89 B.C.).
In the war between Marius and Sulla has sympathies were with
Sulla, but he did not take up arms (Sext. Rose. 136, 142).

His forensic life begins in 81 B.C., at the age of twenty-five.
A speech delivered in this year, pro Quinctio, is still extant; it
is concerned with a technical point of law and has little literary
merit. In the following year he made his celebrated defence of
Sextus Roscius on a charge of parricide. He subsequently
defended a woman of Arretium, whose freedom was impugned
on the ground that Sulla had confiscated the territory of that
town. Cicero then left Rome on account of his health, and
travelled for two years in the East. He studied philosophy at
Athens under various teachers, notably Antiochus of Ascalon,
founder of the Old Academy, a combination of Stoicism, Platon-
ism and Peripateticism. In Asia he attended the courses of
Xenocles, Dionysius and Menippus, and in Rhodes those of
Posidonius, the famous Stoic. In Rhodes also he studied
rhetoric once more under Molo, to whom he ascribes a decisive
influence upon the development of his literary style. He had
previously affected the florid, or Asiatic, style of oratory then
current in Rome. The chief faults of this were excess of orna-
ment, antithesis, alliteration and assonance, monotony of
rhythm, and the insertion of words purely for rhythmical effect.
Molo, he says, rebuked his youthful extravagance and he came
back " a changed man." 1

He returned to Rome in 77 B.C., and appears to have married at
this time Terentia, a rich woman with a domineering temper,
to whom many of his subsequent embarrassments were due. 1
He engaged at once in forensic and political life. He was
quaestor in 75, and was sent to Lilybaeum to supervise the corn
supply. His connexion with Sicily led him to come forward in
70 B.C., when curule-aedile elect, to prosecute Gaius Verres, who
had oppressed the island for three years. Cicero seldom prose-
cuted, but it was the custom at Rome for a rising politician to

1 Brutus, 316 "_ (Molon) dedit operam . . . ut nimis redundantis
nos et supra nuentis iuvenili quadam dicendi impunitate et licentia
reprimeret et quasi extra ripas diffluentis coerceret."

2 According to Plutarch she urged her husband to take vigorous
action against Catiline, who had compromised her half-sister Fabia,
a vestal virgin ; also to give evidence against Clodius, being jealous
of his sister Clodia.

VI. 12

354

CICERO

win his spurs by attacking a notable offender (pro Caelio, 73).
In the following year he defended Marcus (or Manius) Fonteius
on a charge of extortion in Gaul, using various arguments which
might equally well have been advanced on behalf of Verres himself.

In 68 B.C. his letters begin, from which (and especially those to
T. Pomponius Atticus, his " second self ") we obtain wholly
unique knowledge of Roman life and history. In 66 B.C. he was
praetor, and was called upon to hear cases of extortion. In the
same year he spoke on behalf of the proposal of Gaius Manilius
to transfer the command against Mithradates from Lucullus to
Pompey (de Lege Manilla), and delivered his clever but dis-
ingenuous defence of Aulus Cluentius (pro Cluentio). At this
time he was a prospective candidate for the consulship, and
was obliged by the hostility of the nobles towards " new men "
to look for help wherever it was to be found. In 65 B.C. he even
thought of defending Catiline on a charge of extortion, and
delivered two brilliant speeches on behalf of Gaius Cornelius,
tribune in 67 B.C., a leader of the democratic party. In 64 B.C.
he lost his father and his son Marcus was born. The optimates
finally decided to support him for the consulship in order to
keep out Catiline, and he eagerly embraced the " good cause,"
his affection for which from this time onward never varied,
though his actions were not always consistent.

The public career of Cicero henceforth is largely covered by
the general article on ROME: History, II. " The Republic," ad
fin. The year of his consulship (63) was one of amazing activity,
both administrative and oratorical. Besides the three speeches
against Publius Rullus and the four against Catiline, he delivered
a number of others, among which that on behalf of Gaius Rabirius
is especially notable. The charge was that Rabirius (q.v.) had
killed Satuminus in 100 B.C., and by bringing it the democrats
challenged the right of the senate to declare a man a public
enemy. Cicero, therefore, was fully aware of the danger which
would threaten himself from his execution of the Catilinarian
conspirators. He trusted, however, to receive the support of
the nobles. In this he was disappointed. They never forgot
that he was a " new man," and were jealous of the great house
upon the Palatine which he acquired at this time. Caesar had
made every possible effort to conciliate Cicero, 1 but, when all
overtures failed, allowed Publius Clodius to attack him. Cicero
found himself deserted, and on the advice of Cato went into exile
to avoid bloodshed. He left Rome at the end of March 58, and
arrived on the 23rd of May at Thessalonica, where he remained
in the deepest dejection until the end of November, when he
went to Dyrrhachium (Durazzo) awaiting his recall. He left
for Italy on the 4th of August 57, and on arriving at Brundisium
(Brindisi) found that he had been recalled by a law passed by the
comitia on the very day of his departure. On his arrival at Rome
he was received with enthusiasm by all classes, but did not find
the nobles at all eager to give him compensation for the loss of
his house and villas, which had been destroyed by Clodius.
He was soon encouraged by the growing coolness between
Pompey and Caesar to attack the acts of Caesar during his
consulship, and after his successful defence of Publius Sestius
on the loth of March he proposed on the 5th of April that the
senate should on the 15th of May discuss Caesar's distribution
of the Campanian land. This brought about the conference of
Luca (Lucca) . Cicero was again deserted by his supporters and
threatened with fresh exile. He was forced to publish a " re-
cantation," probably the speech de Provinciis Consularibus,
and in a private letter says frankly, " I know that I have been a
regular ass." His conduct for the next three years teems with
inconsistencies which we may deplore but cannot pass over.
He was obliged to defend in 54 Publius Vatinius, whom he had
fiercely attacked during the trial of Sestius; also Aulus Gabinius,
one of the consuls to whom his exile was due; and Rabirius
Postumus, an agent of Gabinius. On the other hand, he made a
violent speech in the senate in 55 against Lucius Piso, the col-

1 Caesar, at one time, offered him a place on the coalition, which
on his refusal became a triumvirate (Alt. ii. 3. 3; Prov. Cons. 41),
and afterwards a post on his commission for the division of the
Campanian land, or a legatio libera.

league of Gabinius in 58. We know from his letters that he
accepted financial aid from Caesar, but that he repaid the loan
before the outbreak of the civil war. 2 There is no doubt that he
was easily deceived. He was always an optimist, and thought
that he was bringing good influence to bear upon Caesar as
afterwards upon Octavian. His actions, however, when Caesar's
projects became manifest, sufficiently vindicated his honesty.
During these unhappy years he took refuge in literature. The de
Oratore was written in 55 B.C., the de Republica in 54, and the de
Legibus at any rate begun in 52. The latter year is famous for
the murder of Clodius by T. Annius Milo on the Appian Way
(on the i8th of January), which brought about the appointment
of Pompey as sole consul and the passing of the special laws
dealing with rioting and bribery. Cicero took an active part in
the trials which followed, both as a defender of Milo and his
adherents and as a prosecutor of the opposite faction. At the
close of the year, greatly to his annoyance, he was sent to govern
Cilicia under the provisions of Pompey's law (see POMPEY and
ROME: History). His reluctance to leave Rome, already shown
by his refusal to take a province, after his praetorship and
consulship, was increased by the inclination of his daughter
Tullia, then a widow, to marry again. 3 During his absence she
married the profligate spendthrift, P. Cornelius Dolabella.

The province of Cilicia was a large one. It included, in
addition to Cilicia proper, Isauria, Lycaonia, Pisidia, Pamphylia
and Cyprus, as well as a protectorate over the client kingdoms of
Cappadocia and Galatia. There was also danger of a Parthian
inroad. Cicero's legate was his brother Quintius Cicero (below),
an experienced soldier who had gained great distinction under
Caesar in Gaul. The fears of Parthian invasion were not realized,
but Cicero, after suppressing a revolt in Cappadocia, undertook
military operations against the hill-tribes of the Amanus and
captured the town of Pindenissus after a siege of forty-six days.
A supplicatio in his honour was voted by the senate. The early
months of 50 were occupied by the administration of justice,
chiefly at Laodicea, and by various attempts to alleviate the
distress in the province caused by the exactions of his predecessor,
Appius Claudius. He had to withstand pressure from influential
persons (e.g. M. Brutus,who had business interests in his province),
and refused to provide his friends with wild beasts for their
games in Rome. Leaving his province on the earliest opportunity,
he reached Brundisium on the 24th of November, and found civil
war inevitable. He went to Rome on the 4th of January, but
did not enter the city, since he aspired to a triumph for his
successes. 4 After the outbreak of war he was placed by Pompey
in charge of the Campanian coast. After much irresolution he
refused Caesar's invitations and resolved to join Pompey's
forces in Greece. He was shocked by the ferocious language of
his party, and himself gave offence by his bitter jests (Plut.
Cic. 38). Through illness he was not present at the battle of
Pharsalus, but afterwards was offered the command by Cato
the Younger at Corcyra, and was threatened with death by the
young Cn. Pompeius when he refused to accept it. Thinking it
useless to continue the struggle, he sailed to Brundisium, where
he remained until the 1 2th of August 47, when, after receiving
a kind letter from Caesar, he went to Rome. Under Caesar's
dictatorship Cicero abstained from politics. His voice was
raised on three occasions only: once in the senate in 46 to praise
Caesar's clemency to M. Claudius Marcellus (pro Marcello), to
plead in the same year before Caesar for Quintus Ligarius, and in
45 on behalf of Deiotarus, tetrarch of Galatia, also before Caesar.
He suffered greatly from family troubles at this period. In 46,
his patience giving way, he divorced Terentia, and married his
young and wealthy ward Publilia. Then came the greatest grief

2 Alt. vii. 8. 5 "est enim &itop4>ov ivTiiro\i.Tevoii

3 She was married in 63 B.C. to C. Calpurnius Piso Frugi, whom
Cicero found a model son-in-law. He appears to have died before
56, since in that year Tullia was betrothed to Furius Crassipes
(quaestor in Bithynia in 51). It is not known if this marriage actually
took place.

4 That the loss of his triumph rankled in his mind may be seen
from Brutus, 255 : " hanc gloriam . . . tuae quidem supplication!
non, sed triumphis multorum antepono."

CICERO

355

of his life, the death of Tullia, his beloved daughter. He shortly
afterwards divorced Publilia, who had been jealous of Tullia's
influence and proved unsympathetic. To solace his troubles
he devoted himself wholly to literature. To this period belong
several famous rhetorical and philosophical works, the Brutus,
Orator, Partitiones Oratoriae, Paradoxa, Academica, de Finibus,
Tusculan Disputations, together with other works now lost, such
as his Laus Catonis, Consolatio and Hortensius.

His repose was broken by Caesar's murder on the isth of
March 44, to which he was not a party. On the I7th of March
he delivered a speech in the senate urging a general amnesty like
that declared in Athens after the expulsion of the Thirty Tyrants.
When it became apparent that the conspirators had only removed
the despot and left the despotism, he again devoted himself to
philosophy, and in an incredibly short space of time produced the
de Natura Deorum, de Divinatione, de Fato, Cato maior (or de
Senectute), Laelius (or de Amicitia), and began his treatise de
Officiis. To this period also belongs his lost work de Gloria.
He then projected a journey to Greece in order to see his son
Marcus, then studying at Athens, of whose behaviour he heard
unfavourable reports. He reached Syracuse on the i st of August,
having during the voyage written from memory a translation
of Aristotle's Topica. He was driven back by unfavourable
winds to Leucopetra, and then, hearing better news, returned to
Rome on the 2ist of August. He was bitterly attacked by
Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) in the senate on the ist of
September for not being present there, and on the next day
replied in his First Philippic. He then left Rome and devoted
himself to the completion of the de Officiis, and to the composition
of his famous Second Philippic, which was never delivered, but
was circulated, at first privately, after Antony's departure from
Rome to Cisalpine Gaul on the 28th of November.

Cicero returned to Rome on the 9th of December, and from
that time forward led the republican party in the senate. His
policy, stated briefly, was to make use of Octavian, whose name
was all-powerful with the veterans, until new legions had been
raised which would follow the republican commanders (Phil. xi.
39). Cicero pledged his credit for the loyalty of Octavian, who
styled him " father " and affected to take his advice on all
occasions (Epp. ad Brut. i. 17. 5). Cicero, an incurable optimist
in politics, may have convinced himself of Octavian's sincerity.
The breach, however, was bound to come, and the saying,
maliciously attributed to Cicero, that Octavian was an " excellent
youth who must be praised and sent to another place," neatly
expresses the popular view of the situation. 1 Cicero was sharply
criticized by M. Junius Brutus for truckling to Octavian while
showing irreconcilable enmity to Antony and Lepidus (ad Brut.
i. 16. 4, i. 15. 9); but Brutus was safe in his province, and it is
difficult to see what other course was open to a politician in
Rome. Whether Cicero was right or wrong, none can question
his amazing energy. He delivered his long series of Philippics
at Rome, and kept up a correspondence with the various
provincial governors and commanders, all short-sighted and
selfish, and several of them half-hearted, endeavouring to keep
each man in his place and to elaborate a common plan of opera-
tions. He was naturally included in the list of the proscribed,
though it is said that Octavian fought long on his behalf, and
was slain near Formiae on the 7th of December 43. He had a
ship near in which he had previously attempted to fly, but being
cast back by unfavourable winds he returned to his villa, saying,
" Let me die in the country which I have often saved." His
head and hands were sent to Rome and nailed to the rostra,
after Fulvia, wife of Antony and widow of Clodius, had thrust
a hairpin through the tongue.

Works. The literary works of Cicero may be classed as (i)
rhetorical; (2) oratorical; (3) philosophical and political; (4)

Ipistolary.
(i.) Rhetorical? His chief works of this kind are: (a) de

' Fam. xi. 20 " laudandum adolescentem, ornandum, tollendum."
7 With these it is usual to include a treatise to Herennius by an
anonymous author, a contemporary of Sulla, in modern times gener-
ally identified with a person named Cornificius, quoted by Quintilian

Oratore, a treatise in three books dedicated to his brother Quintus.
The discussion is conducted in the form of a dialogue which is
supposed to have occurred in 91 B.C. chiefly between the two
orators L. Crassus and M. Antonius. The first book deals with
the studies necessary for an orator; the second with the treat-
ment of the subject matter; the third with the form and delivery
of a speech. Cicero says of this work in a letter (Fam. i. 9. 23)
that it " does not deal in hackneyed rules and embraces the whole
theory of oratory as laid down by Isocrates and Aristotle."
(6) Brutus, or de Claris oratoribus, a history of Roman eloquence
containing much valuable information about his predecessors,
drawn largely from the Chronicle (liber annalis) of Atticus ( 14,
15). (c) Orator, dedicated to M. Brutus, sketching a portrait
of the perfect and ideal orator, Cicero's last word on oratory.
The sum of his conclusion is that the perfect orator must also
be a perfect man. Cicero says of this work that he has " con-
centrated in it all his taste " (Fam. vi. 18. 4). The three treatises
are intended to form a continuous series containing a complete
system of rhetorical training.

It will be convenient to mention here a feature of Ciceronian
prose on which singular light has been thrown by recent inquiry.
In the de Oratore, iii. 173 sqq., he considers the element of rhythm
or metre in prose, and in the Orator (174-226) he returns to the
subject and discusses it at length. His main point is that prose
should be metrical in character, though it should not be entirely
metrical, since this would be poetry (Orator, 220). Greek writers
relied for metrical effect in prose on those feet which were not much
used in poetry. Aristotle recommended the paean U y u - Cicero
preferred the cretic - u -, which he says is the metrical equivalent
df the paean. Demosthenes was especially fond of the cretic.
Rhythm pervades the whole sentence but is most important at the
end or clausula, where the swell of the period sinks to res. The ears
of the Romans were incredibly sensitive to such points. We are
told that an assembly was stirred to wild applause by a double
trochee - w -w. 3 If the order were changed, Cicero says, the
effect would be lost. The same rhythm should be found in the
membra which compose the sentence. He quotes a passage from
one of his own speeches in which any change in the order would
destroy the rhythm. Cicero gives various clausulae which his ears
told him to be good or bad, but his remarks are desultory, as also are
those of Quintilian, whose examples were largely drawn from Cicero's
writings. It was left for modern research to discover rules of har-
mony which the Romans obeyed unconsciously. Other investigators
had shown that Cicero's clausulae are generally variations of some
three or four forms in which the rhythm is trochaic. Dr Thaddaeus
Zielinski of St Petersburg, after examining all the clausulae in
Cicero's speeches, finds that they are governed by a law. In every
clausula there is a basis followed by a cadence. The basis consists
of a cretic or its metrical equivalent.* This is followed by a cadence
trochaic in character, but varying in length. The three favourite
forms are (i.) - j;, (ii.) - *, M > (in-) ~o v -c- These
he styles verae (V). Other frequent clausulae, which he terms
licitae (L), are those in which a long syllable is resolved, as in verse,
into two shorts, e.g. esse vtdeatur. These two classes, V and L, include
86 % of the clausulae in the orations. Some rarer clausulae which he
terms M ( = malae) introduce no new principle. There remain two
interesting forms, viz. S( = selectae), in which a spondee is substituted

for a trochee in the cadence, e.g. - , this being done

for special emphasis, and P ( = pessimae), where a dactyl is so used,
e.g. -o uv-C, this being the heroica clausula condemned
by Quintilian. Similar rules apply to the membra of the sentence,
though in these the S and P forms are more frequent, harmony being
restored in the clausula.

These results apply not only to the speeches but also to the

(iii. i. 21). This is a manual of rhetoric derived from Greek sources
with illustrations of figures drawn from Roman orators. Cicero's
juvenile work de Inventione appears to be drawn partly from this
and partly from a treatise by Hermagoras. This is a slight pro-
duction and does not require detailed notice. Other minor works
written in later life, such as the Partifiones Oratoriae, a catechism
of rhetoric, in which instruction is given by Cicero to his son Marcus ;
the Topica, and an introduction to a translation of the speeches
delivered by Demosthenes and Aeschines for and against Ctesiphon,
styled de optima genere oratorum, also need only be mentioned.

'Orator, 214 " patris dictum sapiens temeritas fill comprfi-
bavlt hoc dichoreo tantus clamor contionis excitatus est ut admira-
bile esset. Quaero, nonne id numerus efficerit? Verborum ordinem
immuta, fac sic: ' Comprobavit fili temeritas ' jam nihil erit."

4 This theory is partly anticipated by Terentianus Maurus (c. A.D.
290), who says of the cretic (v. 1440 sqq.) :

" Plurimum orantes decebit quando paene in ultimo
Obtinet sedem beatam, terminet si clausulam
Dactylus spondeus imam, nee trochaeum respuo;
Plenius tractatur istod arte prosa rhetorum.

CICERO

philosophical writings and the more elaborate letters, and with
modifications to other rhythmical prose, e.g. that of Pliny and
Seneca Rhythm was avoided by Caesar who was an Atticist, and
by Sallust who was an archaist. Livy's practice is exactly opposite
to that of Cicero, since he has a marked preference for the S forms,
thereby exemplifying Cicero's saying that long syllables are more
appropriate to history than to oratory. 1

(ii.) Speeches. These were generally delivered before the senate
or people, if political in character, and before jurors sitting in
a quaestio, if judicial. The speech against Vatinius was an attack
upon a witness under examination; that de Domo was made
before the Pontifices; that pro C. Rabirio perduellionis reo in
the course of a prowcatio to the people; and those pro Ligario
and pro rege Deiotaro before Caesar. The five orations com-
posing the Actio Secunda in Verrem were never spoken, but
written after Verres had gone into exile. The Second Philippic
also was not delivered but issued as a pamphlet. Cicero's speech
for Milo at his trial was not a success, though, as Quintilian
(ix. 2. 54) quotes from it, as taken down by shorthand reporters,
an example of a rhetorical figure well used, it cannot have been
such a failure as is alleged by later writers. The extant speech
was written by Cicero at his leisure. None of the other speeches
are in the exact form in which they were delivered. Cicero's
method was to construct a commentarius or skeleton of his
speech, which he used when speaking. If he was pleased with
a speech he then wrote it out for publication. Sometimes he
omitted in the written speech a subject on which he had spoken.
A record of this is sometimes preserved: e.g. " de Postumi
criminibus " (Mur. 51), " de teste Fufio " (Cael. 19). These com-
mentarii were published by his freedman Tiro and are quoted
by Asconius (ad Oral, in Toga Candida, p. 87).

Cicero in his speeches must be given all the privileges of an
advocate. Sometimes he had a bad client; he naively confesses
the straits to which he was put when defending Scamander
(Clu. 51; cf. Phil. xiii. 26). He thought of defending Catiline,
though he says that his guilt is clear as noon-day (Att. i. 1-2
and 2. i). Sometimes the brief which he held at the moment
compelled him to take a view of facts contrary to that which
he had previously advocated. Thus in the pro Caecina he
alleges judicial corruption against a witness, Falcula, while in
the pro Cluentio he contends that the offence was not proved
(Caec. 28, Clu. 103). He says quite openly that " it is a great
mistake to suppose that statements in his speeches express his
real opinions " (Clu. 139). It is therefore idle to reproach him
with inconsistencies, though these are sometimes very singular.
Thus in the pro Cornelia he speaks with praise of Aulus Gabinius,
who, when a colleague vetoed his proposal, proceeded to depose
him after the precedent set by Tiberius Gracchus (Asconius in
Cornel. p. 71). In the pro Cluentio, in, he contends that nothing
is easier than for a new man to rise at Rome. In the pro Caelio
he says that Catiline had in him undeveloped germs of the greatest
virtues, and that it was the good in him that made him so
dangerous (Cael. 12-14). He sometimes deliberately puts the
case upon a wrong issue. In the pro Milone he says that either
Milo must have lain in wait for Clodius or Clodius for Milo,
leaving out of sight the truth, that the encounter was due to
chance. He used to boast that he had cast dust into the eyes
of the jury in the case of Cluentius (Quintil. ii. 17-21).

Cicero had a perfect mastery of all weapons wielded by a
pleader in Rome. He was specially famous for his pathos, and
for this reason, when several counsel were employed, always
spoke last (Oral. 130). A splendid specimen of pathos is to be
found in his account of the condemnation and execution of the
Sicilian captains ( Verr. (Acl.ii.)v. 106-122). Much exaggeration
was permitted to a Roman orator. Thus Cicero frequently
speaks as if his client were to be put to death, though a criminal
could always evade capital consequences by going into exile.
His enemies scoffed at his " tear-drops." He indulged in the
more violent invective, which, though shocking to a modern
reader, e.g. in his speeches against Vatinius and Piso, was not
offensive to Roman taste (de Oral. ii. 216-290). He was much

1 Orator, 212 " cursum contentiones magis requirunt, exposi-
tiones rerum tarditatem."

criticized for his jokes, and even Quintilian (ii. 17-21) regrets
that he made so many in his speeches. He could never resist
the temptation to make a pun. It must be remembered, however,
that he was the great wit of the period. Caesar used to have a
collection of Cicero's bon-mots brought to him. Cicero complains
that all the jokes of the day were attributed to himself, including
those made by very sorry jesters (Fam. vii. 32. i). A fine
specimen of sustained humour is to be found in his speech pro
Murena, where he rallies the jurisconsults and the Stoics. He
was also criticized for his vanity and perpetual references to
his own achievements. His vanity, however, as has been
admirably remarked, is essentially that of " the peacock, not
of the gander," and is redeemed by his willingness to raise a
laugh at his own expense (Strachan-Davidson, p. 192). Some
critics have impugned his legal knowledge, but probably without
justice. It is true that he does not claim to be a great expert,
though a pupil of the Scaevolas, and when in doubt would con-
sult a jurisconsult; also, that he frequently passes lightly over
important points of law, but this was probably because he was
conscious of a flaw in his case.

(iii.) Political and Philosophical Treatises. These are generally
written in the form of dialogues, in which the speakers sometimes
belong to bygone times and sometimes to the present. The
first method was known as that of Heraclides, the second as
that of Aristotle (Att. xiii. 19. 4). There is no reason to suppose
that the speakers held the views with which Cicero credits them,
or had such literary powers as would make them able to express
such views (ib. xiii. 12. 3). The political works are de Republica
and de Legibus. The first was a dialogue in six books concerning
the best form of constitution, in which the speakers are Scipio
Africanus Minor and members of his circle. He tells us that he
drew largely from Plato, Aristotle, Theophrastus and writings
of the Peripatetics. The famous " Dream of Scipio " recalls
the " Vision of Er " in Plato's Republic (Book x. ad fin.). The
de Legibus, a sequel to this work in imitation of Plato's Laws,
is drawn largely from Chrysippus.

Cicero as a philosopher belonged to the New Academy. The
followers of this school were free to hear all arguments for and
against, and to accept the conclusion which for the moment
appeared most probable (Acad. ii. 131). Thus in the Tusculan
Disputations v. he expresses views which conflict with de Finibus
iv., and defends himself on the ground that as an Academic he
is free to change his mind. He was much fascinated by the
Stoic morality, and it has been noticed that the Tusculan Dis-
putations and de Officiis are largely Stoic in tone. He has
nothing but contempt for the Epicureans, and cannot forgive
their neglect of literary style. As Cicero's philosophical writings
have been severely attacked for want of originality, it is only
fair to recollect that he resorted to philosophy as an anodyne
when suffering from mental anguish, and that he wrote incredibly
fast. He issued two editions of his Academics. The first con-
sisted of two books, in which Catulus and Lucullus were the chief
speakers. He then rewrote his treatise in four books, making
himself, Varro and Atticus the speakers. The Romans at this
time had no manuals of philosophy or any philosophical writings
in Latin apart from the poem of Lucretius and some unskilful
productions by obscure Epicureans. Cicero set himself to supply
this want. His works are confessedly in the main translations
and compilations (Att. xii. 52. 3); all that he does is to turn
the discussion into the form of a dialogue, to adapt it to Roman
readers by illustrations from Roman history, and to invent
equivalents for Greek technical terms. This is equally true of
the political treatises. Thus, when Atticus criticized a strange
statement in de Republ. ii. 8, that all the cities of the Peloponnese
had access to the sea, he excuses himself by saying that he found
it in Dicaearchus and copied it word for word (Att. vi. 2. 3).
In the same passage he used an incorrect adjective, Phliuntii
for Phliasii; he says that he had already corrected his own
copy, but the mistake survives in the single palimpsest in which
this work has been preserved. The only merits, therefore,
which can be claimed for Cicero are that he invented a philo-
sophical terminology for the Romans, and that he produced a

CICERO

357

series of manuals which from their beauty of style have had
enduring influence upon mankind.

The most famous of these treatises are the following :

De Finibus, on the Supreme Good. In Book i. L. Manlius Tor-
quatus explains the Epicurean doctrine, which is refuted in ii. by
Cicero. In iii. and iv. M. Pprcius Cato sets forth the doctrine of the
Stoics which is shown by Cicero to agree with that of Antiochus of
Ascalon; in v. M. Pupius Piso explains the views of the Academics
and Peripatetics.

Tusculanae Disputaliones, so called from Cicero's villa at Tusculum
in which the discussion is supposed to have taken place. The sub-
jects treated are: in Book i., the nature of death and the reasons for
despising it; Book ii., the endurance of pain: Pain is not an evil;
Book iii., wisdom makes a man insensible to sorrow; Book iv.,
wisdom banishes all mental disquietude; Book v., virtue is sufficient
to secure happiness. The materials are drawn largely from works
of Dicaearchus.

De Deorum Natura. The dialogue is placed in 77 B.C. In Book i.
Velleius attacks other philosophies and explains the system of
Epicurus. He is then refuted by Cotta. In Book ii. Balbus, speak-
ing as a Stoic, discusses the existence of the gods, nature, the govern-
ment of the world and providence. In Book iii. Cotta criticizes the
views of Balbus. The statement of the Epicurean doctrine is drawn
from the work of Phaedrus Hep* Stav, the criticism of this from
Posidonius. The Stoic teaching is derived from Cleanthes, Chry-
sippus and Zeno, and is criticized from the writings of Carneades
and Clitomachus.

De Officiis, addressed to his son Marcus. In this the form of
dialogue was not employed. The material is chiefly drawn from
Stoic sources, e.g. works of Panaetius in Books i. and ii., of Posidonius
and Hecato in Book iii.

The Academica, as they have come down to us, are a conflation
from the two editions of this work. They consist of the second book
from the first edition, and a portion of the first book from the second
edition.

Cato maior, or de Senectute, a dialogue placed in 150 B.C. in which
Cato, addressing Scipio and Laelius, set forth the praises of old age.
The idea is drawn from Aristo of Chios, and the materials largely
derived from Xenophqn and Plato.

Laelius, or de Amicitia, a dialogue between Laelius and his sons-
in-law, in which he sets forth the theory of friendship, speaking
with special reference to the recent death of Scipio. Cicero here
draws from a work of Theophrastus on the same subject and from
Aristotle.

(iv.) Letters. Those preserved are (i) ad Familiares, i.-xvi.;
(2) ad Atticum, i.-xvi.; (3) ad Quinlum, i.-iii., ad Brutum, i.-ii.
Some thirty-five other books of letters were known to antiquity,
e.g. to Caesar, to Pompey, to Octavian and to his son Marcus.

The collection includes nearly one hundred letters written by
other persons. Thus, the eighth Book ad Fam. consists entirely
of letters from Caelius to Cicerj when in Cilicia. When writing
to Atticus Cicero frequently sent copies of letters which he had
received. There is a great variety in the style not only of
Cicero's correspondents, but also of Cicero himself. Caelius
writes in a breezy, school-boy style ; the Latinity of Plancus is
Ciceronian in character; the letter of Sulpicius to Cicero on
the death of Tullia is a masterpiece of style; Matius writes a
most dignified letter justifying his affectionate regard for Caesar's
memory. There is an amazingly indiscreet letter of Quintus
to his brother's freedman, Tiro, in which he says of the consuls-
elect, Hirtius and Pansa, that he would hesitate to put one of
them in charge of a village on the frontier, and the other in that
of the basement of a tavern (Fam. xvi. 27. 2). Several of his
correspondents are indifferent stylists. Cato labours to express
himself in an awkward and laconic epistle, apologizing for its
length. Metellus Celer is very rude, but gives himself away in
every word. Antony writes bad Latin, while Cicero himself
writes in various styles. We have such a cri de comr as his few
words to one of the conspirators after Caesar's murder, " I
congratulate you. I rejoice for myself. I love you. I watch
your interests; I wish for your love and to be informed what
you are doing and what is being done" (Fam. vi. 15). When
writing to Atticus he eschews all ornamentation, uses short
sentences, colloquial idioms, rare diminutives and continually
quotes Greek. This use of Greek tags and quotations is also
found in letters to other intimate friends, e.g. Paetus and Caelius;
also in letters written by other persons, e.g. Cassius to Cicero;
Quintus to Tiro, and subsequently in those of Augustus to
Tiberius. It is a feature of the colloquial style and often corre-
sponds to the modern use of " slang." Other letters of Cicero,

especially those written to persons with whom he was not quite
at his ease or those meant for circulation, are composed in his
elaborate style with long periods, parentheses and other devices
for obscuring thought. These are throughout rhythmical in
character, like his speeches and philosophical works.

We know from Cicero's own statement (Alt. xvi. 5. 5) that he
thought of publishing some of his letters during his lifetime.
On another occasion he jestingly charges Tiro with wishing to
have his own letters included in the " volumes " (Fawt.xvi. 17. i).
It is obvious that Cicero could not have meant to publish his
private letters to Atticus hi which he makes confessions about
himself, or those to Quintus in which he sometimes outsteps
the limits of brotherly criticism, but was thinking of polished
productions such as the letters to Lentulus Spinther or that to
Lucceius which he describes as "very pretty" (Alt. iv. 6. 4).

It is universally agreed that the letters ad Familiares were
published by Tiro, whose hand is revealed by the fact that he
suppresses all letters written by himself, and modestly puts at
the end those written to him. That Cicero kept copies of his
letters, or of many of them, we know from a passage in which,
when addressing a friend who had inadvertently torn up a letter
from him, he says that there is nothing to grieve about; he has
himself a copy at home and can replace the loss (Fam. vii. 25. i).
Tiro may have obtained from Terentia copies of letters written
to her. It has been suggested that he may also have edited the
letters to Quintus, as he could obtain them from members of
the family. The letters ad Familiares were generally quoted in
antiquity by books, the title being taken from the first letter, e.g.
Cicero ad Varronem epistula Paeti.

While the letters ad Familiares were circulated at once, those
to Atticus appear to have been suppressed for a considerable time.
Cornelius Nepos (Alt. 16) knew of their existence but distinguishes
them from the published letters. Asconius (p. 87), writing under
Claudius, never quotes themr, though, when discussing Cicero's
projected defence of Catiline, he could hardly have failed to do
so, if he had known them. The first author who quotes them is
Seneca. It is, therefore, probable that they were not published
by Atticus himself, who died 32 B.C., though his hand may be
seen in the suppression of all letters written by himself, but that
they remained in the possession of his family and were not
published until about A.D. 60. At that date they could be pub-
lished without expurgation of any kind, whereas in the letters ad
Familiares the editor's hand is on one occasion (iii. 10. ii)
manifest. Cicero is telling Appius, his predecessor in Cilicia,
of the measures which he is taking on his behalf. There then
follows a lacuna. It is obvious that Tiro thought the passage
compromising and struck it out. In the letters to Atticus, on
the other hand, we have Cicero's private journal, his confessions
to the director of his conscience, the record of his moods from
day to day, without alterations of any kind.

Cicero's letters are the chief and most reliable source of
information for the period. It is due to them that the Romans
of the day are living figures to us, and that Cicero, in spite of,
or rather in virtue of his frailties, is intensely human and sym-
pathetic. The letters to Atticus abound in the frankest self-
revelation, though even in the presence of his confessor his
instinct as a pleader makes him try to justify himself. The
historical value of the letters, therefore, completely transcends
that of Cicero's other works. It is true that these are full of
information. Thus we learn much from the de Legibus regarding
the constitutional history of Rome, and much from the Brutus
concerning the earlier orators. The speeches abound in details
which may be accepted as authentic, either because there is no
reason for misrepresentation or on account of their circumstan-
tiality. Thus the Verrines are our chief source of information for
the government of the provinces, the system of taxation, the
powers of the governor. We hear from them of such interesting
details as that the senate annul a judicial decision improperly
arrived at by the governor, or that the college of tribunes could
consider the status at Rome of a man affected by this decision
(Verr. II. ii. 95-100). We have unfolded to us the monstrous
system by which the governor could fix upon a remote place

358

CICERO

for the delivery of corn, and so compel the farmer to compound
by a payment in money which the orator does not blame, on
the ground that it is only proper to allow magistrates to receive
corn wherever they wish (ib. iii. 190). From the speech pro
Cluentio (145-154) we gain unique information concerning the
condition of society in a country town, the extraordinary exemp-
tion of equites from prosecution for judicial corruption, the
administration of domestic justice in the case of slaves examined
by their owner (ib. 176-187). But we have always to be on our
guard against misrepresentation, exaggeration and falsehood.
The value of the letters lies in the fact that in them we get behind
Cicero and are face to face with the other dramatis personae;
also that we are admitted behind the scenes and read the secret
history of the times. One of the most interesting documents in
the correspondence is a despatch of Caesar to his agent Oppius,
written in great haste and in disjointed sentences. It runs as
follows: " On the gth I came to Brundisium. Pompey is at
Brundisium. He sent Magius to me to treat of peace. I gave
him a suitable answer " (Alt. ix. 13, Ai.). In the de Beilo civili,
on the other hand, Caesar, who wishes to show that he did
his best to make peace, after stating that he sent his captive
Magius to negotiate, expresses mild surprise at the fact that
Pompey did not send him back (Bell. Civ. i. 26). We hear of the
extraordinary agreement made by two candidates for the consul-
ship in Caesar's interest with the sitting consuls of 54 B.C., which
Cicero says he hardly ventures to put on paper. Under the terms
of this the consuls, who were optimales, bound themselves to
betray their party by securing, apparently fraudulently, the
election of the candidates while they in turn bound themselves
to procure two ex-consuls who would swear that they were present
in the senate when supplies wqfre voted for the consular provinces,
though no meeting of the senate had been held, and three augurs
who would swear that a lex curiata had been passed, though the
comitia curiata had not been convened (Alt. iv. 18. 2). But
perhaps the most singular scene is the council of three great ladies
presided over by Servilia at Antium, which decides the movements
of Brutus and Cassius in June 44 B.C., when Cassius " looking
very fierce you would say that he was breathing fire and
sword " blustered concerning what he considered an insult,
viz. a'commission to supply corn which had been laid upon him.
Servilia calmly remarks she will have the commission removed
from the decree of the senate (Alt. xv. n. 2).

(v.) Miscellaneous. It is not necessary to dwell upon the
other forms of literary composition attempted by Cicero. He
was a fluent versifier, and would write 500 verses in one night.
Considerable fragments from a juvenile translation of Aratus
have been preserved. His later poems upon his own consulship
and his exile were soon forgotten except for certain lines which
provoked criticism, such as the unfortunate verse:

" O fortunatam natam me consule Romam."

He wrote a memoir of his consulship in Greek and at one time
thought of writing a history of Rome. Nepos thought that he
would have been an ideal historian, but as Cicero ranks history
with declamation and on one occasion with great na'iiiett asks
Lucius Lucceius (q.v.), who was embarking on this task, to
embroider the facts to his own credit, we cannot accept this
criticism (Fam. vi. 2. 3).

(vi.) Authenticity. The genuineness of certain works of Cicero
has been attacked. It was for a long time usual to doubt
the authenticity of the speeches post reditum and pro Marcello. 1
Recent scholars consider them genuine. As their rhythmical
structure corresponds more or less exactly with the canon of
authenticity formed by Zielinski from the other speeches, the
question may now be considered closed. 2 Absurd suspicion has
been cast upon the later speeches in Catilinam and that pro
Archia. An oration pridie quam in exsilium iret is certainly
a forgery, as also a letter to Octavian. There is a " controversy "
between Cicero and Sallust which is palpably a forgery, though

1 Markland and F. A. Wolf first rejected them.
1 In the speeches generally L+F = 86 %. In the de Dome the
proportion is 88 and in the pro Marcello 87 %.

a quotation from it occurs in Quintilian. 3 Suspicion has been
attached to the letters to Brutus, which in the case of two letters
(i. 16 and 17) is not unreasonable since they somewhat resemble
the style of suasoriae, or rhetorical exercises, but the latest
editors, Tyrrell and Purser, regard these also as genuine.

Criticism, (i.) Ancient. After Cicero's death his character was
attacked by various detractors, such as the author of the spurious
Controversia put into the mouth of Sallust, and the calumniator from
whom Dio Cassius (xlvi. 1-28) draws the libellous statements which
he inserts into the speech of Q. Fufius Calenus in the senate. Of such
critics, Asconius (in Tog. Cand. p. 95) well says that it is best to ignore
them. His prose style was attacked by Pollio as Asiatic, also by
his son, Asimus Callus, who was answered by the emperor Claudius
(Suet. 41). The writers of the silver age found fault with his pro-
lixity, want of sparkle and epigram, and monotony of his clausulae. 4
A certain Largius Licinius gained notoriety by attacking his Latinity
in a work styled Ciceromaslix. His most devoted admirers were
the younger Pliny, who reproduced his oratorical style with con-
siderable success, and Quintilian (x. i. 112), who regarded him as the
perfect orator, and draws most of his illustrations from his works.
At a later period his style fascinated Christian writers, notably
Lactantius, the " Christian Cicero," Jerome and S. Augustine, who
drew freely from his rhetorical writings.

The first commentator upon Cicero was Asconius, a Roman senator
living in the reign of Claudius, who wrote a commentary upon the
speeches, in which he explains obscure historical points for the
instruction of his sons (see ASCONIUS). Passing over a number of
grammatical and rhetorical writers who drew illustrations from
Cicero, we may mention the Commentary of Victorinus, written in
the 4th century, upon the treatise de Inventione, and that of Boethius
(A.D. 480-524) upon the Topica. Among scholiasts may be men-
tioned the Scholiasta Bobiensis who is assigned to the 5th century,
and a pseudo-Asconius, who wrote notes upon the Verrines dealing
with points of grammar and rhetoric.

(ii.) Medieval Scholars. In the middle ages Cicero was chiefly
known as a writer on rhetoric and morals. The works which were
most read were the de Inventione and Topica though neither of
these was quite so popular as the treatise ad Herennium, then sup-
posed to be by Cicero and among the moral works, the de Offichs,
and the Calo Maior. John of Salisbury (1110-1180) continually
quotes from rhetorical and philosophical writings, but only once
from the speeches. The value set upon the work de Inventione is
shown by a passage in which Notker (d. 1022) writing to his bishop
says that he has lent a MS. containing the Philippics and a com-
mentary upon the Topics, but has received as a pledge something far
more valuable, viz. the de Inventione, and the " famous commen-
tary of Victorinus." 6 We have an interesting series of excerpts
made by a priest named Hadoard, in the 9th century, taken from
all the philosophical writings now preserved, also from the de
Oratoref

The other works of Cicero are seldom mentioned. The most
popular speeches were those against Catiline, the Verrines, Caesari-
anae and Philippics, to which may be added the spurious Contro-
versia. A larger knowledge of the speeches is shown by Wibald,
abbot of Corvey, who in 1146 procured from Hildesheim a MS.
containing with the Philippics the speeches against Rullus, wishing
to form a corpus of Ciceronian works. 7 Gerbert (afterwards Pope
Silvester II., 940-1003) was especially interested in the speeches, and
in a letter to a friend (Epist. 86) advises him to take them with him
when journeying. The letters are rarely mentioned. The abbey
of Lorsch possessed in the 9th century five MSS. containing " Letters
of Cicero," but those to Atticus are only mentioned once, in the
catalogue of Cluny written in the I2th century. 8 Letters of Cicero
were known to Wibald of Corvey, also to Servatus Lupus, abbot
of Ferrieres (805-832), who prosecuted in the 9th century a search
for MSS. which reminds us of the Italian humanists in the 15th
century. A good deal of textual criticism must have been devoted
to Cicero's works during this period. The earliest critic was Tiro,
who, as we know from Aulus Gellius (i. 7. i), corrected MSS. which
were greatly valued as containing his recension. We have a very
interesting colophon to the speeches against Rullus, in which Statilius
Maximus states that he had corrected the text by the help of a MS.
giving the recension of Tiro, which he had collated with five other
ancient copies. 9

It is interesting to notice that Servatus Lupus did similar work
in the gth century. Thus, writing to Ansbald of Prum, he says,
" I will collate the letters of Cicero which you sent with the copy

3 Quintil. iv. i. 68. It is possible that the writer may have used
a quotation preserved from a real speech by Quintilian.

4 Tacitus, Dial. 22 " omnis clausulas uno et eodem modo
determine!." ' Ed. P. Piper, p. 861.

Philologus (1886), Suppl. Bd. v.

7 Jaffe, Bibl. Rer. German., i. 326.

Delisle, Cabinet des MSS., ii. 459.

9 " Statilius Maximus rursus emendavi ad Tironem et Laeccania-
num et dom. et alios veteres III." He was a grammarian who lived
at the end of the 2nd century.

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359

which I have so as to elicit the true reading, if possible, by comparing
the two." 1 He asks another correspondent to supply him with
a copy of the Verrines or any other works for a similar purpose.

Brunetto Latini (d. ca. 1294), the master of Dante, translated the
Caesarianae into Italian. Dante himself appears to be acquainted
only with the Laelius, Cato Maior, de Officiis, de Finibus, de
Inventions and Paradoxa. Petrarch says that among his country-
men Cicero was a great name, but was studied by few. Petrarch
himself sought for MSS. of Cicero with peculiar ardour. He found
the speech pro Archia at Li6ge in 1333, and in 1345 at Verona made
his famous discovery of the letters to Atticus, which revealed to
the world Cicero as a man in place of the " god of eloquence " whom
they had worshipped. Petrarch was under the impression in his old
age that he had once possessed Cicero's lost work de Gloria, but
it is probable that he was misled by one of the numerous passages
in the extant writings dealing with this subject. 2 The letters ad
Familiares were discovered towards the close of the I4th century
at Vercelli. The largest addition to the sum of Ciceronian writings
was made by Poggio (Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini) in the
course of his celebrated mission to the Council of Constance (1414-
1417). He brought back no less than ten speeches of Cicero previ-
ously unknown to the Italians, viz. pro Sexto Roscio, pro Murena,
pro Cacina, de lege agraria i.-iii., pro Rablrio perduellionis reo,
pro Rabirio Postumo, pro Roscio Comoedo, and in Pisonem. An
important discovery was made at Lodi in 1422 of a MS. which,
in addition to complete copies of the de Oratore and Orator, hitherto
known from mutilated MSS., contained an entirely new work, the
Brutus. The second book of Cicero's letters to Brutus was first
printed by Cratander of Basel in 1528 from a MS. obtained for him
by Sichardus from the abbey of Lorsch. 3

All these MSS. are now lost, except that containing the Epistolae
ad Familiares, a MS. written in the gth century and now at Florence
(Laur. xlix. 9). A similar fate overtook three other MSS. containing
the letters to Atticus, independent of the Veronensis, viz. a mutilated
MS. of Books i.-vii. discovered by Cardinal Capra in 1409, a Lorsch
MS. used by Cratander (C), and a French MS. (Z), generally termed
Tornaesianus from its owner, Jean de Tournes, a printer of Lyons,

CrobaWy identical with No. 492 in the old Cluny catalogue, used
y Turnebus, Lambinus and Bosius. A strange mystification was
practised by the last named, a scholar of singular brilliancy, who
claimed to have a mutilated MS. which he called his Decurtatus,
bought from a common soldier who had obtained it from a sacked
monastery; also to have been furnished by a friend, Pierre de
Crouzeil, a doctor of Limoges, with variants taken from an old MS.
found at Noyon, and entered in the margin of a copy of the Lyons
edition. The rough draft of his notes, however, upon Books x.-xvi.,
which afterwards came into the hands of Baluze, is preserved in the
Paris library (Lat. 8538 A), in which he continually ascribes different
readings to these MSS., the alteration corresponding with a change
in his own conjecture. It is, therefore, obvious that he invented
the readings in order to strengthen his own corrections. The book,
which he termed his Crusellinus, may well be his copy of the Lyons
edition of 1545 (number 8665 in the sale-catalogue of Baluze), which
is described as cum notis et emendationibus MSS. manu ejusdem
Bosii.*

The oldest evidence now existing for any works of Cicero is to be
found in palimpsests written in the 4th or 5th century. The most
interesting of these, now in the Vatican (Lat. 5757), discovered by
Angelo Mai in 1822, contains the treatise de Republica, only known
from this source. Fragments of the lost speeches pro Tullio and
pro Scauro were discovered in two Milan and Turin palimpsests.
The Vatican also possesses an important palimpsest of the Verrines
(Reg. 2077). A palimpsest containing fragments of various orations
was recently destroyed by the fire at the Turin library. The works
de Oratore and Orator are well represented by ancient MSS., the two
best known being one at Avranches (Abrincensis 238) and a Harleian
MS. (2736), both written in the 9th century. The Brutus is only
known from 15th-century transcripts of the lost cod. Lodensis.

The oldest MS. of any speeches, or indeed of any work of Cicero's,
apart from the palimpsests, belongs to the Chapter-house of St Peter's
in Rome (H. 25). It contains the speeches in Pisonem, pro Fonteio,
pro Flacco and the Philippics. The earlier part of the MS. was
written in the 8th century. The Paris library has two gth-century
MSS., viz. 7774 A. containing in Verrem (Act. ii.), iv. and v., and
7794, containing the post reditum speeches, together with those
pro Sestio, in Vatinium, de provinciis consularibus, pro Balbo, pro
Caelio. The only other gth-century MS. of the speeches is now in
Lord Leicester's library at Holkham, No. 387. 6 It originally belonged
to Cluny, being No. 498 in the old catalogue. It contains in a muti-
lated form the speeches in Catilinam, pro Ligario, pro rege Deiotaro
nd in Verrem (Act. ii.)ii.

The speeches pro Sex. Roscio and pro Murena are only known
from an ancient and illegible MS. discovered by Poggio at Cluny,

' Episl. 69 " Tullianas epistulas quas misisti cum nostris conferri
ciam ut ex utrisque, si possit fieri, veritas exsculpatur."
* Nolhac, Petrarque et I'humanisme, pp. 216-223.

3 Lehmann, De Ciceronis ad Atticum epp. recensendis, p. 128.

4 Philologus, 1901, p. 216.

5 Anecdota Oxoniensia, Classical Series, part ix. (W. Peterscn).

No. 496 in the old catalogue, and now lost. The most faithful
transcript was made in France (Paris, Lat. 14,749) before the MS.
passed into Poggio's hand by a writer who carefully reproduced
the corruptions, sometimes in facsimile.* The speeches pro Roscio
Comoedo, pro Rabirio perduellionis reo and pro Rabirio Postumo are
only known from Italian copies of the transcript (now lost) made by
Poggio from lost MSS. The de Officiis, Tusculan Disputations and
Cato Maior are found in a number ofgth-century MSS. A collection,
consisting of de Natura deorum, de Divinatione, Timaeus, de Fato,
Paradoxa, Lucullus (=Acad. Prior.) and de Legibus, is found in
several MSS. of the same date. Only one MS. of the Laelius is as
old as the roth century.

The Academica Posteriora are said by editors to be found only in
15th-century MSS. A MS. in the Pans library (Lat. 6331) is, how-
ever, assigned by Chatelain to the I2th century.

For the letters ad Familiares our chief source of information is
Laur. xlix. 9 (gth century), which contains all the sixteen books.
There are independent MSS. written in France and Germany in the
nth and I2th centuries, containing i.-viii. and ix.-xvi. respectively.
There is no extant MS. of the letters to Atticus older than the 1 4th
century, apart from a few leaves from a lath-century MS. discovered
at or near Wurzburg in the last century. Very great importance has
been attached to a Florentine MS. (Laur. xlix. 18) M., which until
recently was supposed to have been copied by Petrarch himself from
the lost Veronensis. It is now known not to be in the hand of
Petrarch, but it was still supposed to be the archetype of all Italian
MSS., and possibly of all MSS., including the lost C and Z. It has,
however, been shown by Lehmann that there is an independent
group of Italian MSS., termed by him S, containing Books i.-vii.
in a mutilated form, and probably connected with the MS. of Capra.
These often agree with CZ against M, and the readings of CZS are
generally superior.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. It is impossible to mention more than a few
works as the literature is so vast. (l) Historical. I. L. Strachan-
Davidson, Life of Cicero (Heroes of the Nations); G. Boissier,
Ciceron et ses amis; Suringar, Cicero de vita sua (Leiden, 1854);
W. Warde Fowler, Social Life at Rome (1908); introductions to
Tyrrell and Purser's edition of the letters. (2) Palaeographical.
Facsimiles of the best-known MSS. are given by E. Chatelain in
Paleographie des classiques latins, parts 2, 3 and 7. Information
regarding various MSS. will be found in Halm, Zur Handschriften-
kunde der ciceronischen Schriften (Munich, 1850); Deschamps,
Essai Ubliographique sur Ciceron (Paris, 1863) (an unscientific
work) ; Lehmann, De Ciceronis ad Atticum epistulis recensendts
(Berlin, 1892); Anecdota Oxoniensia, classical series, parts vii.,
ix., x. (3) Literary. M. Schanz, Geschichte der romischen Litteratur,
i. 194-274. (Miinchen, 1890). (4) Linguistic. Merpuet, Lexicon
to Oratorical and Philosophical Works; Le Breton, Etudes sur la
langue et la grammaire de Ciceron (Paris, ippi); Norden, Die antike
Kunstprosa (Leipzig, 1898); Th. Zielinski, Das Clauselgesetz in
Ciceros Reden (Leipzig, 1904). Much information on points of
Ciceronian idiom and language will be found in J. S. Reid's Acade-
mica (London, 1885) and Landgraf's Pro Sext. Roscio (Erlangen,
1884). (5) Legal. A. H. J. Greenidge, The Legal Procedure of
Cicero's Time (Oxford, 1901). (6) Philosophical. An excellent
account of Cicero as a philosopher is given in the preface to Reid's
edition of the Academica. (7) Editions (critical) of the complete
texts. Baiter-Halm (1845-1861); C. F. W. Miiller (1880-1896);
Oxford Classical Texts. (A. C. C.)

2. QTJINTUS TULLIUS CICERO, brother of the orator and
brother-in-law of T. Pomponius Atticus, was born about 102 B.C.
He was aedile in 67, praetor in 62, and for the three following
years propraetor in Asia, where, though he seems to have
abstained from personal aggrandizement, his profligacy and
ill-temper gained him an evil notoriety. After his return to
Rome, he heartily supported the attempt to secure his brother's
recall from exile, and was nearly murdered by gladiators in the
pay of P. Clodius Pulcher. He distinguished himself as one of
Julius Caesar's legates in the Gallic campaigns, served in Britain,
and afterwards under his brother in Cilicia. On the outbreak
of the civil war between Pompey and Caesar, Quintus, like
Marcus, supported Pompey, but after Pharsalus he deserted
and made peace with Caesar, largely owing to the intercession
of Marcus. Both the brothers fell victims to the proscription
which followed Caesar's death, Quintus being put to death in
43, some time before Marcus. His marriage with Pomponia was
very unhappy, and he was much under the influence of his slave
Statius. Though trained on the same lines as Marcus he never
spoke in public, and even said, " One orator in a family is enough,
nay even in a city." Though essentially a soldier, he took
considerable interest in literature, wrote epic poems, tragedies
and annals, and translated plays of Sophocles. There are extant

Anecdota Oxoniensia, Classical Series, part x. (A. C. Clark).

360

CICERONE CICOGNARA

four letters written by him (one to his brother Marcus, and three
to his freedman Tiro) and a short paper, De Petitione Consulates
(on canvassing for the consulship), addressed to his brother in 64.
Some consider this the work of a rhetorician of later date. A
few hexameters by him on the twelve signs of the Zodiac are
quoted by Ausonius.

Cicero in several of his Letters (ed. Tyrrell and Purser) ; pro Sestio,
31; Caesar, Bell. Gal.; Appian, Bell. Civ. iv. 20; Dio Cassius, xl.
7, xlvii. jo; text of the De Petit, Cons, in A. Eussner, Commen-
tariolum Petltionis (1872), see also R. Y. Tyrrell in Hermathena, v.
(1877), and A. Beltrami, De Commentariolo Petition^ Q. Ciceroni
vindicando (1892); G. Boissier, Cicero and His Friends (Eng. trans.,
1897), especially pp. 235-241.

3. MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO, only son of the orator and his
wife Terentia, was born in 65 B.C. At the age of seventeen he
served with Pompey in Greece, and commanded a squadron of
cavalry at the battle of Pharsalus. In 45 he was sent to Athens
to study rhetoric and philosophy, but abandoned himself to a
life of dissipation. It was during his stay at Athens that his
father dedicated the de Officiis to him. After the murder of
Caesar (44) he attracted the notice of Brutus, by whom he was
offered the post of military tribune, in which capacity he rendered
good service to the republican cause. After the battle of Philippi
(42), he took refuge with Sextus Pompeius in Sicily, where the
remnants of the republican forces were collected. He took
advantage of the amnesty granted by the treaty of Misenum (39)
to return to Rome, where he took no part in public affairs,
but resumed his former dissipated habits. In spite of this, he
received signal marks of distinction from Octavian, who not only
nominated him augur, but accepted him as his colleague in the
consulship (30). He had the satisfaction of carrying out the
decree which ordered that all the statues of Antony should be
demolished, and thus " the divine justice reserved the completion
of Antony's punishment for the house of Cicero" (Plutarch).
He was subsequently appointed proconsul of Asia or Syria,
but nothing further is known of his life. In spite of his de-
bauchery, there is no doubt that he was a man of considerable
education and no mean soldier, while Brutus, in a letter to his
father (Epp. ad Brutum, ii. 3), even goes so far as to say that the
son would be capable of attaining the highest honours without
borrowing from the father's reputation.

See Plutarch, Cicero, Brutus; Appian, Bell. Civ. ii. 20. 51, iv. 20;
Dio Cassius xlv. 15, xlvi. 18, Ii. 19; Cicero's Letters (ed. Tyrrell and
Purser); G. Boissier, Cicero and His Friends (Eng. trans., 1897),
pp. 104-107.

4. QUINTUS TULLIUS CICERO (c. 67-43 B.C.), son of Quintus
Tullius Cicero (brother of the orator). He accompanied his
uncle Marcus to Cilicia, and, in the hope of obtaining a reward,
repaid his kindness by informing Caesar of his intention of
leaving Italy. After the battle of Pharsalus he joined his father
in abusing his uncle as responsible for the condition of affairs,
hoping thereby to obtain pardon from Caesar. After the death
of Caesar he attached himself to Mark Antony, but, owing to
some fancied slight, he deserted to Brutus and Cassius. He was
included in the proscription lists, and was put to death with his
father in 43. In his last moments he refused under torture to
disclose his father's hiding-place. His father, who in his conceal-
ment was a witness of what was taking place, thereupon gave
himself up, stipulating that he and his son should be executed
at the same time.

See Cicero, ad Alt. x. 4. 6, 7. 3; xiv. 20. 5; Dio Cassius xlvii. 10.

CICERONE, a guide, one who conducts visitors to museums,
galleries, &c., and explains matters of archaeological, antiquarian,
historic or artistic interest. The word is presumably taken from
Marcus Tullius Cicero, as a type of learning and eloquence.
The New English Dictionary finds examples of the use earlier in
English than Italian, the earliest quotation being from Addison's
Dialogues on Medals (published posthumously 1726). It appears
that the word was first applied to " learned antiquarians who
show and explain to foreigners the antiquities and curiosities of
the country " (quotation of 1762 in the New English Dictionary).

CICHLID (Cichlidae), a family of Acanthopterygian fishes,
related to the perches and wrasses, and confined to the fresh

and brackish waters of Central and South America, Africa,
Syria, and India and Ceylon. It has recently assumed special
importance through the large number of genera and species,
many of them showing extraordinary modifications of the
dentition, which have been discovered in tropical Africa, especi-
ally in the great lakes Victoria, Tanganyika and Nyasa. About
180 species are known from Africa (with Syria and Madagascar),
150 from America, and 3 from India and Ceylon. They were
formerly known under the inappropriate name of Chromides.

These fish are further remarkable for their nursing habits.
It was formerly believed that the male takes charge of the eggs,
and later the young, by sheltering them in the mouth and
pharynx. This may still be true of some of the American species,
but a long series of recent observations have shown that this
most efficacious parental care devolves invariably on the female
in the African and Syrian species. We are now acquainted with
a large number of species in which this extraordinary habit has
been observed, the number having lately been greatly increased
by the collections made in Lakes Tanganyika and Victoria.

L. Lortet had described a fish from Lake Tiberias in which he
believed he had observed the male take up the eggs after their
deposition and retain them in his mouth and pharynx long after
eclosion, in fact until the young are able to shift for themselves,
and this fish he named Chromis paterfamilias. A. Giinther had
also ascribed the same sex to a fish from Natal, Chromis philander,
observed by N. Abraham to have similar habits. G. A. Boulenger
has since had an opportunity to examine the latter specimen
and found it to be a female, as in all other nursing individuals
from various parts of Africa, previously observed by himself;
whilst J. Pellegrin has acertained the female sex of a specimen
with eggs in the mouth presented to the Paris museum by Lortet
as his Chromis paterfamilias (= Tilapia simonis). Further
observations by Pellegrin on Tilapia galilaea and Pelmatochromis
lateralis, by E. Schoeller on Paratilapia multicolor, have led to
the same result.

It therefore remains unproven whether in any of the African
Cichlidae the buccal " incubation," as it has been called by
Pellegrin, devolves on the male; the instances previously
adduced being unsupported by the only trustworthy evidence an
examination of the genital glands.

The relative size and number of the eggs thus taken charge
of vary very much according to the species. Thus they may
be moderately large and numerous (100 to 200) in Tilapia
nilotica and galilaea, larger and only about 30 in number in
Paratilapia multicolor, while in Tropheus moorii, a fish measur-
ing only no mm., the eggs filling the mouth and pharynx
measure 4 mm. in diameter and are only four in number, they
being proportionally the largest Teleostome eggs known. In
Paratilapia pfefferi, a fish measuring 75 mm., the eggs found in
the pharynx were only about a dozen in number, and they
measure i\ mm. in diameter. In Tilapia dardennii, which grows
to a length of 240 mm., a score of eggs fills the mouth and
pharynx, and each measures 5 to 6 mm. in diameter, an enormous
size for so small a fish.

Pellegrin has made the interesting observation on Tilapia
galilaea that while the eggs are developing in the bucco-pharyngeal
cavity the ovarian eggs are rapidly growing towards maturity,
so that a fresh deposition of ova may almost immediately follow
the release of the young fishes from maternal care. (G. A. B.)

CICISBEO (Ital.; of uncertain origin; perhaps an inversion
of bel cece, "beautiful chick (pea)," or from Fr. chiche beau,
with same meaning), the term in Italy from the I7th century
onwards for a dangler about women. The cicisbeo was the pro-
fessed gallant of a married woman, who attended her at all
public entertainments, it being considered unfashionable for the
husband to be escort.

CICOGNARA, LEOPOLDO, COUNT (1767-1834), Italian archae-
ologist and writer on art, was born at Ferrara on the i7th of
November 1767. Mathematical and physical science diverted
him a while; but his bent was decided, and not even the notice
of such men as Spallanzani and Scarpa could make a savant of
him. A residence of some years at Rome, devoted to painting

CID

361

and the study of the antiquities and galleries of the Eternal City,
was followed by a visit to Naples and Sicily, and by the publica-
tion, at Palermo, of his first work, a poem of no merit. The
island explored, he betook himself to Florence, Milan, Bologna
and Venice, acquiring a complete archaeological knowledge of
these and other cities. In 1 795 he took up his abode at Modena,
and was for twelve years engaged in politics, becoming a member
of the legislative body, a councillor of state, and minister pleni-
potentiary of the Cisalpine Republic at Turin. Napoleon
decorated him with the Iron Crown; and in 1808 he was made
president of the Academy of the Fine Arts at Venice, a post in
which he did good work for a number of years. In 1 808 appeared
his treatise Del bello ragionamenli, dedicated in glowing terms
to Napoleon. This was followed (1813-1818) by his magnum opus,
the Storia della scultura dal suo risorgimento in Italia al secolo di
Napoleone, in the composition of which he had been encouraged
and advised by Giordano and Wilhelm Schlegel (1767-1845).
The book was designed to complete the works of Winckelmann
and D'Agincourt, and is illustrated with 180 plates in outline.
In 1814, on the fall of Napoleon, Cicognara was patronized by
Francis I. of Austria, and published (1815-1820), under the
auspices of that sovereign, his Fabbriche piu cospicue di Venezia,
two superb folios, containing some 150 plates. Charged by the
Venetians with the presentation of their gifts to the empress
Caroline at Vienna, Cicognara added to the offering an illustrated
catalogue of the objects it comprised; this book, Omaggio delle
Provincie Venete alia maesta di Carolina Augusta, has since
become of great value to the bibliophilist. Reduced to poverty
by these splendid editorial speculations, Cicognara contrived to
alienate the imperial favour by his political opinions. He left
Venice for Rome; his library was offered for sale; and in 1821
he published at Pisa a catalogue raisonne, rich in bibliographical
lore, of this fine collection, the result of thirty years of loving
labour, which in 1824 was purchased en bloc by Pope Leo XII.,
and added to the Vatican library. The other works of Cicognara
are the Memorie storiche de' litterati ed artisti Ferraresi (1811);
the Vite de' piu insigni pittori e scultori Ferraresi, MS.; the
Memorie spettanti alia storia della calcografia (1831); and a large
number of dissertations on painting, sculpture, engraving and
other kindred subjects. (See Papoli, in No. n of the Exile, a
print written and published by Italian refugees.) Cicognara's
work in the academy at Venice, of which he became president in
1808, had important results in the increase in number of the
professors, the improvement in the courses of study, the institu-
tion of prizes, and the foundation of a gallery for the reception
of Venetian pictures. He died on the sth of March 1834.

See Zanetti, Cenni biografici di Leopoldo Cicognara (Venice, 1834);
Malmani, Memorie del conte Leopoldo Cicognara (Venice, 1888).

CID, THE, the favourite hero of Spain, and the most prominent
figure in her literature. The name, however, is so obscured by
myth and fable as scarcely to belong to history. So extravagant
are the deeds ascribed to him, and so marvellous the attributes
with which he has been clothed by the fond idolatry of his country-
men, that by some he has been classed with the Amadises and
the Orlandos whose exploits he emulated. The Jesuit Masdeu
stoutly denies that he had any real existence, and this heresy
has not wanted followers even in Spain. The truth of the matter,
however, has been expressed by Cervantes, through the mouth
of the Canon in Don Quixote: " There is no doubt there was
such a man as the Cid, but much doubt whether he achieved
what is attributed to him." The researches of Professor Dozy,
of Leiden, have amply confirmed this opinion. There is a Cid
of history and a Cid of romance, differing very materially in
character, but each filling a large space in the annals of his
country, and exerting a singular influence in the development
of the national genius.

The Cid of history, though falling short of the poetical ideal
which the patriotism of his countrymen has so long cherished,
is still the foremost man of the heroical period of Spain the
greatest warrior produced out of the long struggle between
Christian and Moslem, and the perfect type of the Castilian of
i zth century. Rodrigo Diaz, called de Bivar, from the place

of his birth, better known by the title given him by the Arabs
as the Cid (El Seid, the lord), and El Campeador, the champion
par excellence, was of a noble family, one of whose members in a
former generation had been elected judge of Castile. The date
of his birth cannot be fixed with any certainty, but it was
probably between 1030 and 1040. As Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar
he is first mentioned in a charter of Ferdinand I. of the year
1064. The legends which speak of the Cid as accompanying this
monarch in his expeditions to France and Italy must be rejected
as purely apocryphal. Ferdinand, a great and wise prince, under
whom the tide of Moslem conquest was first effectually stemmed,
on his deathbed, in 1065, divided his territories among his five
children. Castile was left to his eldest son Sancho, Leon to
Alphonso, Galicia to Garcia, Zamora and Toro to his two daughters
Urraca and Elvira. The extinction of the western caliphate
and the dispersion of the once noble heritage of the Ommayads
into numerous petty independent states, had taken place some
thirty years previously, so that Castilian and Moslem were once
again upon equal terms, the country being almost equally divided
between them. On both sides was civil war, urged as fiercely as
that against the common enemy, in which the parties sought
allies indiscriminately among Christians and Mahommedans.

No condition of affairs could be more favourable to the genius
of the Cid. He rose to great distinction in the war between
Sancho of Castile and Sancho of Navarre, in which he won his
name of Campeador, by slaying the enemy's champion in single
combat. In the quarrel between Sancho and his brotherAlphonso,
Rodrigo Diaz espoused the cause of the former, and it was
he who suggested the perfidious stratagem by which Sancho
eventually obtained the victory and possession of Leon. Sancho
having been slain in 1072, while engaged in the siege of Zamora,
Alphonso returned from exile and occupied the vacant throne.
One of the most striking of the passages in the Cid's legendary
history is that wherein he is represented as forcing the new king
to swear that he had no part in his brother's death; but there
was cause enough without this for Alphonso's animosity against
the man who had helped to despoil him of his patrimony. For
a time the Cid, already renowned throughout Spain for his
prowess in war, was even advanced by the king's favour and
entrusted with high commissions of state. In 1074 the Cid was
wedded to Ximena, daughter of the count of Oviedo, and grand-
daughter, by the mother's side, of Alphonso V. The original
deed of the marriage-contract is extant. Some time afterwards
the Cid was sent on an embassy to collect tribute from Motamid,
the king of Seville, whom he found engaged in a war with
Abdallah, the king of Granada. On Abdallah's side were many
Castilian knights, among them Count Garcia Ordonez, a prince
of the blood, whom the Cid endeavoured vainly to persuade of
the disloyalty of opposing their master's ally. In the battle
which ensued under the walls of Seville, Abdallah and his
auxiliaries were routed with great slaughter, the Cid returning
to Burgos with many prisoners and a rich booty. There fresh
proofs of his prowess only served to kindle against him the
rancour of his enemies and the jealousy of the king. Garcia
Ordonez accused him to Alphonso of keeping back part of the
tribute received from Seville, and the king took advantage of
the Cid's absence on a raid against the Moors to banish him
from Castile.

Henceforth Rodrigo Diaz began to live that life of a soldier
of fortune which has made him famous, sometimes fighting
under the Christian banner, sometimes under Moorish, but
always for his own hand. At the head of a band of 300 free lances
he offered his services first to the count of Barcelona; then,
failing him, to Moktadir, the Arab king of Saragossa, of the race
of the Beni Houd. Under Moktadir, and his successorsMoutamin
and Mostain, the Cid remained for nearly eight years, fighting
their battles against Mahommedan and Christian, when not
engaged upon his own, and being admitted almost to a share
of their royal authority. He made more than one attempt to
be reconciled with Alphonso, but, his overtures being rejected,
he turned his arms against the enemies of the Beni Houd,
extending their dominions at the expense of the Christian states

362

CIDER

of Aragon and Barcelona, and harrying even the border lands
of Castile. Among the enterprises of the Cid the most famous
was that against Valencia, then the richest and most flourishing
city of the peninsula, and an object of cupidity to both Christian
and Moslem. The Cid appeared before the place at the head
of an army of 7000 men, for the greater part Mahommedans.
In vain did the Valencians implore succour from the emir of
Cordova, and from their co-religionists in other parts of the
peninsula. In defiance of an army which marched to the relief
of the beleaguered city under Yusef the Almoravide, the Cid took
Valencia after a siege of nine months, on the isth of June 1094
the richest prize which up to that time had been recovered from
the Moors. The conditions of the surrender were all violated
the cadi Ibn Djahhaff burnt alive, a vast number of the citizens
who had escaped death by famine slaughtered, and the possessions
divided among the Campeador's companions. In other respects
the Cid appears to have used his victory mildly, ruling his
kingdom, which now embraced nearly the whole of Valencia
and Murcia, for four years with vigour and justice. At length
the Almoravides, whom he had several times beaten, marched
against him in great force, inflicting a crushing defeat at Cuenca
upon the Cid's army, under his favourite lieutenant, Alvar
Fanez. The "blow was a fatal one to the aged and war-worn
Campeador, who died of anger and grief in July 1099. His
widow maintained Valencia for three years longer against the
Moors, but was at last compelled to evacuate the city, taking
with her the body of the Cid to be buried in the monastery of
San Pedro at Cardena, in the neighbourhood of Burgos. Here,
in the centre of a small chapel, surrounded by his chief com-
panions in arms, by Alvar Fanez Minaya, Pero Bermudez,
Martin Antolinez and Pelaez the Asturian, were placed the
remains of the mighty warrior, the truest of Spanish heroes,
the embodiment of all the national virtues and most of the
national vices. The bones have since been removed to the
town hall of Burgos. Philip II. tried to get him canonized,
but Rome objected, and not without reason.

Whatever were his qualities as a fighter, the Cid was but
indifferent material out of which to make a saint, a man who
battled against Christian and against Moslem with equal
zeal, who burnt churches and mosques with equal zest,
who ravaged, plundered and slew as much for a livelihood as
for any patriotic or religious purpose, and was in truth almost
as much of a Mussulman as a Christian in his habits and his
character. His true place in history is that of the greatest of
the guerrilleros the perfect type of that sort of warrior in
which, from the days of Viriathus to those of Juan Diaz, El
Empecinado, the soil of Spain has been most productive.

The Cid of romance, the Cid of a thousand battles, legends
and dramas, the Cid as apotheosized in literature, the Cid
invoked by good Spaniards in every national crisis, whose name
is a perpetual and ever-present inspiration to Spanish patriotism,
is a very different character from the historical Rodrigo Diaz
the freebooter, the rebel, the consorter with the infidels and the
enemies of Spain. He is the Perfect One, the Born in a Happy
Hour, " My Cid," the invincible, the magnanimous, the all-
powerful. He is the type of knightly virtue, the mirror of
patriotic duty, the flower of all Christian grace. He is Roland
and Bayard in one. In the popular literature of Spain he holds
a place such as has no parallel in other countries. From an
almost contemporary period he has been the subject of song;
and he who was chanted by wandering minstrels in the izth
century has survived to be hymned in revolutionary odes of the
1 9th. In a barbarous Latin poem, written in celebration of the
conquest of Almeria by Alphonso VII. in the year 1147, we
have the bard testifying to the supereminence of the Cid among
his country's heroes:

" lose Rodericus Mio Cid semper vocatus,
De quo cantatur quod ab hostibus haud superatus,
Qui domuit Mauros, comites domuit quoque nostros."

Within a hundred years of his death the Cid had become
the centre of a whole system of myths. The Poema del Cid,
written in the latter half of the 1 2th century, has scarcely any

trace of a historical character. Already the Cid had reached his
apotheosis, and Castilian loyalty could not consent to degrade
him when banished by his sovereign :

" Dios, que buen vassalo si oviese buen senor ! "

cry the weeping citizens of Burgos, as they speed the exile on
his way.

The Poem of the Cid is but a fragment of 3744 lines, written
in a barbarous style, in rugged assonant rhymes, and a rude
Alexandrine measure, but it glows with the pure fire of poetry,
and is full of a noble simplicity and a true epical grandeur,
invaluable as a living picture of the age. The ballads relating
to the Cid, of which nearly two hundred are extant, are greatly
inferior in merit, though some of them are not unworthy to be
ranked with the best in this kind. Duran believes the greater
part of them to have been written in the i6th century. A few
betray, not more by the antiquity of their language than by their
natural and simple tone, traces of an earlier age and a freer
national life. They all take great liberties with history, thus
belying the opinion of Sancro Panza that " the ballads are too
old to tell lies." Such of them as are not genuine relics of the
1 2th century are either poetical versions of the leading episodes
in the hero's life as contained in the Chronicle, that Chronicle
itself having been doubtless composed out of still earlier legends
as sung by the wandering juglares, or pure inventions of a kter
time, owing their inspiration to the romances of chivalry. In
these last the ballad-mongers, not to let their native hero be
outdone by the Amadises, the Esplandians, and the Felixmartes,
engage him in the most extravagant adventures making war
upon the king of France and upon the emperor, receiving em-
bassies from the soldan of Persia, bearding the pope at Rome,
and performing other feats not mentioned even in the Poem or
the Chronicle. The last and the worst of the Cid ballads are
those which betray by their frigid conceits and feeble mimicry
of the antique the false taste and essentially unheroic spirit
of the age of Philip II. As for the innumerable other poems,
dramas and tales which have been founded on the legend of the
Cid, from the days of Guillen de Castro and Diamante to those
of Quintana and Trueba, they serve merely to prove the abiding
popularity of the national hero in his native land.

The chief sources from which the story of the Cid is to be gathered
are, first, the Latin chronicle discovered by Risco in the convent
of San Isidro at Leon, proved by internal evidence to have been
written before 1258; the Cronica General, composed by Alphonso X.
in the second half of the I3th century, partly (so far as relates to the
Cid) from the above, partly from contemporary Arabic histories, and
partly from tradition; the Cronica del Cid, first published in 1512,
by Juan de Velorado, abbot of the monastery of San Pedro at
Cardena, which is a compilation from the last, interlarded with new
fictions due to the piety of the compiler; lastly, various Arabic
manuscripts, some of contemporary date, which are examined and
their claims weighed in the second volume of Professor Dozy's
Recherches sur Vhistoire politique et litteraire de I'Espagne pendant
le moyen dge (Leiden, 1849). Huber, Miiller, and Ferdinand Wolf are
among the leading authorities in the history and literature of the
Cid. M. Damas Hinard has published the poem, with a literal French
translation and notes, and John Hookham Frere has rendered it into
English with extraordinary spirit and fidelity. The largest collection
of the Cid ballads is that of Durant, in the Romancero general, in
two volumes, forming part of Rivadeneyra's Biblioteca de autores
espanoles. (H. E. W.)

CIDER, or CYDER (from the Fr. cidre, derived from the Lat.
sicera or cisera, Gr. a-'mtpa, Heb. shikar, strong drink), an
alcoholic beverage made from apples.

Cider and perry (the corresponding beverage made from pears)
are liquors containing from as little as 2% of alcohol to 7 or
8 %, seldom more, and rarely as much, produced by the vinous
fermentation of the expressed juice of apples and pears; but
cider and perry of prime quality can only be obtained from
vintage fruit, that is, apples and pears grown for the purpose
and unsuited for the most part for table use. A few table apples
make good cider, but the best perry is only to be procured from
pears too harsh and astringent for consumption in any other
form. The making of perry is in England confined, in the main,
to the counties of Hereford, Worcester and Gloucester. These
three counties, together with Somerset and Devon, constitute,
too, the principal cider-making district of the country; but the

CIDER

363

industry, which was once more widely spread, still survives in
Norfolk, and has lately been revived in Kent, though, in both
these counties, much of the fruit used in cider-making is imported
from the west country and some from the continent. Speaking
generally, the cider of Herefordshire is distinguished for its
lightness and briskness, that of Somerset for its strength, and
that of Devonshire for its lusciousness.

Cider used to be made in the south of Ireland, but the industry
had almost become extinct until revived by the Department of
Agriculture, which in 1904 erected a cider-making plant at
Drogheda, Co. Louth, gave assistance to private firms at Dun-
garvan, Co. Waterford, and Fermoy, Co. Cork, and provided a
travelling mill and press to work in the South Riding of Co.
Tipperary. The results have been highly satisfactory, a large
quantity of good cider having been produced.

Inasmuch as English orchards are crowded with innumerable
varieties of cider apples, many of them worthless, a committee
composed of members of the Herefordshire Fruit-Growers'
Association and of the Fruit and Chrysanthemum Society was
appointed in 1899 to make a selection of vintage apples and
pears best suited to Herefordshire and the districts adjoining.
The following is the list drawn up by the committee:

Apples. Old Foxwhelp, Cherry Pearmain, Cowarne Red,
Dymock Red, Eggleton Styre, Kingston Black or Black Taunton,
Skyrme's Kernel, Spreading Redstreak, Carrion apple, Cherry
Norman, Cummy Norman, Royal Wilding, Handsome Norman,
Strawberry Norman, White Bache or Norman, Broad-leaved
Norman, Argile Grise, Bramtot, De Boutville, Frequin Audievre,
Medaille d'Or, the last five being French sorts introduced from
Normandy about 1880, and now established in the orchards of
Herefordshire.

Pears. Taynton Squash, Barland, Oldfield, Moorcroft or
Malvern Hill, Red-pear, Thurston's Red, Longland, Pine pear.

No equally authoritative selection has been made for the
Somerset and Devon districts, but the following varieties of
cider apples are held in good repute in those parts: Kingston
Black, Jersey Chisel, Hangdowns, Fair Maid of Devon, Woodbine,
Duck's Bill, Slack-my-Girdle, Bottle Stopper, Golden Ball,
Sugar-loaf, Red Cluster, Royal Somerset and Cadbury (believed
to be identical with the Royal Wilding of Herefordshire). As a
rule the best cider apples are of small size. " Petites pommes,
gros cidre," say the French.

Cider and perry not being taxable liquors in England, it is
impossible to estimate with even an approach to accuracy the
amount of the annual production of them. In 1896 Mr Sampson,
the then secretary of the National Association of English Cider-
makers, in his evidence before the royal commission on agricul-
ture, put it at 55 j million gallons. Since that date the increased
demand for these native wines has given such an impetus to the
industry that this figure might with safety be doubled. In France
official statistics are available, and these show not only that that
country is the largest producer of cider (including perry) in the
world, but that the output is yearly increasing. A great pro-
portion, however, of what passes as cider in France is boisson,
i.e. cider to which water has been added in the process of making
or at a subsequent stage; while much of the perry is disposed
of to the makers of champagne. Although some cider is made in
sixty-five departments, by far the largest amount comes from
the provinces of Normandy and Brittany. In Germany cider-
making is a considerable and growing industry. Manufactories
on a small scale exist in north Germany, as at Guben and Griin-
berg, but the centre of the industry is at Frankfort-on-Main,
Sachsenhausen and the neighbourhood, where there are five
large and twenty-five small factories employing upwards of
1000 hands. Large quantities of cider fruit are imported from
foreign countries, as, speaking generally, the native-grown fruit
used in Germany for cider-making consists of inferior and
undersized table apples not worth marketing. The bottled cider
for export is treated much like champagne, and is usually fortified
and flavoured until, in the words of an acknowledged French
authority, M. Truelle, it becomes a hybrid between cider and
white wine rather than pure cider.

The practice which formerly prevailed in England of making
cider on the farm from the produce of the home orchards has
within the last few years been to a large extent given up, and,
as in Germany and many parts of France, farmers now sell their
fruit to owners of factories where the making of cider and perry
is carried on as a business of itself. In these hand or horse power
is superseded by steam and sometimes by electricity, as in the
factory of E. Seigel in Griinberg, and the old-fashioned appliances
of the farm by modern mills and presses capable of turning out
large quantities of liquor. The clearing of the juice, too, which
used to be effected by running it through bags, is in the factories
accomplished more quickly by forcing it through layers of
compressed cotton in a machine of German origin known as
Lumley's filter. The actual process of cider and perry making
is simple, and resembles that of making grape wine. The fruit is
ground or crushed in machines of various construction, the latest
and most powerful being of American origin. The resulting
pomace is pressed for the extraction of the juice, which is then
run into vats, where it undergoes fermentation, which, converting
the saccharine ingredients into alcohol and carbonic acid gas,
turns it into cider. Cider made from a judicious mixture of
several varieties of apples is to be preferred to cider made from
one variety only, inasmuch as it is less difficult to find the requisite
degrees of richness, astringency and flavour in several varieties
than in one; but the contrary is the case with pears, of which
the most noted sorts, such as the Barland, the Taynton Squash
and the Oldfield, produce the best perry when unmixed with
other varieties. Some fining of an albuminous nature is generally
requisite in order to clear the juice and facilitate its passage
through the filter, but the less used the better. The simplest
and cleanest is skim milk whipped to a froth and blended gradu-
ally with the cider as it is pumped into the mixing vat. Many
nostrums are sold for the clearing of cider, but none is necessary
and most are harmful.

Of late years the practice has largely obtained of using
preservatives for the purpose of checking fermentation. The
principal preservatives employed are salicylic and boracic acids
and formalin. The two former are ineffective except in quantities
likely to prove hurtful to health, while formalin, in itself a
powerful and deleterious drug, though it stops fermentation,
renders the liquor cloudy and undrinkable. Other foreign in-
gredients, such as saccharin and porcherine, both coal-tar
derivatives the latter a recent discovery of a French chemist,
after whom it is named are used by many makers, chiefly for
the purpose of rendering bad and therefore unwholesome cider
palatable and saleable. Provided that cider and perry be properly
filtered, and attention paid to perfect cleanliness of vessels and
appliances, there is no need of preservatives or sweeteners, and
their use ought to be forbidden by law in England, as it is in
most continental states in the case of liquors to be consumed
within their borders, though not, it is significant to note, in the
case of liquors intended for exportation.

The wholesome properties of cider and perry when pure and
unadulterated have been recognized by medical men, who
recommend them as pleasant and efficacious remedies in affec-
tions of a gouty or rheumatic nature, maladies which, strange
to say, these very liquors were once supposed to foster, if
not actually to originate. Under a similar false impression the
notion is general that hard rough cider is apt to cause diarrhoea,
colic and kindred complaints, whereas, as a fact, disorders
of this kind are conspicuous by their absence in those parts of
the country where rough cider and perry constitute the staple
drinks of the working-classes. This is especially the case in
Herefordshire, which is said also to be the only county in England
whence no instance of the occurrence of Asiatic cholera has ever
been reported.

The importance which the cider industry has of late attained
in England has been marked by the establishment of the National
Fruit and Cider Institute at Long Ashton near Bristol. This
institute, founded in 1903 at the instance of the Board of
Agriculture, is supported by grants from the board, the Bath
and West of England Society, the councils of the cider-producing

3 6 4

CIENFUEGOS CIGNANI

counties of Hereford, Gloucester, Worcester, Monmouth, Devon
and Somerset, and by subscription of members. The objects of
the institute are the promotion of research into the causes of
the changes which occur in cider and perry during fermentation,
with the view of imparting to these liquors a degree of exactitude
hitherto unattainable; the adoption from time to time of im-
proved machinery and methods in cider-making; the detection
of adulteration; the giving of instruction in the principles and
practice of cider- making; the publication of reports detailing
the results of the researches undertaken at the institute; the
testing and selection of the sorts of fruit best suited for vintage
purposes; the propagation of useful varieties likely from neglect
to go out of cultivation; and the conducting of experiments
in regard to the best systems of planting and protecting young
fruit trees.

Fruit-growers who look to cider-making " as a means of
utilizing windfalls and small and inferior apples of cooking and
dessert varieties not worth sending to market " should be warned
that it is as important to the cider industry that good cider only
should be on sale as it is to the fruit-growing industry that good
fruit only should be sent to market. The juice of the apple is
naturally affected by the condition of the fruit itself, and if this
be unripe, unsound or worm-eaten the dder made from it will
be inferior to that made from full-grown, ripe and sound fruit.
If such fruit be not good enough to send to market, neither will
the cider made from it be good enough to place before the public.
Nevertheless, it may furnish a sufficiently palatable drink for
home consumption, and may therefore be so utilized. But
when, as happens from time to time in fruit-growing districts,
there is a glut, and even the best table fruit is not saleable at
a profit, then, indeed, cider-making is a means of storing in a
liquid form what would otherwise be left to rot on the ground;
whilst if a proportion of vintage fruit were mixed therewith,
a drink would be produced which would not discredit the cider
trade, and would bring a fair return to the maker. (C. W. R. C.)

CIENFUEGOS, NICASIO ALVAREZ DE (1764-1809), Spanish
poet and publicist, was born at Madrid on the i4th of December
1764. He studied with distinction at Salamanca, where he met
the poetftMelendez Vald6s. His poems, published in 1778,
immediately attracted attention. He was successively editor
of the Gaceta and Mercurio, and was condemned to death for
having published an article against Napoleon; on the petition
of his friends, he was respited and deported to France; he died
at Orthez early in the following year. His verses are modelled
on those of Melendez Vald6s; though not deficient in technique
or passion, they are often disfigured by spurious sentimentality
and by the flimsy philosophy of the age. Cienfuegos was blamed
for an unsparing use of both archaisms and gallicisms. His
plays, Pitaco, Zoraida, La Condesa de Castillo, and Idomeneo,
four tragedies on the pseudo-classic French model, and Las
Hermanas generosas, a comedy, are deservedly forgotten.

CIENFUEGOS (originally FERNANDINA DE JAGUA), one of the
principal cities of Cuba, in Santa Clara province, near the central
portion of the S. coast, 195 m. E.S.E. of Havana. Pop. (1907)
30,100. Cienfuegos is served by the United railways and by
steamers connecting with Santiago, Batabano, Trinidad and
the Isle of Pines. It lies about 6 m. from the sea on a peninsula
in the magnificent landlocked bay of Jagua. Vessels drawing
1 6 ft. have direct access to the wharves. A circular railway
about the water-front, wharves and warehouses facilitates the
loading and unloading of vessels. The city streets are broad
and regularly laid out. There is a handsome cathedral; and
the Tomas Terry theatre (given to the city by the heirs of
one of the millionaire sugar planters of the jurisdiction), the
governor's house (1841-1844), the military and government
hospitals, market place and railway station are worthy of note.
In the Cathedral Square (Plaza de Armas) , embracing two city-
squares, and shaded like all the plazas of the island with
laurels and royal palms, are a statue of Isabel the Catholic,
and two marble lions given by Queen Isabel II. ; elsewhere there
are statues of General Clouet and Marshal Serrano, once captain-
general. The city is lighted by gas and electricity, has an

abundant water-supply, and cable connexion with Europe,
the United States, other Antilles and South America. The
surrounding country is one of the prettiest and most fertile
regions in Cuba, varied with woods, rivers, rocky gulches,
beautiful cascades and charming tropic vegetation. Several
of the largest and finest sugar estates in the world are situated in
the vicinity, including the Soledad (with a botanical experiment
station maintained by Harvard University), the Terry and
others most of them connected with the city by good drive-
ways. Cienfuegos is a centre of the sugar trade on the south
coast; tobacco too is exported.

The bay of Jagua was visited by Columbus. The city was
founded in 1819, with the aid of the Spanish government, by a
Louisianian, General Luis de Clouet; it was destroyed by a
hurricane and was rebuilt in 1825. Many naturalized foreign
Catholics, including Americans, were among the original settlers.
The settlement was first named in honour of Ferdinand VII.,
and later in honour of Captain-General Jose Cienfuegos Jovel-
lanos. The harbour was known from the earliest times, and has
been declared by Mahan to be the most important of the
Caribbean Sea for strategic purposes. In 1740-1745 a fortifica-
tion called Nuestra Senora de los Angeles was erected at the
entrance; it is still standing, on a steep bluff overlooking the
sea, and is one of the most picturesque of the old fortifications
of the island. On the i ith of May 1898 a force from two vessels
of the United States fleet under Admiral Schley, searching for
Cervera and blockading the port, cut two of the three cables
here (at Point Colorado, at the entrance of the harbour), and for
the first time in the Spanish- American War the American troops
were under fire.

CIEZA, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of
Murcia, on the right bank of the river Segura, and on the Madrid-
Cartagena railway. Pop. (1000) 13,626. Cieza is built in a
narrow bend of the Segura valley, which is enclosed on the north
by mountains, and on the south broadens into a fertile plain,
producing grain, wine, olives, raisins, oranges and esparto grass.
In the town itself there are flour and paper mills, sawmills and
brandy distilleries. Between 1870 and 1900 local trade and
population increased rapidly, owing partly to improved means
of communication; and the appearance of Cieza is thoroughly
modern.

CIGAR, the common term for tobacco-leaf prepared for smok-
ing by being rolled into a short cylinder tapering to a point at
the end which is placed in the mouth, the other end, which is
lighted, being usually cut square (see TOBACCO). The Spanish
cigarro is of doubtful origin, possibly connected with cigarra, a
cicada, from its resemblance to the body of that insect, or with
cigarral, a word of Arabic origin meaning a pleasure garden.
The explanation that it comes from a Cuban word for a certain
species of tobacco is probably erroneous, since no native word
of the kind is known. The diminutive, cigarette, denotes a roll
of cut tobacco enclosed usually in thin paper, but sometimes
also in tobacco-leaf or the husk of Indian corn.

CIGNANI, CARLO (1628-1719), Italian painter, was born of a
noble family at Bologna, where he studied under Battista Cairo,
and afterwards under Francesco Albani. Though an intimate
friend of the latter, and his most famous disciple, Cignani was
yet strongly and deeply influenced by the genius of Correggio.
His greatest work, moreover, the " Assumption of the Virgin,"
round the cupola of the church of the Madonna della Fuoca at
Forli, which occupied him some twenty years, and is in some
respects one of the most remarkable works of art of the i?th
century, is obviously inspired from the more renowned fresco of
Correggio in the cupola of the cathedral of Parma. Cignani had
some of the defects of his masters; his elaborate finish, his
audacious artificiality in the use of colour and in composition,
mark the disciple of Albani; but he imparted to his work a
more intellectual character than either of his models, and is not
without other remarkable merits of his own. As a man Cignani
was eminently amiable, unassuming and generous. His success,
however, made him many enemies; and the envy of some of
these is said to have impelled them to deface certain of his works.

CIGOLI CILICIA

He accepted none of the honours offered him by the duke of
Parma and other princes, but lived and died an artist. On his
removal to Forli, where he died, the school he had founded at
Bologna was fain in some sort to follow its master. His most
famous pictures, in addition to the Assumption already cited,
are the " Entry of Paul III. into Bologna "; the " Francois I.
Touching for King's Evil "; a " Power of Love," painted under
a fine ceiling by Agostino Carracci, on the walls of a room in the
ducal palace at Parma; an " Adam and Eve " (at the Hague);
and two of " Joseph and Potiphar's Wife " (at Dresden and
Copenhagen). His son Felice (1660-1724) and nephew Paolo
(1700-1764) were also painters.

CIGOLI (or CivoLi),LODOVICOCARDIDA(i559-i6i3), Italian
painter, architect and poet, was born at Cigoli in Tuscany.
Educated under Alessandro Allori and Santi di Tito, he formed a
peculiar style by the study at Florence of Michelangelo, Cor-
reggio, Andrea del Sarto and Pontormo. Assimilating more of
the second of these masters than of all the others, he laboured for
some years with success; but the attacks of his enemies, and
intense application to the production of a wax model of certain
anatomical preparations, induced an alienation of mind which
affected him for three years. At the end of this period he
visited Lombardy, whence he returned to Florence. There he
painted an " Ecce Homo," in competition with Passignani and
Caravaggio, which gained the prize. This work was afterwards
taken by Bonaparte to the Louvre, and was restored to Florence
in 1815. Other important pictures are a " St Peter Healing
the Lame Man," in St Peter's at Rome; a " Conversion of St
Paul," in the church of San Paolo fuori le Mura, and a " Story of
Psyche," in fresco, at the Villa Borghese; a " Martyrdom of
Stephen," which earned him the name of the Florentine Cor-
reggio, a " Venus and Satyr," a " Sacrifice of Isaac," a " Stigmata
of St Francis," at Florence. Cigoli, who was made a knight of
Malta at the request of Pope Paul III., was a good and solid
draughtsman and the possessor of a rich and harmonious palette.
He died, it is said, of grief at the failure of his last fresco (in the
Roman church of Santa Maria Maggiore), which is rendered
ridiculous by an abuse of perspective.

CILIA (plural of Lat. cUium, eyelash), in biology, the thread-
like processes by the vibration of which many lowly organisms,
or the male reproductive cells of higher organisms, move through
water.

CILIATA (M. Pertz), one of the two divisions of Infusoria,
characterized by the permanent possession of cilia or organs
derived from these (cirrhi, membranelles, &c.), and possessing
a single mouth (except in the Opalinopsidae, all parasitic) . They
are the most highly differentiated among the Protozoa.

CILICIA, in ancient geography, a district of Asia Minor,
extending along the south coast from the Alara Su, which
separated it from Pamphylia, to the Giaour Dagh (Mt. Amanus),
which parted it from Syria. Its northern limit was the crest of
Mt. Taurus. It was naturally divided into Cilicia Trachea, W.
of the Lamas Su, and Cilicia Pedias, E. of that river.

Cilicia Trachea is a rugged mountain district formed by the
spurs of Taurus, which often terminate in rocky headlands with
small sheltered harbours, a feature which, hi classical times,
made the coast a resort of pirates, and, in the middle ages, led
to its occupation by Genoese and Venetian traders. The district
is watered by the Geuk Su (Calycadnus and its tributaries), and
is covered to a large extent by forests, which still, as of old,
supply timber to Egypt and Syria. There were several towns
but no large trade centres. In the interior were Coropissus (Da

Bazar), Olba (Uzunjabur j) , and, hi the valley of the Calycadnus,
Claudiopolis (Mut) and Germanicopolis (Ermenek). On or
near the coast were Coracesium (Alaya), Selinus-Trajanopolis
(Selinti) , Anemourium ( Anamur) , Kelenderis (Kilindria) , Seleucia

I id Calycadnum (Selefkeh), Corycus (Korghoz) and Elaeusa-
sebaste ( Ayash) . Roads connected Laranda, north of theTaurus,
(rith Kelenderis and Seleucia.
Cilicia Pedias included the rugged spurs of Taurus and a large
alain, which consists, in great part, of a rich stoneless loam. Its
astern half is studded with isolated rocky crags, which are

crowned with the ruins of ancient strongholds, and broken by
the low hills that border the plain of Issus. The plain is watered
by the Cydnus (Tarsus Chai), the Sarus (Sihun) and the Pyramus
(Jihun), each of which brings down much silt. The Sarus now
enters the sea almost due south of Tarsus, but there are clear
indications that at one period it joined the Pyramus, and that
the united rivers ran to the sea west of Kara-tash. Such appears
to have been the case when Alexander's army crossed Cilicia.
The plain is extremely productive, though now little cultivated.
Through it ran the great highway, between the east and the west,
on which stood Tarsus on the Cydnus, Aduna on the Sarus,
and Mopsuestia (Missis) on the Pyramus. North of the road
between the two last places were Sision-Flaviopolis (Sis), Ana-
zarbus (Anazarba) and Hierapolis-Kastabala (Budrum); and
on the coast were Soli-Pompeiopolis, Mallus (Kara-tash), Aegae
(Ayash), Issus, Baiae (Piyas) and Alexandria ad Issum (Alexan-
dretta). The great highway from the west, on its long rough
descent from the Anatolian plateau to Tarsus, ran through a
narrow pass between walls of rock called the CilicianGate,Ghulek
Boghaz. After crossing the low hills east of the Pyramns it
passed through a masonry .(Cilician) gate, Demir Kapu, and
entered the plain of Issus. From that plain one road ran south-
ward through a masonry (Syrian) gate to Alexandretta, and
thence crossed Mt. Amanus by the Syrian Gate, Beilan Pass, to
Antioch and Syria; and another ran northwards through a
masonry (Amanian) gate, south of Toprak Kaleh, and crossed Mt.
Amanus by the Amanian Gate, Baghche Pass, to North Syria
and the Euphrates. By the last pass, which was apparently
unknown to Alexander, Darius crossed the mountains prior to
the battle of Issus. Both passes are short and easy, and connect
Cilicia Pedias geographically and politically with Syria rather
than with Asia Minor. Another important road connected Sision
with Cocysus and Melitene. In Roman times Cilicia exported
the goats'-hair cloth, Cilicium, of which tents were made.

The Cilicfans appear as Khilikku in Assyrian inscriptions,
and in the early part of the first millennium B.C. were one of the
four chief powers of western Asia. It is generally assumed that
they had previously been subject to the Syro-Cappadocian
empire; but, up to 1909 at all events, " Hittite " monuments
had not been found hi Cilicia; and we must infer that the
" Hittite " civilizations which flourished in Cappadocia and N.
Syria, communicated with each other by passes E. of Amanus
and not by the Cilicia'n Gates. Under the Persian empire
Cilicia was apparently governed by tributary native kings, who
bore a name or title graecized as Syennesis; but it was officially
included in the fourth satrapy by Darius. Xenophon found a
queen in power, and no opposition was offered to the march of
Cyrus. Similarly Alexander found the Gates open, when he
came down from the plateau in 333 B.C.; and from these facts
it may be inferred that the great pass was not under direct
Persian control, but under that of a vassal power always ready
to turn against its suzerain. After Alexander's death it was long
a battle ground of rival marshals and kings, and for a time
fell under Ptolemaic dominion, but finally under that of the
Seleucids, who, however, never held effectually more than the
eastern half. Cilicia Trachea became the haunt of pirates, who
were subdued by Pompey. Cilicia Pedias became Roman
territory in 103 B.C., and the whole was organized by Ppmpey,
64 B.C., into a province which, for a short time, extended to and
included part of Phrygia. It was reorganized by Caesar, 47 B.C.,
and about 27 B.C. became part of the province Syria-Cilicia-
Phoenice. At first the western district was left independent
under native kings or priest-dynasts, and a small kingdom, under
Tarkondimotus, was left in the east; but these were finally
united to the province by Vespasian, A.D. 74. Under Diocletian
(circa 297), Cilicia, with the Syrian and Egyptian provinces,
formed the Diocesis Orientis. In the 7th century it was invaded
by the Arabs, who held the country until it was reoccupied by
Nicephorus II. in 965.

The Seljuk invasion of Armenia was followed by an exodus of
Armenians southwards, and in 1080 Rhupen, a relative of the last
king of Ani, founded in the heart of the Cilician Taurus a small

366

CILLI CIMABUE

principality, which gradually expanded into the kingdom of
Lesser Armenia. This Christian kingdom situated in the
midst of Moslem states, hostile to the Byzantines, giving valuable
support to the crusaders, and trading with the great commercial
cities of Italy had a stormy existence of about 300 years.
Gosdantin I. (1095-1100) assisted the crusaders on their march
to Antioch, and was created knight and marquis. Thoros I.
(1100-1123), in alliance with the Christian princes of Syria,
waged successful war against Byzantines and Seljuks. Levond
(Leo) II., "the Great" (1185-1219), extended the kingdom
beyond Mount Taurus and established the capital at Sis. He
assisted the crusaders, was crowned king by the archbishop of
Mainz, and married one of the Lusignans of Cyprus. Haithon I.
(1224-1269) made an alliance with the Mongols, who, before their
adoption of Islam, protected his kingdom from the Mamelukes
of Egypt. When Levond V. died (1342), John of Lusignan was
crowned king as Gosdantin IV.; but he and his successors
alienated the Armenians by attempting to make them conform
to the Roman Church, and by giving all posts of honour to
Latms, and at last the kingdom, a prey to internal dissensions,
succumbed (1375) to the attacks of the Egyptians. Cilicia
Trachea was occupied by the Osmanlis in the isth century, but
Cilicia Pedias was only added to the empire in 1515.

From 1833 to 1840 Cilicia formed part of the territories
administered by Mehemet Ali of Cairo, who was compelled to
evacuate it by the allied powers. Since that date it has formed
the vilayet of Adana (?..).

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Beside the general authorities for ASIA MINOR,
see: W. B. Barker, Lares and Penates (1853); V. Langlois, Voyage
dans la Cilicie (1861); F. Beaufort, Karamania (1817); W. F.
Ainsworth, Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition (1888), and Travels
in Asia Minor (1842); R. Heberdey and A. Wilhelm, Reisen in
Kilikien (1896); D. G. Hogarth and J. A. R. Munro, Mod. and Anc.
Roads in E. Asia Minor (R. G. S. Supp. Papers, iii.) (1893); D. G.
Hogarth, A Wandering Scholar (1896); G. L. Schlumberger, Vn
Empereur byzantin (1890); T. Kotschy, Reise in dent cilicischen
Taurus (1858); H. C. Barkley, Ride through Asia Minor and
Armenia (1891); E. J. Davis, Life in Asiatic Turkey (1879); J.
Marquardt, Rom. Staatsverwaltung, i. (1874) ; J. R. S. Sterrett,
Wolfe Expedition (1888). See also authorities under ARMENIA and
MEHEMET ALI. (C. W. W. ; D. G. H.)

CILLI, ULRICH, COUNT OF (1406-1456), son of Frederick II.,
count of Cilli, and Elizabeth Frangepan. Of his youth we
know nothing certain. About 1432 he married Catherine,
daughter of George Brankovich, despot* of Servia.

His influence in the troubled affairs of Hungary and the
Empire early overshadowed that of his father, together with
whom he was made a prince of the Empire by the emperor
Sigismund (1436). Hence feuds with the Habsburgs, wounded
in their rights as overlords of Cilli, ending, however, in an
alliance with the Habsburg king Albert II., who made Ulrich
for a short while his lieutenant in Bohemia. After Albert's
death (1439) Ulrich took up the cause of his widow Elizabeth,
and presided at the coronation of her infant son Ladislaus V.
Posthumus (1440). A feud with the Hunyadis followed, em-
bittered by John Hunyadi's attack on George Brankovich of
Servia (1444) and his refusal to recognize Ulrich 's claim to
Bosnia on the death of Stephen Tvrtko (1443). In 1446
Hunyadi, now governor of Hungary, harried the Cilli territories
in Croatia-Slavonia; but his power was broken at Kossovo
(1448), and Count Ulrich was able to lead a successful crusade,
nominally in the Habsburg interest, into Hungary (1450). In
1452 he forced the emperor Frederick III. to hand over the boy
king Ladislaus V. to his keeping, and became thus practically
ruler of Hungary. In 1454 his power was increased by his
succession to his father's vast wealth; and in 1456 he was named
by Ladislaus his lieutenant in Hungary. The Hunyadis now
conspired to destroy him. On the 8th of November, in spite
of warnings, he entered Belgrade with the king; the next
day he was attacked by Laszlo Hunyadi and his friends, and
done to death. With him died the male line of the counts
of Cilli.

Count Ulrich's ambition was boundless, his passions un-
bridled; but the hostile judgments passed by Aeneas

Sylvius and other contemporaries upon him must be read
with caution.

CILLI (Slovene, Celje), a town in Styria, Austria, 82 m. S. by
W. of Graz by rail. Pop. (1900) 6743. It is picturesquely
situated on the left bank of the river Sann, and still has remains
of the old walls and towers, with which it was once surrounded.
Memorials of a still earlier period in its history Roman anti-
quities are to be seen in the municipal museum, while its canals
and sewers are also of Roman origin. These were discovered
during the second half of the igth century, and were in such a
good state of preservation that after a few small repairs they
are now utilized. The parish church, dating from the i4th
century, with its beautiful Gothic chapel, is one of the most
interesting specimens of medieval architecture. The so-called
German church, in Romanesque style, belonged to the Minorite
monastery, founded in 1241 and closed in 1808. The throne of
the counts of Cilli is preserved here, and also the tombs of several
members of the family. On the Schlossberg (1320 ft.), situated
to the S.E. of the town, are the ruins of the castle of Ober-Cilli,
the former residence of the counts of Cilli. Ten miles to the
N.W. of Cilli are situated the baths of Neuhaus, with indifferent
thermal waters (117 F.), frequented by ladies. Not far from
it is the ruined castle of Neuhaus, called since 1643 Schlangen-
burg, from which an extensive view of the neighbouring Alps
is obtained.

Cilli is one of the oldest places in Styria, and was probably a
Celtic settlement. It was taken possession of by the Romans
in 15 B.C., and in A.D. 50 the emperor Claudius raised it to a
Roman municipium and named it Claudia Celeja. It soon
became one of the most flourishing Roman colonies, and possessed
numerous great buildings, of which the temple of Mars was
famous throughout the whole empire. It was incorporated with
Aquileia, under Constantine; and towards the end of the 6th.
century was destroyed by the invading Slavs. It had a period
of exceptional prosperity from the middle of the I4th to the
latter half of the 1 5th century, under the counts of Cilli, on the
extinction of which family it fell to Austria. In the i6th century
it suffered greatly both from revolts of the peasantry and from
the Counter-Reformation, Protestantism having made many
converts in the district, particularly among the nobles.

See Glantschnigg, Celeja (Cilli, 1892).

CIMABUE, GIOVANNI (1240 to about 1302), Italian painter,
was born in Florence of a respectable family, which seems to
have borne the name of Gualtieri, as well as that of Cimabue
(Bullhead). He took to the arts of design by natural inclination,
and sought the society of men of learning and accomplishment.
Vasari, the historian of Italian painting, zealous for his own
native state of Florence, has left us the generally current account
of Cimabue, which later researches have to a great extent
invalidated. We cannot now accept his assertion that art,
extinct in Italy, was revived solely by Cimabue, after he had
received some training from Greek artists invited by the Floren-
tine government to paint the chapel of the Gondi in the church
of S. Maria Novella; for native Italian art was not then a nullity,
and this church was only begun when Cimabue was already
forty years old. Even Lanzi's qualifying statement that Greek
artists, although they did not paint the chapel of the Gondi, did
execute rude decorations in a chapel below the existing church,
and may thus have inspired Cimabue, makes little difference
in the main facts. What we find as the general upshot is that
some Italian painters preceded Cimabue particularly Guido of
Siena and Giunta of Pisa; that he worked on much the same
principle as they, and to a like result; but that he was neverthe-
less the most advanced master of his time, and, by his own works,
and the training which he imparted to his mighty pupil Giotto,
he left the art far more formed and more capable of growth than
he found it (see PAINTING).

The undoubted admiration of his contemporaries would alone
demonstrate the conspicuous position which Cimabue held, and
deserved to hold. For the chapel of the Rucellai in S. Maria
Novella he painted in tempera a colossal " Madonna and Child
with Angels," the largest altarpiece produced up to that date;

CIMAROSA

367

before its removal from the studio it was visited with admiration
by Charles of Anjou, with a host of eminent men and gentle
ladies, and it was carried to the church in a festive procession of
the people and trumpeters. Cimabue was at this time living in
the Borgo Allegri, then outside the walls of Florence; the legend
that the name Allegri (Joyous) was bestowed on the locality in
consequence of this striking popular display is more attractive
than accurate, for the name existed already. Of this celebrated
picture, one of the great landmarks of modern and sacred art,
some details may be here given, which we condense from the
History of Painting in Italy by Crowe and Cavalcaselle.

" The Virgin in a red tunic and blue mantle, with her feet resting
on an open-worked stool, is sitting on a chair hung with a white
drapery flowered in gold and blue, and carried by six angels kneeling
in threes above each other. A delicately engraved nimbus surrounds
her head, and that of the infant Saviour on her lap, who is dressed
in a white tunic, and purple mantle shot with gold. A dark-coloured
frame surrounds the gabled square of the picture, delicately traced
with an ornament interrupted at intervals by thirty medallions on
gold ground, each of which contains the half-figure of a saint. In
the face of the Madonna is a soft and melancholy expression; in
the form of the infant, a certain freshness, animation and natural
proportion; in the group, affection but too rare at this period.
There is sentiment in the attitudes of the angels, energetic mien in
some prophets, comparative clearness and soft harmony in the
colours. A certain loss of balance is caused by the overweight of
the head in the Virgin as compared with the slightness of her frame.
The features are the old ones of the I3th century; only softened,
as regards the expression of the eye, by an exaggeration of elliptical
form in the iris, and closeness of the curves of the lids. In the angels
the absence of all true notions of composition may be considered
striking; yet their movements are more natural and pleasing than
hitherto. One indeed, to the spectator's right of the Virgin, com-
bines more tender reverence in its glance than any that had yet been
produced. Cimabue gave to the flesh-tints a clear and carefully
fused colour, and imparted to the forms some of the rotundity which
they had lest. With him vanished the sharp contrasts of hard lights,
half-tones and shadows."

In a general way, it may be said that Cimabue showed himself
forcible in his paintings, as especially in heads of aged or strongly
characterized men; and, if the then existing development of
art had allowed of this, he might have had it in him to express
the beautiful as well. He, according to Vasari, was the first
painter who wrote words upon his paintings, as, for instance,
round the head of Christ in a picture of the Crucifixion, the
words addressed to Mary, Mulier ecce filius luus.

Other paintings still extant by Cimabue are the following:
In the academy of Arts in Florence, a " Madonna and Child,"
with eight angels, and some prophets in niches, better than
the Rucellai picture in composition and study of nature, but
more archaic in type, and the colour now spoiled (this work was
painted for the Badia of S. Trinita, Florence) ; in the National
Gallery, London, a "Madonna and Child with Angels," which
came from the Ugo Baldi collection, and had probably once
been in the church of S. Croce, Florence; in the Louvre, a
" Madonna and Child," with twenty-six medallions in the frame,
originally in the church of S. Francesco, Pisa. In the lower
church of the Basilica of S. Francesco at Assisi, Cimabue,
succeeding Giunta da Pisa, probably adorned the south transept,
painting a colossal " Virgin and Child between four Angels,"
above the altar of the Conception, and a large figure of St
Francis. In the upper church, north transept, he has the
" Saviour Enthroned and some Angels," and, on the central
ceiling of the transept, the " Four Evangelists with Angels."
Many other works in both the lower and the upper church have
been ascribed to Cimabue, but with very scanty evidence; even
the above-named can be assigned to him only as matter of
probability. Numerous others which he indisputably did paint
have perished, for instance, a series (earlier in date than the
Rucellai picture) in the Carmine church at Padua, which were
destroyed by a fire.

From Assisi Cimabue returned to Florence. In the closing
y"ears of his life he was appointed capomaestro of the mosaics
of the cathedral of Pisa, and was afterwards, hardly a year
before his death, joined with Arnolfo di Cambio as architect
for the cathedral of Florence. In Pisa he executed a Majesty
in the apse, " Christ in glory between the Virgin and John

the Evangelist," a mosaic, now much damaged, which stamps
him as the leading artist of his time in that material. This was
probably the last work that he produced.

The debt which art owes to Cimabue is not limited to his own
performances. He was the master of Giotto, whom (such at
least is the tradition) he found a shepherd boy of ten, in the
pastures of Vespignano, drawing with a coal on a slate the figure
of a lamb. Cimabue took him to Florence, and instructed him
in the art; and after his death Giotto occupied a house which
had belonged to his master in the Via del Cocomero. Another
painter with whom Cimabue is said to have been intimate was
Gaddo Gaddi.

It had always been supposed that the bodily semblance of
Cimabue is preserved to us in a portrait-figure by Simon Memmi
painted in the Cappella degli Spagnuoli, in S. Maria Novella,
a thin hooded face in profile, with small beard, reddish and
pointed. This is, however, extremely dubious. Simone Martini
of Siena (commonly called Memmi) was born in 1283, and would
therefore have been about nineteen years of age when Cimabue
died; it is not certain that he painted the work in question, or
that the figure represents Cimabue. The Florentine master is
spoken of by a nearly contemporary commentator on Dante
(the so-called Anonimo, who wrote about 1334) as arrogante e
disdegnoso; so " arrogant and scornful " that, if any one,
or if he himself, found a fault in any work of his, however
cherished till then, he would abandon it in disgust. This,
however, to a modern mind, looks more like an aspiring and
fastidious desire for perfection than any such form of " arrogance
and scorn " a blemishes a man's character. Giovanni Cimabue
was buried in the cathedral of Florence, S. Maria del Fiore, with
an epitaph written by one of the Nini:

" Credidit ut Cimabos picturae castra tenere,
Sic tenuit vivens; nunc tenet astra poli."

Here we recognize distinctly a parallel to the first clause in the
famous triplet of Dante:

" Credette Cimabue nella pintura
Tener lo campo; ed ora ha Giotto il grido,
Si che la fama di colui s' oscura."

Besides Vasari, and Crowe and Cavalcaselle (re-edited by Langton) ,
the following works may be consulted: P. Angeli, Storia delta
basilica d' Assisi; Cole and Stillman, Old Italian Masters (1892);
Mrs Ady, Painters of Florence (1900). (W. M. R.)

CIMAROSA, DOMENICO (1740-1801), Italian musical com-
poser, was born at Aversa, in the kingdom of Naples, on the i;th
of December 1749. His parents were poor, but anxious to give
their son a good education; and after removing to Naples they
sent him to a free school connected with one of the monasteries
of that city. The organist of the monastery, Padre Polcano,
was struck with the boy's intellect, and voluntarily instructed
him in the elements of music, as also in the ancient and modern
literature of his country. To his influence Cimarosa owed a
free scholarship at the musical institute of Santa Maria di Loreto,
where he remained for eleven years, studying chiefly the great
masters of the old Italian school. Piccini, Sacchini and other
musicians of repute are mentioned amongst his teachers. At
the age of twenty-three Cimarosa began his career as a composer
with a comic opera called Le Stravaganze del Conle, first per-
formed at the Teatro dei Fiorentini at Naples in 1772. The
work met with approval, and was followed in the same year by
Le Pazzie di Stellidanza e di Zoroastro, a farce full of humour
and eccentricity. This work also was successful, and the fame
of the young composer began to spread all over Italy. In 1774
he was invited to Rome to write an opera for the stagione of
that year; and he there produced another comic opera called
L'ltaliana in Londra.

The next thirteen years of Cimarosa's life are not marked by
any event worth mentioning. He wrote a number of operas for
the various theatres of Italy, living temporarily in Rome, in
Naples, or wherever else his vocation as a conductor of his works
happened to call him. From 1784-1787 he lived at Florence,
writing exclusively for the theatre of that city. The productions
of this period of his life are very numerous, consisting of
operas, both comic and serious, cantatas, and various sacred

3 68

CIMBRI CIMON

compositions. The following works may be mentioned amongst
many others: Caio Mario; the three biblical operas,
Assalone, La Giuditta and // Sacrifaio d' Abramo; also //
Convito di Pietra; and La Ballerina amante, a pretty comic
opera first performed at Venice with enormous success.

About the year 1788 Cimarosa went to St Petersburg by
invitation of the empress Catherine II. At her court he remained
four years and wrote an enormous number of compositions,
mostly of the nature of pieces d' occasion. Of most of these not
even the names are on record. In 1702 Cimarosa left St Peters-
burg, and went to Vienna at the invitation of the emperor
Leopold II. Here he produced his masterpiece, // Matrimonio
segreto, which ranks amongst the highest achievements of light
operatic music. In 1793 Cimarosa returned to Naples, where
// Matrimonio segreto and other works were received with great
applause. Amongst the works belonging to his last stay in
Naples may be mentioned the charming opera Le Astuzie
feminili. This period of his life is said to have been embittered
by the intrigues of envious and hostile persons, amongst whom
figured his old rival Paisiello. During the occupation of Naples
by the troops of the French Republic, Cimarosa joined the
liberal party, and on the return of the Bourbons, was, like many
of his political friends, condemned to death. By the intercession
of influential admirers his sentence was commuted into banish-
ment, and he left Naples with the intention of returning to
St Petersburg. But his health was broken, and after much
suffering he died at Venice on the nth of January 1801, of
inflammation of the intestines. The nature of his disease led
to the rumour of his having been poisoned by his enemies,
which, however, a formal inquest proved to be unfounded.
He worked till the last moment of his life, and one of his operas,
Artemisia, remained unfinished at his death.

CIMBRI, a Teutonic tribe who made their first appearance
in Roman history in the year 113 B.C., when they defeated the
consul Gnaeus Papirius Carbo near Noreia in the modern
Carinthia. It was the common belief that they had been driven
from their homes on the North Sea by inundations, but, whatever
the cause of their migration, they had been wandering along the
Danube for some years warring with the Celtic tribes on either
bank. After the victory of 113 they passed westwards over the
Rhine, threatening the territory of the Allobroges. Their request
for land was not granted, and in 109 B.C. they defeated the consul
Marcus Junius Silanus in southern Gaul, but did not at once
follow up the victory. In 105 they returned to the attack under
their king Boiorix, and favoured by the dissensions of the Roman
commanders Gnaeus Mallius Maximus and Caepio, defeated
them in detail and annihilated their armies at Aranisio (Orange).
Again the victorious Cimbri turned away from Italy, and, after
attempting to reduce the Arverni, moved into Spain, where they
failed to overcome the desperate resistance of the Celtiberian
tribes. In 103 they marched back through Gaul, which they
overran as far as the Seine, where the Belgae made a stout
resistance. Near Rouen the Cimbri were reinforced by the
Teutoni and two cantons of the Helvetii. Thereupon the host
marched southwards by two routes, the Cimbri moving on the
left towards the passes of the Eastern Alps, while the newly
arrived Teutoni and their allies made for the western gates of
Italy. In 102 B.C. the Teutoni and Ambrones were totally
defeated at Aquae Sextiae by Marius, while the Cimbri succeeded
in passing the Alps and driving Q. Lutatius Catulus across the
Adige and Po. In 101 Marius overthrew them on the Raudine
Plain near Vercellae. Their king Boiorix was killed and the
whole army destroyed. The Cimbri were the first in the long
line of the Teutonic invaders of Italy.

The original home of the Cimbri has been much disputed.
It is recorded in the Monumentum Ancyranum that a Roman
fleet sailing eastwards from the mouth of the Rhine (c. A.D. 5)
received at the farthest point reached the submission of a people
called Cimbri, who sent an embassy to Augustus. Several early
writers agree in saying that the Cimbri occupied a peninsula,
and in the map of Ptolemy Jutland appears as the Cimbric
Chersonese. As Ptolemy seems to have regarded the district

north of the Liimfjord (Limfjord) as a group of islands, the
territory of the Cimbri, the northernmost tribe of the peninsula,
would be included in the modern county (Ami) of Aalborg.
This was formerly called Himbersyssel or Himmerland, forms
which may very well preserve their name, especially as the name
Charydes, mentioned next to them in the M onumentum Ancy-
ranum, appears to survive in the modern Hardeland. Possibly
also the district across the Liimfjord formerly called Thythsyssel
or Thyland may in the same way preserve the name of the
Teutoni (q.v.). Strabo and other early writers relate a number
of curious facts concerning the customs of the Cimbri, which are
of great interest as the earliest records of the manner of life of
the Teutonic nations.

SOURCES. Liyy, Epitome, Ixvii., Ixviii. ; Monumentum Ancy-
ranum; Pomponius Mela iii. 3; C. Plinius Secundus, Nat. Hist.
iv. cap. 13 and 14, 95 ff. ; Strabo p. 292 ff. ; Plutarch, Marius,
passim; Florus iii. 3; Ptolemy ii. II. II f. (F. G. M. B.)

CIMICIFUGA, in botany, a small genus of herbaceous plants,
of the natural order Ranunculaceae, which is widely distributed
in the north temperate zone. C. foetida, bugbane, is used as a
preventive against vermin; and the root of a North American
species, C. racemosa, known as black snake-root, as an emetic.

CIMMERII, an ancient people of the far north or west of
Europe, first spoken of by Homer (Odyssey, xi. 12-19), who
describes them as living in perpetual darkness. Herodotus (iv.
11-13), m his account of Scythia, regards them as the early
inhabitants of South Russia (after whom the Bosporus Cimmerius
[q.v.] and other places were named), driven by the Scyths along
by the Caucasus into Asia Minor, where they maintained them-
selves for a century. But the Cimmerii are often mentioned in
connexion with the Thracian Treres who made their raids across
the Hellespont, and it is quite possible that some Cimmerii took
this route, having been cut off by the Scyths as the Alani (q.v.)
were by the Huns. Certain it is that in the middle of the 7th
century B.C., Asia Minor was ravaged by northern nomads
(Herod, iv. 12), one body of whom is called in Assyrian sources
Gimirrai and is represented as coming through the Caucasus.
They were probably Iranian speakers, to judge by the few proper
names preserved. The name has also been identified with the
biblical Corner, son of Japheth (Gen. x. 2, 3). To the north of
the Euxine their main body was merged in the invading Scyths.
Later writers identified them with the Cimbri of Jutland, who
were probably Teutonized Celts, but this is a mere guess due to
the similarity of name. The Homeric Cimmerii belong to an
early part of the Odyssey in which the hero was conceived as
wandering in the Euxine; these adventures were afterwards
translated to the western Mediterranean in accordance with a
wider geographical outlook.

For the Cimmerian invasions described by Herodotus, see SCYTHIA ;

LYDIAjGYGES. (E. H. M.)

CIMON [Kifiuv] (c. 507-449), Athenian statesman and
general, was the son of Miltiades (q.v.) and Hegesipyle, daughter
of the Thracian prince Olorus. Miltiades died in disgrace,
leaving unpaid the fine imposed upon him for his conduct at
Paros. Cimon's first task in life, therefore, was to remove the
stain on the family name by paying this fine (about 12,000).
In the second Persian invasion, especially at Salamis, and in the
consolidation of the Delian League, he won a high reputation
for courage and integrity. At first with Aristides, and afterwards
as sole commander, he directed the Athenian contingent of the
fleet; on the disgrace of Pausanias he practically commanded
the entire Greek fleet and drove Pausanias from his retreat in
Byzantium. Having captured Eion (at the mouth of the
Strymon) , he expelled the Persian garrisons from the entire sea-
board of Thrace with the exception of Doriscus, and, having
defeated the piratical Dolopians of Scyros (470), confirmed his
popularity by transferring thence to Athens the supposed bones
of the Attic hero Theseus. The bones were buried in Athens,
and over the tomb the Theseum (temple) was erected. In 466
Cimon proceeded to liberate the Greek cities of Lycia and
Pamphylia, and at the mouth of the Eurymedon he defeated
the Persians decisively by land and sea.

CIMON OF CLEONAE CINCHONA

369

The Persian danger was now over, and the immediate purpose
of the Delian League was achieved. Already, however, Athens
had introduced the policy of coercion which was to transform
the league into an empire, a policy which, after the ostracism
of Themistod.es and the death of Aristides, must be attributed
to Cimon, whose fundamental idea was the union of the Greeks
against all outsiders (see DELIAN LEAGUE). Carystus was
compelled to join the league; Naxos (c. 469) and Thasos (465-
463), which had revolted, were compelled to accept the position
of tributary allies. In 464 Sparta was involved in war with her
Helots (principally of Messenian origin) and was in great
difficulties. Cimon, then the most prominent man in Athens,
persuaded the Athenians to send assistance, on the ground that
Athens could not " stand without her yoke-fellow " and leave
" Hellas lame." The expedition was a failure, and Cimon was
exposed to the attacks of the democrats led by Ephialtes. The
history of this party struggle is not clear. The ordinary account
is that Ephialtes during Cimon's absence in Messenia destroyed
the powers of the Areopagus (q.ii.) and then obtained the ostra-
cism of Cimon, who attempted to reverse his policy. Without
going fully into the question, which is full of difficulty, it may
be pointed out (i) that when the Messenian expedition started
Cimon had twice within the preceding year triumphed over the
opposition of Ephialtes, and (2) that presumably the Cimonian
party was predominant until after the expedition proved a
failure. It is therefore unlikely that, immediately after Cimon's
triumph in obtaining permission to go to Messenia, Ephialtes
was able to attack the Areopagus with success. The probability
is that when the expedition failed, Cimon was ostracized, and
that then Ephialtes defeated the Areopagus, and also made a
change in foreign policy by making alliances with Sparta's
enemies, Argos and Thessaly. This hypothesis alone explains
the absence of any account of a third struggle between Cimon
and Ephialtes over the Areopagus. The chronology would
thus be: ostracism of Cimon, spring, 461; fall of the Areopagus
and reversal of Philo-Laconian policy, summer, 461.

A more difficult question is involved in the date of Cimon's
return from ostracism. The ordinary account says that he was
recalled after the battle of Tanagra (457) to negotiate the Five
Years' Truce (451 or 450). To ignore the unexplained interval
of six or seven years is an uncritical expedient, which, however,
has been adopted by many writers. Some maintaining that
Cimon did return soon after 457, say that the truce which he
arranged was really the four months' truce recorded by Diodorus
(only). To this there are two main objections: (i) if Cimon
returned in 457, why does the evidence of antiquity connect his
return specifically with the truce of 451? and (2) why does he
after 457 disappear for six years and return again to negotiate
the Five Years' Truce and to command the expedition to Cyprus?
It seems much more likely that he returned in 451, at the very
time when Athens returned to his old policy of friendship with
Sparta and war in the East against Persia (i.e. the Cyprus
expedition). Thus it would appear that from 453 onwards there
was a recrudescence of conservative influence, and that for four
years (453-449) Pericles was not master in Athens (see PERICLES) ;
this theory is corroborated by the fact that Pericles, in the
alarm caused by the Egyptian failure of 454, was induced to
remove the Delian treasury to Athens and to abandon his anti-
Spartan policy of land empire.

Cimon died in Cyprus before the walls of Citium (449), and
was buried in Athens. Later Attic orators speak in glowing
terms of a " Peace " between Athens and Persia, which is
sometimes connected with the name of Cimon and sometimes
with that of one Callias. If any such peace was concluded, it
cannot have been soon after the battle of the Eurymedon as
Plutarch assumes. It can have been only after Cimon's death
and the evacuation of Cyprus (i.e. c. 448). It is only in this form
that the view has been maintained logically in modern times.
Apart from the fact that the peace is ignored by Thucydides
and that the earliest reference to it is the passage in Isocrates
(Paneg. 118 and 120), there are weighty reasons which render it
improbable that any formal peace can have been concluded at

that period between Athens and Persia (see further Ed. Meyer's
Forschungen, ii.).

Cimon's services in connexion with the consolidation of the
Empire rank with those of Themistocles and Aristides. He is
described as genial, brave and generous. He threw open his
house and gardens to his fellow-demesmen, and beautified the
city with trees and buildings. But as a statesman he failed to
cope with the new conditions created by the democracy of
Cleisthenes. The one great principle for which he is memorable
is that of the balance of power between Athens and Sparta,
as respectively the naval and military leaders of a united Hellas.
It has been the custom to regard Cimon as a man of little culture
and refinement. It is clear, however, from his desire to adorn
the city, that he was by no means without culture and imagina-
tion. The truth is that, as in politics, so in education and attitude
of mind, he represented the ideals of an age which, in the new
atmosphere of democratic Athens, seemed to savour of rusticity
and lack of education.

The lives of Cimon by Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos are uncritical ;
the conclusions above expressed are derived from a comparison of
Plutarch, Cimon, 17, Pericles, 10; Theopompus, fragm. 92; Ando-
cides, de Pace, 3, 4; Diodorus xi. 86 (the four months' truce).
See histories of Greece (e.g. Grote, ed. 1907, i vol.); also PERICLES;
DELIAN LEAGUE, with works quoted. (J. M. M.)

CIMON OF CLEONAE, an early Greek painter, who is said
to have introduced great improvements in drawing. He repre-
sented " figures out of the straight, and ways of representing
faces looking back, up or down; he also made the joints of the
body clear, emphasized veins, worked out folds and doublings
in garments" (Pliny). All these improvements are such as may
be traced in the drawing of early Greek red-figured vases (see
GREEK ART).

CINCHONA, the generic name of a number of trees which
belong to the natural order Rubiaceae. Botanically the genus
includes trees of varying size, some reaching an altitude of 80 ft.
and upwards, with evergreen leaves and deciduous stipules.
The flowers are arranged in panicles, white or pinkish in colour,
with a pleasant odour, the calyx being 5-toothed superior, and
the corolla tubular, s-lobed and fringed at the margin. The
stamens are 5, almost concealed by the tubular corolla, and the
ovary terminates in a fleshy disk. The fruit is an ovoid or sub-
cylindrical capsule, splitting from the base, and held together
at the apex. The numerous seeds are flat and winged all round.
About 40 species have been distinguished, but of these not more
than about a dozen have been economically utilized. The plants
are natives of the western mountainous regions of South America,
their geographical range extending from 10 N. to 22 S. lat.;
and they flourish generally at an elevation of from 5000 to 8000
ft. above sea-level, although some have been noted growing as
high up as 1 1, ooo ft., and others have been found down to 2600 ft.

The trees are valued solely on account of their bark, which
long has been the source of the most valuable febrifuge or
antipyretic medicine, quinine (q.v.), that has ever been dis-
covered. The earliest well-authenticated instance of the medi-
cinal use of cinchona bark is found in the year 1638, when the
countess of Chinchon (hence the name), the wife of the governor
of Peru, was cured of an attack of fever by its administration.
The medicine was recommended in her case by the corregidor
of Loxa, who was said himself to have practically experienced
its supreme virtues eight years earlier. A knowledge of the bark
was disseminated throughout Europe by members of the Jesuit
brotherhood, whence it also became generally known as Jesuits'
bark. According to another account, this name arose from its
value having been first discovered to a Jesuit missionary who,
when prostrate with fever, was cured by the administration of
the bark by a South American Indian. In each of the above
instances the fever was no doubt malaria.

The procuring of the bark in the dense forests of New Granada,
Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia is a work of great toil and hardship
to the Indian cascarilleros or cascadores engaged in the pursuit.
The trees grow isolated or in small clumps, which have to be
searched out by the experienced cascarillero, who laboriously cuts
his way through the dense forest to the spot where he discovers

CINCINNATI

a tree. Having freed the stem from adhering parasites and
twining plants, he proceeds, by beating and cutting oblong pieces,
to detach the stem bark as far as is within his reach. The tree is
then felled, and the entire bark of stem and branches secured.
The bark of the smaller branches, as it dries, curls up, forming
" quills," the thicker masses from the stems constituting the
" flat " bark of commerce. The drying, packing and transport
of the bark are all operations of a laborious description conducted
under most disadvantageous conditions.

The enormous medicinal consumption of these barks, and
the wasteful and reckless manner of procuring them in America
long ago, caused serious and well-grounded apprehension that
the native forests would quickly become exhausted. The atten-
tion of European communities was early directed to the necessity
of securing steady and permanent supplies by introducing the
more valuable species into localities likely to be favourable to
their cultivation. The first actual attempt to rear plants was
made in Algeria in 1849; but the effort was not successful.
In 1854 the Dutch government seriously undertook the task of
introducing the trees into the island of Java, and an expedition
for that purpose was fitted out on an adequate scale. Several
hundreds of young trees were obtained, of which a small pro-
portion was successfully landed and planted in Java; and as
the result of great attention the cultivation of cinchona planta-
tions in that island became highly prosperous and promising.
The desirability of introducing cinchonas into the East Indies
was urged in a memorial addressed to the East India Company
between 1838 and 1842 by Sir Robert Christison and backed by
Dr Forbes Royle; but no active step was taken till 1852, when,
again on the motion of Dr Royle, some efforts to obtain plants
were made through consular agents. In the end the question
was seriously taken up, and Sir Clements R. Markham was
appointed to head an expedition to obtain young trees from
South America and convey them to India. The transference
of the plants was attended with considerable difficulty, but in
1 86 1 under his superintendence a consignment of plants was
planted in a favourable situation in the Nilgiri Hills. For
several years subsequently additional supplies of plants of
various species were obtained from different regions of South
America, and some were also procured from the Dutch planta-
tions in Java. Now the culture has spread over a wide area
in southern India, in Ceylon, on the slopes of the Himalayas,
and in British Burma, and has become widely spread through
the tropics generally. The species grown are principally Cinchona
qfficinalis, C. Calisaya, C. succirubra, C. pitayensis, and C.
Pahudiana, some agreeing with certain soils and climates better
than others, while the yield of alkaloids and the relative pro-
portions of the different alkaloids differ in each species.

The official " bark " of the British Pharmacopoeia is that of
Cinchona succirubra or red bark. It is imported in the form of
quills or recurved pieces, with a rough brown outer surface
and a deep red inner surface, forming a reddish brown odourless
powder, which has a bitter, astringent taste. The British
Pharmacopoeia directs that the bark, when used to make the
various medicinal preparations, shall contain not less than 5
nor more than 6% of total alkaloids, of which at least one-half
is to be constituted by quinine and cinchonidine. The prepara-
tions of this bark are four: a liquid extract, standardized to
contain 5% of total alkaloids; an acid infusion; a tincture
standardized to contain i % of total alkaloids; and a compound
tincture which must possess one-half the alkaloidal strength of
the last. The only purpose for which these preparations of
cinchona bark should be used is as tonics; and even when
this is the desired action there are many reasons why the alkaloid
should be preferred, even though the recent introduction of
standardization removes one of the chief objections to their use.

The pharmacology of red bark, dependent'as it is almost entirely
upon the contained quinine, will not here be discussed (see QUININE).
But the composition of cinchona bark is a matter of importance
and interest. The bark contains, in the first place, five alkaloids,
of which all but quinine may here be dealt with. Q'uinidine,
CHi4NiOj, is isomeric with quinine, from which it differs in crystal-
lizing in prisms instead of needles, in being dextro- and not laevo-

rotatory, and in being insoluble in ammonia except in much excess.
Cinchonine has the formula CijHnNiO, quinine being methoxy
cinchonine, i.e. CiHji(OCH)NjO. It occurs in inodorous, bitter,
colourless prisms; unlike the two alkaloids already named, does
not yield a green colour with chlorine water and ammonia; is
dextro-rotatory; not fluorescent, and practicaljy insoluble in
ammonia and in ether. A fourth alkaloid, cinchonidine, is isomeric
with cinchonine, which yields it when boiled with amyl alcoholic
potash, but is laevo-rotatory, slightly soluble in ether, and faintly
fluorescent. When red baric is extracted with dilute hydrochloric
acid, the product filtered, and excess of sodium hydrate added
thereto, quinine and quinidine are precipitated: on concentrating
the mother liquor, cinchonine falls down, and on further concen-
tration with addition of still more alkali, cinchonidine is thrown
out. Yellow bark, which is not official, yields 3 % of quinine,
and pale bark about 10 % of total alkaloids, of which hardly
any is quinine, cinchonine and quinidine being its chief constituents.
The various forms of bark also yield a very small quantity of an
unimportant alkaloid, conquinamine. In addition to the above,
red bark contains guinic acid, CjHuOe, which is closely allied
to benzoic acid and is excreted in the urine as hippuric acid.
There also occurs chinovic acid, derived from a glucoside chinovin,
which occurs as such in the bark. Besides a trace of volatile
oil which gives the bark its characteristic odour, and cinchona red
(the bark pigment), there occurs about 2 % of cinchp-tannic acid,
closely allied to tannic acid and giving the bark its astringent
property. Cinchona is never used, however, in order to obtain an
astringent action.

The importance of recognizing the complex and inconstant
composition of cinchona bark lies, as in so many other instances,
in this that the physician who employs it can have only a very
imperfect knowledge of the drug he is using. The latest work on
the action of these alkaloids has shown that cinchonine has a tend-
ency to produce convulsions in certain patients, and that this action
is a still more marked feature of cinchonidine and cinchonamine.
Even small doses administered to epileptics increase the number
of their attacks. They will probably be classified later among the
convulsive poisons. The use of cinchona bark and its preparations,
now that definite active principles can be readily obtained and pre-
cisely studied, is almost entirely to be deprecated. Quinidine is almost
as powerful an antidote to malaria as quinine ; cinchonidine has about
two-thirds the power of quinine, and cinchonine less than one-half.

CINCINNATI, a city and the county-seat of Hamilton county,
Ohio, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, opposite the mouth of the
Licking, about 100 m. S.W. of Columbus, about 305 m. by rail
S.E.of Chicago, and about 760 m. (by rail) W.S.W.of New York.
Through the city flows Mill Creek, which empties into the Ohio.
Pop. (i8go l ) 296,908; (1900) 325,002, of whom 197,896 were of
foreign parentage (i.e. either their fathers or mothers or both
were foreign-born), 57,961 were foreign-born, and 14,482 were
negroes; (1910) 363,591. The German is by far the most
important of the foreign elements. In addition to the large
number of inhabitants of German descent, there were, in 1900,
107,152 of German parentage, and of the foreign-born 38,219
came from Germany.

Cincinnati is situated on the N. side of the river upon two
terraces or plateaus the first about 60 ft., the second from
100 to 150 ft., above low water and upon hills which enclose
these terraces on three sides in the form of an amphitheatre,
rising to a height of about 400 ft. on the E. and of about
460 ft. on the W., and commanding magnificent views of the
river, the valley, the numerous suburbs, and the more distant
wooded hills. About half of the hill-enclosed plain lies S. of
the river, and it is upon this southern half that Covington,
Newport, Dayton, Ludlow and other Kentucky suburbs of
Cincinnati are situated. Cincinnati has a river-frontage of about
14 m., extends back about 6 m. on the W. side in the valley of
Mill Creek, and occupies a total area of about 44 sq. m. Since
1867 it has been connected with Covington by a wire suspension
bridge designed by John A. Roebling, and rebuilt and enlarged
in 1 897. This bridge is 1057 ft. long between towers (or, including
the approaches, 2252 ft. long), with a height of 101 ft. above
low water, and has a double wagon road and two ways for
pedestrians. By two bridges there is direct communication with
Newport; by one, that of the Cincinnati Southern railway, with
Ludlow; and by one (Chesapeake & Ohio; see vol. v., p. 109)

1 Previous census reports of the total population were as follows:
(1810) 2540; (1820) 9642; (1830) 24,831; (1840) 46,338; (1850)
IJ 5.435; (1860) 161,044; (1870) 216,239; (1880) 225,139. In the
territory within a radius of 10 m. of the United States government
building there was in 1900 a population of about 480,000.

CINCINNATI

with West Covington. On the terraces the streets generally
intersect at right angles, but on the hills their directions are
irregular. To the " bottoms " (which have suffered much from
floods l ) between Third Street and the river the manufacturing
and wholesale districts are for the most part confined, although
many of these interests are now on the higher levels or in the
suburbs; the principal retail houses are on the higher levels
N. of Third Street, and the handsomest residences are on the
picturesque hills before mentioned, in those parts of the city,
formerly separate villages, known as Avondale, Mt. Auburn,
Clifton, Price Hill, Walnut Hills and Mt. Lookout. The main
part of the city is connected with these residential districts by
electric street railways, whose routes include four inclined-plane
railways, namely, Mt. Adams (268 ft. elevation), Bellevue (300
ft.), Fairview (210 ft.) and Price Hill (350 ft.), from each of which
an excellent panoramic view of the city and suburbs may be
obtained. There are various suburbs, chiefly residential, in the
Mill Creek valley, among them being Carthage, Hartwell,
Wyoming, Lockland and Glendale. Other populous and attrac-
tive suburbs N. of the Ohio river are Norwood and College
Hill.

Buildings, 6*c. Brick, blue limestone, and a greyish buff
freestone are the most common building materials, and the city
has various buildings of much architectural merit. The chamber
of commerce (completed 1889), designed by H. H. Richardson,
is one of the finest public buildings in the United States. Its
walls are of undressed granite, and it occupies a ground area of
100 by 1 50 ft. The U nited States government building (designed
by A. B. Mullet, and built of Maine and Missouri granite) is a
fine structure in classic style, 360 ft. long and 160 ft. wide, and
4j storeys high; its outer walls are faced with sawn freestone.
It was erected in 1874-1885 and cost (including the land)
$5,250,000. The city hall (332 ft. by 203 ft.), with walls of
red granite and brown sandstone, is a massive and handsome
building erected at a cost of $1,600,000. The county court
house (rebuilt in 1887) is in the Romanesque style, and with
the gaol attached occupies an entire square. The Cincinnati
hospital (completed 1869), comprising eight buildings grouped
about a central court and connected by corridors, occupies a
square of four acres. A new public hospital for the suburbs was
projected in 1907. St Peter's (Roman Catholic) cathedral (begun
1839, consecrated 1844), Grecian in style, is a fine structure,
with a graceful stone spire 224 ft. in height and a chime of 13
bells; it has as an altar-piece Murillo's " St Peter Liberated by
an Angel." The church of St Francis de Sales (in Walnut Hills),
built in 1888, has a bell, cast in Cincinnati, weighing fifteen
tons, and said to be the largest swinging bell in the world.
Several of the Protestant churches, such as the First Presbyterian
(built 1835; steeple, including spire, 285 ft. high), Second
Presbyterian (1872), Central Christian (1869), St Paul's Methodist
Episcopal (1870), and St Paul's Protestant Episcopal pro-
cathedral (1851), are also worthy of mention, and in the residential
suburbs there are many fine churches. Cincinnati is the seat
of a Roman Catholic archbishopric and a Protestant Episcopal
and Methodist Episcopal bishopric. The Masonic temple ( 1 95 f t.
long and 100 ft. wide), in the Byzantine style, is four storeys
high, and has two towers of 140 ft.; the building was completed
in 1860 and has subsequently been remodelled. Among other
prominent buildings are the Oddfellows' temple (completed
1894), the public library, the art museum (1886), a Jewish
synagogue (in Avondale), and the (Jewish) Plum Street temple
(1866), Moorish in architecture. The Soldiers', Sailors' and
Pioneers' building (1907) is a beautiful structure, classic in
design. The business houses are of stone or brick, and many of

I them are attractive architecturally; there are a number of
modern office buildings from 15 to 20 storeys in height. There
are also several large hotels and ten theatres (besides halls and
auditoriums for concerts and public gatherings), the most
notable being Springer music hall.

1 The most destructive floods have been those of 1832, 1847, 1883,
1884 and 1907; the highest stage of the water before 1904 was
71 ft. } in. in 1884, the lowest I ft. 1 1 in. in 1 88 1.

One of the most noted pieces ot monumental art in the United
States is the beautiful Tyler Davidson bronze fountain in
Fountain Square (Fifth Street, between Walnut and Vine
streets), the business centre of the city, by which (or within one
block of which) all car lines run. The fountain was unveiled in
1871 and was presented to the city by Henry Probasco (1820-
1902), a wealthy citizen, who named it in honour of his deceased
brother-in-law and business partner, Mr Tyler Davidson. The
design, by August von Kreling (1810-1876), embraces fifteen
bronze figures, all cast at the royal bronze foundry in Munich,
the chief being a female figure with outstretched arms, from
whose fingers the water falls in a fine spray. This figure reaches
a height of 45 ft. above the ground. The city has, besides,
monuments to the memory of Presidents Harrison and Garfield
(both in Garfield Place, the former an equestrian statue by
Louis T. Rebisso, and the latter by Charles H. Niehaus) ; also,
in Spring Grove cemetery, a monument to the memory of the
Ohio volunteers who lost their lives in the Civil War. The art
museum, in Eden Park, contains paintings by celebrated Euro-
pean and American artists, statuary, engravings, etchings,
metal work, wood carving, textile fabrics, pottery, and an ex-
cellent collection in American ethnology and archaeology. The
Cincinnati Society of Natural History (incorporated 1870) has a
large library and a museum containing a valuable palaeont ological
collection, and bones and implements from the prehistoric
cemetery of the mound-builders, at Madisonville, Ohio.

Parks. In 1908 Cincinnati had parks covering about 540
acres; there are numerous pleasant driveways both within the
city limits and in the suburban districts, and several attractive
resorts are within easy reach. Eden Park, of 214 acres, on Mount
Adams, about i m. E. of the business centre and near the river,
is noted for its natural beauty, greatly supplemented by the
landscape-gardener's skill, and for its commanding views. The
ground was originally the property of Nicholas Longworth (1782-
1863), a wealthy citizen and well-known horticulturist, who
here grew the grapes from which the Catawba wine, introduced
by him in 1828, was made. The park contains the art museum
and the art academy. Its gateway, Elsinore, is a -medieval
reproduction; other prominent features are the reservoirs,
which resemble natural lakes, and a high water tower, from
which there is a delightful view. In Burnet Woods Park, lying
to the N.E. of Eden and containing about 163 acres, are the
buildings and groundsof the University of Cincinnati, and a lake
for boating and skating. The zoological gardens occupy 60
acres and contain a notable collection of animals and birds.
Other pleasure resorts are the Lagoon on the Kentucky side (in
Ludlow, Ky.) , Chester Park, about 6 m. N. of the business centre,
and Coney Island, about 10 m. up the river on the Ohio side.
Washington (5-6 acres), Lincoln (10 acres), Garfield and Hopkins
are small parks in the city. In 1907 an extensive system of
new parks, parkways and boulevards was projected. Spring
Grove cemetery, about 6 m. N.W. of Fountain Square, contains
600 acres picturesquely laid out on the park plan. It contains
many handsome monuments and private mausoleums, and a
beautiful mortuary chapel in the Norman style.

Water-Supply. A new and greatly improved water-supply
system for the city was virtually completed in 1907. This
provides for taking water from the Ohio river at a point on the
Kentucky side opposite the village of California, Ohio, and several
miles above the discharge of the city sewers; for the carrying
of the water by a gravity tunnel under the river to the Ohio side,
the water being thence elevated by four great pumping engines,
each having a daily capacity of 30,000,000 gallons, to settling
basins, being then passed through filters of the American or
mechanical type, and flowing thence by a gravity tunnel more
than 4 m. long to the main pumping station, on the bank of
the river, within the city; and for the pumping of the water
thence, a part directly into the distributing pipes and a part to
the principal storage reservoir in Eden Park.

Education. Cincinnati is an important educational centre.
The University of Cincinnati, originally endowed by Charles
M'Micken (d. 1858) and opened in 1873, occupies a number of

372

CINCINNATI

handsome buildings erected since 1895 on a campus of 43 acres
in Burnet Woods Park, has an astronomical observatory on the
highest point of Mt. Lookout, and is the only strictly municipal
university in the United States. The institution embraces a
college of liberal arts, a college of engineering, a college of law
(united in 1897 with the law school of Cincinnati College, then
the only surviving department of that college, which was founded
as Lancaster Seminary in 1815 and was chartered as Cincinnati
College in 1819), a college of medicine (from 1819 to 1896 the
Medical College of Ohio; the college occupies the site of the old
M'Micken homestead), a college for teachers, a graduate school,
and a technical school (founded in 1886 and transferred to the
university in 1901); while closely affiliated with it are the
Clinical and Pathological School of Cincinnati and the Ohio
College of Dentistry. With the exception of small fees charged
for incidental expenses, the university is free to all students
who are residents of the city; others pay $75 a year for tuition.
It is maintained in part by the city, through public taxation,
and in part by the income from endowment funds given by
Charles M'Micken, Matthew Thorns, David Sinton and others.
The government of the university is entrusted mainly to a
board of nine directors appointed by the mayor. In 1909 it
had a faculty of 144 and 1364 students. Lane Theological
Seminary is situated in Walnut Hills, in the north-eastern part
of the city; it was endowed by Ebenezer Lane and the Kemper
family; was founded in 1829 for the training of Presbyterian
ministers; had for its first president (1832-1852) Lyman
Beecher; and in 1834 was the scene of a bitter contest between
abolitionists in the faculty and among the students, led by
Theodore D wight Weld, and the board of trustees, who forbade
the discussion of slavery in the seminary and so caused about
four-fifths of the students to leave, most of them going to Oberlin
College. The city has also Saint Francis Xavier College (Roman
Catholic, established in 1831 and until 1840 known as the
Athenaeum); Saint Joseph College (Roman Catholic, 1873);
Mount St Mary's of the West Seminary (Roman Catholic, theo-
logical, 1848, at Cedar Point, Ohio); Hebrew Union College
(1875), the leading institution in the United States for educating
rabbis; the largely attended Ohio Mechanics' Institute (founded
1828), a private corporation not conducted for profit, its object
being the education of skilled workmen, the training of industrial
leaders, and the advancement of the mechanic arts (in 1907
there were in all departments 1421 students, a large majority of
whom were in the evening classes); an excellent art academy,
modelled after that of South Kensington; the College of Music
and the Conservatory of Music (mentioned below); the Miami
Medical College (opened in 1852); the Pulte Medical College
(homeopathic; coeducational; opened 1872); the Eclectic
Medical Institute (chartered 1845); two women's medical
colleges, two colleges of dental surgery, a college of pharmacy,
and several business colleges. The public, district, and high
schools of the city are excellent. The City (or public) library
contained in 1906 301,380 vols. and 57,562 pamphlets; the
University library (including medical, law and astronomical
branches), 80,000 vols. (including the Robert Clarke collection,
rich in Americana, and the library about 5000 vols. of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science); the
Young Men's Mercantile library, 70,000 vols.; and the Law
library, 35,000 vols.; in addition, the Lloyd library and
museum of botany and pharmacy, and the library of the His-
torical and Philosophical Society of Ohio (1831), which contains
a valuable collection of rare books, pamphlets and manuscripts,
are worthy of mention.

Art, &c. The large German population makes the city note-
worthy for its music. The first Sangerfest was held in Cincinnati
in 1849, and it met here again in 1870, when a new hall was built
for its accommodation. Under the leadership of Theodore
Thomas (1835-1905), the Cincinnati Musical Festival Association
was incorporated, and the first of its biennial May festivals was
held in 1873. In 1875-1878 was built the large Springer music
hall, named in honour of Reuben R. Springer (1800-1884),
its greatest benefactor, who endowed the Cincinnati College of

Music (incorporated in 1878), of which Thomas was director in
1878-1881. Until his death Thomas was director of the May
festivals also. The grounds for the music hall were given by the
city and are perpetually exempt from taxation. The great organ
in the music hall was dedicated at the third of the May festivals
in 1878. The Sangerfest met in Cincinnati for the third time in
1879, and its jubilee was held here in 1899. By 1880 the May
festival chorus had become a permanent organization. The city
has several other musical societies the Apollo and Orpheus
clubs (1881 and 1893), a Liederkranz (1886), and a United
Singing Society (1896) being among the more prominent; and
there are two schools of music the Conservatory of Music and
the College of Music.

The city has large publishing interests, and various religious
(Methodist Episcopal and Roman Catholic) and fraternal
periodicals, and several technical journals and trade papers are
published here. The principal daily newspapers are the Enquirer,
a Democratic journal, established in 1842 and conducted for
many years after 1852 by Washington McLean (1816-1890),
and then by his son, John Roll McLean (b. 1848); the Commercial
Tribune (Republican; previously the Commercial-Gazette and
still earlier the Commercial, founded in 1793, The Tribune being
merged with it in 1896), the Times-Star (the Times established
in 1836), and the Post, established in 1881 (both evening papers);
and several influential German journals, including the VolksblaU
(Republican; established 1836), and the Volksfreund (Demo-
cratic; established 1850).

Among the social clubs of the city are the Queen City Club,
organized in 1874; the Phoenix Club, organized in 1856 and the
leading Jewish club in the city; the Cuvier Club, organized in
1871 and originally an association of hunters and anglers for the
preservation of game and fish; the Cincinnati Club, the Business
Men's Club, the University Club, the Art Club, and the Literary
Club, of the last of which many prominent men, including
President Hayes, have been members. This club dates from
1849, and is said to be the oldest literary club in the country.
There are various commercial ajid trade organizations, the oldest
and most influential being the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce
and Merchants' Exchange, which dates from 1839.

Administration. The city is governed under the municipal
code enacted by the state legislature in 1902, for the provisions
of which see OHIO.

Among the institutions are the City infirmary (at Hartwell, a
suburb), which, besides supporting pauper inmates, affords relief
to outdoor poor; the Cincinnati hospital, which is supported
by taxation and treats without charge all who are unable to pay;
twenty other hospitals, some of which are charitable institutions;
a United States marine hospital; the Longview hospital for the
insane, at Carthage, 10 m. from the city, and belonging to
Hamilton county, whose population consists largely of the
inhabitants of Cincinnati; an insane asylum for negroes; six
orphan asylums the Cincinnati, two Protestant, two Roman
Catholic, and one for negroes; a home for incurables; a day
nursery; a fresh-air home and farm for poor children; the
Franciscan Brothers' Protectory for boys; a children's home;
two widows' homes; two old men's homes; several homes for
indigent and friendless women; a foundling asylum; the
rescue mission and home for erring women; a social settlement
conducted by the University of Cincinnati; the house of refuge
(1850) for " the reformation and education of homeless and
incorrigible children under 16 years of age "; and a workhouse
for adults convicted of minor offences.

Communications. Cincinnati is a railway centre of great im-
portance and has an extensive commerce both by rail and by
river. It is served by the following railways: the Pittsburg,
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis (Pennsylvania system), the Cleve-
land, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis (New York Central system),
the Chicago, Cincinnati & Louisville, the Cincinnati, New
Orleans & Texas Pacific (the lessee of the Cincinnati Southern
railway, 1 connecting Cincinnati and Chattanooga, Tenn., its line

1 The Cincinnati Southern railway is of especial interest in that it
was built by the city of Cincinnati in its corporate capacity. Much

CINCINNATI

373

forming part of the so-called Queen & Crescent Route to New
Orleans), the Erie, the Baltimore & Ohio South- Western (Balti-
more & Ohio system), the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Norfolk &
Western, the Louisville & Nashville, the Cincinnati, Hamilton &
Dayton, the Cincinnati Northern (New York Central system),
the Cincinnati & Muskingum Valley (Pennsylvania system),
and the Cincinnati, Lebanon & Northern (Pennsylvania system).
Most of these railways use the Union Station; the Pennsylvania
and the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, have separate stations.
The city's river commerce, though of less relative importance
since the advent of railways, is large and brings to its wharves
much bulky freight, such as coal, iron and lumber; it also helps
to distribute the products of the city's factories; and the National
government has done much to sustain this commerce by deepen-
ing and lighting the channel. Formerly there was considerable
commerce with Lake Erie by way of the Miami & Erie Canal to
Toledo; the canal was completed in 1830 and has never been
entirely abandoned.

Industries. Although the second city in population in the
state, Cincinnati ranked first in 1900 as a manufacturing centre,
but lost this pre-eminence to Cleveland in 1005, when the value
of Cincinnati's factory product was $166,059,050, an increase of
17-2% over the figures for 1900. In the manufacture of vehicles,
harness, leather, hardwood lumber, wood-working machinery,
machine tools, printing ink, soap, pig-iron, malt liquors, whisky,
shoes, clothing, cigars and tobacco, furniture, cooperage goods,
iron and steel safes and vaults, and pianos, also in the packing
of meat, especially pork, 1 it ranks very high among the cities
of the Union. The well-known and beautiful Rookwood ware
has been made in Cincinnati since 1880, at the Rookwood Pottery
(on Mt. Adams), founded by Mrs Bellamy (Maria Longworth)
Storer, named from her father's home near the city, the first
American pottery to devote exclusive attention to art ware.
The earlier wares were yellow, brown and red; then came deep
greens and blues, followed by mat glazes and by " vellum "
ware (first exhibited in 1904), a lustreless pottery, resembling
old parchment, with its decoration painted or modelled or both.
The clays used are exclusively American, much being obtained
in Missouri. Among the more important manufactures of the
city in 1905 were the following, with the value of the product for
that year: clothing ($16,972,484), slaughtering and meat-
packing products ($13,446,202), foundry and machine-shop
products ($11,528,768), boots and shoes ($10,596,928), distilled
liquors ($9,609,826), malt liquors ($7,702,693), and carriages
and wagons ($6,323,803). 2

History. Cincinnati was founded by some of the first settlers
in that part of the North- West Territory which afterwards became
the state of Ohio. It lies on part of the land purchased for
himself and others by John Cleves Symmes (1742-1814) from the
United States government in 1788, and the settlement was estab-
lished near the close of the same year by immigrants chiefly
from New Jersey and Kentucky. When the town was laid out
early in 1789, John Filson, one of the founders, named it Losanti-

of the city's trade had always been with the Southern states, and the
urgent need of better facilities for this trade than the river and
existing railway lines afforded led to the building of this road by
the city. The work was carried on under the direction of a board of
five trustees appointed by the superior court of Cincinnati in accord-
ance with the so-called Ferguson Act passed by the Ohio legislature
in 1869, and the railway was completed to Chattanooga in February
1880. For accounts of the building and the management of the
railway, see J. H. Hollander, The Cincinnati Southern Railway;
A Study in Municipal Activity (Baltimore, 1894), one of the Johns
Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science;
and The Founding of the Cincinnati Southern Railway, with an Auto-
biographical Sketch byE.A. Ferguson (Cincinnati, 1905).

1 Before 1863 Cincinnati was the principal centre in the United
States for the slaughtering of hogs and the packing of pork. The
industry began as early as 1820 and rapidly increased in importance,
but after 1863 Chicago took the lead.

* These _ figures are from the U.S. census, and are of course for
Cincinnati proper; some of the largest industrial establishments,
however, are just outside the city limits among these are manu-
factories of soap (the Ivory Soap Works), machine tools, electrical
machinery and appliances, structural and architectural iron work,
and office furnishings.

ville (L for Licking; os, Latin for mouth; anti, Greek for
opposite; and ville, French for town), but early in the next year
Symmes caused the present name to be substituted in honour of
the Order of the Cincinnati, General Arthur St Clair, the governor
of the North- West Territory, being then president of the Pennsyl-
vania State Society of the Cincinnati. St Clair arrived about the
time the change in name was made, immediately erected Hamilton
County, and made Cincinnati its seat of government; the
territorial legislature also held its sessions here from the time of
its first organization in 1799 until 1801, when it removed to
Chillicothe. During the early years the Indians threatened the
life of the settlement, and in 1 789 Fort Washington, a log building
for protection against the Indians, was built in the city; General
Josiah Harmar, in 1790, and General St Clair, in 1791, made
unsuccessful expeditions against them, and the alarm increased
until 1 794, when General Wayne won a decisive victory over the
savages at Maumee Rapids in the battle of Fallen Timbers, after
which he secured their consent to the terms of the treaty of
Greenville (1795)- Cincinnati was incorporated as a village in
1802, received a second charter in 1815, was chartered as a city
in 1819, and received its second city charter in 1827 and its third
in 1832; since 1851 it has been governed nominally by general
laws of the state, although by the state's method of classifying
cities many acts for its government have been in reality special.
When first incorporated its limits were confined to an area of
3 sq. m., but by annexations in 1849 and 1850 this area was
doubled; in 1854 another square mile was added; in 1869 and
1870 large additions were made, which included the villages of
Sedamsville, Price Hill, Walnut Hills, Mount Aub'um, Clinton-
ville, Corryville, Vemon, Mount Harrison, Barrsville, Fairmount,
West Fairmount, St Peters, Lick Run and Clifton Heights; in
1872 Columbia^which was settled a short time before Cincinnati,
was added; in 1873 Cumminsville and Woodbum; in 1895
Avondale, Riverside, Clifton, Linwood and Westwood; in 1903
Bond Hill, Winton Place, Hyde Park and Evanston; in 1904
portions of Mill Creek township, and in 1905 a small tract in
Mill Creek Valley.

In 1829 Mrs Frances Trollope established in Cincinnati, where
she lived for a part of two years, a " Bazar," which as the
principal means of carrying out her plan to benefit the town was
entirely unsuccessful; a vivid but scarcely unbiassed picture of
Cincinnati in the early thirties is to be found in her Domestic
Manners of the Americans (1831). In 1845 began the marked
influx of Germans, which lasted in large degree up to 1860; they
first limited themselves to the district " Over the Rhine " (the
Rhine being the Miami & Erie Canal), in the angle north-east
of the junction of Canal and Sycamore streets, but gradually
spread throughout the city, although this " Over the Rhine " is
still most typically German.

For more than ten years preceding the 'Civil War the city
was much disturbed by slavery dissension the industrial
interests were largely with the South, but abolitionists were
numerous and active, and the city was an important station on
the" Underground Railroad, "of which Dr Norton S. To wnshend
(1815-95) was conductor, and one of the stations was the home
of Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe, jvho lived in Cincinnati from 1832
to 1850, and gathered there much material embodied in Uncle
Tom's Cabin. In 1834 came the Lane Seminary controversies
over slavery previously referred to. In 1835 James G. Bimey
established here his anti-slavery journal, The Philanthropist, but
his printing shops were repeatedly mobbed and his presses
destroyed, and in January of 1836 his bold speech before a mob
gathered at the court-house was the only thing that saved him
from personal violence, as the city authorities had warned him
that they had not sufficient force to protect him.

At the time of the Civil War the city was strongly in sympathy
with the North. In September 1862 the city was threatened
by a Confederate force under General Kirby Smith, who led
the advance of General Bragg's army (see AMERICAN CIVIL WAR).
On the 28th of March 1884 many of the citizens met at Music
Hall to protest against the lax way in which the law was enforced,
notably in the case of a recent murder, when the confessed

374

CINCINNATUS CINEMATOGRAPH

criminal had been found guilty of manslaughter only. An
attack was made on the gaol by the lawless element outside the
hall, but was futile, the murderer having been removed by the
authorities to Columbus. In its efforts to break into the gaol
and court-house the mob was confronted by the militia, and
bloodshed and loss of life resulted; during the rioting the court-
house was fired by the mob and practically destroyed, and many
valuable records were burned. Various important political
conventions have met in Cincinnati, including the national
Democratic convention of 1856, the national Liberal-Republican
convention of 1872, the national Republican convention of 1876,
and the national Democratic convention of 1880, by which,
respectively, James Buchanan, Horace Greeley, R. B. Hayes and
Winfield Scott Hancock were nominated for the presidency.

See C. T. Greve, Centennial History of Cincinnati and Representative
Citizens (Chicago, 1904), the official municipal documents, the
Annual Reports of the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, &c.

CINCINNATUS, 1 LUCIUS QUINCTIUS (b. c. 519 B.C.), one of
the heroes of early Rome, a model of old Roman virtue and
simplicity. A persistent opponent of the plebeians, he resisted
the proposal of Terentilius Arsa (or Harsa) to draw up a code of
written laws applicable equally to patricians and plebeians. He
was in humble circumstances, and lived and worked on his own
small farm. The story that he became impoverished by paying
a fine incurred by his son Caeso is an attempt to explain the needy
position of so distinguished a man. Twice he was called from
the plough to the dictatorship of Rome in 458 and 439. In 458
he defeated the Aequians in a single day, and after entering
Rome in triumph with large spoils returned to his farm. The
story of his success, related five times under five different years,
possibly rests on an historical basis, but the account given in Livy
of the achievements of the Roman army is obviously incredible.

See Livy iii. 26-29; Dion. Halic. x. 23-25; Floras i. II. For a
critical examination of the story see Schwegler, Romische Geschichte,
bk. xxviii. 12; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, Credibility of early Roman
History, ch. xii. 40; W. Ihne, History of Rome, i. ; E. Pais, Storia
di Roma, i. ch. 4 (1898).

CINDERELLA (i.e. little cinder girl), the heroine of an almost
universal fairy-tale. Its essential features are (i) the persecuted
maiden whose youth and beauty bring upon her the jealousy
of her step-mother and sisters, (2) the intervention of a fairy or
other supernatural instrument on her behalf, (3) the prince who
falls in love with and marries her. In the English version, a
translation of Perrault's Cendrillon, the glass slipper which she
drops on the palace stairs is due to a mistranslation of pantoufle
en vair (a. fur slipper) , mistaken for en verre. It has been suggested
that the story originated in a nature-myth, Cinderella being
the dawn, oppressed by the night-clouds (cruel relatives) and
finally rescued by the sun (prince).

See Marian Rolfe Cox, Cinderella; Three Hundred and Forty-five
Variants (1893); A Lang, Perrault's Popular Tales (1888).

CINEAS, a Thessalian, the chief adviser of Pyrrhus, king of
Epirus. He studied oratory in Athens, and was regarded as the
most eloquent man of his age. He tried to dissuade Pyrrhus
from invading Italy, and after the defeat of the Romans at
Heraclea (280 B.C.) was sent to Rome to discuss terms of peace.
These terms, which are said by Appian (De Rebus Samniticis,
10, n) to have included the freedom of the Greeks in Italy
and the restoration to the Bruttians, Apulians and Samnites of
all that had been taken from them, were rejected chiefly through
the vehement and patriotic speech of the aged Appius Claudius
Caecus the censor. The withdrawal of Pyrrhus from Italy was
demanded, and Cineas returned to his master with the report
that Rome was a temple and its senate an assembly of kings.
Two years later Cineas was sent to renew negotiations with
Rome on easier terms. The result was a cessation of hostilities,
and Cineas crossed over to Sicily, to prepare the ground for
Pyrrhus's campaign. Nothing more is heard of him. He is
said to have made an epitome of the Tactica of Aeneas, probably
referred to by Cicero, who speaks of a Cineas as the author of a
treatise De Re Militari.

1 I.e. the " curly-haired."

See Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 11-21; Justin xviii. 2; Eutropius ii. 12;
Cicero, Ad Fam. ix. 25.

CINEMATOGRAPH, or KINEMATOGRAPH (from idvrina., motion,
and yp6.<t>ta>, to depict), an apparatus in which a series of views
representing closely successive phases of a moving object are
exhibited in rapid sequence, giving a picture which, owing to
persistence of vision, appears to the observer to be in continuous
motion. It is a development of the zoetrope or " wheel of life,"
described by W. G. Homer about 1833, which consists of a
hollow cylinder turning on a vertical axis and having its surface
pierced with a number of slots. Round the interior is arranged
a series of pictures representing successive stages of such a subject
as a galloping horse, and when the cylinder is rotated an observer
looking through one of the slots sees the horse apparently in
motion. The pictures were at first drawn by hand, but photo-
graphy was afterwards applied to their production. E. Muy-
bridge about 1877 obtained successive pictures of a running
horse by employing a row of cameras, the shutters of which
were opened and closed electrically by the passage of the horse
in front of them, and in 1883 E. J. Marey of Paris established
a studio for investigating the motion of animals by similar
photographic methods.

The modern cinematograph was rendered possible by the
invention of the celluloid roll film (employed by Marey in 1800),
on which the serial pictures are impressed by instantaneous
photography, a long sensitized film being moved across the focal
plane of a camera and exposed intermittently. In one apparatus
for making the exposures a cam jerks the film across the field
once for each picture, the slack being gathered in on a drum
at a constant rate. In another four lenses are rotated so as to
give four images for each rotation, the film travelling so as to
present a new portion in the field as each lens comes in place.
Sixteen to fifty pictures may be taken per second. The films
are developed on large drums, within which a ruby electric
light may be fixed to enable the process to be watched. A
positive is made from the negative thus obtained, and is passed
through an optical lantern, the images being thus successively
projected through an objective lens upon a distant screen.
For an 'hour's exhibition 50,000 to 165,000 pictures are needed.
To regulate the feed in the lantern a hole is punched in the film
for each picture. These holes must be extremely accurate in
position; when they wear the feed becomes irregular, and the
picture dances or vibrates in an unpleasant manner. Another
method of exhibiting cinematographic effects is to bind the
pictures together in book form by one edge, and then release
them from the other in rapid succession by means of the thumb
or some mechanical device as the book is bent backwards. In
this case the subject is viewed, not by projection, but directly,
either with the unaided eye or through a magnifying glass.

Cinematograph films produced by ordinary photographic
processes, being in black and white only, fail to reproduce the
colouring of the subjects they represent. To some extent this
defect has been remedied by painting them by hand, but this
method is too expensive for general adoption, and moreover
does not yield very satisfactory results. Attempts to adapt
three-colour photography, by using simultaneously three films,
each with a source of light of appropriate colour, and combining
the three images on the screen, have to overcome great difficulties
in regard to maintenance of register, because very minute errors
of adjustment between the pictures on the films are magnified
to an intolerable extent by projection. In a process devised by
G. A. Smith, the results of which were exhibited at the Society
of Arts, London, in December 1908, the number of colour records
was reduced to two. The films were specially treated to increase
their sensitiveness to red. The photographs were taken through
two colour filters alternately interposed in front of the film;
both admitted white and yellow, but one, of red, was in addition
specially concerned with the orange and red of the subject, and
the other, of blue-green, with the green, blue-green, blue and
violet. The camera was arranged to take not less than 16
pictures a second through each filter, or 32 a second in all. The
positive transparency made from the negative thus obtained

CINERARIA CINNA

375

was used in a lantern so arranged that beams of red (composed
of crimson and yellow) and of green (composed of yellow and
blue) issued from the lens alternately, the mechanism presenting
the pictures made with the red filter to the red beam, and those
made with the green filter to the green beam. A supplementary
shutter was provided to introduce violet and blue, to compensate
for the deficiency in those colours caused by the necessity of
cutting them out in the camera owing to the over-sensitiveness
of the film to them, and the result was that the successive pic-
tures, blending on the screen by persistence of vision, gave a
reproduction of the scene photographed in colours which were
sensibly the same as those of the original.

The cinematograph enables "living" or "animated pictures"
of such subjects as an army on the march, or an express train
at full speed, to be presented with marvellous distinctness
and completeness of detail. Machines of this kind have been
devised in enormous numbers and used for purposes of amuse-
ment under names (bioscope, biograph, kinetoscope, mutograph,
&c.) formed chiefly from combinations of Greek and Latin words
for life, movement, change, &c., with suffixes taken from such
words as owirtiv, to see, ypatfrtiv, to depict; they have also
been combined with phonographic apparatus, so that, for
example, the music of a dance and the motions of the dancer
are simultaneously reproduced to ear and eye. But when they
are used in public places of entertainment, owing to the extreme
inflammability of the celluloid film and its employment in close
proximity to a powerful source of light and heat, such as is
required if the pictures are to show brightly on the screen,
precautions must be taken to prevent, as far as possible, the heat
rays from reaching it, and effective means must be provided
to extinguish it should it take fire. The production of films
composed of non-inflammable material has also engaged the
attention of inventors.

See H. V. Hopwood, Living Pictures (London, 1899), containing
a bibliography and a digest of the British patents, which is supple-
mented in the Optician, vol. xviii. p. 85 ; Eugene Trutat, La Photo-
graphie animee (1899), which contains a list of the French patents.
For the camera see also PHOTOGRAPHY: 'Apparatus.

CINERARIA. The garden plants of this name have originated
from a species of Senecio, S. cruentus (nat. ord. Compositae), a
native of the Canary Isles, introduced to the royal gardens at
Kew in 1777. It was known originally as Cineraria cruenla,
but the genus Cineraria is now restricted to a group of South
African species, and the Canary Island species has been trans-
ferred to the large and widespread genus Senecio. Cinerarias can
be raised freely from seeds. For spring flowering in England the
seeds are sown in April or May hi well-drained pots or pans, in
soil of three parts loam to two parts leaf-mould, with one-sixth
sand; cover the seed thinly with fine soil, and press the surface
firm. When the seedlings are large enough to handle, prick them
out in pans or pots of similar soil, and when more advanced pot
them singly in 4-in. pots, using soil a trifle less sandy. They
should be grown in shallow frames facing the north, and, if so
situated that the sun shines upon the plants in the middle of the
day, they must be slightly shaded; give plenty of air, and never
allow them to get dry. When well established with roots, shift
them into 6-in. pots, which should be liberally supplied with
manure water as they get filled with roots. In winter remove
to a pit or house, where a little heat can be supplied whenever
there is a risk of their getting frozen. They should stand on a
moist bottom, but must not be subjected to cold draughts.
When the flowering stems appear, give manure water at every
alternate watering. Seeds sown in March, and grown on in this
way, will be in bloom by Christmas if kept in a temperature of
from 40 to 45 at night, with a little more warmth in the day;
and those sown in April and May will succeed them during the
early spring months, the latter set of plants being subjected to a
temperature of 38 or 40 during the night. If grown much
warmer than this, the Cineraria maggot will make its appearance
in the leaves, tunnelling its way between the upper and lower
surfaces and making whitish irregular markings all over. Such
affected leaves must be picked off and burned. Green fly is a

great pest on young plants, and can only be kept down by
fumigating or vaporizing the houses, and syringing with a solu-
tion of quassia chips, soft soap and tobacco.

CINGOLI (anc. Cingulum), a town of the Marches, Italy, in the
province of Macerata, about 14 m. N.W. direct, and 17 m. by
road, from the town of Macerata. Pop. (1901) 13,357. The
Gothic church of S. Esuperanzio contains interesting works of
art. The town occupies the site of the ancient Cingulum, a
town of Picenum, founded and strongly fortified by Caesar's
lieutenant T. Labienus (probably on the site of an earlier village)
in 63 B.C. at his own expense. Its lofty position (2300 ft.) made
it of some importance in the civil wars, but otherwise little is
heard of it. Under the empire it was a municipium.

CINNA, a Roman patrician family of the gens Cornelia. The
most prominent member was Lucius CORNELIUS CINNA, a
supporter of Marius in his contest with Sulla. After serving in
the war with the Marsi as praetorian legate, he was elected
consul in 87 B.C. Breaking the oath he had swom to Sulla that
he would not attempt any revolution in the state, Cinna allied
himself with Marius, raised an army of Italians, and took posses-
sion of the city. Soon after his triumphant entry and the
massacre of the friends of Sulla, by which he had satisfied his
vengeance, Marius died. L. Valerius Flaccus became Cinna's
colleague, and on the murder of Flaccus, Cn. Papirius Carbo.
In 84, however, China, who was still consul, was forced to advance
against Sulla; but while embarking his troops to meet him in
Thessaly, he was killed in a mutiny. His daughter Cornelia was
the wife of Julius Caesar, the dictator; but his son, L. CORNELIUS
CINNA, praetor in 44 B.C., nevertheless sided with 'the murderers
of Caesar and publicly extolled their action.

The hero of Corneille's tragedy Cinna (1640) was Cn. Cornelius
Cinna, surnamed Magnus (after his maternal grandfather
Pompey), who was magnanimously pardoned by Augustus for
conspiring against him.

CINNA, GAIUS HELVIUS, Roman poet of the later Ciceronian
age. Practically nothing is known of his life except that he was
the friend of Catullus, whom he accompanied to Bithynia in the
suite of the praetor Memmius. The circumstances of his death
have given rise to some discussion. Suetonius, Valerius Maximus,
Appian and Dio Cassius all state that, at Caesar's funeral, a
certain Helvius Cinna was killed by mistake for Cornelius Cinna',
the conspirator. The last three writers mentioned above add
that he was a tribune of the people, while Plutarch, referring to
the affair, gives the further information that the Cinna who
was killed by the mob was a poet. This points to the identity
of Helvius Cinna the tribune with Helvius Cinna the poet.
The chief objection to this view is based upon two lines in the
9th eclogue of Virgil, supposed to have been written 41 or 40 B.C.
Here reference is made to a certain Cinna, a poet of such import-
ance that Virgil deprecates comparison with him; it is argued
that the manner in which this Cinna, who could hardly have been
any one but Helvius Cinna, is spoken of implies that he was
then alive; if so, he could not have been killed in 44. But such
an interpretation of the Virgilian passage is by no means
absolutely necessary; the terms used do not preclude a reference
to a contemporary no longer alive. It has been suggested that
it was really Cornelius, not Helvius Cinna, who was slain at
Caesar's funeral, but this is not borne out by the authorities.
Cinna's chief work was a mythological epic poem called Smyrna,
the subject of which was the incestuous love of Smyrna (or
Myrrha) for. her father Cinyras, treated after the manner of the
Alexandrian poets. It is said to have taken nine years to finish.
A Propempticon Pollionis, a send-off to [Asinius] Pollio, is also
attributed to him. In both these poems, the language of which
was so obscure that they required special commentaries, his
model appears to have been Parthenius of Nicaea.

See A. Weichert, Poetarum Latinorum Vitae (1850); L. Mailer's
edition of Catullus (1870), where the remains of Cinna's poems are
printed; A. Kiessling, " De C. Helvio Cinna Poe'ta " in Commen-
tationes Philologicae in honorem T. Mommsen (1878); O. Ribbeck,
Geschichte der romischen Dichtunt, i. (1887); Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist,
of Roman Lit. (Eng. tr. 213, 2-5) ; Plessis, Poesie latine (1909).

37^

CINNABAR CINNAMUS

CINNABAR (Ger. Zinnober), sometimes written cinnabarite,
a name applied to red mercuric sulphide (HgS), or native
vermilion, the common ore of mercury. The name comes from
the Greek wwdjSapi, used by Theophrastus, and probably
applied to several distinct substances. Cinnabar is generally
found in a massive, granular or earthy form, of bright red colour,
but it occasionally occurs in crystals, with a metallic adamantine
lustre. The crystals belong to the hexagonal system, and are
generally of rhombohedral habit, sometimes twinned. Cinnabar
presents remarkable resemblance to quartz in its symmetry and
optical characters. Like quartz it exhibits circular polarization,
and A. Des Cloizeaux showed that it possessed fifteen times the
rotatory power of quartz (see POLARIZATION or LIGHT) . Cinnabar
has higher refractive power than any other known mineral, its
mean index for sodium light being 3-02, whilst the index for
diamond a substance of remarkable refraction is only 2-42 (see
REFRACTION). The hardness of cinnabar is 3, and its specific
gravity 8-998.

Cinnabar is found in all localities which yield quicksilver,
notably Almaden (Spain), New Almaden (California), Idria
(Austria), Landsberg, near Ober-Moschel in the Palatinate,
Ripa, at the foot of the Apuan Alps (Tuscany), the mountain
Avala (Servia), Huancavelica (Peru), and the province of Kwei-
chow in China, whence very fine crystals have been obtained.
Cinnabar is in course of deposition at the present day from the
hot waters of Sulphur Bank, in California, and Steamboat
Springs, Nevada.

Hepatic cinnabar is an impure variety from Idria in Carniola,
in which the cinnabar is mixed with bituminous and earthy
matter.

Metacinnabarite is a cubic form of mercuric sulphide, this
compound being dimorphous.

For a general description of cinnabar, see G. F. Becker's Geology
of the Quicksilver Deposits of the Pacific Slope, U.S. Geol. Surv.
Monographs, No. xiii. (1888). (F. W. R.*)

CINNAMIC ACID, or PHENYLACRYLIC Aero, CgH 8 Oi or
C 6 H 6 -CH:CH-COOH, an acid found in the form of its benzyl
ester in Peru and Tolu balsams, in storax and in some gum-
benzoins. It can be prepared by the reduction of phenyl propi-
olic acid with zinc and acetic acid, by heating benzal malonic
acid, by the condensation of ethyl acetate with benzaldehyde
in the presence of sodium ethylate or by the so-called " Perkin
reaction "; the latter being the method commonly employed.
In making the acid by this process benzaldehyde, acetic an-
hydride and anhydrous sodium acetate are heated for some
hours to about 180 C., the resulting product is made alkaline
with sodium carbonate, and any excess of benzaldehyde removed
by a current of steam. The residual liquor is filtered and
acidified with hydrochloric acid, when cinnamic acid is precipi-
tated, C 6 H 6 CHO+CH 3 COONa=C,# 6 CH:CH-COONa+H 2 O. It
may be purified by recrystallization from hot water. Consider-
able controversy has taken place as to the course pursued by
this reaction, but the matter has been definitely settled by the
work of R. Fittig and his pupils (Annalen, 1883, 216, pp. 100,
115; 1885, 227, pp. 55, 119), in which it was shown that the
aldehyde forms an addition compound with the sodium salt
of the fatty acid, and that the acetic anhydride plays the part of
a dehydrating agent. Cinnamic acid crystallizes in needles or
prisms, melting at 133 C.; on reduction it gives phenyl propionic
acid, C6H 5 'CH2'CH2'COOH. Nitric acid oxidizes it to benzoic
acid and acetic acid. Potash fusion decomposes it into benzoic
and acetic acids. Being an unsaturated acid it combines directly
with hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, bromine, &c. On
nitration it gives a mixture of ortho and para nitrocinnamic
acids, the former of which is of historical importance, as by
converting it into orthonitrophenyl propiolic acid A. Baeyer was
enabled to carry out the complete synthesis of indigo (q.v.).
Reduction of orthonitrocinnamic acid gives orthoaminocinnamic
acid, CeH4(NH 2 )CH:CH-COOH, which is of theoretical import-
ance, as it readily gives a quinoline derivative. An isomer of
cinnamic acid known as allo-cinnamic acid is also known.
For the oxy-cinnamic acids see COUMARIN.

CINNAMON, the inner bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum, a
small evergreen tree belonging to the natural order Lauraceae,
native to Ceylon. The leaves are large, ovate-oblong in shape,
and the flowers, which are arranged in panicles, have a greenish
colour and a rather disagreeable odour. Cinnamon has been
known from remote antiquity, and it was so highly prized among
ancient nations that it was regarded as a present fit for monarchs
and other great potentates. It is mentioned in Exod. xxx. 23,
where Moses is commanded to use both sweet cinnamon (Kinna-
mon) and cassia, and it is alluded to by Herodotus under the
name Kivviimattov, and by other classical writers. The tree is
grown at Tellicherry, in Java, the West Indies, Brazil and Egypt,
but the produce of none of these places approaches in quality
that grown in Ceylon. Ceylon cinnamon of fine quality is a very
thin smooth bark, with a light-yellowish brown colour, a highly
fragrant odour, and a peculiarly sweet, warm and pleasing
aromatic taste. Its flavour is due to an aromatic oil which it
contains to the extent of from 0-5 to i%. This essential oil,
as an article of commerce, is prepared by roughly pounding the
bark, macerating it in sea-water, and then quickly distilling the
whole. It is of a golden-yellow colour, with the peculiar odour
of cinnamon and a very hot aromatic taste. It consists essenti-
ally of cinnamic aldehyde, and by the absorption of oxygen as
it becomes old it darkens in .colour and develops resinous com-
pounds. Cinnamon is principally employed in cookery as a
condiment and flavouring material, being largely used in the
preparation of some kinds of chocolate and liqueurs. In medicine
it acts like other volatile oils and has a refutation as a cure for
colds. Being a much more costly spice than cassia, that com-
paratively harsh-flavoured substance is frequently substituted
for or added to it. The two barks when whole are easily enough
distinguished, and their microscopical characters are also quite
distinct. When powdered bark is treated with tincture of iodine,
little effect is visible in the case of pure cinnamon of good quality,
but when cassia is present a deep-blue tint is produced, the
intensity of the coloration depending on the proportion of the
cassia.

CINNAMON-STONE, a variety of garnet, belonging to the
lime-alumina type, known also as essonite or hessonite, from
the Gr. jjffo-aw, " inferior," in allusion to its being less hard and
less dense than most other garnet. It has a characteristic red
colour, inclining to orange, much like that of hyacinth or
jacinth. Indeed it was shown many years ago, by Sir A. H.
Church, that many gems, especially engraved stones, commonly
regarded as hyacinth, were really cinnamon-stone. The difference
is readily detected by the specific gravity, that of hessonite being
3-64 to 3-69, whilst that of hyacinth (zircon) is about 4-6.
Hessonite is rather a soft stone, its hardness being about that of
quartz or 7, whilst the hardness of most garnet reaches 7-5.
Cinnamon-stone comes chiefly from Ceylon, where it is found
generally as pebbles, though its occurrence in its native matrix
is not unknown.

CINNAMUS [KINNAMOS], JOHN, Byzantine historian, flourished
in the second half of the 1 2th century. He was imperial secretary
(probably in this case a post connected with the military ad-
ministration) to Manuel I. Comnenus (1143-1180), whom he
accompanied on his campaigns in Europe and Asia Minor. He
appears to have outlived Andronicus I., who died in 1185.
Cinnamus was the author of a history of the period 1118-1176,
which thus continues the Alexiad of Anna Comnena, and em-
braces the reigns of John II. and Manuel I., down to the un-
successful campaign of the latter against the Turks, which ended
with the disastrous battle of Myriokephalon and the rout of
the Byzantine army. Cinnamus was probably an eye-witness
of the events of the last ten years which he describes. The work
breaks off abruptly; originally it no doubt went down to the
death of Manuel, and there are indications that, even in its
present form, it is an abridgment. The text is in a very corrupt
state. The author's hero is Manuel; he is strongly impressed
with the superiority of the East to the West, and is a de-
termined opponent of the pretensions of the papacy. But he
cannot be reproached with undue bias; he writes with the

CINNOLIN CINQUE PORTS

377

straightforwardness of a soldier, and is not ashamed on occasion
to confess his ignorance. The matter is well arranged, the style
(modelled on that of Xenophon) simple, and on the whole free
from the usual florid bombast of the Byzantine writers.

Editio princeps, C. Tollius (1652); in Bonn, Corpus Scriptorum
Hist. Byz., by A. Meineke (18(56), with Du Cange's valuable notes;
Migne, Patrologia Graeca, cxxxiii. ; see also C. Neumann, Griechische
Geschichtsschreiber im 12. Jahrhundert (1888); H. von Kap-Herr,
Die abendldndische Politik Kaiser Manuels (1881) ; C. Krumbacher,
Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897).

CINNOLIN, C 8 HN 2 , a compound isomeric with phthalazine,
prepared by boiling dihydrocinnolin dissolved in benzene with
freshly precipitated mercuric oxide. The solution is filtered
and the hydrochloride of the base precipitated by alcoholic
hydrochloric acid; the free base is obtained as an oil by adding
caustic soda. It may be obtained in white silky needles, melting
at 24-25 C. and containing a molecule of ether of crystallization
by cooling the oil dissolved in ether. The free base melts at
39 C. It is a strong base, forming stable salts with mineral
acids, and is easily soluble in water and in the ordinary organic
solvents. It has a taste resembling that of chloral hydrate,
and leaves a sharp irritation for some time on the tongue; it is
also very poisonous (M. Busch and A. Rast, Berichte, 1897, 30,
p. 521). Cinnolin derivatives are obtained from oxycinnolin
carboxylic acid, which is formed by digesting orthophenyl
propiolic acid diazo chloride with water. Oxycinnolin car-
boxylic acid on heating gives oxycinnolin, melting at 225,
which with phosphorus pentachloride gives chlorcinnolin. This
substance is reduced by iron filings and sulphuric acid to di-
hydrocinnolin.

The relations of these compounds are here shown:

O-phiyl propiolic
acid diazo hydroxide

Oxycinnolin

CINO DA PISTOIA (1270-1336), Italian poet and jurist,
whose full name was GUITTONCINO DE' SINIBALDI, was born in
Pistoia, of a noble family. He studied law at Bologna under
Dinus Muggelanus (Dino de Rossonis: d. 1303) and Franciscus
Accursius, and in 1307 is understood to have been assessor of
civil causes in his native city. In that year, however, Pistoia
was disturbed by the Guelph and Ghibelline feud. The Ghibel-
lines, who had for some time been the stronger party, being
worsted by the Guelphs, Cino, a prominent member of the former
faction, had to quit his office and the city of his birth. Pitecchio,
a stronghold on the frontiers of Lombardy, was yet in the hands
of Filippo Vergiolesi, chief of the Pistoian Ghibellines; Selvaggia,
his daughter, was beloved by Cino (who was probably already
the husband of Margherita degli Unghi); and to Pitecchio did
the lawyer-poet betake himself. It is uncertain how long he
remained at the fortress; it is certain, however, that he v/as not
with the Vergiolesi at the time of Selvaggia's death, which
happened three years afterwards (1310), at the Monte della
Sambuca, in the Apennines, whither the Ghibellines had been
compelled to shift their camp. He visited his mistress's grave
on his way to Rome, after some time spent in travel in France
and elsewhere, and to this visit is owing his finest sonnet. At
Rome Cino held office under Louis of Savoy, sent thither by
the Ghibelline leader Henry of Luxemburg, who was crowned
emperor of the Romans in 1312. In 1313, however, the emperor
died, and the Ghibellines lost their last hope. Cino appears to
have thrown up his party, and to have returned to Pistoia.
Thereafter he devoted himself to law and letters. After filling
several high judicial offices, a doctor of civil law of Bologna in
his forty-fourth year, he lectured and taught from the professor's
chair at the universities of Treviso, Siena, Florence ind Perugia
in succession; his reputation and success were great, his judicial
experience enabling him to travel out of the routine of the schools.
In literature he continued in some sort the tradition of Dante
during the interval dividing that great poet from his successor
Petrarch. The latter, besides celebrating Cino in an obituary

sonnet, has coupled him and his Selvaggia with Dante and
Beatrice in the fourth capitolo of his Trionfi d' Amore.

Cino, the master of Bartolus, and of Joannes Andreae the
celebrated canonist, was long famed as a jurist. His commentary
on the statutes of Pistoia, written within two years, is said to
have great merit; while that on the code (Lectwa Cino Pistoia
super codice, Pavia, 1483; Lyons, 1526) is considered by Savigny
to exhibit more practical intelligence and more originality of
thought than are found in any commentary on Roman law since
the time of Accursius. As a poet he also distinguished himself
greatly. He was the friend and correspondent of Dante's later
years, and possibly of his earlier also, and was certainly, with
Guido Cavalcanti and Durante da Maiano, one of those who
replied to the famous sonnet A ciascun' alma preset e gentU core
of the Vita Nuova. In the treatise De Vulgari Eloquio Dante
refers to him as one of " those who have most sweetly and subtly
written poems in modern Italian," but his works, printed at
Rome in 1 559, do not altogether justify the praise. Strained and
rhetorical as many of his outcries are, however, Cino is not
without moments of true passion and fine natural eloquence.
Of these qualities the sonnet in memory of Selvaggia, lo
fui in sull' alto e in sul beato monte, and the canzone to Dante,
Avegnache di omaggio piit per tempo, are interesting examples.

The text-book for English readers is D. G. Rossetti's Early Italian
Poets, wherein will be found not only a memoir of Cino da Pistoia,
but also some admirably translated specimens of his verse-^-the
whole wrought into significant connexion with that friendship of
Cino's which is perhaps the most interesting fact about him. See
also Ciampi, Vita e poesie di ntesser Cino da Pistoia (Pisa, 1813).

CINQ-MARS, HENRI COIFFIER RUZ& D'EFFIAT, MARQUIS
DE (1620-1642), French courtier, was the second son of Antoine
Coiffier Ruze, marquis d'Effiat, marshal of France (1581-1632),
and was introduced to the court of Louis XIII. by Richelieu,
who had been a friend of his father and who hoped he would
counteract the influence of the queen's favourite Mile, de
Hautefort. Owing to his handsome appearance and agreeable
manners he soon became a favourite of the king, and was made
successively master of the wardrobe and master of the horse.
After distinguishing himself at the siege of Arras in 1640, Cinq-
Mars wished for a high military command, but Richelieu opposed
his pretensions and the favourite talked rashly about over-
throwing the minister. He was probably connected with the
abortive rising of the count of Soissons in 1641 ; however that
may be, in the following year he formed a conspiracy with the
duke of Bouillon and others to overthrow Richelieu. This plot
was under the nominal leadership of the king's brother Gaston
of Orleans. The plans of the conspirators were aided by the
illness of Richelieu and his absence from the king, and at the
siege of Narbonne Cinq-Mars almost induced Louis to agree to
banish his minister. Richelieu, however, recovered, became
acquainted with the attempt of Cinq-Mars to obtain assistance
from Spain, and laid the proofs of his treason before the king,
who ordered his arrest. Cinq-Mars was brought to trial, admitted
his guilt, and was condemned to death. He was executed" at
Lyons on the I2th of September 1642. It is possible that
Cinq-Mars was urged to engage in this conspiracy by his affection
for Louise Marie de Gonzaga (1612-1667), afterwards queen of
Poland, who was a prominent figure at the court of Louis XIII.;
and this tradition forms part of the plot of Alfred de Vigny's
novel Cinq-Mars.

See Le P. Griffet, Histoire de Louis XIII; A. Bazin, Histoire de
Louis XIII (1846); L. D'Astarac de Frontrailles, Relations des
chases particulieres de la cour pendant lafaveur deM.de Cinq-Mars.

CINQUE CENTO (Italian for five hundred; short for 1500), in
architecture, the style which became prevalent in Italy in the
century following 1500, now usually called " 16th-century work."
It was the result of the revival of classic architecture known as
Renaissance, but the change had commenced already a century
earlier, in the works of Ghiberti and Donatello in sculpture,
and of Brunelleschi and Albert! in architecture.

CINQUE PORTS, the name of an ancient jurisdiction in the
south of England, which is still maintained with considerable
modifications and diminished authority. As the name implies,

37*

CINQUE PORTS

the ports originally constituting the body were only five in
number Hastings, Romney, Hythe, Dover and Sandwich ;
but to these were afterwards added the " ancient towns " of
Winchelsea and Rye with the same privileges, and a good many
other places, both corporate and non-corporate, which, with
the title of limb or member, held a subordinate position. To
Hastings were attached the corporate members of Pevensey
and Seaford, and the non-corporate members of Bulvarhythe,
Petit Iham (Yham or Higham), Hydney, Bekesbourn, Northeye
and Grenche or Grange; to Romney, Lydd, and Old Romney,
Dengemarsh, Orwaldstone, and Bromehill or Promehill; to
Dover, Folkestone and Faversham, and Margate, St John's,
Goresend (now Birchington), Birchington Wood (now Wood-
church), St Peter's, Kingsdown and Ringwould; to Sandwich,
Fordwich and Deal, and Walmer, Ramsgate, Reculver, Stonor
(Estanor), Sarre (or Serre) and Brightlingsea (in Essex). To
Rye was attached the corporate member of Tenterden, and to a
Hythe the non-corporate member of West Hythe. The juris-
diction thus extends along the coast from Seaford in Sussex
to Birchington near Margate in Kent; and it also includes a
number of inland districts, at a considerable distance from the
ports with which they are connected. The non-incorporated
members are within the municipal jurisdiction of the ports to
which they are attached; but the corporate members are as
free within their own liberties as the individual ports themselves.

The incorporation of the Cinque Ports had its origin in the
necessity for some means of defence along the southern seaboard
of England, and in the lack of any regular navy. Up to the
reign of Henry VII. they had to furnish the crown with nearly
all the ships and men that were needful for the state; and for
a long time after they were required to give large assistance to
the permanent fleet. The oldest charter now on record is one
belonging to the 6th year of Edward I.; and it refers to previous
documents of the time of Edward the Confessor and William
the Conqueror. In return for their services the ports enjoyed
extensive privileges. From the Conquest or even earlier they
had, besides various lesser rights (i) exemption from tax
and tallage; (2) soc and sac, or full cognizance of all criminal
and civil cases within their liberties; (3) tol and team, or the
right of receiving toll and the right of compelling the person
in whose hands stolen property was found to name the person
from whom he received it; (4) blodwit and fled wit, or the right
to punish shedders of blood and those who were seized in an
attempt to escape from justice; (5) pillory and tumbrel; (6)
infangentheof and [outfangentheof , or power to imprison and
execute felons; (7) mundbryce (the breaking into or violation
of a man's mund or property in order to erect banks or
dikes as a defence against the sea); (8) waives and strays,
or the right to appropriate lost property or cattle not claimed
within a year and a day; (9) the right to seize all flotsam,
jetsam, or ligan, or, in other words, whatever of value was cast
ashore by the sea; (10) the privilege of being a gild with power
to impose taxes for the common weal; and (n) the right of
assembling in portmote or parliament at Shepway or Shepway
Cross, a few miles west of Hythe (but afterwards at Dover),
the parliament being empowered to make by-laws for the
Cinque Ports, to regulate the Yarmouth fishery, to hear appeals
from the local courts, and to give decision in all cases of treason,
sedition, illegal coining or concealment of treasure trove. The
ordinary business of the ports was conducted in two courts
known respectively as the court of brotherhood and the court
of brotherhood and guestling, the former being composed of
the mayors of the seven principal towns and a number of jurats
and freemen from each, and the latter including in addition the
mayors, bailiffs and other representatives of the corporate
members. The court of brotherhood was formerly called the
brotheryeeld, brodall or brodhull; and the name guestling
seems to owe its origin to the fact that the officials of the
" members " were at first in the position of invited guests.

The highest office in connexion with the Cinque Ports is that
of the lord warden, who also acts as governor of Dover Castle,
and has a maritime jurisdiction (vide infra) as admiral of the

ports. His power was formerly of great extent, but he has now
practically no important duty to exercise except that of chairman
of the Dover harbour board. The emoluments of the office are
confined to certain insignificant admiralty droits. The patronage
attached to the office consists of the right to appoint the judge
of the Cinque Ports admiralty court, the registrar of the Cinque
Ports and the marshal of the court; the right of appointing
salvage commissioners at each Cinque Port and the appointment
of a deputy to act as chairman of the Dover harbour board in
the absence of the lord warden. Walmer Castle was for long
the official residence of the lord warden, but has, since the
resignation of Lord Curzon in 1903, ceased to be so used, and
those portions of it which are of historic interest are now open
to the public. George, prince of Wales (lord warden, 1903-1907),
was the first lord warden of royal blood since the office was held
by George, prince of Denmark, consort of Queen Anne.

Admiralty Jurisdiction. The court of admiralty for the
Cinque Ports exercises a co-ordinate but not exclusive admiralty
jurisdiction over persons and things found within the territory
of the Cinque Ports. The limits of its jurisdiction were declared
at an inquisition taken at the court of admiralty, held by the
seaside at Dover in 1682, to extend from Shore Beacon in Essex
to Redcliff, near Seaford, in Sussex; and with regard to salvage,
they comprise all the sea between Seaford in Sussex to a point
five miles off Cape Grisnez on the coast of France, and the coast
of Essex. An older inquisition of 1526 is given by R.G. Marsden
in his Select Pleas of the Court of Admiralty, II. xxx. The court
is an ancient one. The judge sits as the official and commissary
of the lord warden, just as the judge of the high court of admiralty
sat as the official and commissary of the lord high admiral. And,
as the office of lord warden is more ancient than the office of
lord high admiral (The Lord Warden v. King in his office of
Admiralty, 1831, 2 Hagg. Admy. Rep. 438), it is probable that
the Cinque Ports court is the more ancient of the two.

The jurisdiction of the court has been, except in one matter
of mere antiquarian curiosity, unaffected by statute. It exercises
only, therefore, such jurisdiction as the high court of admiralty
exercised, apart from restraining statutes of 1389 and 1391 and
enabling statutes ofi84oandi86i. Cases of collision have been
tried in it (the " Vivid," i Asp. Maritime Law Cases, 601).
But salvage cases (the " Clarisse," Swabey, 129; the " Marie,"
Law. Rep. 7 P.D. 203) are the principal cases now tried. It has
no prize jurisdiction. The one case in which jurisdiction has
been given to it by statute is to enforce forfeitures under the
statute of 1538.

Dr (afterwards the Right Hon. Robert Joseph) Phillimore
succeeded his father as judge of the court from 1855 to 1875,
being succeeded by Mr Arthur Cohen, K.C. As Sir R. Phillimore
was also the last judge of the high court of admiralty, from 1867
(the date of his appointment to the high court) to 1875, the two
offices were, probably for the first time in history, held by the
same person. Dr Phillimore's patent had a grant of the " place
or office of judge official and commissary of the court of admiralty
of the Cinque Ports, and their members and appurtenances,
and to be assistant to my lieutenant of Dover castle in all such
affairs and business concerning the said court of admiralty
wherein yourself and assistance shall be requisite and necessary."
Of old the court sat sometimes at Sandwich, sometimes at other
ports. But the regular place for the sitting of the court has for
a long time been, and still is, the aisle of St James's church,
Dover. For convenience the judge often sits at the royal courts
of justice. The office of marshal in the high court is represented
in this court by a Serjeant, who also bears a silver oar. There
is a registrar, as in the high court. The appeal is to the king in
council, and is heard by the judicial committee of the privy
council. The court can hear appeals from the Cinque Ports
salvage commissioners, such appeals being final (Cinque Ports
Act 1821). Actions may be transferred to it, and appeals made
to it, from the county courts in all cases arising within the
jurisdiction of the Cinque Ports as defined by that act. At the
solemn installation of the lord warden the. judge as the next
principal officer installs him.

CINTRA CIPRIANI

379

The Cinque Ports from the earliest times claimed to be exempt
from the jurisdiction of the admiral of England. Their early
charters do not, like those of Bristol and other seaports, express
this exemption in terms. It seems to have been derived from
the general words of the charters which preserve their liberties
and privileges.

The lord warden's claim to prize was raised in, but not finally
decided by, the high court of admiralty in the " Ooster Ems,"
i C. Rob. 284, 1783.

See S. Jeake, Charters of the Cinque Ports (1728); Boys, Sandwich
and Cinque Ports; Knocker, Grand Court of Shepway (1862); M.
Burrows, Cinque Ports (1895); F. M. Hueffer, Cinque Ports (1900);
Indices of the Great White and Black Books of the Cinque Ports (1905).

CINTRA, a town of central Portugal, in the district of Lisbon,
formerly included in the province of Estramadura; 17 m.
W.N.W. of Lisbon by the Lisbon-Cagem-Cintra railway, and
6 m. N. by E. of Cape da Roca, the westernmost promontory of
the European mainland. Pop. (1900) 5914. Cintra is magnifi-
cently situated on the northern slope of the Serra da Cintra, a
rugged mountain mass, largely overgrown with pines, eucalyptus,
cork and other forest trees, above which the principal summits
rise in a succession of bare and jagged grey peaks; the highest
being Cruz Alta (1772 ft.), marked by an ancient stone cross,
and commanding a wonderful view southward over Lisbon and
the Tagus estuary, and north-westward over the Atlantic and
the plateau of Mafra. Few European towns possess equal
advantages of position and climate; and every educated
Portuguese is familiar with the verses in which the beauty of
Cintra is celebrated by Byron in Childe Harold (1812), and by
Camoens in the national epic Os Lusiadas (1572). One of the
highest points of the Serra is surmounted by the Palacio da Pena,
a fantastic imitation of a medieval fortress, built on the site of a
Hieronymite convent by the prince consort Ferdinand of Saxe-
Coburg (d. 1885); while an adjacent part of the range is occupied
by the Castello des Mouros, an extensive Moorish fortification,
containing a small ruined mosque and a very curious set of
ancient cisterns. The lower slopes of the Serra are covered
. with the gardens and villas of the wealthier inhabitants of
Lisbon, who migrate hither in spring and stay until late
autumn.

In the town itself the most conspicuous building is a I4th-
iSth-century royal palace, partly Moorish, partly debased Gothic
in style, and remarkable for the two immense conical chimneys
which rise like towers in the midst. The 18th-century Palacio
de Seteaes, built in the French style then popular in Portugal,
is said to derive its name (" Seven Ahs ") from a sevenfold echo;
here, on the 22nd of August 1808, was signed the convention of
Cintra, by which the British and Portuguese allowed the French
army to evacuate the kingdom without molestation. Beside the
road which leads for 35 m. W. to the village of Collares, celebrated
for its wine, is the Penha Verde, an interesting country house and
chapel, founded by Joao de Castro (1500-1548), fourth viceroy
of the Indies. De Castro also founded the convent of Santa Cruz,
better known as the Convento de Cortiga or Cork convent, which
stands at the western extremity of the Serra, and owes its name
to the cork panels which formerly lined its walls. Beyond the
Penha Verde, on the Collares road, are the palace and park of
Montserrate. The palace was originally built by William
Beckford, the novelist and traveller (1761-1844), and was
purchased in 1856 by Sir Francis Cook, an Englishman who
afterwards obtained the Portuguese title viscount of Montserrate.
The palace, which contains a valuable library, is built of pure
white stone, in Moorish style; its walls are elaborately sculptured.
The park, with its tropical luxuriance of vegetation and its variety
of lake, forest and mountain scenery, is by far the finest example
of landscape gardening in the Iberian Peninsula, and probably
among the finest in the world. Its high-lying lawns, which
overlook the Atlantic, are as perfect as any in England, and
there is one ravine containing a whole wood of giant tree-ferns
from New Zealand. Other rare plants have been systematically
collected and brought to Montserrate from all parts of the world
by Sir Francis Cook, and afterwards by his successor, Sir

Frederick Cook, the second viscount. The Praia das Macas, or
" beach of apples," in the centre of a rich fruit-bearing valley,
is a favourite sea-bathing station, connected with Cintra by an
extension of the electric tramway which runs through the town.

CIPHER, or CYPHER (from Arab, fifr, void), the symbol o,
nought, or zero; and so a name for symbolic or secret writing
(see CRYPTOGRAPHY), or even for shorthand (q.v.), and also in
elementary education for doing simple sums (" ciphering ").

CIPPUS (Lat. for a " post " or " stake "), in architecture,
a low pedestal, either round or rectangular, set up by the Romans
for various purposes such as military or mile stones, boundary
posts, &c. The inscriptions on some in the British Museum show
that they were occasionally funeral memorials.

CIPRIANI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1727-1785), Italian painter
and engraver, Pistoiese by descent, was born in Florence in 1727.
His first lessons were given him by an Englishman, Ignatius
Heckford or Hugford, and under his second master, Antonio
Domenico Gabbiani, he became a very clever draughtsman.
He was in Rome from 1750 to 1753, where he became acquainted
with Sir William Chambers, the architect, and Joseph Wilton,
the sculptor, whom he accompanied to England in August 1755.
He had already painted two pictures for the abbey of San
Michele in Pelago, Pistoia, which had brought him reputation,
and on his arrival in England he was patronized by Lord Tilney,
the duke of Richmond and other noblemen. His acquaintance
with Sir William Chambers no doubt helped him on, for when
Chambers designed the Albany in London for Lord Holland,
Cipriani painted a ceiling for him. He also painted part of a
ceiling in Buckingham Palace, and a room with poetical subjects
at Standlynch in Wiltshire. Some of his best and most permanent
work was, however, done at Somerset House, built by his friend
Chambers, upon which he lavished infinite pains. He not only
prepared the decorations for the interior of the north block, but,
says Joseph Baretti in his Guide through the Royal Academy
(1780), " the whole of the carvings in the various fronts of
Somerset Place excepting Bacon's bronze figures were carved
from finished drawings made by Cipriani." These designs
include the five masks forming the keystones to the arches on the
courtyard side of the vestibule, and the two above the doors
leading into the wings of the north block, all of which are believed
to have been carved by Nollekens. The grotesque groups
flanking the main doorways on three sides of the quadrangle
and the central doorway on the terrace appear also to have been
designed by Cipriani. The apartments in Sir William Chambers's
stately palace that were assigned to the Royal Academy, into
which it moved in 1780, owed much to Cipriani's graceful, if
mannered, pencil. The central panel of the library ceiling was
painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds, but the four compartments
in the coves, representing Allegory, Fable, Nature and History,
were Cipriani's. These paintings still remain at Somerset House,
together with the emblematic painted ceiling, also his work, of
what was once the library of the Royal Society. It was natural
that Cipriani should thus devote himself to adorning the apart-
ments of the academy, since he was an original member (1768)
of that body, for which he designed the diploma so well engraved
by Bartolozzi. In recognition of his services in this respect the
members presented him in 1769 with a silver cup with a com-
memorative inscription. He was much employed by the pub-
lishers, for whom he made drawings in pen and ink, sometimes
coloured. His friend Bartolozzi engraved most of them. Draw-
ings by him are in both the British Museum and Victoria and
Albert Museum. His best autograph engravings are " The Death
of Cleopatra," after Benvenuto Cellini; "The Descent of the
Holy Ghost," after Gabbiani; and portraits for Hollis's memoirs,
1780. He painted allegorical designs for George III.'s state
coach which is still in use in 1782, and repaired Verrio's
paintings at Windsor and Rubens's ceiling in the Banqueting
House at Whitehall. If his pictures were often weak, his decora-
tive treatment of children was usually exceedingly happy. Some
of his most pleasing work was that which, directly or indirectly,
he executed for the decoration of furniture. He designed many
groups of nymphs and amorini and medallion subjects to form

3 8o

CIRCAR CIRCASSIA

the centre of Pergolesi's bands of ornament, and they were
continually reproduced upon the elegant satin-wood furniture
which was growing popular in his later days and by the end of
the 1 8th century became a rage. Sometimes these designs were
inlaid in marqueterie, but most frequently they were painted
upon the satin-wood by other hands with delightful effect, since
in the whole range of English furniture there is nothing more
enchanting than really good finished satin-wood pieces. There
can be little doubt that some of the beautiful furniture designed
by the Adams was actually painted by Cipriani himself. He also
occasionally designed handles for drawers and doors. Cipriani
died at Hammersmith in 1785 and was buried at Chelsea, where
Bartolozzi erected a monument to his memory. He had married
an English lady, by whom he had two sons.

CIRCAR, an Indian term applied to the component parts of a
subah or province, each of which is administered by a deputy-
governor. In English it is principally employed in the name
of the NORTHERN CIRCARS, used to designate a now obsolete
division of the Madras presidency, which consisted of a narrow
slip of territory lying along the western side of the Bay of Bengal
from 15 40' to 20 17' N. lat. These Northern Circars were
five in number, Chicacole, Rajahmundry, Ellore, Kondapalli
and Guntur, and their total area was about 30,000 sq. m.

The district corresponds in the main to the modern districts
of Kistna, Godavari, Vizagapatam, Ganjam and a part of
Nellore. It was first invaded by the Mahommedans in 1471;
in 1541 they conquered Kondapalli, and nine years later they
extended their conquests over all Guntur and the districts of
Masulipatam. But the invaders appear to have acquired only
an imperfect possession of the country, as it was again wrested
from the Hindu princes of Orissa about the year 1571, during
the reign of Ibrahim, of the Kutb Shahi dynasty of Hyderabad
or Golconda. In 1687 the Circars were added, along with the
empire of Hyderabad, to the extensive empire of Aurangzeb.
Salabat Jang, the son of the nizam ul mulk Asaf Jah, who was
indebted for his elevation to the throne to the French East
India Company, granted them in return for their services the
district of Kondavid or Guntur, and soon afterwards the other
Circars. In 1 7 59, by the conquest of the fortress of Masulipatam,
the dominion of the maritime provinces on both sides, from the
river Gundlakamma to the Chilka lake, was necessarily trans-
ferred from the French to the British. But the latter left them
under the administration of the nizam, with the exception of
the town and fortress of Masulipatam, which were retained by
the English East India Company. In 1765 Lord Olive obtained
from the Mogul emperor Shah Alam a grant of the five Circars.
Hereupon the fort of Kondapalli was seized by the British, and
on the 1 2th of November 1766 a treaty of alliance was signed
with Nizam Ali by which the Company, in return for the grant
of the Circars, undertook to maintain troops for the nizam's
assistance. By a second treaty, signed on the ist of March
1768, the nizam acknowledged the validity of Shah Alam's
grant and resigned the Circars to the Company, receiving as a
mark of friendship an annuity of 50,000. Guntur, as the
personal estate of the nizam's brother Basalat Jang, was ex-
cepted during his lifetime under both treaties. He died in 1782,
but it was not till 1 788 that Guntur came under British admini-
stration. Finally, in 1823, the claims of the nizam over the
Northern Circars were bought outright by the Company, and
they became a British possession.

CIRCASSIA, a name formerly given to the north-western
portion of the Caucasus, including the district between the
mountain range and the Black Sea, and extending to the north
of the central range as far as the river Kuban. Its physical
features are described in the article on the Russian province of
KUBAN, with which it approximately coincides. The present
article is confined to a consideration of the ethnographical
relations and characteristics of the people, their history being
treated under CAUCASIA.

The Cherkesses or Circassians, who gave their name to this
region, of which they were until lately the sole inhabitants, are a
peculiar race, differing from the other tribes of the Caucasus in

origin and language. They designate themselves by the name
of Adigheb, that of Cherkesses being a term of Russian origin.
By their long-continued struggles with the power of Russia,
during a period of nearly forty years, they attracted the attention
of the other nations of Europe in a high degree, and were at the
same time an object of interest to the student of the history cf
civilization, from the strange mixture which their customs
exhibited of chivalrous sentiment with savage customs. For
this reason it may be still worth while to give a brief summary
of their national characteristics and manners, though these
must now be regarded as in great measure things of the past.

In the patriarchal simplicity of their manners, the mental
qualities with which they were endowed, the beauty of form
and regularity of feature by which they were distinguished, they
surpassed most of the other tribes of the Caucasus. At the
same time they were remarkable for their warlike and intrepid
character, their independence, their hospitality to strangers,
and that love of country which they manifested in their deter-
mined resistance to an almost overwhelming power during the
period of a long and desolating war. The government under
which they lived was a peculiar form of the feudal system. The
free Circassians were divided into three distinct ranks, the
princes or pshi, the nobles or uork (Tatar usden), and the peasants
or hokotl. Like the inhabitants of the other regions of the
Caucasus, they were also divided into numerous families, tribes
or clans, some of which were very powerful, and carried on war
against each other with great animosity. The slaves, of whom
a large proportion were prisoners of war, were generally employed
in the cultivation of the soil, or in the domestic service of some
of the principal chiefs.

The will of the people was acknowledged as the supreme
source of authority; and every free Circassian had a right to
express his opinion in those assemblies of his tribe in which the
questions of peace and war, almost the only subjects which
engaged their attention, were brought under deliberation. The
princes and nobles, the leaders of the people in war and their
rulers in peace, were only the administrators of a power which
was delegated to them. As they had no written laws, the
administration of justice was regulated solely by custom and
tradition, and in those tribes professing Mahommedanism by
the precepts of the Koran. The most aged and respected
inhabitants of the various aids or villages frequently sat in
judgment, and their decisions were received without a murmur
by the contending parties. The Circassian princes and nobles
were professedly Mahommedans; but in their religious services
many of the ceremonies of their former heathen and Christian
worship were still preserved. A great part of the people had
remained faithful to the worship of their ancient gods Shible,
the god of thunder, of war and of justice; Tleps, the god of fire;
and Seosseres, the god of water and of winds. Although the
Circassians are said to have possessed minds capable of the
highest cultivation, the arts and sciences, with the exception
of poetry and music, were completely neglected. They possessed
no written language. The wisdom of their sages, the knowledge
they had acquired, and the memory of their warlike deeds were
preserved in verses, which were repeated from mouth to mouth
and descended from father to son.

The education of the young Circassian was confined to riding,
fencing, shooting, hunting, and such exercises as were calculated
to strengthen his frame and prepare him for a life of active
warfare. The only intellectual duty of the atalik or instructor,
with whom the young men lived until they had completed
their education, was that of teaching them to express their
thoughts shortly, quickly and appropriately. One of their
marriage ceremonies was very strange. The young man who
had been approved by the parents, and had paid the stipulated
price in money, horses, oxen, or sheep for his bride, was expected
to come with his friends fully armed, and to carry her off by force
from her father's house. Every free Circassian had unlimited
right over the lives of his wife and children. Although polygamy
was allowed by the laws of the Koran, the custom of the country
forbade it, and the Circassians were generally faithful to the

CIRCE CIRCEIUS MONS

381

marriage bond. The respect for superior age was carried to
such an extent that the young brother used to rise from his seat
when the elder entered an apartment, and was silent when he
spoke. Like all the other inhabitants of the Caucasus, the
Circassians were distinguished for two very opposite qualities
the most generous hospitality and implacable vindictiveness
Hospitality to the stranger was considered one of the most
sacred duties. Whatever were his rank in life, all the members
of the family rose to receive him on his entrance, and conduct
him to the principal seat in the apartment. The host was con-
sidered responsible with his own life for the security of his guest
upon whom, even although his deadliest enemy, he would inflict
no injury while under the protection of his roof. The chief who
had received a stranger was also bound to grant him an escort
of horse to conduct him in safety on his journey, and confide
him to the protection of those nobles with whom he might be on
friendly terms. The law of vengeance was no less binding on
the Circassian. The individual who had slain any member of a
family was pursued with implacable vengeance by the relatives,
until his crime was expiated by death. The murderer might,
indeed, secure his safety by the payment of a certain sum of
money, or by carrying off from the house of his enemy a newly-
born child, bringing it up as his own, and restoring it when its
education was finished. In either case, the family of the slain
individual might discontinue the pursuit of vengeance without
any stain upon its honour. The man closely followed by his
enemy, who, on reaching the dwelling of a woman, had merely
touched her hand, was safe from all other pursuit so long as he
remained under the protection of her roof. The opinions of the
Circassians regarding theft resembled those of the ancient
Spartans. The commission of the crime was not considered so
disgraceful as its discovery; and the punishment of being
compelled publicly to restore the stolen property to its original
possessor, amid the derision of his tribe, was much dreaded by
the Circassian who would glory in a successful theft. The greatest
stain upon the Circassian character was the custom of selling
their children, the Circassian father being always willing to
part with his daughters, many of whom were bought by Turkish
merchants for the harems of Eastern monarchs. But no degrada-
tion was implied in this transaction, and the young women
themselves were generally willing partners in it. Herds of cattle
and sheep constituted the chief riches of the inhabitants. The
princes and nobles, from whom the members of the various tribes
held the land which they cultivated, were the proprietors of the
soil. The Circassians carried on little or no commerce, and the
state of perpetual warfare in which they lived prevented them
from cultivating any of the arts of peace.

CIRCE (Gr. Kip/cry), in Greek legend, a famous sorceress, the
daughter of Helios and the ocean nymph Perse. Having
murdered her husband, the prince of Colchis, she was expelled
by her subjects and placed by her father on the solitary island
of Aeaea on the coast of Italy. She was able by means of drugs
and incantations to change human beings into the forms of
wolves or lions, and with these beings her palace was surrounded.
Here she was found by Odysseus and his companions; the
latter she changed into swine, but the hero, protected by the herb
moly (q.v.) , whichhe had received from Hermes, not only forced her
to restore them to their original shape, but also gained her love.
For a year he relinquished himself to her endearments, and
when he determined to leave, she instructed him how to sail
to the land of shades which lay on the verge of the ocean stream,
in order to learn his fate from the prophet Teiresias. Upon his
return she also gave him directions for avoiding the dangers of
the journey home (Homer, Odyssey, x.-xii.; Hyginus, Fab.
125)- The Roman poets associated her with the most ancient
traditions of Latium, and assigned her a home on the promontory
of Circei (Virgil, Aeneid, vii. 10). The metamorphoses of Scylla
and of Picus, king of the Ausonians, by Circe, are narrated in
Ovid (Metamorphoses, xiv.).

The Myth ofKirke, by R. Brown (1883), in which Circe is explained
as a moon-goddess of Babylonian origin, contains an exhaustive
summary of facts, although many of the author's speculations may

be proved untenable (review by H. Bradley in Academy, January 19,
1884); see also I. E. Harrison, Myths of the Odyssey (1882);
C. Seehgcr in W. H. Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie.

CIRCEIUS MONS (mod. Monte Circeo), an isolated promontory
on the S.W. coast of Italy, about 80 m. S.E. of Rome. It is a
ridge of limestone about 3$ m. long by i m. wide at the base,
running from E. to W. and surrounded by the sea on all sides
except the N. The land to the N. of it is 53 ft. above sea-level,
while the summit of the promontory is 1775 ft. The origin of
the name is uncertain: it has naturally been connected with the
legend of Circe, and Victor BSrard (in Les Phiniciens et I'Odyssee,
ii. 261 seq.) maintains in support of the identification that Maiit,
the Greek name for the island of Circe, is a faithful transliteration
of a Semitic name, meaning " island of the hawk," of which
yijo-os Kipicrjs is the translation. The difficulty has been raised,
especially by geologists, that the promontory ceased to be an
island at a period considerably before the time of Homer; but
Procopius very truly remarked that the promontory has all the
appearance of an island until one is actually upon it. Upon the
E. end of the ridge of the promontory are the remains of an
enceinte, forming roughly a rectangle of about 200 by 100 yds.
of very fine polygonal work, on the outside, the blocks being
very carefully cut and jointed and right angles being intention-
ally avoided. The wall stands almost entirely free, as at Arpinum
polygonal walls in Italy are as a rule embanking walls and
increases considerably in thickness as it descends. The blocks
of the inner face are much less carefully worked both here and at
Arpinum. It seems to have been an acropolis, and contains no
traces of buildings, except for a subterranean cistern, circular,
with a beehive roof of converging blocks. The modern village
of S. Felice Circeo seems to occupy the site of the ancient town,
the citadel of which stood on the mountain top, for its medieval
walls rest upon ancient walls of Cyclopean work of less careful
construction than those of the citadel, and enclosing an area of
200 by 150 yds.

. Circei was founded as a Roman colony at an early date
according to some authorities in the time of Tarquinius Superbus,
but more probably about 390 B.C. The existence of a previous
population, however, is very likely indicated by the revolt of
Circei in the middle of the 4th century B.C., so that it is doubtful
whether the walls described are to be attributed to the Romans
or the earlier Volscian inhabitants. At the end of the republic,
however, or at latest at the beginning of the imperial period,
the city of Circei was no longer at the E. end of the promontory,
but on the E. shores of the Lago di Paola (a lagoon now a
considerable fishery separated from the sea by a line of
sandhills and connected with it by a channel of Roman date:
Strabo speaks of it as a small harbour) one mile N. of the W.
end of the promontory. Here are the remains of a Roman town,
belonging to the ist and 2nd centuries, extending over an area
of some 600 by 500 yards, and consisting of fine buildings along
the lagoons, including a large open piscina or basin, surrounded
by a double portico, while farther inland are several very large
and well-preserved water-reservoirs, supplied by an aqueduct
of which traces may still be seen. An inscription speaks of an
amphitheatre, of which no remains are visible. The transference
of the city did not, however, mean the abandonment of the E.
end of the promontory, on which stand the remains of several
very large villas. An inscription, indeed, cut in the rock near
S. Felice, speaks of this part of the promunturium Veneris (the
only case of the use of this name) as belonging to the city of
Zircei. On the S. and N. sides of the promontory there are
comparatively few buildings, while at the W. end there is a
sheer precipice to the sea. The town only acquired municipal
rights after the Social War, and was a place of little importance,
except as a seaside resort. For its villas Cicero compares it
with Antium, and probably both Tiberius and Domitian possessed
residences there. The beetroot and oysters of Circei had a
certain reputation. The view from the highest summit of the
>romontory (which is occupied by ruins of a platform attributed
with great probability to a temple of Venus or Circe) is of re-
markable beauty; the whole mountain is covered with fragrant

CIRCLE

FIG. i.

FIG. 2.

shrubs. From any point in the Pomptine Marshes or on the
coast-line of Latium the Circeian promontory dominates the
landscape in the most remarkable way.

See T. Ashby, " Monte Circeo," in Melanges de I'ecole franc. aise de
Rome, xxv. (1905) 157 seq. (T. As.)

CIRCLE (from the Lat. circulus, the diminutive of circus, a
ring; the cognate Gr. word is dprns, generally used in the form
Kplun), a plane curve definable as the locus of a point which
moves so that its distance from a fixed point is constant.

The form of a circle is familiar to all; and we proceed to define
certain lines, points, &c., which constantly occur in studying
its geometry. The fixed point in the preceding definition is
termed the " centre " (C in fig. i); the constant distance, e.g.
CG, the " radius." The curve itself is sometimes termed the
" circumference." Any line through the centre and terminated
at both extremities by the curve, e.g. AB, is a "diameter";
any other line similarly terminated, e.g. EF, a " chord." Any
line drawn from an external point to cut the circle in two points,
e.g. DEF, is termed a " secant "; if it touches the circle, e.g.
DG, it is a " tangent." Any portion of the circumference
terminated by two points, e.g. AD (fig. 2), is termed an " arc ";
and the plane figure enclosed by a chord and arc, e.g. ABD, is

termed a "segment";

if the chord be a dia-
meter, the segment
is termed a " semi-
circle." The figure
included by two radii
and an arc is a
"sector," e.g. ECF
(fig. 2). " Concentric
circles " are, as the
name obviously
shows, circles having
the same centre; the
figure enclosed by the
circumferences of two
concentric circles is
an " annulus " (fig. 3),
and of two non-con-
centric circles a " lune, " the shaded portions in fig. 4; the
clear figure is sometimes termed a " lens. "

The circle was undoubtedly known to the early civilizations,
its simplicity specially recommending it as an object for study.
Euclid defines it (Book I. def. 15) as a " plane figure enclosed
by one line, all the straight lines drawn to which from one point
within the figure are equal to one another." In the succeeding
three definitions the centre, diameter and the semicircle are
defined, while the third postulate of the same book demands
the possibility of describing a circle for every " centre " and
" distance." Having employed the circle for the construction
and demonstration of several propositions in Books I. and II.
Euclid devotes his third book entirely to theorems and problems
relating to the circle, and certain lines and angles, which he
defines in introducing the propositions. The fourth book deals
with the circle in its relations to inscribed and circumscribed
triangles, quadrilaterals and regular polygons. Reference
should be made to the article GEOMETRY: Euclidean, for a
detailed summary of the Euclidean treatment, and the elementary
properties of the circle.

Analytical Geometry of the Circle.

In the article GEOMETRY: Analytical, it is shown that the
general equation to a circle in rectangular Cartesian co-ordinates
Cartetl is * t +y*+2gx+2fy+c=o, i.e. in the general equation
co-ord" ^ t ' le secon d degree the co-efficients of & and y 2 are
a*tcM. equal, and of xy zero. The co-ordinates of its centre
are -gfc, -flc; and its radius is (g*+f*-c)*. The
equations to the chord, tangent and normal are readily derived
by the ordinary methods.
, Consider the two circles :

x*+y*+2ex+2fy+e=o, x*+y*+2g'x+2f'y+c'=o.

FIG. 3.

FIG. 4.

THltaeat
co-ordi-
nates.

Obvious|y these equations show that the curves intersect in
four points, two of which lie on the intersection of the line,
2(gg')x+2(ff')y+cc' = o, the radical axis, with the circles, and
the other two where the lines x*+y* = (x+iy) (xiy)=o (where
i= V i) intersect the circles. The first pair of intersections may
be either real or imaginary ; we proceed to discuss the second pair.

The equation x t +y i =o denotes a pair of perpendicular imaginary
lines; it follows, therefore, that circles always intersect in two
imaginary points at infinity along these lines, and since the terms
x 1 +y 1 occur in the equation of every circle, it is seen that all circles
pass through two fixed points at infinity. The introduction of these
lines and points constitutes a striking achievement in geometry,
and from their association with circles they have been named
the " circular lines " and " circular points." Other names for the
circular lines are " circulars " or " isotropic lines." Since the
equation to a circle of zero radius is x*-\-y* = o, i.e. identical with the
circular lines, it follows that this circle consists of a real point and the
two imaginary lines; conversely, the circular lines are both a pair
of lines and a circle. A further deduction from the principle of
continuity follows by considering the intersections of concentric
circles. The equations to such circles may be expressed in the form
x*+y* = a 2 , x 1 -\-y t = fP. These equations show that the circles touch
where they intersect the lines x 1 +y l = o, i.e. concentric circles have
double contact at the circular points, the chord of contact being the
line at infinity.

In various systems of triangular co-ordinates the equations
to circles specially related to the triangle of reference assume
comparatively simple forms; consequently they provide elegant
algebraical demonstrations of properties concerning a triangle
and the circles intimately associated with its geometry. In this
article the equations to the more important circles the circum-
scribed, inscribed, escribed, self -con jugate will be given;
reference should be made to the article TRIANGLE for the con-
sideration of other circles (nine-point, Brocard, Lemoine, &c.);
while in the article GEOMETRY: Analytical, the principles of the
different systems are discussed.

The equation to the circumcircle assumes the simple form
a/3y+bya+caf3 = o, the centre being cos A, cos B, cosC. The inscribed
circle is cos ^AVo+cos JB V/9+cos JC V"x = o, with centre
a = /3=-y; while the escribed circle opposite the angle A
is cos JAV o+sin JBV/3+sin JCy7=o, with centre
o = y. The self-conj ugate circle is a 2 sin 2 A +/S 2 sin 2 B
+7 2 sin 2C = o, or the equivalent form ocosAa* -(-dcosB/S 2 +ccosC-x l = o,
the centre being sec A, sec B, sec C.

The general equation to the circle in trilinear co-ordinates is readily
deduced from the fact that the circle is the only curve which inter-
sects the line infinity in the circular points. Consider the equation
apy+bya.+ca0+(la+m0+nv)(aa+bP+cy') =o (i).

This obviously represents a conic intersecting the circle afiy+bya
+co/3=o in points on the common chords la+mff+ny = o, aa+bff
+cy=o. The line la+mf)-j-ny is the radical axis, and since oa+6/S
-\-cy =o is the line infinity, it is obvious that equation (i) represents
a conic passing through the circular points, i.e. a circle. If we
compare (i) with the general equation of the second degree
Ua?+v/P+wy*+2u'fly+2v ya+2w'aff = o, it is readily seen that for
this equation to represent a circle we must have

kabc =vc 1 +wb 1 2u'bc =wa*+uc 1 2v'ca = ub* -\-va*2w'ab.

The corresponding equations in areal co-ordinates are readily
derived by substituting x/a, y/b, z/c for o, ft, y respectively in
the trilinear equations. The circumcircle is thus seen xrea/
to be a 1 yz+b^zx+c 2 xy = o, with centre sin 2A, sin 28, '_,.

sin 2C ; the inscribed circle is V (* cot JA) + V (y cot JB) ,*
+ V (z cot JC) =o, with centre sin A, sin B, sin C; the
escribed circle opposite the angle A is V ( * cot JA) + V (y tan JB)
+ V (z tan JC) =o, with centre sin A, sin B, sin C; and the self-
conjugate circle is **cot A+y cot B+z 2 cot C =o, with centre tan A,
tan B, tan C. Since in areal co-ordinates the line infinity is repre-
sented by the equation x+y+z=o it is seen that every circle is
of the form d l yz+b t zx+c i xy+(lx+my+nz)(x-{-v-{-z) =o. Compar-
ing this equation with ux 2 +vy*-\-wz*+2u'yz+2v'zx+2io'xy = o, we
obtain as the condition for the general equation of the second degree
to represent a circle :

(v +i-2')/a 2 = (w+u-2v')[b 1 = (u+v-2w')/{?.

In tangential (p, q, r) co-ordinates the inscribed circle has for its
equation(i a)qr+(s b)rp+(s c)p?=o,ibeingequaltoJ(o-r-6+c);
an alternative form is qr cot JA+r cot JB +pq cot JC = o ; TaareaOal
the centre isap+bq+cr = o,or p sinA+g sin B+rsinC =o. go.ordi-
The escribed circle opposite the angle A is sqr+(s c)rp aa t es .
+ (sb)pq=oor greet JA+r tan JB+g tan JC=o,with
centre ap+bq+cr=o. The circumcircle is a-J p+b-<lq+c^r=o,
the centre being p sin 2A+g sin 2B+r sin aC=o. The general
equation to a circle in this system of co-ordinates is deduced as
follows: If p be the radius and lp+mg-\-nr = o the centre, we have
p = (lpi+mqi+nri)/(l+m+n), in which Pi, gi, n is a line distant ?
from the point lp+mq+nr = o. Making this equation homogeneous

CIRCLE

383

by the relation 2a*(p q) (p r)=4A 2 (see GEOMETRY: Analytical,
which is generally written [ap, bg, cr| 2 = 4A s , we obtain
{ap, bg, erjV = 4A 1 |(/p+w?+r)/(/+m+n)| 2 , the accents being
dropped, and p, q, r regarded as current co-ordinates. This equa-
tion, which may be more conveniently written \ap, bg, cr) 2
= (X/>+^g+yr) 2 , obviously represents a circle, the centre being
\p+nq+vr = o, and radius 2A/(\+M+')- If we make\ = |u = K = o,
p is infinite, and we obtain \ap, bg, cr\* = o as the equation to the
circular points.

Systems of Circles.

Centres and Circle of Similitude. The " centres of similitude "
of two circles may be defined as the intersections of the common
tangents to the two circles, the direct common tangents giving
rise to the " external centre," the transverse tangents to the
" internal centre." It may be readily shown that the external
and internal centres are the points where the line joining the
centres of the two circles is divided externally and internally in
the ratio of their radii.

The circle on the line joining the internal and external centres
of similitude as diameter is named the " circle of similitude."
It may be shown to be the locus of the vertex of the triangle
which has for its base the distance between the centres of the
circles and the ratio of the remaining sides equal to the ratio of the
radii of the two circles.

With a system of three circles it is readily seen that there
are six centres of similitude, viz. two for each pair of circles,
and it may be shown that these lie three by three on four lines,
named the " axes of similitude." The collinear centres are the
three sets of one external and two internal centres, and the three
external centres.

Coaxal Circles. A system of circles is coaxal when the locus
of points from which tangents to the circles are equal is a straight
line. Consider the case of two circles, and in the first place
suppose them to intersect in two real points A and B. Then by
Euclid iii. 36 it is seen that the line joining the points A and B is
the locus of the intersection of equal tangents, for if P be any
point on AB and PC and PD the tangents to the circles, then
PA-PB = PC 2 = PD 2 , and therefore PC = PD. Furthermore it is
seen that AB is perpendicular to the line joining the centres,
and divides it in the ratio of the squares of the radii. The line
AB is termed the " radical axis." A system coaxal with the two
given circles is readily constructed by describing circles through
the common points on the radical axis and any third point;
the minimum circle of the system is obviously that which has
the common chord of intersection for diameter, the maximum

is the radical axis considered as
a circle of infinite radius. In the
case of two non-intersecting circles
it may be shown that the radical
axis has the same metrical relations
to the line of centres.

There are several methods of con-
structing the radical axis in this case.
One of the simplest is: Let P and P'
(fig. 5) be the points of contact of
a common tangent; drop perpen-
diculars PL, P ? L', from P and P'

FIG. 5.

to OO', the line joining the centres,
then the radical axis bisects LL' (at X) and is perpendicular to OO'.
To prove this let AB, AB 1 be the tangents from any point on the
line AX. Then by Euc. i. 47, AB 2 = AO 2 -OB 2 = AX 2 +OX J -OP 2 ;
and OX 2 = OD 2 -DX = OP 2 +PD 2 -DX 2 . Therefore AB S = AX 2
-DX 2 -f-PD 2 . Similarly AB' 2 = AX 2 -DX 2 +DP' 2 . Since PD = PD',
it follows that AB=AB'.

To construct circles coaxal with the two given circles, draw the
tangent, say XR, from X, the point where the radical axis intersects
the line of centres, to one of the given circles, and with centre X and
radius XR describe a circle. Then circles having the intersections of
tangents to this circle and the line of centres for centres, and the
lengths of the tangents as radii, are members of the coaxal system.

In the case of non-intersecting circles, it is seen that the
minimum circles of the coaxal system are a pair of points I and I',
where the orthogonal circle to the system intersects the line of
centres; these points are named the " limiting points." In the
case of a coaxal system having real points of intersection the
limiting points are imaginary. Analytically, the Cartesian

equation to a coaxal system can be written in the form
* 2 +y 2 +2ax 2 = o, where a varies from member to member,
while k is a constant. The radical axis is x=o, and it may be
shown that the length of the tangent from a point (o, h) is
K*k*, i.e. it is independent of a, and therefore of any particular
member of the system. The circles intersect in real or imaginary
points according to the lower or upper sign of K 1 , and the limiting
points are real for the upper sign and imaginary for the lower sign.
The fundamental properties of coaxal systems may be
summarized:

1. The centres of circles forming a coaxal system are collinear;

2. A coaxal system having real points of intersection has imagin-

ary limiting points;

3. A coaxal system having imaginary points of intersection has

real limiting points;

4. Every circle through the limiting points cuts all circles of the

system orthogonally ;

5. The limiting points are inverse points for every circle of the

system.

The theory of centres of similitude and coaxal circles affords
elegant demonstrations of the famous problem: To describe a
circle to touch three given circles. This problem, also termed
the " Apollonian problem," was demonstrated with the aid of
conic sections by Apollonius in his book on Contacts or Tangencies;
geometrical solutions involving the conic sections were also given
by Adrianus Romanus, Vieta, Newton and others. The earliest
analytical solution appears to have been given by the princess
Elizabeth, a pupil of Descartes and daughter of Frederick V.
John Casey, professor of mathematics at the Catholic university
of Dublin, has given elementary demonstrations founded on
the theory of similitude and coaxal circles which are' reproduced
in his Sequel to Euclid; an analytical solution by Gergonne is
given in Salmon's Conic Sections. Here we may notice that
there are eight circles which solve the problem.

Mensuration of the Circle.

All exact relations pertaining to the mensuration of the circle
involve the ratio of the circumference to the diameter. This
ratio, invariably denoted by ir, is constant for all circles, but
it does not admit of exact arithmetical expression, being of the
nature of an incommensurable number. Very early in the history
of geometry it was known that the circumference and area of a
circle of radius r could be expressed in the forms 27rr and wr 2 .
The exact geometrical evaluation of the second quantity, viz.
7TT 2 , which, in reality, is equivalent to] determining a square
equal in area to a circle, engaged the attention of mathematicians
for many centuries. The history of these attempts, together
with modern contributions to our knowledge of the value and
nature of the number TT, is given below (Squaring of the Circle).

The following table gives the values of this constant and several
expiessions involving it:

Number.

Logarithm.

Number.

Logarithm.

3-1415927

0-4971499

9-8696044

0-9942997

2ir

6-2831853

0-7981799

4<r

12-56t>3708

1-0992099

0-0168869

2-2275490

1-5707963

0-1961199

6w2

1-0471976
0-7853982

0-020286
1-8950899

1-7724539

0-2485750

IT
IT

0-5235988
0-3926991

1-7189986
1-5940599

1-4645919

0-1657166

0-2617994
4-1887902

1-4179686
0-6220886

V T

0-5641896

1-7514251

0-0174533

J -2418774

1-1283792

0-0524551

0-3183099

1-5028501

0-2820948

1-4503951

1-2732395

0-1049101

-3-

1-2407010

0-0936671

4ir

0-0795775

5-9087901

0-6203505

1-7926371

180

57-2957795

1-7581226

logir

1-1447299

0-0587030

Useful fractional approximations are 22/7 and 355/113.

A synopsis of the leading formula connected with the circle will
now be given.

1. Circle. Data: radius = a. Circumference = 2ra. Area=a 2 .

2. Arc and Sector. Data: radius = a; 9=circular measure of
angle subtended at centre by arc; c=chord of arc; c = chord of
semi-arc; c 4 = chord of quarter-arc.

CIRCLE

Exact formulae arc: Arc = o0, where 9 may be given directly,
or indirectly by the relation c = 2a sin \6. Area of sector = Ja*0

Approximate formulae are: Arc = J(8c 2 -c) (Huygen's formula);

arc = 1 l ! (<:-40<:i+25<*)- f

3. Segment. Data : a, 6, c, c t , as in (2); h = height of segment,
i.e. distance of mid-point of arc from chord.

Exact formulae are: Area = Ja*(0- sin 6)=^a t e-\c > cot J9
= Ja' JcV(a* ic 1 ). If A be given, we can use c l +4h* = 8ah, zA
c tan J9 to determine 8.

Approximate formulae are : Area = A (6c+8c 2 )fc ; = f V (c 1

, A(7c-f 30)*, o being the true length of the
From the

.nese results the mensuration of any figure bounded by
circufar arcs and straight lines can be determined, e.g. the area
of a tune or meniscus is expressible as the difference or sum of two
segments, and the circumference as the sum of two arcs. (C. E.*)

Squaring of the Circle.

The problem of finding a square equal in area to a given circle,
like all problems, may be increased in difficulty by the imposition
of restrictions; consequently under the designation there may
be embraced quite a variety of geometrical problems. It has
to be noted, however, that, when the " squaring " of the circle
is especially spoken of, it is almost always tacitly assumed that
the restrictions are those of the Euclidean geometry.

Since the area of a circle equals that of the rectilineal triangle
whose base has the same length as the circumference and whose
altitude equals the radius (Archimedes, Kii/cXou /wrpjjcrts, prop.i),
it follows that, if a straight line could be drawn equal in length
to the circumference, the required square could be found by
an ordinary Euclidean construction; also, it is evident that,
conversely, if a square equal in area to the circle could be obtained
it would be possible to draw a straight line equal to the circumfer-
ence. Rectification and quadrature of the circle have thus been,
since the time of Archimedes at least, practically identical
problems. Again, since the circumferences of circles are pro-
portional to their diameters a proposition assumed to be true
from the dawn almost of practical geometry the rectification
of the circle is seen to be transformable into finding the ratio of
the circumference to the diameter. This correlative numerical
problem and the two purely geometrical problems are inseparably
connected historically.

Probably the earliest value for the ratio was 3. It was so
among the Jews (i Kings vii. 23, 26), the Babylonians (Oppert,
Journ. asiatique, August 1872, October 1874), the Chinese (Biot,
Journ. asiatique, June 1841), and probably also the Greeks.
Among the ancient Egyptians, as would appear from a calculation
in the Rhind papyrus, the number (|) 4 , i.e. 3-1605, was at one
time in use. 1 The first attempts to solve the purely geometrical
problem appear to have been made by the Greeks (Anaxagoras,
&c.) 2 , one of whom, Hippocrates, doubtless raised hopes of a
solution by his quadrature of the so-called meniscoi or lune?

[The Greeks were in possession of several relations pertaining
to the quadrature of the lune. The following are among the more
interesting. In fig. 6, ABC is an isosceles triangle right
O

FIG. 7

angled at C, ADB is the semicircle described on AB as diameter,
AEB the circular arc described with centre C and radius
CA = CB. It is easily shown that the areas of the lune ADBEA
and the- triangle ABC are equal. In fig. 7, ABC is any triangle

1 Eisenlohr, Bin math. Handbuch d. alien Agypter, libers, u.
erklart (Leipzig, 1877); Rodet, Butt, de la Soc. Math, de France, vi.
pp. 139-149.

2 H. Hankel, Zur Gesch. d. Math, im Alterthum, &c., chap, v
(Leipzig, 1874); M. Cantor, Vorlesungen uber Gesch. d. Math. i.
(Leipzig/i 880); Tannery, M im. delaSoc ., 6fc., aBordeaux; Allman,
in Hermathena.

'Tannery, Bull, des sc. math. [2], x. pp. 213-226.

right angled at C, semicircles are described on the three sides,
thus forming two lunes AFCDA and CGBEC. The sum of the
areas of these lunes equals the area of the triangle ABC.]

As for Euclid, it is sufficient to recall the facts that the original
author of prop. 8 of book iv. had strict proof of the ratio being
<4, and the author of prop. 15 of the ratio being >3, and to
direct attention to the importance of book x. on incommensur-
ables and props. 2 and 16 of book xii., viz. that " circles are to
one another as the squares on their diameters " and that " in
the greater of two concentric circles a regular 2n-gon can be
inscribed which shall not meet the circumference of the less,"
however nearly equal the circles may be.

With Archimedes (287-212 B.C.) a notable advance was made.
Taking the circumference as intermediate between the perimeters
of the inscribed and the circumscribed regular w-gons, he showed
that, the radius of the circle being given and the perimeter of
some particular circumscribed regular polygon obtainable, the
perimeter of the circumscribed regular polygon of double the
number of sides could be calculated; that the like was true of
the inscribed polygons; and that consequently a means was
thus afforded of approximating to the
circumference of the circle. As a
matter of fact, he started with a semi-
side AB of a circumscribed regular
hexagon meeting the circle in B (see
fig. 8), joined A and B with O the
centre, bisected the angle AOB by
OD, so that BD became the semi-side of a circumscribed regular
i2-gon; then as AB:BO:OA::i: -^3:2 he sought an ap-
proximation to V3 and found that AB: BO > 153 1265. Next
he applied his theorem 4 BO+OA:AB: :OB:BD to calculate
BD; from this in turn he calculated the semi-sides of the
circumscribed regular 24-gon, 48-gon and 96-gon, and so finally
established for the circumscribed regular 96-gon that perimeter
: diameter <3^:i. In a quite analogous manner he proved for
the inscribed regular 96-gon that perimeter :diameter>3^:i.
The conclusion from these therefore was that the ratio of cir-
cumference to diameter is< 3^- and > 3-^-. This is a most notable
piece of work; the immature condition of arithmetic at the time
was the only real obstacle preventing the evaluation of the ratio
to any degree of accuracy whatever. 6

No advance of any importance was made upon the achieve-
ment of Archimedes until after the revival of learning. His
immediate successors may have used his method to attain a
greater degree of accuracy, but there is very little evidence
pointing in this direction. Ptolemy (fl. 127-151), in the Great
Syntaxis, gives 3-141552 as the ratio'; and the Hindus
(c. A.D. 500), who were very probably indebted to the Greeks,
used 62832/20000, that is, the now familiar 3-i4i6. T

It was not until the isth century that attention in Europe
began to be once more directed to the subject, and after the
resuscitation a considerable length of time elapsed before any
progress was made. The first advance in accuracy was due to a
certain Adrian, son of Anthony, a native 'of Metz (1527), and
father of the better-known Adrian Metius of Alkmaar. In
refutation of Duchesne(Van der Eycke), he showed that the ratio
was <3iVff and >3T L fo, and thence made the exceedingly lucky
step of taking a mean between the two by the quite unjustifiable
process of halving the sum of the two numerators for a new
numerator and halving the sum of the two denominators for
a new denominator, thus arriving at the now well-known ap-
proximation 3!^ or fff, which, being equal to 3-1415929. . .,
is correct to the sixth fractional place. 8

4 In modern trigonometrical notation, i+sec0:tan0 :: i : tan {9.

' Tannery, " Sur la mesure du cercle d'Archimede," in Mtm

Bordeaux [2], iv. pp. 313-339; Menge, Des Archimedes Kreismessung
(Coblenz, 1874).

1 De Morgan, in Penny Cyclop, xix. p. 186.

7 Kern, Aryabhatttyam (Leiden, 1874), trans, by Rodet (Paris,
1879).

8 De Morgan, art. " Quadrature of the Circle,"in English Cyclop. ;
Glaisher, Mess, of Math. ii. pp. 119-128, iii. pp. 27-46; de Haan,
Nieuw Archiefv. Wish. i. pp. 70-86, 206-211.

CIRCLE

385

The next to advance the calculation was Francisco Vieta.
By finding the perimeter of the inscribed and that of the circum-
scribed regular polygon of 393216 (i.e. 6X2") sides, he proved
that the ratio was >3'i4i59 2 535 and <3'i4i5926s37, so that
its value became known (in 1579) correctly to 10 fractional places.
The theorem for angle-bisection which Vieta used was not that
of Archimedes, but that which would now appear in the form
i - cos 6 = 2 sin 2 \6. With Vieta, by reason of the advance in
arithmetic, the style of treatment becomes more strictly trigono-
metrical; indeed, the Universales Inspectiones, in which the
calculation occurs, would now be called plane and spherical
trigonometry, and the accompanying Canon mathemalicus a
table of sines, tangents and secants. 1 Further, in comparing
the labours of Archimedes and Vieta, the effect of increased
power of symbolical expression is very noticeable. Archimedes's
process of unending cycles of arithmetical operations could at
best have been expressed in his time by a "rule" in words; in
the i6th century it could be condensed into a " formula."
Accordingly, we find in Vieta a formula for the ratio of diameter
to circumference, viz. the interminate product 2

From this point onwards, therefore, no knowledge whatever
of geometry was necessary in any one who aspired to determine
the ratio to any required degree of accuracy; the problem
being reduced to an arithmetical computation. Thus in connexion
with the subject a genus of workers became possible who may
be styled " ir-computers or circle-squarers " a name which, if
it connotes anything uncomplimentary, does so because of the
almost entirely fruitless character of their labours. Passing over
Adriaan van Roomen (Adrianus Romanus) of Louvain, who
published the value of the ratio correct to 15 places in his Idea
mathematica (1593),' we come to the notable computer Ludolph
van Ceulen (d. 1610), a native of Germany, long resident in
Holland. His book, Van den Circkel (Delft, 1596), gave the ratio
correct to 20 places, but he continued his calculations as long
as he lived, and his best result was published on his tombstone
in St Peter's church, Leiden. The inscription, which is not
known to be now in existence, 4 is in part as follows:
.... Qui in vita sua multo labore circumferentiae circuli proxi-
mam rationem ad diametrum invenit sequentem

quando diameter est I
turn circuli circumferentia plus est
auam 314159265358979323846264338327950288

IOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

et minus

auam 3 ' 4 ' 59265358979323846264338327950289

IOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO . . .

This gives the ratio correct to 3 5 places. Van Ceulen 's process
was essentially identical with that of Vieta. Its numerous root
extractions amply justify a stronger expression than " multo
labore," especially in an epitaph. In Germany the "Ludolphische
Zahl " (Ludolph's number) is still a common name for the ratio. 6
Up to this point the credit of most that had been done may be
set down to Archimedes. A new departure, however, was made

by Willebrord Snell of Leiden
in his Cyclometria, published
in 1621. His achievement
was a closely approximate
D geometrical solution of the
problem of rectification (see
fig. 9) : ACB being a semicircle

whose centre is O, and AC the arc to be rectified, he pro-
duced AB to D, making BD equal to the radius, joined DC,

'Vieta, Opera math. (Leiden, 1646); Marie, Hist, des sciences
math. iii. 27 seq. (Paris, 1884).

>' Kliigel, Math. Worterb. ii. 606, 607.
1 Kastner, Gesch. d. Math. i. (Gottingen, 1796-1800).
4 But see Les Delices de Leide (Leiden, 1712); or de Haan, Mess,
of Math. iii. 24-26.

' For minute and lengthy details regarding the quadrature of the
circle in the Low Countries, see de Haan, " Bouwstoffen voor de
geschiedenis, &c.," in Versl. en Mededeel. der K. Akad. van Wetensch.
ix., x.,xi.,xii. (Amsterdam); also his "Notice sur quelques quad-
rateurs, &c.," in Bull, di bibliogr. e di storia delle sci. mat. e fis. vii.
--144.

and produced it to meet the tangent at A in E ; and then his
assertion (not established by him) was that AE was nearly equal
to the arc AC, the error being in defect. For the purposes of
the calculator a solution erring in excess was also required, and
this Snell gave by slightly varying the former construction.
Instead of producing AB
(see fig. 10) so that BD was
equal to r, he produced it
only so far that, when the
extremity D' was joined with

FIG. 10.

C, the part D'F outside the
circle was equal to r; in
other words, by a non-Euclidean construction he trisected the
angle AOC, for it is readily seen that, since FD' = FO=OC, the
angle FOB = JAOC. This couplet of constructions is as im-
portant from the calculator's point of view as it is interesting
geometrically. To compare it on this score with the fundamental
proposition of Archimedes, the latter must be put into a form
similar to Snell's. AMC being an arc of a circle (see fig. n)
whose centre is 0, AC its chord, and HK the tangent drawn at
the middle point of the arc and bounded by OA, OC produced,
then, according to Archimedes, AMC<HK, but >AC. In
modern trigonometrical notation the propositions to be compared
stand as follows:

2 tan J0>0>2 sin }0 (Archimedes) ;
tan 19+2 sin i9>g>,3 + s ^ (Snell).

It is readily shown that the latter gives the best approxima-
tion to ; but, while the former requires for its application a
knowledge of the trigonometrical ratios of only one angle (in
other words, the ratios of the sides of only one right-angled
triangle), the latter requires the same for two angles, and \9.

FIG. ii.

FIG. 12.

Grienberger, using Snell's method, calculated the ratio correct
to 39 fractional places. 7 C. Huygens, in his De Circuli Magni-
tudine Iniienta, 1654, proved the propositions of Snell, giving
at the same time a number of other interesting theorems, for
example, two inequalities which may be written as follows *

chd

" sin 9) >g>chd 0+Kchd 0-sin 0).

As might be expected, a fresh view of the matter was taken
by Rene Descartes. The problem he set himself was the exact
converse of that of Archimedes. A given straight line being
viewed as equal in length to the circumference of a circle, he
sought to find the diameter of the circle. His construction is
as follows (see fig. 1 2). Take AB equal to one-fourth of the given
line; on AB describe a square ABCD; join AC; in AC produced
find, by a known process, a point Q such that, when CiBj is
drawn perpendicular to AB produced and CiDi perpendicular
to BC produced, the rectangle BQ will be equal to JABCD; by
the same process find a point Cz such that the rectangle BiCj will
be equal to iBCr, and so on ad infinitum. The diameter sought
is the straight line from A to the limiting position of the series of
B's, say the straight line AB oo . As in the case of the process of

* It is thus manifest that by his first construction Snell gave an
approximate solution of two great problems of antiquity.

7 Elementa trigonometrica (Rome, 1630); Glaisher, Messenger of
Math. iii. 35 seq.

8 See Kiessling's edition of the De Circ. Magn. Inv. (Flensburg,
1869) ; or Pirie's tract on Geometrical Methods of Approx. to the Value
ofr (London, 1877).

VI. 1.3

3 86

CIRCLE

Archimedes, we may direct our attention either to the infinite
series of geometrical operations or to the corresponding infinite
series of arithmetical operations. Denoting the number of units
in AB by \c, we can express BB,, 8,82, ... in terms of \c, and
the identity AB, =AB+BB 1 +B 1 B 2 -|- . . . gives us at once
an expression for the diameter in terms of the circumference by
means of an infinite series. 1 The proof of the correctness of the
construction is seen to be involved in the following theorem,
which serves likewise to throw new light on the subject : AB
being any straight line whatever, and the above construction
being made, then AB is the diameter of the circle circumscribed
by the square ABCD (self-evident), ABi is the diameter of the
circle circumscribed by the regular 8-gon having the same
perimeter as the square, AB 2 is the diameter of the circle circum-
scribed by the regular i6-gon having the same perimeter as the
square, and so on. Essentially, therefore, Descartes's process
is that known later as the process of iso perimeters, and often
attributed wholly to Schwab. 2

In 1655 appeared the Arithmetica Infinitorum of John Wallis,
where numerous problems of quadrature are dealt with, the
curves being now represented in Cartesian co-ordinates, and
algebra playing an important part. In a very curious manner,
by viewing the circle y=(i * 2 )* as a member of the series of
curves y= (i a?) 1 , y = (i * 2 ) 2 , &c., he was led to the proposition
that four times the reciprocal of the ratio of the circumference
to the diameter, i.e. 4/w, is equal to the infinite product

3- 3- 5- 5- 7.7-Q-.
2.4.4.6.6.8.8...'

and, the result having been communicated to Lord Brouncker,
the latter discovered the equally curious equivalent continued
fraction

j2 ,Z rJ 7 2

t _i i ji i L.

^2+2+2+2

The work of Wallis had evidently an important influence
on the next notable personality in the history of the subject,
James Gregory, who lived during the period when the higher
algebraic analysis was coming into power, and whose genius
helped materially to develop it. He had, however, in a certain
sense one eye fixed on the past and the other towards the
future. His first contribution 3 was a variation of the method
of Archimedes. The latter, as we know, calculated the perimeters
of successive polygons, passing from one polygon to another of
double the number of sides; in a similar manner Gregory
calculated the areas. The general theorems which enabled him
to do this, after a start had been made, are

A 2n = VA n A' n (SnelPs Cyclom.),

A n -J-A2n An I -A2n

where A n , A' n are the areas of the inscribed and the circum-
scribed regular n-gons respectively. He also gave approximate
rectifications of circular arcs after the manner of Huygens;
and, what is very notable, he made an ingenious and, according
to J. E. Montucla, successful attempt to show that quadrature
of the circle by a Euclidean construction was impossible. 4 Besides
all this, however, and far beyond it in importance, was his use
of infinite series. This merit he shares with his contemporaries
N. Mercator, Sir I. Newton and G. W. Leibnitz, and the exact
dates of discovery are a little uncertain. As far as the circle-
squaring functions are concerned, it would seem that Gregory
was the first (in 1670) to make known the series for the arc in
terms of the tangent, the series for the tangent in terms of the
arc, and the secant in terms of the arc; and in 1669 Newton
showed to Isaac Barrow a little treatise in manuscript containing
the series for the arc in terms of the sine, for the sine in terms of
the arc, and for the cosine in terms of the arc. These discoveries

1 See Euler, " Annotationes in locum quendam Cartesii," in Nov.
Comm. Acad. Petrop. viii.

1 Gergonne, Annales de math. vi.

* See Vera Circuit et Hyperbolae^ Quadratura (Padua, 1667) ; and
the Appendicula to the same in his Exercitationes geometricae
(London, 1668).

4 Penny Cyclop, xix. 187.

'ormed an epoch in the history of mathematics generally, and
lad, of course, a marked influence on after investigations
regarding circle-quadrature. Even among the mere computers
:he series

= tan0-Jtan s 0-ri tan'0-...,
specially known as Gregory's series, has ever since been a
necessity of their calling.

The calculator's work having now become easier and more
mechanical, calculation went on apace. In 1699 Abraham
Sharp, on the suggestion of Edmund Halley, took Gregory's
series, and, putting tan = fv/3, found the ratio equal to

from which he calculated it correct to 71 fractional places.'
About the same time John Machin calculated it correct to 100
places, and, what was of more importance, gave for the ratio the
rapidly converging expression

ft-

,
^

-
"^

9 4 "/'

3-5 2 '5-5 4 7- 5" '7 239V 3- 239 s ' S-239 4
which long remained without explanation.' Fautet de Lagny,
still using tan 30, advanced to the I27th place. 7

Leonhard Euler took up the subject several times during his
life, effecting mainly improvements in the theory of the various
series. 8 With him, apparently, began the usage of denoting
by ir the ratio of the circumference to the diameter.*

The most important publication, however, on the subject
in the i8th century was a paper by J. H. Lambert, 10 read before
the Berlin Academy in 1761, in which he demonstrated the
irrationality of v. The general test of irrationality which he
established is that, if

a\ a$ 03
7i =*= 62 ^ 5^ ^ '

be an interminate continued fraction, 01, a?, . . ., bi, bt . . .
be integers, ai/bi, a^/hi, ... be proper fractions, and the value

of every one of the interminate continued fractions j[ . . .,
5? , ... be < i, then the given continued fraction repre-
sents an irrational quantity. If this be applied to the right-hand
side of the identity

it follows that the tangent of every arc commensurable with
the radius is irrational, so that, as a particular case, an arc of
45, having its tangent rational, must be incommensurable
with the radius; that is to say, Tr/4 is an incommensurable
number. 11

This incontestable result had no effect, apparently, in re-
pressing the ir-computers. G. von Vega in 1789, using series
like Machin's, viz. Gregory's series and the identities
ir/4 = 5tan-'f+2tan-y 9 (Euler, 1779),
1/4= tair 1 j+2 tan" 1 | (Hutton, 1776),

neither of which was nearly so advantageous as several found
by Charles Hutton, calculated IT correct to 136 places." This
achievement was anticipated or outdone by an unknown calcu-
lator, whose manuscript was seen in the Radcliffe library,
Oxford., by Baron von Zach towards the end of the century,
and contained the ratio correct to 152 places. More astonishing
still have been the deeds of the x-computers of the igth century.

5 See Sherwin's Math. Tables (London, 1705), P- 59-

6 See W. Jones, Synopsis Palmariorum Matheseos (London, 1706);
Maseres, Scriptures Logarithmici (London, 1791 - 1796), iii- 59 seq- ;
Hutton, Tracts, i. 266.

7 See Hist, de I' Acad. (Paris, 1719); 7 appears instead of 8 in tl
1 1 3th place.

'Comment. Acad. Petrop. ix., xi.; Nov. Comm. Ac. Pet. xvi.;
Nova A eta Acad. Pet. xi.

9 Introd. in Analysin Infin. (Lausanne, 1748), chap. vin.

10 Mem. sur quelques proprietes remarquables des quantites transcen-
dantes, circulates, et logarithmiques.

"See Legendre, Elements de geometrie (Paris, 1794). note iv.;
Schlomilch, Handbuck d. algeb. Analysis (Jena, 1851), chap. xin.

12 Nova Acta Petrop. ix. 41 ; Thesaurus Logarithm. Completus,
633-

CIRCLEVILLE CIRCUIT

387

A condensed record compiled by J. W. L. Glaisher (Messenger
of Math. ii. 122) is as follows:

Date.

Computer.

No. of
fr. digits
calcd.

No. of
fr. digits
correct.

Place of Publication.

1842

Rutherford .

208

152

Trans. Roy. Soc. (London, 1841), p. 283.

1844

Dase .

205

200

Crelle's Journ. xxvii. 198.

1847
1853

Clausen .
Shanks .

250
3i8

248

318

Astron. Nachr. xxv. col. 207.
Proc. Roy. Soc. (London, 1853), 273.

1853

Rutherford .

440

Ibid.

iSST

Shanks .

Ibid.

**JJ

1853

Shanks .

607

W. Shanks, Rectification of the Circle

(London, 1853).

1853

Richter . .

333

330

Grunert's Archiv, xxi. 119.

1854

Richter . .

400

330

Ibid. xxii. 473.

1854

Richter . .

400

Ibid, xxiii. 476.

1854

Richter . .

500

Ibid. xxv. 472.

1873

Shanks .

707

Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), xxi.

ments, and the canning of sweet corn and other produce. The
city occupies the site of prehistoric earth-works, from one of
which, built in the form of a circle, it derived
its name. Circleville, first settled about 1806,
was chosen as the county-seat in 1810. The
court-house was built in the form of an octagon
at the centre of the circle, and circular streets
were laid out around it; but this arrangement
proved to be inconvenient, the court-house was
destroyed by fire in 1841, and at present no
trace of the ancient landmarks remains. Circle-
ville was incorporated as a village in 1814, and
was chartered as a city in 1853.

CIRCUIT (Lat. circuilus, from circum, round,
and ire, to go), the act of moving round; so
circumference, or anything encircling or en-
circled. The word is particularly known as a law

By these computers Machin's identity, or identities analogous

to it c ?

/4 = tan-'i+tan-'i +tan-'i (Dase, 1844),
ir/4 = 4tan -1 i -tan- 1 ^, -t-tan" 1 ^ (Rutherford),

and Gregory's series were employed. 1

A much less wise class than the ir-computers of modern times
are the pseudo-circle-squarers, or circle-squarers technically so
called, that is to say, persons who, having obtained by illegiti-
mate means a Euclidean construction for the quadrature or a
finitely expressible value for v, insist on using faulty reasoning
and defective mathematics to establish their assertions. Such
persons have flourished at all times in the history of mathematics;
but the interest attaching to them is more psychological than
mathematical. 2

It is of recent years that the most important advances in the
theory of circle-quadrature have been made. In 1873 Charles
Hermite proved that the base e of the Napierian logarithms
cannot be a root of a rational algebraical equation of any degree. 3
To prove the same proposition regarding IT is to prove that a
Euclidean construction for circle-quadrature is impossible.
For in such a construction every point of the figure is obtained
by the intersection of two straight lines, a straight line and a
circle, or two circles; and as this implies that, when a unit of
length is introduced, numbers employed, and the problem
transformed into one of algebraic geometry, the equations to
be solved can only be of the first or second degree, it follows that
the equation to which we must be finally led is a rational equation
of even degree. Hermite 4 did not succeed in his attempt on TT;
but in 1882 F. Lindemann, following exactly in Herrnite's steps,
accomplished the desired result. 5 (See also TRIGONOMETRY.)

REFERENCES. Besides the various writings mentioned, see for
the history of the subject F. Rudio, Geschichte des Problems von der
Quadratttr des Zirkels (1892); M. Cantor, Geschichte der Mathematik
(1894-1901) ;Montucla, Hist. des. math. (6 vols., Paris, 1758, 2nd
ed. 1799-1802); Murhard, Bibliotheca Mathematical, ii. 106-123
(Leipzig, 1798); Reuss, Repertorium Comment. Vii. 42-44 (Got-
tingen, 1808). For a few approximate geometrical solutions,
see Leybourn's Math. Repository, vi. 151-154; Grunert's Archiv,
xii. 98, xlix. 3; Nieuw Archief v. Wisk. iv. 200-204. For experi-
mental determinations of TT, dependent on the theory of prob-
ability, see Mess, of Math. ii. 113, 119; Casopis pro pistovdni
math. afys. x. 272-275; Analyst, ix. 176. (T. Mu.)

CIRCLEVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Pickaway
county, Ohio, U.S.A., about 26 m. S. by E. of Columbus, on the
Scioto river and the Ohio Canal. Pop. (1890) 6556; (1900)
6991 (551 negroes); (1910) 6744. It is served by the Cincinnati
& Muskingum Valley (Pennsylvania lines) and the Norfolk &
Western railways, and by the Scioto Valley electric line. Circle-
ville is situated in a farming region, and its leading industries
are the manufacture of straw boards and agricultural imple-

1 On the calculations made before Shanks, see Lehmann, " Beitrag
zur Berechnung der Zahl *-," in Grunert's Archiv, xxi. 121-174.

1 See Montucla, Hist, des rech. sur la quad, du cercle (Paris, 1754,
2nd ed. 1831); de Morgan, Budget of Paradoxes (London, 1872).

3 " Sur la fonction exponentielle," Comptes rendus (Paris), Ixxvii.
18, 74, 226, 285.

* See Crelle's Journal, Ixxvi. 342.

* See " Uber die Zahl x," in Math. Ann. xx. 213.

term, signifying the periodical progress of a legal tribunal for
the purpose of carrying out the administration of the law in the
several provinces of a country. It ha's long been applied to the
journey or progress which the judges have been in the habit of
making through the several counties of England, to hold courts
and administer justice, where recourse could not be had to the
king's court at Westminster (see ASSIZE).

In England, by sec. 23 of the Judicature Act 1875, power was
conferred on the crown, by order in council, to make regulations
respecting circuits, including the discontinuance of any circuit,
and the formation of any new circuit, and the appointment of
the place at which assizes are to be held on any circuit. Under
this power an order of council, dated the sth of February 1876,
was made, whereby the circuit system was remodelled. A new
circuit, called the North-Eastern circuit, was created, consisting
of Newcastle and Durham taken out of the old Northern circuit,
and York and Leeds taken out of the Midland circuit. Oakham,
Leicester and Northampton, which had belonged to the Norfolk
circuit, were added to the Midland. The Norfolk circuit and the
Home circuit were abolished and a new South-Eastern circuit
was created, consisting of Huntingdon, Cambridge, Ipswich,
Norwich, Chelmsford, Hertford and Lewes, taken partly out
of the old Norfolk circuit and partly out of the Home circuit.
The counties of Kent and Surrey were left out of the circuit
system, the assizes for these counties being held by the judges
remaining in London. Subsequently Maidstone and Guildford
were united under the revived name of the Home circuit for the
purpose of the summer and winter assizes, and the assizes in
these towns were held by one of the judges of the Western circuit,
who, after disposing of the business there, rejoined his colleague
in Exeter. In 1899 this arrangement was abolished, and Maid-
stone and Guildford were added to the South-Eastern circuit.
Other minor changes in the assize towns were made, which it is
unnecessary to particularize. Birmingham first became a
circuit town in the year 1884, and the work there became,
by arrangement, the joint property of the Midland and Oxford
circuits. There are alternative assize towns in the following
counties, viz.: On the Western circuit, Salisbury and Devizes
for Wiltshire, and Wells and Taunton for Somerset; on the
South-Eastern, Ipswich and Bury St Edmunds for Suffolk;
on the North Wales circuit, Welshpool and Newtown for Mont-
gomery; and on the South Wales circuit, Cardiff and Swansea
for Glamorgan.

According to the arrangements in force in 1909 there are
four assizes in each year. There are two principal assizes, viz.
the winter assizes, beginning in January, and the summer assizes,
beginning at the end of May. At these two assizes criminal and
civil business is disposed of in all the circuits. There are two
other assizes, viz. the autumn assizes and the Easter assizes.
The autumn assizes are regulated by acts of 1876 and 1877
(Winter Assizes Acts 1876 and 1877), and orders of council made
under the former act. They are held for the whole of England
and Wales, but for the purpose of these assizes the work is to a
large extent " grouped," so that not every county has a separate
assize. For example, on the South-Eastern circuit Huntingdon

388

is grouped with Cambridge; on the Midland, Rutland is grouped
with Lincoln; on the Northern, Westmorland is grouped with
Cumberland; and the North Wales and South Wales circuits
are united, and no assizes are held at some of the smaller towns.
At these assizes criminal business only is taken, except at
Manchester, Liverpool, Swansea, Birmingham and Leeds.
The Easter assizes are held in April and May on two circuits
only, viz. at Manchester and Liverpool on the Northern and at
Leeds on the North-Eastern. Both civil and criminal business
is taken at Manchester and Liverpool, but criminal business
only at Leeds.

Other changes were made, with a view to preventing the
complete interruption of the London sittings in the common law
division by the absence of the judges on circuit. The assizes
were so arranged as to commence on different dates in the various
circuits. For example, the summer assizes begin in the South-
Eastern and Western circuits on the zpth of May; in the
Northern circuit on the z8th of June; hi the Midland and
Oxford circuits on the i6th of June; in the North-Eastern
circuit on the 6th of July; in the North Wales circuit on the
7th of July; and in the South Wales circuit on the nth of July.
Again, there has been a continuous development of what may
be called the single-judge system. In the early days of the new
order the members of the court of appeal and the judges of the
chancery division shared the circuit work with the judges in the
common law division. This did not prove to be a satisfactory
arrangement. The assize work was not familiar and was un-
congenial to the chancery judges, who had but little training
or experience to fit them for it. Arrears increased in chancery,
and the appeal court was shorn of much of its strength for a
considerable part of the year. The practice was discontinued
in or about the year 1884. The appeal and chancery judges were
relieved of the duty of going on circuit, and an arrangement
was made by the treasury for making an allowance for expenses
of circuit to the common law judges, on whom the whole work
of the assizes was thrown. In order to cope with the assize
work, and at the same time keep the common law sittings going
in London, an experiment, which had been previously tried
by Lord Cairns and Lord Cross (then home secretary) and
discontinued, was revived. Instead of two judges going together
to each assize town, it was arranged that one judge should go
by himself to certain selected places practically, it may be
said, to all except the more important provincial centres. The
only places to which two judges now go are Exeter, Winchester,
Bristol, Manchester, Liverpool, Nottingham, Stafford, Birming-
ham, Newcastle, Durham, York, Leeds, Chester, and Cardiff or
Swansea.

It could scarcely be said that, even with the amendments
introduced under orders in council, the circuit system was alto-
gether satisfactory or that the last word had been pronounced
on the subject. In the first report of the Judicature Commission,
dated March asth, 1869, p. 17 (Park Papers, 1868-1869), the
majority report that " the necessity for holding assizes in every
county without regard to the extent of the business to be trans-
acted in such county leads, in our judgment, to a great waste of
judicial strength and a great loss of time in going from one
circuit town to another, and causes much unnecessary cost and
inconvenience to those whose attendance is necessary or cus-
tomary at the assizes." And in their second report, dated July 3rd,
1872 (Parl. Papers, 1872, vol. xx.), they dwell upon the advis-
ability of grouping or a discontinuance of holding assizes " in
several counties, for example, Rutland and Westmorland, where
it is manifestly an idle waste of time and money to have assizes."
It is thought that the grouping of counties which has been effected
for the autumn assizes might be carried still further and applied
to all the assizes; and that the system of holding the assizes
alternately in one of two towns within a county might be extended
to two towns in adjoining counties, for example, Gloucester
and Worcester. The facility of railway communication renders
this reform comparatively easy, and reforms in this direction
have been approved by the judges, but ancient custom and
local patriotism, interests, or susceptibility bar the way. The

CIRCUIT

Assizes and Quarter Sessions Act 1908 contributed something
to reform by dispensing with the obligation to hold assizes
at a fixed date if there is no business to be transacted. Nor
can it be said that the single-judge system has been altogether
a success. When there is only one judge for both civil and
criminal work, he properly takes the criminal business first.
He can fix only approximately the time when he can hope to
be free for the civil business. If the calendar is exceptionally
heavy or one or more of the criminal cases prove to be unex-
pectedly long (as may easily happen) , the civil business necessarily
gets squeezed into the short residue of the allotted time. Suitors
and their solicitors and witnesses are kept waiting for days, and
after all perhaps it proves to be impossible for the judge to take
the case, and a " remanet " is the result. It is the opinion of
persons of experience that the result has undoubtedly been to
drive to London much of the civil business which properly
belongs to the provinces, and ought to be tried there, and thus
at once to increase the burden on the judges and jurymen in
London, and to increase the costs of the trial of the actions sent
there. Some persons advocate the continuous sittings of the
high court in certain centres, such as Manchester, Liverpool,
Leeds, Newcastle, Birmingham and Bristol, or (in fact) a de-
centralization of the judicial system. There is already an excel-
lent court for chancery cases for Lancashire in the county
palatine court, presided over by the vice-chancellor, and with a
local bar which has produced many men of great ability and
even eminence. The Durham chancery court is also capable
of development. Another suggestion has been made for con-
tinuous circuits throughout the legal year, so that a certain
number of the judges, according to a rota, should be continuously
in the provinces while the remaining judges did the London
business. The value of this suggestion would depend on an
estimate of the number of cases which might thus be tried in the
country in relief of the London list. This estimate it would be
difficult to make. The opinion has also been expressed that it
is essential in any changes that may be made to retain the
occasional administration by judges of the high court of criminal
jurisdiction, both in populous centres and in remote places. It
promotes a belief in the importance and dignity of justice and
tHe care to be given to all matters affecting a citizen's life,
liberty or character. It also does something, by the example
set by judges in country districts, to check any tendency to
undue severity of sentences in offences against property.

Counsel are not expected to practise on a circuit other than
that to which they have attached themselves, unless they receive
a special retainer. They are then said to " go special," and the
fee in such a case is one hundred guineas for a king's counsel,
and fifty guineas for a junior. It is customary to employ one
member of the circuit on the side on which the counsel comes
special. Certain rules have been drawn up by the Bar Com-
mittee for regulating the practice as to retainers on circuit,
(i) A special retainer must be given for a particular assize (a
circuit retainer will not, however, make it compulsory upon
counsel retained to go the circuit, but will give the right to
counsel's services should he attend the assize and the case be
entered for trial) ; (2) if the venue is changed to another place
on the same circuit, a fresh retainer is not required; (3) if the
action is not tried at the assize for which the retainer is given,
the retainer must be renewed for every subsequent assize until
the action is disposed of, unless a brief has been delivered;
(4) a retainer may be given for a future assize, without a retainer
for an intervening assize, unless notice of trial is given for such
intervening assize. There are also various regulations enforced
by the discipline of the circuit bar mess.

In the United States the English circuit system still exists
in some states, as in Massachusetts, where the judges sit in
succession in the various counties of the state. The term circuit
courts applies distinctively in America to a certain class of
inferior federal courts of the United States, exercising juris-
diction, concurrently with the state courts, in certain matters
where the United States is a party to the litigation, or in cases
of crime against the United States. The circuit courts act in

CIRCULAR NOTE CIRCUMCISION

389

nine judicial circuits, divided as follows: 1st circuit, Maine,
Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island; 2nd circuit,
Connecticut, New York, Vermont; yd circuit, Delaware, New
Jersey, Pennsylvania; 4th circuit, Maryland, North Carolina,
South Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia; 5th circuit, Alabama,
Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas; 6th circuit,
Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio, Tennessee; fth circuit, Illinois,
Indiana, Wisconsin; 8th circuit, Arkansas, Colorado, Okla-
homa, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New
Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, Wyoming; 9th
circuit, Alaska, Arizona, California, Idaho, Montana, Nevada,
Oregon, Washington, and Hawaii. A circuit court of ap-
peals is made up of three judges of the circuit court, the
judges of the district courts of the circuit, and the judge of the
Supreme Court allotted to the circuit.

In Scotland the judges of the supreme criminal court, or high
court of justiciary, form also three separate circuit courts,
consisting of two judges each; and the country, with the ex-
ception of the Lothians, is divided into corresponding districts,
called the Northern, Western and Southern circuits. On the
Northern circuit, courts are held at Inverness, Perth, Dundee
and Aberdeen; on the Western, at Glasgow, Stirling and
Inveraray; and on the Southern, at Dumfries, Jedburgh and Ayr.

Ireland is divided into the North-East and the North-West
circuits, and those of Leinster, Connaught and Munster.

CIRCULAR NOTE, a documentary request by a bank to its
foreign correspondents to pay a specified sum of money to a
named person. The person in whose favour a circular note is
issued is furnished with a letter (containing the signature of an
official of the bank and the person named) called a letter of
indication, which is usually referred to in the circular note,
and must be produced on presentation of the note. Circular
notes are generally issued against a payment of cash to the
amount of the notes, but the notes need not necessarily be
cashed, but may be returned to the banker in exchange for the
amount for which they were originally issued. A forged signature
on a circular note conveys no right, and as it is the duty of the
payer to see that payment is made to the proper person, he
cannot recover the amount of a forged note from the banker
who issued the note. (See also LETTER OF CREDIT.)

CIRCULUS IN PROBANDO (Lat. for " circle in proving "),
in logic, a phrase used to describe a form of argument in which
the very fact which one seeks to demonstrate is used as a premise,
i.e. as part of the evidence on which the conclusion is based.
This argument is one form of the fallacy known as petitio
principii, " begging the question." It is most common in
lengthy arguments, the complicated character of which enables
the speaker to make his hearers forget the data from which he
began. (See FALLACY.)

CIRCUMCISION (Lat. circum, round, and caedere, to cut),
the cutting off of the foreskin. This surgical operation, which is
commonly prescribed for purely medical reasons, is also an
initiation or religious ceremony among Jews and Mahommedans,
and is a widespread institution in many Semitic races. It
remains, with Jews, a necessary preliminary to the admission of
proselytes, except in some Reformed communities. The origin
of the rite among the Jews is in Genesis (xvii.) placed in the age
of Abraham, and at all events it must have been very ancient,
for flint stones were used in the operation (Exodus iv. 25;
Joshua v.2). The narrative in Joshua implies that the custom
was introduced by him, not that it had merely been in abeyance
in the Wilderness. At Gilgal he " rolled away the reproach of
the Egyptians " by circumcising the people. This obviously
means that whereas the Egyptians practised circumcision the
Jews in the land of the Pharaohs did not, and hence were regarded
with contempt. It was an old theory (Herodotus ii. 36) that
circumcision originated in Egypt; at all events it was practised
in that country in ancient times (Ebers, Egypten und die Bucher
Mosis, i. 278-284), and the same is true at the present day.
But it is not generally thought probable that the Hebrews
derived the rite directly from the Egyptians. As Driver puts it
(Genesis, p. 190) : " It is possible that, as Dillmann and Nowack

suppose, the peoples of N. Africa and Asia who practised the rite
adopted it from the Egyptians, but it appears in so many parts
of the world that it must at any rate in these cases have originated
independently." In another biblical narrative (Exodus iv. 25)
Moses is subject to the divine anger because he had not made
himself " a bridegroom of blood," that is, had not been circum-
cised before his marriage.

The rite of circumcision was practised by all the inhabitants
of Palestine with the exception of the Philistines. It was an
ancient custom among the Arabs, being presupposed in the
Koran. The only important Semitic peoples who most probably
did not follow the rite were the Babylonians and Assyrians
(Sayce, Babyl. and Assyrians, p. 47). Modern investigations have
brought to light many instances of the prevalence of circumcision
in various parts of the world. These facts are collected by Andree
and Ploss, and go to prove that the rite is not only spread through
the Mahommedan world (Turks, Persians, Arabs, &c.), but also is
practised by the Christian Abyssinians and the Copts, as well
as in central Australia and in America. In central Australia
(Spencer and Gillen, pp. 212-386) circumcision with a stone knife
must be undergone by every youth before he is reckoned a full
member of the tribe or is permitted to enter on the married state.
In other parts, too (e.g. Loango), no uncircumcised man may
marry. Circumcision was known to the Aztecs (Bancroft,
Native Races, vol. iii.), and is still practised by the Caribs of
the Orinoco and the Tacunas of the Amazon. The method and
period ,of the operation vary in important particulars. Among
the Jews it is performed in infancy, when the male child is eight
days old. The child is named at the same time, and the ceremony
is elaborate. The child is carried in to the godfather (sandek,
a hebraized form of the Gr. avvTtKvos, " godfather," post-class.),
who places the child on a cushion, which he holds on his knees
throughout the ceremony. The operator (mohel) uses a steel
knife, and pronounces various benedictions before and after the
rite is performed (see S. Singer, Authorized Daily Prayer Book,
pp. 304-307; an excellent account of the domestic festivities
and spiritual joys associated with the ceremony among medieval
and modern Jews may be read in S. Schechter's Studies in
Judaism, first series, pp. 351 seq.). Some tribes in South America
and elsewhere are said to perform the rite on the eighth day,
like the Jews. The Mazequas do it between the first and second
months. Among the Bedouins the rite is performed on children
of three years, amid dances and the selection of brides(Doughty,
Arabia Deserta, i. 340); among the Somalis the age is seven
(Reinisch, Somalisprache, p. no). But for the most part the
tribes who perform the rite carry it out at the age of puberty.
Many facts bearing on this point are given by B. Stade in Zeit-
schriftfur die alttest. Wissenschaft, vi. (1886) pp. 132 seq.

The significance of the rite of circumcision has been much
disputed. Some see in it a tribal badge. If this be the true
origin of circumcision, it must go back to the time when men
went about naked. Mutilations (tattooing, removal of teeth
and so forth) were tribal marks, being partly sacrifices and
partly means of recognition (see MUTILATION). Such initiatory
rites were often frightful ordeals, in which the neophyte's
courage was severely tested (Robertson Smith, Religion of tfa
Semites, p. 310). Some regard circumcision as a substitute for
far more serious rites, including even human sacrifice. Utilitarian
explanations have also been suggested. Sir R. Burton (Memoirs
Anthrop. Soc. i. 318) held that it was introduced to promote
fertility, and the claims of cleanliness have been put forward
(following Philo's example, see ed. Mangey, ii. 210). Most
probably, however, circumcision (which in many tribes is per-
formed on both sexes) was connected with marriage, and was a
preparation for connubium. It was in Robertson Smith's words
" originally a preliminary to marriage, and so a ceremony of
introduction to the full prerogative of manhood," the trans-
ference to infancy among the Jews being a later change. On
this view, the decisive Biblical reference would be the Exodus
passage (iv. 25), in which Moses is represented as being in danger
of his life because he had neglected the proper preliminary to
marriage. In Genesis, on the other hand, circumcision is an

CIRCUMVALLATION CIRCUS

external sign of God's covenant with Israel, and later Judaism
now regards it in this symbolical sense. Barton (Semitic Origins,
p. too) declares that " the circumstances under which it is per-
formed in Arabia point to the origin of circumcision as a sacrifice
to the goddess of fertility, by which the child was placed under
her protection and its reproductive powers consecrated to her
service." But Barton admits that initiation to the connubium
was the primitive origin of the rite.

As regards the non-ritual use of male circumcision, it may be
added that in recent years the medical profession has been
responsible for its considerable extension among other than
Jewish children, the operation being recommended not merely
in cases of malformation, but generally for reasons of health.

AUTHORITIES.- On the present diffusion of circumcision see H.
Ploss, Das Kind im Branch und Sitte der Volker, i. 342 seq., and his
researches in Deutsches Archiv fur Geschichte der Medizin, viii.
312-344; Andree, "Die Beschneidung " in Archiv fur Anthrp-
pologie, xiii. 76; and Spencer and Gillen, Tribes of Central Australia.
The articles in the Encyclopaedia Biblica and Dictionary of the Bible
contain useful bibliographies as well as historical accounts of the
rite and its ceremonies, especially as concerns the Jews. The Jewish
Encyclopedia in particular gives an extensive list of books on the
Jewish customs connected with circumcision, and the various articles
in that work are full of valuable information (vol. iv. pp. 92-102).
On the rite among the Arabs, see Wellhausen, Reste arabischen
Heidentums, 154. (I. A.)

CIRCUMVALLATION, LINES OF (from Lat. circum, round,
and vallum, a rampart), in fortification, a continuous circle of
entrenchments surrounding a besieged place. " Liaes of
Contravallation " were similar works by which the besieger pro-
tected himself against the attack of a relieving army from any
quarter. These continuous lines of circumvallation and contra-
vallation were used only in the days of small armies and small
fortresses, and both terms are now obsolete.

CIRCUS (Lat. circus, Gr. dpKos or KP'LKOS, a ring or circle;
probably " circus " and " ring " are of the same origin), a space,
in the strict sense circular, but sometimes oval or even oblong,
intended for the exhibition of races and athletic contests gener-
ally. The circus differs from the theatre inasmuch as the
performance takes place in a central circular space, not on a stage
at one end of the building.

i. In Roman antiquities the circus was a building for the
exhibition of horse and chariot races and other amusements.
It consisted of tiers of seats running parallel with the sides of
the course, and forming a crescent round one of the ends. The
other end was straight and at right angles to the course, so that
the plan of the whole had nearly the form of an ellipse cut in
half at its vertical axis. Along the transverse axis ran a fence
(spina) separating the return course from the starting one. The
straight end had no seats, but was occupied by the stalls (carceres)
where the chariots and horses were held in readiness. This end
constituted also the front of the building with the main entrance.
At each end of the course were three conical pillars (metae) to
mark its limits.

The oldest building of this kind in Rome was the Circus
Maximus, in the valley between the Palatine and Aventine
hills, where, before the erection of any permanent structure,
races appear to have been held beside the altar of the god
Consus. The first building is assigned to Tarquin the younger,
but for a long time little seems to have been done to complete
its accommodation, since it is not till 329 B.C. that we hear
of stalls being erected for the chariots and horses. It was not
in fact till under the empire that the circus became a conspicuous
public resort. Caesar enlarged it to some extent, and also made
a canal 10 ft. broad between the lowest tier of seats (podium)
and the course as a precaution for the spectators' safety when
exhibitions of fighting with wild beasts, such as were afterwards
confined to the amphitheatre, took place. When these exhibi-
tions were removed, and the canal (euripus) was no longer
necessary, Nero had it filled up. Augustus is said to have placed
an obelisk on the spina between the metae, and to have built a
new pulvinar, or imperial box; but if this is taken in connexion
with the fact that the circus had been partially destroyed by
fire in 31 B.C., it may be supposed that besides this he had

restored it altogether. Only the lower tiers of seats were of
stone, the others being of wood, and this, from the liability to
fire, may account for the frequent restorations to which the circus
was subject; it would also explain the falling of the seats by
which a crowd of people were killed in the time of Antoninus
Pius. In the reign of Claudius, apparently after a fire, the
carceres of stone (tufa) were replaced by marble, and the metae
of wood by gilt bronze. Under Domitian, again, after a fire, the
circus was rebuilt and the carceres increased to 12 instead
of 8 as before. The work was finished by Trajan. See further
for seating capacity, &c., ROME: Archaeology, " Places of
Amusement."

The circus was the only public spectacle at which men and
women were not separated. The lower seats were reserved for
persons of rank; there were also various state boxes, e.g. for
the giver of the games and his friends (called cubicula or suggestus).
The principal object of attraction apart from the racing must
have been the spina or low wall which ran down the middle
of the course, with its obelisks, images and ornamental shrines.
On it also were seven figures of dolphins and seven oval objects,
one of which was taken down at every round made in a race,
so that spectators might see readily how the contest proceeded.
The chariot race consisted of seven rounds of the course. The
chariots started abreast, but in an oblique line, so that the outer
chariot might be compensated for the wider circle it had to make
at the other end. Such a race was called a missus, and as many
as 24 of these would take place in a day. The competitors
wore different colours, originally white and red (albata and
russata), to which green (prasina) and blue (veneta) were added.
Domitian introduced two more colours, gold and purple (pur-
pureus et auratus pannus), which probably fell into disuse after
his death. To provide the horses and large staff of attendants
it was necessary to apply to rich capitalists and owners of studs,
and from this there grew up in time four select companies
(factiones) of circus purveyors, which were identified with the
four colours, and with which those who organized the races had
to contract for the proper supply of horses and men. The drivers
(aurigae, agitator es), who were mostly slaves, were sometimes
held in high repute for their skill, although their calling was
regarded with contempt. The horses most valued were those of
Sicily, Spain and Cappadocia, and great care was taken in train-
ing them. Chariots with two horses (bigae) or four (quadrigae)
were most common, but sometimes also they had three (trigae),
and exceptionally more than four horses. Occasionally there
was combined with the chariots a race of riders (desultores) ,
each rider having two horses and leaping from one to the other
during the race. At certain of the races the proceedings were
opened by a pompa or procession in which images of the gods
and of the imperial family deified were conveyed in cars drawn
by horses, mules or elephants, attended by the colleges of priests,
and led by the presiding magistrate (in some cases by the
emperor himself) seated in a chariot in the dress and with the
insignia of a triumphator. The procession passed from the
capitol along the forum, and on to the circus, where it was re-
ceived by the people standing and clapping their hands. The
presiding magistrate gave the signal for the races by throwing
a white flag (mappa) on to the course.

Next in importance to the Circus Maximus in Rome was the
Circus Flaminius, erected 221 B.C., in the censorship of C.
Flaminius, from whom it may have taken its name; cr the
name may have been derived from Prata Flaminia, where it
was situated, and where also were held plebeian meetings.
The only games that are positively known to have been celebrated
in this circus were the Ludi Taurii and Plebeii. There is no
mention of it after the ist century. Its ruins were identified
in the i6th century at S. Catarina dei Funari and the Palazzo
Mattei.

A third circus in Rome was erected by Caligula in the gardens
of Agrippina, and was known as the Circus Neronis, from the
notoriety which it obtained through the Circensian pleasures of
Nero. A fourth was constructed by Maxentius outside the
Porta Appia near the tomb of Caecilia Metella, where its ruins

CIRENCESTER

39 1

are still, and now afford the only instance from which an idea
of the ancient circi in Rome can be obtained. It was traced to
Caracalla, till the discovery of an inscription in 1825 showed
it to be the work of Maxentius. Old topographers speak of six
circi, but two of these appear to be imaginary, the Circus Florae
and the Circus Sallustii.

Circus races were held in connexion with the following public
festivals, and generally on the last day of the festival, if it
extended over more than one day: (i) The Consualia,
August 2ist, December isth; (2) Equirria, February 27th,
March I4th; (3) Ludl Romani, September 4th-igth; (4) Ludi
Plebeii, November 4th-i7th; (5) Cerialia, April i2th-igth;
(6) Ludi Apollinares, July 6th-i3th; (7) Ludi Megalenses,
April 4th-ioth; (8) Flordia, April 28th-May 3rd.

In addition to Smith's Dictionary of Antiquities (3rd ed., 1890),
see articles in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites,
Pauly-Wissowa's Realcncyclopddie der classischen Altertumswissen-
schaft, iii. 2 (1899), and Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, iii.
(2nd ed., 1885), p. 504. For existing remains see works quoted
under ROME: Archaeology.

2. The Modern Circus. The " circus " in modern times is
a form of popular entertainment which has little in common
with the institution of classical Rome. It is frequently nomadic
in character, the place of the permanent building known to the
ancients as the circus being taken by a tent, which is carried
from place to place and set up temporarily on any site procurable
at country fairs or in provincial towns, and in which spectacular
performances are given by a troupe employed by the proprietor.
The centre of the tent forms an arena arranged as a horse-ring,
strewn with tan or other soft substance, where the performances
take place, the seats of the spectators being arranged in ascending
tiers around the central space as in the Romaa circus. The
traditional type of exhibition in the modern travelling circus
consists of feats of horsemanship, such as leaping through hoops
from the back of a galloping horse, standing with one foot on
each of two horses galloping side by side, turning somersaults
from a springboard over a number of horses standing close
together, or accomplishing acrobatic trjcks on horseback. These
performances, by male and female riders, are varied by the
introduction of horses trained to perform tricks, and by drolleries
on the part of the clown, whose place in the circus is as firmly
established by tradition as in the pantomime.

The popularity of the circus in England may be traced to that
kept by Philip Astley (d. 1814) in London at the end of the i8th
century. Astley was followed by Ducrow, whose feats of horse-
manship had much to do with establishing the traditions of the
circus, which were perpetuated by Hengler's and Sanger's
celebrated shows in a later generation. In America a circus-actor
named Ricketts is said to have performed before George Washing-
ton in 1780, and in the first half of the igth century the establish-
ments of Purdy, Welch & Co., and of van Amburgh gave a
wide popularity to the circus in the United States. All former
circus-proprietors were, however, far surpassed in enterprise and
resource by P. T. Barnum (q.v.), whose claim to be the possessor
of " the greatest show on earth " was no exaggeration. The
influence of Barnum, however, brought about a considerable
change in the character of the modern circus. In arenas too
large for speech to be easily audible, the traditional comic dialogue
of the clown assumed a less prominent place than formerly,
while the vastly increased wealth of stage properties relegated
to the background the old-fashioned equestrian feats, which
were replaced by more ambitious acrobatic performances, and
by exhibitions of skill, strength and daring, requiring the
employment of immense numbers of performers and often of
complicated and expensive machinery. These tendencies are,
as is natural, most marked in shows given in permanent buildings
in large cities, such as the London Hippodrome, which was built
as a combination of the circus, the 'menagerie and the variety
theatre, where wild animals such as lions and elephants from
time to time appeared in the ring, and where convulsions of
nature such as floods, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions have
been produced with an extraordinary wealth of realistic display,
t the Hippodrome in Paris unlike its London namesake, a

circus of the true classical type in which the arena is entirely
surrounded by the seats of the spectators chariot races after
the Roman model were held in the latter part of the igth
century, at which prizes of considerable value were given by the
management.

CIRENCESTER (traditionally pronounced Ciceter), a market
town in the Cirencester parliamentary division of Gloucestershire,
England, on the river Churn, a tributary of the Thames, 93 m.
W.N.W. of London. Pop. of urban district (1001) 7536. It is
served by a branch of the Great Western railway, and there is
also a station on the Midland and South-Western Junction
railway. This is an ancient and prosperous market town of
picturesque old houses clustering round a fine parish church,
with a high embattled tower, and a remarkable south porch with
parvise. The church is mainly Perpendicular, and among its
numerous chapels that of St Catherine has a beautiful roof of
fan-tracery in stone dated 1508. Of the abbey founded in
1117 by Henry I. there remain a Norman gateway and a few
capitals. There are two good museums containing mosaics,
inscriptions, carved and sculptured stones, and many smaller
remains, for the town was the Roman Corinium or Durocornovium
Dobunorum. Little trace of Corinium, however, can be seen
in situ, except the amphitheatre and some indications of the walls.
To the west of the town is Cirencester House, the seat of Earl
Bathurst. The first Lord Bathurst (1684-1775) devoted himself
to beautifying the fine demesne of Oakley Park, which he
planted and adorned with remarkable artificial ruins. This
nobleman, who became baron in 1711 and earl in 1772, was a
patron of art and literature no less than a statesman-; and Pope,
a frequent visitor here, was allowed to design the building known
as Pope's Seat, in the park, commanding a splendid prospect
of woods and avenues. Swift was another appreciative visitor.
The house contains portraits by Lawrence, Gainsborough,
Romney, Lely, Reynolds, Hoppner, Kneller and many others.
A mile west of the town is the Royal Agricultural College,
incorporated by charter in 1845. Its buildings include a chapel,
a dining hall, a library, a lecture theatre, laboratories, class-
rooms, private studies and dormitories for the students, apart-
ments for resident professors, and servants' offices; also a
museum containing a collection of anatomical and pathological
preparations, and mineralogical, botanical and geological speci-
mens. The college farm comprises 500 acres, 450 of which
are arable; and on it are the well-appointed farm-buildings
and the veterinary hospital. Besides agriculture, the course of
instruction at the college includes chemistry, natural and
mechanical philosophy, natural history, mensuration, surveying
and drawing, and other subjects of practical importance to the
farmer, proficiency in which is tested by means of sessional
examinations. The industries of Cirencester comprise various
branches of agriculture. It has connexion by a bfanch canal
with the Thames and Severn canal.

Corinium was a flourishing Romano-British town, at first
perhaps a cavalry post, but afterwards, for the greater part of
the Roman period, purely a civilian city. At Chedworth, 7 m.
N.E., is one of the most noteworthy Roman villas in England.
Cirencester (Cirneceaster, Cyrenceaster , Cyringceaster) is described
in Domesday as ancient demesne of the crown. The manor was
granted by William I. to William Fitzosbern; on reverting to
the crown it was given in 1189, with the township, to the Augus-
tinian abbey founded here by Henry I. The struggle of the
townsmen to prove that Cirencester was a borough probably
began in the same year, when they were amerced for a false
presentment. Four inquisitions during the I3th century sup-
ported the abbot's claims, yet in 1343 the townsmen declared
in a chancery bill of complaint that Cirencester was a borough
distinct from the manor, belonging to the king but usurped by
the abbot, who since 1308 had abated their court of provostry.
Accordingly they produced a copy of a forged charter from
Henry I. to the town; the court ignored this and the abbot
obtained a new charter and a writ of superseded*. For their
success against the earls of Kent and Salisbury Henry IV. in
1403 gave the townsmen a gild merchant, although two

392

CIRILLO CISSEY

inquisitions reiterated the abbot's rights. These were confirmed
in 1408-1409 and 1413; in 1418 the charter was annulled, and
in 1477 parliament declared that Cirencester was not corporate.
After several unsuccessful attempts to re-establish the gild
merchant, the government in 1592 was vested in the bailiff of the
lord of the manor. Cirencester became a parliamentary borough
in 1572, returning two members, but was deprived of repre-
sentation in 1885. Besides the " new market " of Domesday
Book the abbots obtained charters in 1215 and 1253 for fairs
during the octaves of All Saints and St Thomas the Martyr.
The wool trade gave these great importance; in 1341 there
Were ten wool merchants in Cirencester, and Leland speaks of
the abbots' cloth-mill, while Camden calls it the greatest market
for wool in England.

See Transactions of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological
Society, vols. ii., ix., xviii.

CIRILLO, DOHENICO (1739-1799), Italian physician and
patriot, was bom at Grumo in the kingdom of Naples. Appointed
while yet a young man to a botanical professorship, Cirillo went
some years afterwards to England, where he was elected fellow
of the Royal Society, and to France. On his return to Naples
he was appointed successively to the chairs of practical and
theoretical medicine. He wrote voluminously and well on
scientific subjects and secured an extensive medical practice.
On the French occupation of Naples and the proclamation of
the Parthenopean republic (1799), Cirillo, after at first refusing
to take part in the new government, consented to be chosen a
representative of the people and became a member of the
legislative commission, of which he was eventually elected
president. On the abandonment of the republic by the French
(June 1799), Cardinal Ruffo and the army of King Ferdinand
IV. returned to Naples, and the Republicans withdrew, ill-armed
and inadequately provisioned, to the forts. After a short siege
they surrendered on honourable terms, life and liberty being
guaranteed them by the signatures of Ruffo, of Foote, and of
Micheroux. But the arrival of Nelson changed the complexion
of affairs, and he refused to ratify the capitulation. Secure
under the British flag, Ferdinand and his wife, Caroline of
Austria, showed themselves eager for revenge, and Cirillo was
involved with the other republicans in the vengeance of the
royal family. He asked Lady Hamilton (wife of the British
minister to Naples) to intercede on his behalf, but Nelson wrote
in reference to the petition: " Domenico Cirillo, who had been
the king's physician, might have been saved, but that he chose
to play the fool and lie, denying that he had ever made any
speeches against the government, and saying that he only took
care of the poor in the hospitals " (Nelson and the Neapolitan
Jacobins, Navy Records Society, 1903). He was condemned
and hanged on the 2gth of October 1799. Cirillo, whose favourite
study was botany, and who was recognized as an entomologist
by Linnaeus, left many books, in Latin and Italian, all of them
treating of medical and scientific subjects, and all of little value
now. Exception must, however, be made in favour of the
Virtu morali dell' Asino, a pleasant philosophical pamphlet
remarkable for its double charm of sense and style. He in-
troduced many medical innovations into Naples, particularly
inoculation for smallpox.

See C. Giglioli, Naples in IJQQ (London, 1903) ; L. Conforti, Napoli
nel I??? (Naples, 1889); C. Tivaroni, L' Italia durante il dominio

. ,

francese, vol. ii. pp. 179-204. Also under NAPLES; NELSON and
FERDINAND IV. OF NAPLES.

CIRQUE (Lat. circus, ring), a French word used in physical
geography to denote a semicircular crater-like amphitheatre
at the head of a valley, or in the side of a glaciated mountain.
The valley cirque is characteristic of calcareous districts. In
the Chiltern Hills especially, and generally along the chalk
escarpments, a flat-bottomed valley with an intermittent
stream winds into the hill and ends suddenly in a cirque. There
is an excellent example at Ivinghoe, Buckinghamshire, where
it appears as though an enormous flat-bottomed scoop had been
driven into the hillside and dragged outwards to the plain. In
all cases it is found that the valley floor consists of hard or

impervious rock above which lies a permeable or soluble stratum
of considerable thickness. In the case of the chalk hills the
upper strata are very porous, and the descending water with
atmospheric and humous acids in solution has great solvent
power. During the winter this upper layer becomes saturated
and some of the water drains away along joints in the escarpment.
An underground stream is thus developed carrying away a great
deal of material in solution, and in consequence the ground above
slowly collapses over the stream, while the cirque at the head,
where the stream issues, gradually works backward and may
pass completely through the hills, leaving a gap of which another
drainage system may take possession. In the limestone country
of the Cotteswold Hills, many small intermittent tributary
streams are headed by cirques, and some of the longer dry valleys
have springs issuing from beneath their lower ends, the dry
valleys being collapsed areas above underground streams not
yet revealed. In this case the pervious limestone is underlain
by beds of impervious clay. There are many of these in the
Jura Mountains. The Cirque de St Sulpice is a fine example
where the impervious bed is a marly clay. |H

The origin of the glacial cirque is entirely different and is
said by W. D. Johnson (Journal of Geology, xii. No. 7, 1904) to
be due to basal sapping and erosion under the bergschrund of
the glacier. In this he is supported by G. K. Gilbert in the same
journal, who produces some remarkable examples from the
Sierra Nevada in California, where the mountain fragments
have been left behind " like a sheet of dough upon a board after
the biscuit tin has done its work "; so that above the head
of the glaciers " the rock detail is rugged and splintered but its
general effect is that of a great symmetrical arc." Descending
one of the bergschrunds of Mt. Lyell to a depth of 150 ft.,
Johnson found a rock floor cumbered with ice and blocks of
rock and the rock face a literally vertical cliff " much riven, its
fracture planes outlining sharp angular masses in all stages of
displacement and dislodgment." Judging from these facts,
he interprets the deep valleys with cirques at their head in
formerly glaciated regions where at the head there is a " reversed
grade " of slope, as due to ice-erosion at valley-heads where
scour is impossible at the sides of the mountain but strongest
under the glacier head where the ice is deepest. The opponents
of ice-erosion nevertheless recognize the very frequent occurrence
of glacial cirques often containing small lakes such as that
under Cader Idris in Wales, or at the head of Little Timber
Creek, Montana, and numerous examples in Alpine districts.

CIRTA (mod. Constantine, g.ii.), an ancient city of Numidia,
in Africa, in the country of the Massyli. It was regarded by
the Romans as the strongest position in Numidia, and was made
by them 1 the converging point of all their great military roads
in that country. By the early emperors it was allowed to fall
into decay, but was afterwards restored by Constantine, from
whom it took its modern name.

CISSEY, ERNEST LOUIS OCTAVE COURTOT DE (1810-1882),
French general, was born at Paris on the 23rd of September
1810, and after passing through St Cyr, entered the army in
1832, becoming captain in 1839. He saw active service in Algeria,
and became chef d'escadron in 1849 and lieutenant-colonel in
1850. He took part as a colonel in the Crimean War, and after
the battle of Inkerman received the rank of general of brigade.
In 1863 he was promoted general of division. When the Franco-
German War broke out in 1870, de Cissey was given a divisional
command in the Army of the Rhine, and he was included in
the surrender of Bazaine's army at Metz. He was released from
captivity only at the end of the war, and on his return was at
once appointed by the Versailles government to a command
in the army engaged in the suppression of the Commune, a task
in the execution of which he displayed great rigour. From July
1871 de Cissey sat as a deputy, and he had already become
minister of war. He occupied this post several times during the
critical period of the reorganization of the French army. In
1880, whilst holding the command of the XI. corps at Nantes,
he was accused of having relations with a certain Baroness
Kaula, who was said to be a spy in the pay of Germany, and

CISSOID CISTERCIANS

393

he was in consequence relieved from duty. An inquiry subse-
quently held resulted in de Cissey's favour (1881). He died on
the i sth of June 1882 at Paris.

CISSOID (from the Gr. Karate, ivy, and eKos, form), a
curve invented by the Greek mathematician Diocles about
180 B.C., for the purpose of constructing two mean proportionals
between two given lines, and in order to solve the problem of
duplicating the cube. It was further investigated by John Wallis,
Christiaan Huygens (who determined the length of any arc in
1657), and Pierre de Fermat (who evaluated the area between
the curve and its asymptote in 1661). It is constructed in the
following manner. Let APB be a semicircle, BT the tangent
at B, and APT a line cutting the circle in P and BT at T; take
a point Q on AT so that AQ always equals
PT; then the locus of Q is the cissoid.
Sir Isaac Newton devised the following
mechanical construction. Take a rod LMN
bent at right angles at M, such that
MN = AB; let the leg LM always pass
through a fixed point O on AB produced
such that OA=CA, where C is the middle
point of AB, and cause N to travel along
the line perpendicular to AB at C; then
the midpoint of MN traces the cissojd.
The curve is symmetrical about the axis
of x, and consists of two infinite branches
asymptotic to the line BT and forming a
cusp at the origin. The cartesian equation,
when A is the origin and AB = 20, is
y\ia x)=x s ; the polar equation is r=2o sin tan 0, The
cissoid is the first positive pedal of the parabola y*+8ax=o
for the vertex, and the inverse of the parabola y*=&ax, the
vertex being the centre of inversion, and the semi-latus rectum
the constant of inversion. The area between the curve and its
asymptote is 3ira 2 , i.e. three times the area of the generating
circle.

The term cissoid has been given in modern times to curves
generated in similar manner from other figures than the circle,
and the form described above is distinguished as the cissoid of
Diocles.

A cissoid angle is the angle included between the concave sides
of two intersecting curves; the convex sides include the sistroid
angle.

See John Wallis, Collected Works, vol. i. ; T. H. Eagles, Plane
Curves (1885).

CIS-SUTLEJ STATES, the southern portion of the Punjab,
India. The name, now obsolete, came into use in 1809, when the
Sikh chiefs south of the Sutlej passed under British protection,
and was generally applied to the country south of the Sutlej
and north of the Delhi territory, bounded on the E. by the
Himalayas, and on the W. by Sirsa district. Before 1846 the
greater part of this territory as independent, the chiefs being
subject merely to control from a political officer stationed at
Umballa, and styled the agent of the governor-general for the
Cis-Sutlej states. After the first Sikh War the full administration
of the territory became vested in this officer. In 1849 occurred
the annexation of the Punjab, when the Cis-Sutlej states com-
missionership, comprising the districts of Umballa, Ferozepore,
Ludhiana, Thanesar and Simla, was incorporated with the new
province. The name continued to be applied to this division
until 1862, when, owing to Ferozepore having been transferred
to the Lahore, and a part of Thanesar to the Delhi division, it
ceased to be appropriate. Since then, the tract remaining has
been known as the Umballa division. Patiala, Jind and Nabha
were appointed a separate political agency in 1901. Excluding
Bahawalpur, for which there is no political agent, and Chamba,
the other states are grouped under the commissioners of Jullunder
and Delhi, and the superintendent of the Simla hill states.

CIST (Gr. Kio-rn, Lat. cisla, a box; cf. Ger. Kiste, Welsh kist-
vaen, stone-coffin, and also the other Eng. form " chest"), in
Greek archaeology, a wicker-work receptacle used in the Eleu-
sinian and other mysteries to carry the sacred vessels; also,

in the archaeology of prehistoric man, a coffin formed of flat
stones placed edgeways with another flat stone for a cover.
The word is also used for a sepulchral chamber cut in the rock
(see COFFIN).

" Cistern," the common term for a water-tank, is a derivation
of the same word (Lat. cisterna; cf. "cave" and "cavern").

CISTERCIANS, otherwise GREY or WHITE MONKS (from the
colour of the habit, over which is worn a black scapular or apron).
In 1098 St Robert, born of a noble family in Champagne, at first
a Benedictine monk, and then abbot of certain hermits settled at
Molesme near Chatillon, being dissatisfied with the manner of
life and observance there, migrated with twenty of the monks
to a swampy place called Clteaux in the diocese of Chalons, not
far from Dijon. Count Odo of Burgundy here built them a
monastery, and they began to live a life of strict observance
according to the letter of St Benedict's rule. In the following
year Robert was compelled by papal authority to return to
Molesme, and Alberic succeeded him as abbot of Citeaux and
held the office till his death in 1 109, when the Englishman St
Stephen Harding became abbot, until 1134. For some years
the new institute seemed little likely to prosper; few novices
came, and in the first years of Stephen's abbacy it seemed
doomed to failure. In 1112, however, St Bernard and thirty
others offered themselves to the monastery, and a rapid and
wonderful development at once set in. The next three years
witnessed the foundation of the four great " daughter-houses of
Citeaux " La Fertfi, Pontigny, Clairvaux and Morimond.
At Stephen's death there were over 30 Cistercian houses; at
Bernard's (1154) over 280; and by the end of the century over
500; and the Cistercian influence in the Church more than kept
pace with this material expansion, so that St Bernard saw one of
his monks ascend the papal chair as Eugenius III.

The keynote of Cistercian life was a return to a literal observ-
ance of St Benedict's rule how literal may be seen from the con-
troversy between St Bernard and Peter the Venerable, abbot of
Cluny (see Maitland, Dark Ages, xxii.). The Cistercians rejected
alike all mitigations and all developments, and tried to reproduce
the life exactly as it had been in St Benedict's time, indeed in
various points they went beyond it in austerity. The most
striking feature in the reform was the return to manual labour,
and especially to field-work, which became a special characteristic
of Cistercian life. In order to make time for this work they cut
away the accretions to the divine office which had been steadily
growing during three centuries, and in Cluny and the other
Black Monk monasteries had come to exceed greatly in length
the regular canonical office: one only of these accretions did
they retain, the daily recitation of the Office of the Dead (Edm.
Bishop, Origin of the Primer, Early English Text Society, original
series, 109, p. xxx.).

It was as agriculturists and horse and cattle breeders that,
after the first blush of their success and before a century had
passed, the Cistercians exercised their chief influence on the
progress of civilization in the later middle ages: they were the
great farmers of those days, and many of the improvements in
the various farming operations were introduced and propagated
by them; it is from this point of view that the importance of
their extension in northern Europe is to be estimated. The
Cistercians at the beginning renounced all sources of income
arising from benefices, tithes, tolls and rents, and depended for
their income wholly on the land. This developed an organized
system for selling their farm produce, cattle and horses, and
notably contributed to the commercial progress of the countries
of western Europe. Thus by the middle of the I3th century the
export of wool by the English Cistercians had become a feature
in the commerce of the country. Farming operations on so
extensive a scale could not be carried out by the monks alone,
whose choir and religious duties took up a considerable portion
of their time; and so from the beginning the system of lay
brothers was introduced on a large scale. The lay brothers
were recruited from the peasantry and were simple uneducated
men, whose function consisted in carrying out the various field-
works and plying all sorts of useful trades; they formed a body

394

CISTERCIANS

of men who lived alongside of the choir monks, but separate
from them, not taking part in the canonical office, but having
their own fixed round of prayer and religious exercises. A lay
brother was never ordained, and never held any office of
superiority. It was by this system of lay brothers that the
Cistercians were able to play their distinctive part in the progress
of European civilization.. But it often happened that the number
of lay brothers became excessive and out of proportion to the
resources of the monasteries, there being sometimes as many
as 200, or even 300, in a single abbey. On the other hand, at
any rate in some countries, the system of lay brothers in course
of time worked itself out; thus in England by the close of the
1 4th century it had shrunk to relatively small proportions, and
in the i5th century the regime of the English Cistercian houses
tended to approximate more and more to that of the Black
Monks.

The Cistercian polity calls for special mention. Its lines were
adumbrated by Alberic, but it received its final form at a meeting
of the abbots in the time of Stephen Harding, when was drawn
up the Carlo, Caritatis (Migne, Patrol. Lat. clxvi. 1377), a
document which arranged the relations between the various
houses of the Cistercian order, and exercised a great influence
also upon the future course of western monachism. From one
point of view, it may be regarded as a compromise between
the primitive Benedictine system, whereby each abbey was
autonomous and isolated, and the complete centralization of
Cluny, whereby the abbot of Cluny was the only true superior
in the body. Citeaux, on the one hand, maintained the in-
dependent organic life of the houses each abbey had its own
abbot, elected by its own monks; its own community, belong-
ing to itself and not to the order in general; its own property
and finances administered by itself, without interference from
outside. On the other hand, all the abbeys were subjected to
the general chapter, which met yearly at Citeaux, and consisted
of the abbots only; the abbot of Citeaux was the president of
the chapter and of the order, and the visitor of each and every
house, with a predominant influence and the power of enforcing
everywhere exact conformity to Citeaux in all details of the
exterior life observance, chant, customs. The principle was
that Citeaux should always be the model to which all the other
houses had to conform. In case of any divergence of view at
the chapter, the side taken by the abbot of Citeaux was always
to prevail (see F. A. Gasquet, Sketch of Monastic Constitutional
History, pp. xxxv-xxxviii, prefixed to English trans, of Montalem-
bert's Monks of the West, ed. 1895).

By the end of the 1 2th century the Cistercian houses numbered
500; in the i3th a hundred more were added; and in the isth,
when the order attained its greatest extension, there were close
on 750 houses: the larger figures sometimes given are now
recognized as apocryphal. Nearly half of the houses had been
founded, directly or indirectly, from Clairvaux, so great was
St Bernard's influence and prestige: indeed he has come almost
to be regarded as the founder of the Cistercians, who have often
been called Bernardines. The order was spread all over western
Europe, chiefly in France, but also in Germany, England,
Scotland, Ireland, Sweden, Poland, Hungary, Italy and Sicily,
Spain and Portugal, where some of the houses, as Alcobaca,
were of almost incredible magnificence. In England the first
foundation was Furness (1127), and many of the most beautiful
monastic buildings of the country, beautiful in themselves and
beautiful in their sites, were Cistercian, as Tintern, Rievaulx,
Byland, Fountains. A hundred were established in England in
the next hundred years, and then only one more up to the
Dissolution (for list, see table and map in F. A. Gasquet's English
Monastic Life, or Catholic Dictionary, art. " Cistercians ")

For a hundred years, till the first quarter of the i3th century,
the Cistercians supplanted Cluny as the most powerful order
and the chief religious influence in western Europe. But then
in turn their influence began to wane, chiefly, no doubt, because
of the rise of the mendicant orders, who ministered more directly
to the needs and ideas of the new age. But some of the reasons
of Cistercian decline were internal. In the first place, there was

the permanent difficulty of maintaining in its first fervour a
body embracing hundreds of monasteries and thousands of
monks, spread all over Europe; and as the Cistercian very
raison d'etre consisted in its being a " reform," a return to
primitive monachism, with its field-work and severe simplicity,
any failures to live up to the ideal proposed worked more
disastrously among Cistercians than among mere Benedictines,
who were intended to live a life of self-denial, but not of great
austerity. Relaxations were gradually introduced in regard to
diet and to simplicity of life, and also in regard to the sources
of income, rents and tolls being admitted and benefices incor-
porated, as was done among the Benedictines; the farming
operations tended to produce a commercial spirit; wealth and
splendour invaded many of the monasteries, and the choir
monks abandoned field-work.

The later history of the Cistercians is largely one of attempted
revivals and reforms. The general chapter for long battled
bravely against the invasion of relaxations and abuses. In 1335
Benedict XII., himself a Cistercian, promulgated a series of
regulations to restore the primitive spirit of the order, and in
the 1 5th century various popes endeavoured to promote reforms.
All these efforts at a reform of the great body of the order proved
unavailing; but local reforms, producing various semi-inde-
pendent offshoots and congregations, were successfully carried
out in many parts in the course of the 15th and i6th centuries.
In the 1 7th another great effort at a general reform was made,
promoted by the pope and the king of France; the general
chapter elected Richelieu (commendatory) abbot of Citeaux,
thinking he would protect them from the threatened reform.
In this they were disappointed, for he threw himself wholly on
the side of reform. So great, however, was the resistance, and
so serious the disturbances that ensued, that the attempt to
reform Citeaux itself and the general body of the houses had
again to be abandoned, and only local projects of reform could
be carried out. In 1598 had arisen the reformed congregation
of the Feuillants, which spread widely in France and Italy, in
the latter country, under the name of " Improved Bernardines."
The French congregation of Sept-Fontaines (1654) also deserves
mention. In 1663 de Ranee reformed La Trappe (see TRAPPISTS).

The Reformation, the ecclesiastical policy of Joseph II., the
French Revolution, and the revolutions of the igth century,
almost wholly destroyed the Cistercians; but some survived,
and since the beginning of the last half of the i9th century
there has been a considerable recovery. They are at present
divided into three bodies: (i) the Common Observance, with
about 30 monasteries and 800 choir monks, the large majority
being in Austria-Hungary; they represent the main body of
the order and follow a mitigated rule of life; they do not carry
on field-work, but have large secondary schools, and are in
manner of life little different from fairly observant Benedictine
Black monks; of late years, however, signs are not wanting
of a tendency towards a return to older ideas; (2) the Middle
Observance, embracing some dozen monasteries and about 150
choir monks; (3) the Strict Observance, or Trappists (<?..), with
nearly 60 monasteries, about 1600 choir monks and 2000 lay
brothers.

In all there are about 100 Cistercian monasteries and about
4700 monks, including lay brothers. There have always been a
large number of Cistercian nuns; the first nunnery was founded
at Tart in the diocese of Langres, 1125; at the period of their
widest extension there are said to have been 900 nunneries,
and the communities were very large. The nuns were devoted
to contemplation and also did field-work. In Spain and France
certain Cistercian abbesses had extraordinary privileges. Numer-
ous reforms took place among the nuns. The best known of
all Cistercian convents was probably Port-Royal (q.v.), reformed
by Angelique Arnaud, and associated with the story of the
Jansenist controversy. After all the troubles of the igth century
there still exist 100 Cistercian nunneries with 3000 nuns, choir
and lay; of these, 15 nunneries with 900 nuns are Trappist.

Accounts of the beginnings of the Cistercians and of the primitive
life and spirit will be found in the lives of St Bernard, the best

CITATION CITHARA

395

whereof is that of Abb6 E. Vacandard (1895); also in the Life of
St Stephen Harding, in the English Saints. See also Henry Collins
(one of the Oxford Movement, who became a Cistercian), Spirit and
Mission of the Cistercian Order (1866). The facts are related in
Helyot, Hist, des ordres religieux (1792), v. cc. 33-46, vi. cc. I, 2.
Useful sketches, with references to the literature, are supplied in
Herzog, Realencyklopddie (ed. 3), art. " Cistercienser " ; Wetzer
und Welte, Kirchenlexikon (ed. 2), art. " Cistercienserorden " ;
Max Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen (1896), i. 33, 34.
Prof. Brewer's discriminating, yet on the whole sympathetic,
Preface to vol. iv. of the Works of Giraldus Cambrensis (Rolls Series
of Chronicles and Memorials) is very instructive. Denis Murphy's
Triumphalia Monasterii S. Cruets (1891) contains a general eketch,
with a particular account of the Irish Cistercians. (E. C. B.)

CITATION (Lat. cilare, to cite), in law, a summons to appear,
more particularly applied in England to process in the probate
and divorce division of the high court. In the ecclesiastical
courts, citation was a method of commencing 1 a probate suit,
answering to a writ of summons at common law, and it is now
in English probate practice an instrument issuing from the
principal probate registry, chiefly used when a person, having
the superior right to take a grant, delays or declines to do so,
and another having an inferior right desires to obtain a grant;
the party having the prior right is cited to appear and either to
renounce the grant or show cause why it should not be decreed
to the citator. In divorce practice, when a petitioner has filed his
petition and affidavit, he extracts a citation, i.e. a command
drawn in the name of the sovereign and signed by one of the
registrars of the court, calling upon the alleged offender to appear
and make answer to the petition. In Scots law, citation is used
in the sense of a writ of summons. The word in its more general
literary sense means the act of quoting, or the referring to an
authority in support of an argument.

CITEAUX, a village of eastern France, in the department of
C6te d'Or, 16 m. S.S.E. of Dijon by road. It is celebrated
for the great abbey founded by Robert, abbot of Molesme,
in 1098, which became the headquarters of the Cistercian
order. The buildings which remain date chiefly from the i8th
century and are of little interest. The church, destroyed
in 1792, used to contain the tombs of the earlier dukes of
Burgundy.

CITHAERON, now called from its pine forests Elatea, a famous
mountain range (4626) ft.) in the south of Boeotia, separating
that state from Megaris and Attica. It was famous in Greek
mythology, and is frequently mentioned by the great poets,
especially by Sophocles. It was on Cithaeron that Actaeon
was changed into a stag, that Pentheus was torn to pieces by
the Bacchantes whose orgies he had been watching, and that the
infant Oedipus was exposed. This mountain, too, was the scene
of the mystic rites of Dionysus, and the festival of the Daedala
in honour of Hera. The carriage-road from Athens to Thebes
crosses the range by a picturesque defile (the pass of Dryos-
cephalae, " Oak-heads "), which was at one time guarded on the
Attic side by a strong fortress, the ruins of which are known as
Ghyphto-kastro (" Gipsy Castle ") Plataea is situated on the
north slope of the mountain, and the strategy of the battle of
479 B.C. was considerably affected by the fact that it was necessary
for the Greeks to keep their communications open by the passes
(see PLATAEA). The best known of these is that of Dryos-
cephalae, which must then, as now, have been the direct route
from Athens to Thebes. Two other passes, farther to the west,
were crossed by the roads from Plataea to Athens and to Megara
respectively. (E. GR.)

CITHARA (Assyrian chetarah; Gr. Kifi&pa; Lat. cithara; per-
haps Heb. kinura, kinnor), one of the most ancient stringed
instruments, traced back to 1700 B.C. among the Semitic races,
in Egypt, Assyria, Asia Minor, Greece and the Roman empire,
whence the use of it spread over Europe. The main feature of
the Greek kilhara, its shallow sound-chest, being the most
important part of it, is also that in which developments are most
noticeable; its contour varied considerably during the many
musical ages, but the characteristic in respect of which it fore-
shadowed the precursors of the violin family, and by which they
were distinguished from other contemporary stringed instruments

of the middle ages, was preserved throughout in all European
descendants bearing derived names. This characteristc box
sound-chest (fig. i) consisted of two resonating tables, either flat
or delicately arched, connected by ribs or sides of equal width.
The cithara may be regarded as an attempt by a more skilful
craftsman or race to improve upon the lyre (q.v.), while retaining
some of its features. The construction of the cithara can fortu-
nately be accurately studied from two actual specimens found in
Egypt and preserved in the
museums of Berlin and
Leiden. The Leiden cithara
(fig. 2), which forms part of
the d'Anastasy Collection in
the Museum of Antiquities,
is in a very good state of
preservation. The sound-
chest, in the form of an
irregular square (17 cm. X 17
cm.), is hollowed out of a
solid block of wood from
the base, which is open;
the little bar, seen through
the open base and measur-
ing 25 cm. (i in.), is also of
the same piece of wood.
The arms, one short and
one long, are solid and are
fixed to the body by means
of wooden pins; they are
glued as well for greater
strength. W. Pleyte, through
whose courtesy the sketch FIG. i. Nero Citharoedus (Mus.
was revised and corrected, Pio-Clementino), showing back of a

.,. Roman Cithara.

states that there are no

indications on the instrument of any kind of bridge or attach-
ment for strings except the little half-hoop of iron wire which
passes through the base from back to front. To this the strings
were probably attached, and the little bar performed the double
duty of sound-post and support for strengthening the tail-piece
and enabling it to resist the tension of the strings. The oblique
transverse bar, rendered necessary by the increasing length of
the strings, was characteristic of the
Egyptian cithara, 1 whereas the Asiatic
and Greek instruments were generally
constructed with horizontal bars resting
on arms of equal length, the pitch of the
strings being varied by thickness and
tension, instead of by length. (For the
Berlin cithara see LYRE.)

The number of strings with which the
cithara was strung varied from 4 to 19
or 20 at different times; they were
added less for the purpose of increasing
the compass in the modern sense than
to enable the performer to play in the
different modes of the Greek musical
system. Terpander is credited with hav-
ing increased the number of strings *' s%% m . - OIKt
to seven; Euclid, quoting him as his FIG. 2. Ancient
authority, states that "loving no more Egyptian Cithara
the tetrachordal chant, we will sing aloud from Thebes. Museum
new hymns to a seven-toned phorminx." of Antiquities, Leiden.

What has been said of the scale of the lyre applies also to the
cithara, and need therefore not be repeated here. The strings
were vibrated by means of the fingers or plectrum (ir\fJKTpov,
from ir\r]<iaeu>, to strike; Lat. plectrum, from plango, I strike).
Twanging with the fingers for strings of gut, hemp or silk was
undoubtedly the more artistic method, since the player was able
to command various shades of expression which are impossible

1 A drawing of an Egyptian cithara, similar to the Leiden specimen,
may be seen in Champollion, Monuments de I'Egypte et dela Nubie,
". pi. 175-

CITHARA

with a rigid plectrum. 1 Ix>odness of accent and great brilhancy
oftooe, however, can only be obtaii^ by the use of the plectrum.
Quotations bom the classics abound to show what was the
practice of the Greeks and Romans in this respect. The plectrum
was hdd in the right hand, with dbow outstretched and palm
beat inwards, and the strings were plucked with the straightened

fingers of the left hand.* Both methods were used with
according to the dictates of an for the sake of the variation- in
tone colour obtainable thereby.*

The strings of the chhara were either knotted round the
transverse tuning bar itself (agra) or to rings threaded over
the bar, which fa^l^ the performer to increase or decrease
the tension by shifting the knots or rings; or else they, were
wound round pegs, 4 knobs* or pins* fixed to the zogon. The
other end of the strings was secured to a tail-piece after passing
over a fiat bridge, or the two were combined in the curious
high box tail-piece whkh acted as a bridge. Plutarch 7 states
that this contrivance was added to the tithara in the days of
Cepioo. pupQ of Terpander. These boxes were hinged in order
to allow the lid to be opened for the purpose of securing the

that no sculptured dthara pro-
vided with this box tail-piece is

jnany cases neve H>M^FI never haie
been any, far the hand and arm*

would be fiDed by the strings,
which are always carved in a solid
block.

Like the lyre the

FIG. 3. Apollo <

r-:,- - i _.:.".

hnnr tail-pieces.

the

the double purpose

placed by the Gre

the pettu, far *"; is declared
by Sappho (22nd fragment} to
have been small and shriD; the
ptttfwuMXf on the other hand, seems
to have been irfmtiral with the
ckhara.'

irista (mtamn j), ai
I aujumuuHmg the

and (*) of

playing solos at the national g
and t trials of skffl. The
citharista was rich and rec
varied but fittk thronghoot t

and on a Greek rase of the b

consisted of a ffOa or long

with gold and girt high above the waist, fau

folds to the feet. This taflc must not be

mande of the same name worn by

the back, was the
a golden wreath of
of the type
of the lyre type.
thin thirteen

divisions: (i) The mythological period,
1 3th century nx. to the first Oiympiad, 776 BJC.; and (2) the
historical period to the days of Ptolemy, AJ>. 161. One of the
very few anthmtir Greek odes extant is a Pythian ode by Pindar,
in which the phmmmiof ApoloisnwntkMrd; the solo is!
by a i

aMedPt
ofthegc

Fi ill il HI (c. 540 BJC_), and the ***~**i** made to :
contests of singers and instmmentansts, -ittn^ of
of the Iliad and Odyssey, such as are ii|iMtf on the :
of tie Parthenon (in the "g^ Room at the British
and later on friezes by Pbeidias. It was at the same period that
the Cot contests far sokvphving on tW tilhin (t6*ftrnH
and for solo fat-phying woe imtirnted at the 8th Pythian
Games." One of the
principal items at these

for

the .Vm
fjrt itur, desajptur of
the victory of ApoBo
over the python and

Of *W A-faa^ of the

The Pythian Games

Greek period and

Roman sway until
about AOfc. 304. Not

held at Delphi, bat

Pytma,

the great Pythian, i

ally in Asia Minor.

The games lasted far several days, the

to music. To the games at Delphi

aD parts of the crrmaed world; and the

karat to know from the Phoenician colonists before the <

so charmed with the musk of the Spanish competitors that he

of oorropt
end of the 4th

the theatres, and the great

, Immgima, Xo. 7. -

Hope.
Edward Bokle, Die
M

See VI
the same work that of
SeeOrf. L 153. 155

itmmlimt, pL 22. Erato's ckkan,

-- '--

Jfm*. Co. Sbd. i. (1901). 2. p- 177.

CITIUM CITRIC ACID

397

the middle ages must be sought among the unconverted bar-
barians of northern and western Europe, who kept alive the
traditions taught them by conquerors and colonists; but as
civilization was in its infancy with them the instruments sent
out from their workshops must have been crude and primitive.
Asia, the cradle of the tithara, also became its foster-mother;
it was among the Greeks of Asia Minor that the several steps
in the transition from cithara into guitar 1 (g.r.) took place.

The first of these steps produced the rotta (9.*.), by the
construction of body, arms and transverse bar in one piece.
The Semitic races used the rotta at a very remote period (1700
B.C.). as we know from a fresco at Beni-Hasan. dating from the
reign of Senwosri II., which depicts a procession of strangers
bringing tribute; among them is a bearded musician of Semitic
type bearing a rotta which he holds horizontally in front of him
in the Assyrian manner, and quite unlike the Greeks, who always
played the lyre and cithara in an upright position. A unique
specimen of this rectangular rotta was found in an Alamannic
tomb of the sth or 6th century at Oberflacht in the Black Forest .
The instrument was clasped in the arms of an armed knight;
it is now preserved in the Volker Museum in Berlin. This old
German rotta is an exact counterpart of instruments pictured in
illuminated MSS. of the Sth century, and is derived from the

cithara with rect-
angular body, while
from the cithara with
a body having the
curve of the lower
half of the violin was
produced a rotta with
the outline of the
body of the guitar.
Both types were
common in Europe
until the I4th cen-
tury, some played
with a bow, others
twanged by the
fingers, and bearing
indifferently both
names, cithara. and
rotta. The addi-
tion of a finger-

FIG. 5. Asiatic
Cithara in transition
(or rotta). From a
fresco at Beni-Hasan

(C. I7OO B.C.).

FIG. 6. Roman
Cithara in transi-
tion, of the Lycian
Apollo (Rome M us.
Capit.).

board, stretching like a short neck from body to transverse bar.
leaving on each side of the finger-board space for the hand to pass
through in order to stop the strings, produced the crwth or crowd
(q.t.), and brought about the reduction in the number of the
strings to three or four. The conversion of the rotta into the
guitar (q.r.) was an easy transition effected by the addition of a
long neck to a body derived from the oval rotta. When the bow
was applied the result was the guitar or troubadour fiddle. At
first the instrument called dtkara in the Latin versions of the
Psalms was glossed citron, dire in Anglo-Saxon, but in the nth
century the same instrument was rendered kearpan, and in
French and English harpe or harp, and our modern versions
have retained this translation. The cittern (9.*.), a later de-
scendant of the cithara, although preserving the characteristic
features of the cithara, the shallow sound-chest with ribs, adopted
the pear-shaped outline of the Eastern instruments of the lute
tribe. (K. S.)

CmUM (Gr. Kition), the principal Phoenician city in Cyprus,
situated at the north end of modern Larnaca, on the bay of the
same name on the S.E. coast of the island. Converging currents
from E. and W. meet and pass seawards off Cape Kit! a few miles
south, and greatly facilitated ancient trade. To S. and W. the
site is protected by lagoons, the salt from which was one of the
> of its prosperity. The earliest remains near the site go

'For a di-|iiim of this question see Kathleen Schlesinger,
The Instruments of Ike Orchestra, part iL. and especially chapters on
the cithara in transition daring the middle ages, and the question

of the origin of the Utrecht Psalter, in whictTthe
cithara is traced at some length.

back to the Mycenaean age (c. 1400-1 too B.C.") and seem to mark
an Aegean colony:* but in historic times Citium is the chief
centre of Phoenician influence in Cyprus. That this was still a
recent settlement in the ;th century is suggested by an allusion
in a list of the allies of Assur-bani-pal of Assyria in 668 B.C. to a
King Damasu of Kartihadasti (Phoenician for " New-town "),
where Citium would be expected. A Phoenician dedication to
' Baal of Lebanon " found here, and dated also to the 7th
century, suggests that Citium may have belonged to Tyre. The
biblical name Kittim, derived from Citium, is in fact used quite
generally for Cyprus as a whole;* later also for Greeks and
Romans in general. 4 The discovery here of an official monument
of Sargon IL suggests that Citium was the administrative centre
of Cyprus during the Assyrian protectorate (700-668 B.C.).*
During the Greek revolts of 500, 386 folL and 352 B.C., Citium
led the side loyal to Persia and was besieged by an Athenian
force in 449 B.C.; its extensive necropolis proves that it remained
a considerable city even after the Greek cause triumphed with
Alexander. But like other cities of Cyprus, it suffered repeatedly
from earthquake, and in medieval times when its harbour became
silted the population moved to Larnaca. on the open roadstead,
farther south. Harbour and citadel have now quite disappeared,
the latter having been used to fill up the former shortly after the
British occupation; some gain to health resulted, but an
irreparable loss to science. Traces remain of the circuit wall,
and of a sanctuary with copious terra-cotta offerings; the large
necropolis yields constant loot to illicit excavation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. W. H. Engel, Kypros (Berlin, 1841), (rfa coral
allusions); J. L. Myres, J<na-n. Hellenic Studies, xvii. 147 ff.
(excavations); Cyprus Museum Catalogue (Oxford, 1899), p. 5-6;
153-155; Index (Antiquities); G. F. Hill, Brit. ilus. Cat. Cairns tf
Cyprus (London, 1904), (Coins). (J- L. M.)

CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng.. apparently by analogy
with " denizen," from O. Fr. attain, mod. Fr. citoyen), etymologk-
ally the inhabitant of a city, cite or ctribu (see CITY), and in
England the term still used primarily of persons possessing
civic rights in a borough; thus used also of a townsman as
opposed to a countryman. The more extended use of the word,
however, corresponding to cmfau, gives " citizen " the meaning
of one who is a constituent member of a state in international
relations and as such has full national rights and owes a certain
allegiance ($.t.) as opposed to an " alien "; in republican countries
the term is then commonly employed as the equivalent of
' subject " in monarchies of feudal origin. For the rules govern-
ing the obtaining of citizenship in this latter sense in the United
States and elsewhere see NATURALIZATION.

CITOLE, also spelled SYTOLE, CYTHOLE, GYTOLIX, &c. (prob-
ably a Fr. diminutive form of dtkara, and not from Lat. cisia,
a box), an obsolete musical instrument of which the exact form
is uncertain. It is frequently mentioned by poetical writers of
the I3th to the I5th centuries, and is found in Wydiffe's Bible
(1360) in 2 Samuel vL 5, " Harpis and sitols and tympane."
The Authorized Version has '' psaltiries," and the Vulgate
' lyrae." It has been supposed to be another name for the
psaltery (9-*.), a box-shaped instrument often seen in the
illuminated mksals of the middle ages.

CITRIC ACID, Acidum dtricum, or OXYTBICAKBAIXYLIC Aero,
C,H,(OH) (CO-OH). a tetrahydroiytribasic add, first obtained
in the solid state by Karl Wilhelm Scheele,in 1784, from the juice
of lemons. It is present also in oranges, citrons, currants, goose-
berries and many other fruits, and in several bulbs and tubers.
It is made on a large scale from lime or lemon juice, and also by
the fermentation of glucose under the influence of Ciiromycetts
pfefferiaims, C. glaber and other ferments. Lemon juice is
fermented for some time to free it from mucilage, then boiled

1 Cf . the name Kathian in a Ramessid list of cities of Cyprus,
Oberhummer, Die Inset Cypem (Munich, 1903), p. 4.

'Gen. x. 4; Num. xxiv. 24; Is. xxiiL I, 12; Jer. iL 10; Erek.
xxvii. 6.

4 Dan. xL 30; I Mace. L l; viii. 5.

* Schrader, " Die Sargonstele des Berliner Museums," in Atk.
a. k. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. (1881); Zur Geofr. d. cssyr. Racket
(Berlin, 1890), pp. 337-344-

398

CITRON CITTA DELLA PIEVE

and filtered, and neutralized with powdered chalk and a little
milk of lime; the precipitate of calcium citrate so obtained
is decomposed with dilute sulphuric acid, the solution filtered,
evaporated to remove calcium sulphate and concentrated, pre-
ferably in vacuum pans. The acid is thus obtained in colourless
rhombic prisms of the composition CeHgOy+HjO. Crystals
of a different form are deposited from a strong boiling solution
of the acid. About 20 gallons of lemon juice should yield about
10 Ib of crystallized citric acid. The acid may also be prepared
from the juice of unripe gooseberries. Calcium citrate must be
manufactured with care to avoid an excess of chalk or lime,
which would precipitate constituents of the juice that cause the
fermentation of the citrate and the production of calcium acetate
and butyrate.

The synthesis of citric acid was accomplished by L. E.
Grimaux and P. Adam in 1881. Glycerin when treated with
hydrochloric acid gives propenyl dichlorhydrin, which may be
oxidized to s-dichloracetone. This compound combines with
hydrocyanic acid to form a nitrile which hydrolyses to dichlor-
hydroxy iso-butyric acid. Potassium cyanide reacts with this
acid to form the corresponding dinitrile, which is converted by
hydrochloric acid into citric acid. This series of operations
proves the constitution of the acid. A. Haller and C. A. Held
synthesized the acid from ethyl chlor-acetoacetate (from chlorine
and acetoacetic ester) by heating with potassium cyanide and
saponifying the resulting nitrile. The acetone dicarboxylic
acid, CO(CH 2 CO 2 H)2, so obtained combines with hydrocyanic
acid, and this product yields citric acid on hydrolysis.

Citric acid has an agreeable sour taste. It is soluble in |ths
of its weight of cold, and in half its weight of boiling water, and
dissolves in alcohol, but not in ether. At 1 50 C. it melts, and on
the continued application of heat boils, giving off its water of
crystallization. At 175 C. it is resolved into water and aconitic
acid, C 6 H 6 O 6 , a substance found in Equisetum flimiatile, monks-
hood and other plants. A higher temperature decomposes this
body into carbon dioxide and itaconic acid, CcHeC^, which,
again, by the expulsion of a molecule of water, yields citraconic
anhydride, C 6 H 4 O 3 . Citric acid digested at a temperature
below 40 C. with concentrated sulphuric acid gives off carbon
monoxide and forms acetone dicarboxylic acid. With fused
potash it forms potassium oxalate and acetate. It is a strong
acid, and dissolved in water decomposes carbonates and attacks
iron and zinc.

The citrates are a numerous class of salts, the most soluble
of which are those of the alkaline metals; the citrates of the
alkaline earth metals are insoluble. Citric acid, being tribasic,
forms either acid monometallic, acid dimetallic or neutral
trimetallic salts; thus, mono-, di- and tri-potassium and sodium
citrates are known. On warming citric acid with an excess of
lime-water a precipitate of calcium citrate is obtained which is
redissolved as the liquid cools.

The impurities occasionally present in commercial citric acid
are salts of potassium and sodium, traces of iron, lead and copper
derived from the vessels used for its evaporation and crystalliza-
tion, and free sulphuric, tartaric and even oxalic acid. Tartaric
acid, which is sometimes present in large quantities as an adulter-
ant in commercial citric acid, may be detected in the presence
of the latter, by the production of a precipitate of acid potassium
tartrate when potassium acetate is added to a cold solution.
Another mode of separating the two acids is to convert them
into calcium salts, which are then treated with a perfectly
neutral solution of cupric chloride, soluble cupric citrate and
calcium chloride being formed, while cupric tartrate remains
undissolved. Citric acid is also distinguished from tartaric
acid by the fact that an ammonia solution of silver tartrate
produces a brilliant silver mirror when boiled, whereas silver
citrate is reduced only after prolonged ebullition.

Citric acid is used in calico printing, also in the preparation
of effervescing draughts, as a refrigerant and sialogogue, and
occasionally as an antiscorbutic, instead of fresh lemon juice.
In the form of lime juice it has long been known as an antidote for
scurvy. Several of the citrates are much employed as medicines,

the most important being the scale preparations of iron. Of
these iron and ammonium citrate is much used as a haematinic,
and as it has hardly any tendency to cause gastric irritation or
constipation it can be taken when the ordinary forms of iron are
inadmissible. Iron and quinine citrate is used as a bitter
stomachic and tonic. In the blood citrates are oxidized into
carbonates; they therefore act as remote alkalis, increasing the
alkalinity of the blood and thereby the general rate of chemical
change within the body (see ACETIC ACID).

CITRON, a species of Citrus (C. medico), belonging to the tribe
Aurantieae, of the botanical natural order Rutaceae; the same
genus furnishes also the orange, lime and shaddock. The citron
is a small evergreen tree or shrub growing to a height of about
10 ft.; it has irregular straggling spiny branches, large pale-green
broadly oblong, slightly serrate leaves and generally unisexual
flowers purplish without and white within. The large fruit is
ovate or oblong, protuberant at the tip, and from 5 to 6 in. long,
with a rough, furrowed, adherent rind, the inner portion of which
is thick, white and fleshy, the outer, thin, greenish-yellow and
very fragrant. The pulp is sub-acid and edible, and the seeds
are bitter. There are many varieties of the fruit, some of them
of great weight and size. The Madras citron has the form of an
oblate sphere; and in the " fingered citron " of China the lobes
are separated into finger-like divisions formed by separation
of the constituent carpels, as occurs sometimes in the orange.

The citron-tree thrives in the open air in China, Persia, the
West Indies, Madeira, Sicily, Corsica, and the warmer parts of
Spain and Italy; and in conservatories it is often to be seen
in more northerly regions. Sir Joseph Hooker (Flora of British
India, i. 514) regards it as a native of the valleys at the
foot of the Himalaya, and of the Khasia hills and the Western
Ghauts; Dr Bonavia, however, considers it to have originated
in Cochin China or China, and to have been introduced into
India, whence it spread to Media and Persia. It was described
by Theophrastus as growing in Media, three centuries before
Christ, and was early known to the ancients, and the fruit was
held in great esteem by them; but they seem to have been ac-
quainted with no other member of the Auranlieae, the introduction
of oranges and lemons into the countries of the Mediterranean
being due to the Arabs, between the loth and isth centuries.
Josephus tells us that " the law of the Jews required that at the
feast of tabernacles every one should have branches of palm-
tree and citron-tree" (Antiq. xiii. 13. 5); and the Hebrew
word tappuach, rendered " apples " and " apple-tree " in Cant. ii.
3, 5, Prov. xxv. n, &c., probably signifies the citron- tree and
its fruit. Oribasius in the 4th century describes the fruit,
accurately distinguishing the three parts of it. About the 3rd
century the tree was introduced into Italy; and, as Gallesio in-
forms us, it was much grown at Salerno in the nth century.
In China citrons are placed in apartments to make them fragrant.
The rind of the citron yields two perfumes, oil of cedra and oil
of citron, isomeric with oil of turpentine; and when candied it
is much esteemed as a dessert and in confectionery. The lemon
(q.i>.) is now generally regarded as a subspecies Limonum of
Citrus medico.

Oribasii Sardiani, . Collectorum Medicinalium Libri X VII. i. 64
(De citrio); Gallesio, Traite du citrus (1811); Darwin, Animals
and Plants under Domestication, i. 334-336 (1868); Brandis,
Forest Flora of North- West and Central India, p. 51 (1874); E.
Bonavia, The Cultivated Oranges and Lemons, &c., of India and
Ceylon (1890).

CITTADELLA, a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of
Padua, 20 m. N.W. by rail from the town of Padua; 160 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1001) town, 3616; commune, 9686. The
town was founded in 1220 by the Paduans to counterbalance
the fortification of Castelfranco, 8 m. to the E., in 1218 by the
Trevisans, and retains its well-preserved medieval walls, sur-
rounded by a wet ditch. It was always a fortress of importance,
and in modern times is a centre for the agricultural produce of
the district, being the junction of the lines from Padua to Bassano
and from Vicenza to Treviso.

CITTA DELLA PIEVE, a town and episcopal see of Umbria,
Italy, in the province of Perugia, situated 1666 ft. above the sea,

CITTA DI CASTELLO CITTERN

399

3 m. N.E. of its station on the railway between Chiusi and
Orvieto. Pop. (1901) 8381. Etruscan tombs have been found
in the neighbourhood, but it is not certain that the present town
stands on an ancient site. It was the birthplace of the painter
Pietro Vannucci (Perugino), and possesses several of his works,
but none of the first rank.

CITTA DI CASTELLO, a town and episcopal see of Umbria,
Italy, in the province of Perugia, 38 m. E. of Arezzo by rail
(18 m. direct), situated on the left bank of the Tiber, 945 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1901) of town, 6096; of commune,
26,885. It occupies, as inscriptions show, the site of the ancient
Tifernum Tiberinum, near which Pliny had a villa (Epist. v. 6;
cf. H. Winnefeld in Jahrbuch des deutschen archdologischen
Instituts, vi. Berlin, 1891, 203), but no remains exist above
ground. The town was devastated by Totila, but seems to have
recovered. We find it under the name of Castrum Felicitatis
at the end of the 8th century. The bishopric dates from the
7th century. The town went through various political vicissi-
tudes in the middle ages, being subject now to the emperor,
now to the Church, until in 1468 it came under the Vitelli:
but when they died out it returned to the allegiance of the
Church. It is built in the form of a rectangle and surrounded
by walls of 1518. It contains fine buildings of the Renaissance,
especially the palaces of the Vitelli, and the cathedral, originally
Romanesque. The 12th-century altar front of the latter in
silver is fine. The Palazzo Comunale is of the i4th century.
Some of Raphael's earliest works were painted for churches in
this town, but none of them remains there. There is, however,
a small collection of pictures.

See Magherini Graziani, L'Arte a Citta di Castetto (1897).

CITTA VECCHIA, or CITTA NOTABILE, a fortified city of
Malta, 7 m. W. of Valletta, with which it is connected by railway.
Pop. (1901) 7515. It lies on high, sharply rising ground which
affords a view of a large part of the island. It is the seat of a
bishop, and contains an ornate cathedral, overthrown by an
earthquake in 1693, but rebuilt, which is said by an acceptable
tradition to occupy the site of the house of the governor Publius,
who welcomed the apostle Paul. It contains some rich stalls
of the 1 5th century and other objects of interest. In the rock
beneath the city there are some remarkable catacombs in part
of pre-Christian origin, but containing evidence of early Christian
burial; and a grotto, reputed to have given shelter to the apostle,
is pointed out below the church of San Paolo. Remains of
Roman buildings have been excavated in the town. About
2 m. E. of the town is the residence of the English governor,
known as the palace of S. Antonio; and at a like distance to
the south is the ancient palace of the grand masters of the order
of St John, with an extensive public garden called II Boschetto.
Citta Vecchia was called Civitas Melita by the Romans and
oldest writers, Medina (i.e. the city) by the Saracens, Notabile
(locale notabile, et insigne coronae regiae, as it is called
in a charter by Alphonso, 1428) under the Sicilian rule,
and Citta Vecchia (old city) by the knights. It was the
capital of the island till its supersession by Valletta in 1570.
(See also MALTA.)

CITTERN (also CITHERN, CITHRON, CYTHREN, CITHAREN, &c.;
Fr. cilre, cislre, cithre, guitare allemande or anglaise; Ger. Cither,
Zither (mil Hals, with neck); Ital. cetera, cetra), a medieval
stringed instrument with a neck terminating in a grotesque and
twanged by fingers or plectrum. The popularity of the cittern
was at its height in England and Germany during the i6th and

f,^ _ . __^__^___ 1 7th centuries. The cittern con-
a> S^. =: sisted of a pear-shaped body
i 3 4 similar to that of the lute but

treble mean bass tenor ... , . . .

with a flat back and sound-board

joined by ribs. The neck was provided with a fretted finger-
board; the head was curved and surmounted by a grotesque
head of a woman or of an animal. 1 The strings were of wire in

1 See Shakespeare, Love's Labour's Lost, act v. sc. 2, where Boyet
compares the countenance of Holofernes to a cittern head; John
Forde, Lovers' Melancholy (1629), act ii. sc. I, " Barbers shall wear
thee on their citterns."

pairs of unisons, known as courses, usually four in number in
England. A peculiarity of the cittern lay in the tuning of the
courses, the third course known as bass being lower than the
fourth styled tenor.

According to Vincentio Galilei (the father of the great astro-
nomer) England was the birthplace of the cittern. 1 Several
lesson books for this popular instrument were published during
the 1 7th century in England. A very rare book (of which the
British Museum does not possess a copy), The Ciltharn Schoole,
written by Anthony Holborne in 1597, is mentioned in Sir
P. Leycester's manuscript commonplace book' dated 1656,
" For the little Instrument called a Psittyrne Anthony Holborne
and Tho. Robinson were most famous of any before them and
have both of them set out a booke of Lessons for this Instrument.
Holborne has composed a Basse-parte for the Viole to play unto
the Psittyrne with those Lessons set out in his booke. These
lived about Anno Domini 1600." Thomas Robinson's New
Citharen Lessons with perfect tunings for the same from Foure course
of strings to Fourteene course, &c. (printed London, 1609, by
William Barley), contains illustrations of both kinds of instru-
ments. The fourteen-course cittern was also known in England
as Bijuga; the seven courses in pairs were stretched over the

From Thomas Robinson's New Citharen Lessons, 1609.
Four-course Cittern.

finger-board, and the seven single strings, fastened to the grot-
esque head, were stretched as in the lyre a vide alongside the
neck; all the strings rested on the one flat bridge near the tail-
piece. Robinson gives instructions for learning to play the
cittern and for reading the tablature. John Playford's Mustek's
Delight on the Cithren (London, 1666) also contains illustrations
of the instrument as well as of the viol da Gamba and Pochette;
he claims to have revived the instrument and restored it to what
it was in the reign of Queen Mary.

The cittern probably owed its popularity at this time to the
ease with which it might be mastered and used to accompany
the voice; it was one of four instruments generally found in
barbers' shops, the others being the gittern, the lute and the
virginals. The customers while waiting took down the instru-
ment from its peg and played a merry tune to pass the time. 4
We read that when Konstantijn Huygens came over to England
and was received by James I. at Bagshot, he played to the
king on the cittern (cithara), and that his performance was
duly appreciated and applauded. He tells us that, although he
learnt to play the barbiton in a few weeks with skill, he had
lessons from a master for two years on the cittern. 6 On the
occasion of a third visit he witnessed the performance of some
fine musicians and was astonished to hear a lady, mother of
twelve, singing in divine fashion, accompanying herself on the
cittern; one of these artists he calls Lanivius, the British
Orpheus, whose performance was really enchanting.

Michael Praetorius 6 gives various tunings for the cittern as

! Dialogo della musica (Florence, 1581), p. 147.

3 The musical extracts from the commonplace book were prepared
by Dr Rimbault for the Early English Text Society. Holbprne's
work is mentioned in his Bibliotheca Madrigaliana. The descriptive
list of the musical instruments in use in England during Leycester's
lifetime (about 1656) has been extracted and published by Dr F. J.
Furnivall, in Captain Cox, his Ballads and Books, or Robert Laneham's
Letter (1575), (London, 1871), pp. 65-68.

4 See Knight's London, i. 142.

* See De Vita propria sermonum inter liberos libri duo (Haarlem,
1817) and E. van der Straeten, La Musique aux Pays-Bas, ii.
348-350.

'Syntagma Musicum (1618). See also M. Mersenne, Harmonie
universelle (Paris, 1636), livre ii. prop, xv., who gives different
accordances.

400

CITY

well as an illustration (sounded an octave higher than the
notation).

French Italian 4 course Italian 6 course

eii

During the i8th century the cittern, citra or English guitar,
had twelve wire strings in six pairs of unisons tuned thus:

The introduction of the Spanish guitar, which at once leapt
into favour, gradually displaced the English variety. The
Spanish guitar had gut strings twanged by the fingers. The
last development of the cittern before its disappearance was the
addition of keys. The keyed cithara 1 was first made by Claus
& Co. of London in 1783. The keys, six in number, were
placed on the left of the sound-board, and on being depressed
they acted on hammers inside the sound-chest, which rising
through the rose sound-hole struck the strings. Sometimes
the keys were placed in a little box right over the strings, the
hammers striking from above. M. J. B. Vuillaume of Paris
possessed an Italian cetera (not keyed) by Antoine Stradivarius, 2
1700 (now in the Museum of the Conservatoire, Paris), with
twelve strings tuned in pairs of unisons to E, D, G, B, C, A,
which was exhibited in London in 1871.

The cittern of the i6th century was the result of certain
transitions which took place during the evolution of the violin
from the Greek kithara (see CITHARA).

Genealogical Table of the Cittern.
Assyrian Ketharah

Persian Rebab

Persian and Arabic
Kithara

Moorish Guitra,
Cuitra or Guitarra

Greek Kithara

Roman Cithara
or Fidicula

Arab Rebab
European Rebec

Cithara in transition or Rotta
I

Cithara in transition
or Guitar

Spanish Guitar

Guitarra Latina
or Vihuela de Mano

Ghittern

Cittern

The cittern has retained the following characteristics of the
archetype, (i) The derivation of the name, which after the
introduction of the bow was used to characterize various instru-
ments whose strings were twanged by fingers or plectrum, such
as the harp and the rotta (both known as cithara), the citola and
the zither. In an interlinear Latin and Anglo-Saxon version
of the Psalms, dated A.D. 700 (Brit. Mus., Vesp. A. i), cithara
is translated citran, from which it is not difficult to trace the
English cithron, citteran, cittarn, of the i6th century. (2) The
construction of the sound-chest with flat back and sound-board
connected by ribs. The pear-shaped outline was possibly
borrowed from the Eastern instruments, both bowed as the
rebab and twanged as the lute, so common all over Europe
during the middle ages, or more probably derived from the
kithara of the Greeks of Asia Minor, which had the corners
rounded. These early steps in the transition from the cithara
may be seen in the miniatures of the Utrecht Psalter, 3 a unique
and much-copied Carolingian MS. executed at Reims (gth
century), the illustrations of which were undoubtedly adapted
from an earlier psalter from the Christian East. The instruments
which remained true to the prototype in outline as well as in

1 See Carl Engel, Catalogue of the Exhibition of Ancient Musical
Instruments (London, 1872), Nos. 280 and 290.

1 See note above. Illustration in A. J. Hipkins, Musical Instru-
ments; Historic, Rare and Unique (Edinburgh, 1888).

' For a re'sume' of the question of the origin of this famous
psalter, and an inquiry into its bearing on the history of musical in-
struments with illustrations and facsimile reproductions, see Kathleen
Schlesinger, The Instruments of the Orchestra, part ii. " The Pre-
cursors of the Violin Family," pp. 127-166 (London, 1908-1909).

construction and in the derivation of the name were the ghittern
and the guitar, so often confused with the cittern. It is evident
that the kinship of cittern and guitar was formerly recognized,
for during the i8th century, as stated above, the cittern was
known as the English guitar to distinguish it from the Spanish
guitar. The grotesque head, popularly considered the character-
istic feature of the cittern, was probably added in the I2th
century at a time when this style of decoration was very notice-
able in other musical instruments, such as the cornet or Zinck, the
Platerspiel, the chaunter of the bagpipe, &c. The cittern of the
middle ages was also to be found in oval shape. From the I3th
century representations of the pear-shaped instrument abound in
miniatures and carvings. 4

A very clearly drawn cittern of the I4th century occurs in a MS.
treatise on astronomy (Sloane MS. 3983, Brit. Mus.) translated from
the Persian of Albumazar into Latin by Georgius Zothari Zopari
Fenduli, priest and philosopher, with a prologue and numerous
illustrations by his own hand; the cittern is here called giga in an
inscription at the side of the drawing.

References to the cittern are plentiful in the literature of the
i6th and I7th centuries. Robert Fludd ' describes it thus:
" Cistrona quae quatuor tantum chordas duplicates habet easque
cupreas et ferreas de quibus aliquid dicemus quo loco." Others are
given in the New English Dictionary, " Cittern," and in Godefroy's
Diet, de Vane, langue franc,, du IX* au XV' siecle. (K. S.)

CITY (through Fr. citt, from Lat. civitas). In the United
Kingdom, strictly speaking, " city " is an honorary title, offici-
ally applied to those towns which, in virtue of some pre-eminence
(e.g. as episcopal sees, or great industrial centres), have by
traditional usage or royal charter acquired the right to the
designation. In the United Kingdom the official style of " city "
does not necessarily involve the possession of municipal power
greater than those of the ordinary boroughs, nor indeed the
possession of a corporation at all (e.g. Ely). In the United
States and the British colonies, on the other hand, the official
application of the term " city " depends on the kind and extent
of the municipal privileges possessed by the corporations, and
charters are given raising towns to the rank of cities. Both in
France and England the word is used to distinguish the older
and central nucleus of some of the large towns, e.g. the Cite in
Paris, and the " square mile " under the jurisdiction of the lord
mayor which is the " City of London."

In common usage, however, the word implies no more than a
somewhat vague idea of size and dignity, and is loosely applied
to any large centre of population. Thus while, technically,
the City of London is quite small, London is yet properly de-
scribed as the largest city in the world. In the United States
this use of the word is still more loose, and any town, whether
technically a city or not, is usually so designated, with little
regard to its actual size or importance.

It is clear from the above that the word " city " is incapable
of any very clear and inclusive definition, and the attempt to
show that historically it possesses a meaning that clearly differ-
entiates it from " town " or " borough " has led to some contro-
versy. As the translation of the Greek TroXis or Latin civitas
it involves the ancient conception of the state or " city-state,"
i.e. of the state as not too large to prevent its government
through the body of the citizens assembled in the agora, and is
applied not to the place but to the whole body politic. From
this conception both the word and its dignified connotation are
without doubt historically derived. On the occupation of Gaul
the Gallic states and tribes were called civitates by the Romans,

4 An oval cittern and a ghittern, side by side, occur in the beautiful
13th-century Spanish MS. known as Cantigas de Santa Maria in the
Escorial. For a fine facsimile in colours see marquis de Valmar,
Real. Acad. ESQ., publ. by L. Aguado (Madrid, 1889). Repro-
ductions in black and white in Juan F. Riano, Critical and Bibliog.
Notes on Early Spanish Music (London, 1887). See also K.
Schlesinger, op. cit. fig. 167, p. 223, also boat-shaped citterns,
figs. 155 and 156, p. 197. Cittern with woman's head, I5th century,
on one of six bas-reliefs on the under parts of the seats of the choir
of the Priory church, Great Malvern, reproduced in J. Carter's
Ancient Sculptures, &c., vol. ii. pi. following p. 12. Another without
a head, ibid. pi. following p. 16, from a brass monumental plate
in St Margaret's, King's Lynn.

6 Historia utriusque Cosmi (Oppenheim, ed. 1617), i. 226.

CIUDAD BOLIVAR CIUDAD REAL

401

and subsequently the name was confined to the chief towns of
the various administrative districts. These were also the seats
of the bishops. It is thus affirmed that in France from the sth
to the i sth century the name civitas or citt was confined to such
towns as were episcopal sees, and Du Cange (Gloss, s.v. civilas)
defines that word as urbs episcopalis, and states that other
towns were termed castra or oppida. How far any such distinc-
tion can be sharply drawn may be doubted. With regard to
England no definite line can be drawn between those towns
to which the name civitas or citl is given in medieval documents
and those . called burgi or boroughs (see J. H. Round, Feudal
England, p. 338; F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book and After,
p. 183). It was, however, maintained by Coke and Blackstone
that a city is a town incorporate which is or has been the see
of a bishop. It is true, indeed, that the actual sees in England
all have a formal right to the title; the boroughs erected into
episcopal sees by Henry VIII. thereby became " cities "; but
towns such as Thetford, Sherborne and Dorchester are never
so designated, though they are regularly incorporated and were
once episcopal sees. On the other hand, it has only been since
the latter part of the iQth century that the official style of "city"
has, in the United Kingdom, been conferred by royal authority
on certain important towns which were not episcopal sees,
Birmingham in 1889 being the first to be so distinguished. It
is interesting to note that London, besides 27 boroughs, now
contains two cities, one (the City of London) outside, the other
(the City of Westminster) included in the administrative county.
For the history of the origin and development of modern city
government see BOROUGH and COMMUNE : Medieval.

CIUDAD BOLfVAR, an inland city and river port of Venezuela,
capital of the state of Bolivar, on the right bank of the Orinoco
river, 240 m. above its mouth. Pop. (1891)11,686. It stands
upon a small hill about 187 ft. above sea-level, and faces the
river where it narrows to a width of less than half a mile. The
city is largely built upon the hillside. It is the seat of the
bishopric of Guayana (founded in 1790), and is the commercial
centre of the great Orinoco basin. Among its noteworthy edifices
are the cathedral, federal college, theatre, masonic temple,
market, custom-house, and hospital. The mean temperature
is 83. The city has a public water-supply, a tramway line,
telephone service, subfluvial cable communication with Soledad
near the mouth of the Orinoco, where connexion is made with the
national land lines, and regular steamship communication with
the lower and upper Orinoco. Previous to the revolution of
1901-3 Ciudad Bolivar ranked fourth among the Venezuelan
custom-houses, but the restrictions placed upon transit trade
through West Indian ports have made her a dependency of the
La Guaira custom-house to a large extent. The principal exports
from this region include cattle, horses, mules, tobacco, cacao,
rubber, tonka beans, bitters, hides, timber and many valuable
forest products. The town was founded by Mendoza in 1764 as
San Tomas de la Nueva Guayana, but its location at this particu-
lar point on the river gave to it the popular name of Angostura,
the Spanish term for " narrows." This name was used until
1849, when that of the Venezuelan liberator was bestowed upon
it. Ciudad Bolivar played an important part in the struggle for
independence and was for a time the headquarters of the revolu-
tion. The town suffered severely in the struggle for its possession,
and the political disorders which followed greatly retarded its
growth.

CIUDAD DE CURA, an inland town of the state of Aragua,
Venezuela, 55 m. S.W. of Caracas, near the Lago de Valencia.
Pop. (1891) 12,198. The town stands in a broad, fertile valley,
between the sources of streams running southward to the Guarico
river and northward to the lake, with an elevation above sea-level
of 1598 ft. Traffic between Puerto Cabello and the Guarico
plains has passed through this town since early colonial times,
and has made it an important commercial centre, from which
hides, cheese, coffee, cacao and beans are sent down to the coast
for export ; it bears a high reputation in Venezuela for commercial
enterprise. Ciudad de Cura was founded in 1730, and suffered
severely in the war of independence.

CIUDAD JUAREZ, formerly EL PASO DEL NORTE, a northern
frontier town of Mexico, in the state of Chihuahua, 1223 m. by
rail N.N.W. of Mexico City. Pop. (1895) 6917. Ciudad Juarez
stands 3800 ft. above sea-level on the right bank of the Rio
Grande del Norte, opposite the city of El Paso, Texas, with which
it is connected by two bridges. It is the northern terminus of
the Mexican Central railway, and has a large and increasing
transit trade with the United States, having a custom-house
and a United States consulate. It is also a military post with a
small garrison. The town has a straggling picturesque appear-
ance, a considerable part of the habitations being small adobe
or brick cabins. In the fertile neighbouring district cattle are
raised, and wheat, Indian corn, fruit and grapes are grown, wine
and brandy being made. The town was founded in 1681-1682;
its present importance is due entirely to the railway. It was the
headquarters of President Juarez in 1865, and was renamed
in 1885 because of its devotion to his cause.

CIUDAD PORFIRIO DIAZ, formerly PIEDRAS NEGRAS, a
northern frontier town of Mexico in the state of Coahuila, 1008 m.
N. by W. from Mexico City, on the Rio Grande del Norte, 720 ft.
above sea-level, opposite the town of Eagle Pass, Texas. Pop.
(1900, estimate) 5000. An international bridge connects the two
towns, and the Mexican International railway has its northern
terminus in Mexico at this point. The town has an important
transfer trade with the United States, and is the centre of a
fertile district devoted to agriculture and stock-raising. Coal is
found in the vicinity. The Mexican government maintains a
custom-house and military post here. The town was founded
in 1849.

CIUDAD REAL, a province of central Spain, formed in 1833
of districts taken from New Castile, and bounded on the N.
by Toledo, E. by Albacete, S. by Jaen and Cordova and W. by
Badajoz. Pop. (1900) 321,580; area, 7620 sq. m. The surface
of Ciudad Real consists chiefly of a level or slightly undulating
plain, with low hills in the north-east and south-west; but along
the south-western frontier the Sierra de Alcudia rises in two
parallel ridges on either side of the river Alcudia, and is continued
in the Sierra Madrona on the east. The river Guadiana drains
almost the entire province, which it traverses from east to west ;
only the southernmost districts being watered by tributaries of
the Guadalquivir. Numerous smaller streams flow into the
Guadiana, which itself divides near Herencia into two branches,
the northern known as the Giguela, the southern as the Zancara.
The eastern division of Ciudad Real forms part of the region
known as La Mancha, a flat, thinly-peopled plain, clothed with
meagre vegetation which is often ravaged by locusts. La Mancha
(q.i>.) is sometimes regarded as coextensive with the whole pro-
vince. Severe drought is common here, although some of the
rivers, such as the Jabalon and Azuer, issue fully formed from
the chalky soil, and from their very sources give an abundant
supply of water to the numerous mills. Towards the west, where
the land is higher, there are considerable tracts of forest.

The climate is oppressively hot in summer, and in winter the
plains are exposed to violent and bitterly cold winds; while the
cultivation of grain, the vine and the olive is further impeded
by the want of proper irrigation, and the general barrenness of
the soil. Large flocks of sheep and goats find pasture in the
plains; and the swine which are kept in the oak and beech
forests furnish bacon and hams of excellent quality. Coal is
mined chiefly at Puertollano, lead in various districts, mercury
at Almaden. There are no great manufacturing towns. The
roads are insufficient and ill-kept, especially in the north-east
where they form the sole means of communication ; and neither
the Guadiana nor its tributaries are navigable. The main railway
from Madrid to Lisbon passes through the capital, Ciudad Real,
and through Puertollano; farther east, the Madrid-Linares line
passes through Manzanares and Valdepenas. Branch railways
also connect the capital with Manzanares, and Valdepenas with
the neighbouring town of La Calzada.

The principal towns, Alcazar de San Juan (11,499), Almaden
(7375), Almod6var del Campo (12,525), Ciudad Real (15,255),
Manzanares (11,229) an d Valdepenas (21,015), are described in

402

CIUDAD REAL CIVILIS

separate articles. Almagro (7974) and Daimiel (11,825), in the
district of La Mancha known as the Campo de Calatrava, be-
longed in the later middle ages to the knightly Order of Calatrava,
which was founded in n 58 to keep the Moors in check. Almagro
was long almost exclusively inhabited by monks and knights, and
contains several interesting churches and monasteries, besides
the castle of the knights, now used as barracks. Almagro is
further celebrated for its lace, Daimiel for its medicinal salts.
Tomelloso (13,929) is one of the chief market towns of La Mancha.
Education is very backward, largely owing to the extreme poverty
which has frequently brought the inhabitants to the verge of
famine. (See also CASTILE.)

CIUDAD REAL, the capital formerly of La Mancha, and
since 1833 of the province described above; 107 m. S.of Madrid,
on the Madrid-Badajoz-Lisbon and Ciudad Real-Manzanares
railways. Pop. (1900) 15,255. Ciudad Real lies in the midst
of a wide plain, watered on the north by the river Guadiana,
and on the south by its tributary the Jabalon. Apart from the
remnants of its 13th-century fortifications, and one Gothic
church of immense size, built without aisles, the town contains
little of interest; its public buildings town-hall, barracks,
churches, hospital and schools being in no way distinguished
above those of other provincial capitals. There are no important
local manufactures, and the trade of the town consists chiefly
in the weekly sales of agricultrual produce and live-stock.
Ciudad Real was founded by AlphonsoX. of Castile (1252-1284),
and fortified by him as a check upon the Moorish power. Its
original name of Villarreal was changed to Ciudad Real by John
VI. in 1420. During the Peninsular War a Spanish force was
defeated here by the French, on the 27th of March 1809.

CIUDAD RODRIGO, a town of western Spain, in the province
of Salamanca, situated 8 m. E. of the Portuguese frontier, on
the right bank of the river Agueda, and the railway from
Salamanca to Coimbra in Portugal. Pop. (1900) 8930. Ciudad
Rodrigo is an episcopal see, and was for many centuries an
important frontier fortress. Its cathedral dates from 1190,
but was restored in the 1 5th century. The remnants of a Roman
aqueduct, the foundations of a bridge across the Agueda, and
other remains, seem to show that Ciudad Rodrigo occupies the
site of a Roman settlement. It was founded in the I2th century
by Count Rodrigo Gonzalez, from whom its name is derived.
During the Peninsular War, it was captured by the French
under Marshal Ney, in 1810; but on the igth of January 1812
it was retaken by the British under Viscount Wellington, who,
for this exploit, was created earl of Wellington, duke of Ciudad
Rodrigo, and marquess of Torres Vedras, in Portugal.

CIVERCHIO, VINCENZO, an early 16th-century Italian painter,
born at Crema. There are altar-pieces by him at Brescia, and
at Crema the altar-piece at the duomo (1509). His "Birth of
Christ" is in the Brera, Milan; and at Lovere are other of
his works dating from 1539 and 1540.

CIVET, or properly CIVET-CAT, the designation of the more
typical representatives of the mammalian family Viverridae
(see CARNIVORA). Civets are characterized by the possession
of a deep pouch in the neighbourhood of the genital organs,
into which the substance known as civet is poured from the
glands by which it is secreted. This fatty substance is at first
semifluid and yellow, but afterwards acquires the consistency
of pomade and becomes darker. It has a strong musky odour,
exceedingly disagreeable to those unaccustomed to it, but " when
properly diluted and combined with other scents it produces
a very pleasing effect, and possesses a much more floral fragrance
than musk, indeed it would be impossible to imitate some
flowers without it." The African civet (Viverra civetta) is from
2 to 3 ft. in length, exclusive of the tail, which is half the length
of the body, and stands from 10 to 12 in. high. It is covered
with long hair, longest on the middle line of the back, where it
is capable of being raised or depressed at will, of a dark-grey
colour, with numerous transverse black bands and spots. In
habits it is chiefly nocturnal, and by preference carnivorous,
feeding on birds and the smaller quadrupeds, in pursuit of which
it climbs trees, but it is said also to eat fruits, roots and other

vegetable matters. In a state of captivity the civet is never
completely tamed, and only kept for the sake of its perfume,
which is obtained in largest quantity from the male, especially
wKen in good condition and subjected to irritation, being scraped
from the pouch with a small spoon usually twice a week. The
zibeth ( Viverra zibetha) is a widely distributed species extending
from Arabia to Malabar, and throughout several of the larger
islands of the Indian Archipelago. It is smaller than the true
civet, and wants the dorsal crest. In the wild state it does
great damage among poultry, and frequently makes off with
the young of swine and sheep. When hunted it makes a deter-
mined resistance, and emits a scent so strong as even to sicken
the dogs, who nevertheless are exceedingly fond of the sport,
and cannot be got to pursue any other game while the stench
of the zibeth is in their nostrils. In confinement, it becomes
comparatively tame, and yields civet in considerable quantity.
In preparing this for the market it is usually spread out on the
leaves of the pepper plant in order to free it from the hairs that
have become detached from the pouch. On the Malabar coast
this species is replaced by V. civettina. The small Indian civet
or rasse (Viverricula malaccensis) ranges from Madagascar
through India to China, the Malay Peninsula, and the islands
of the Archipelago. It is almost 3 ft. long including the tail,
and prettily marked with dark longitudinal stripes, and spots
which have a distinctly linear arrangement. The perfume,
which is extracted in the same way as in the two preceding
species, is highly valued and much used by the Javanese. Al-
though this animal is said to be an expert climber it usually
inhabits holes in the ground. It is frequently kept in captivity
in the East, and becomes tame. Fossil remains of extinct
civets are found in the Miocene strata of Europe.

CIVIDALE DEL FRIULI (anc. Forum Iulii),a. town of Venetia,
Italy, in the province of Udine, 10 m. E. by N. by rail from the
town of Udine; 453 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town, 4143;
commune, 9061. It is situated on the river Natisone, which
forms a picturesque ravine here. It contains some interesting
relics of the art of the 8th century. The cathedral of the isth
century contains an octagonal marble canopy with sculptures
in relief, with a font below it belonging to the 8th century, but
altered later. The high altar has a fine silver altar front of 1 185.
The museum contains various Roman and Lombard antiquities,
and valuable MSS. and works of art in gold, silver and ivory
formerly belonging to the cathedral chapter. The small church
of S. Maria in Valle belongs to the 8th century, and contains
fine decorations in stucco which probably belong to the nth
or 1 2th century. The fine isth-century Ponte del Diavolo
leads to the church of S. Martino, which contains an altar of
the 8th century with reliefs executed by order of the Lombard
king Ratchis. At Cividale were born Paulus Diaconus, the
historian of the Lombards in the time of Charlemagne, and the
actress Adelaide Ristori (1822-1906).

The Roman town (a municipium) of Forum lulii was founded
either by Julius Caesar or by Augustus, no doubt at the same
time as the construction of the Via lulia Augusta, which passed
through Utina (Udine) on its way north. After the decay of
Aquileia and lulium Camicum (Zuglio) it became the chief town
of the district of Friuli and gave its name to it. The patriarchs
of Aquileia resided here from 773 to 1031, when they returned
to Aquileia, and finally in 1238 removed to Udine. This last
change of residence was the origin of the antagonism between
Cividale and Udine, which was only terminated by their sur-
render to Venice in 1419 and 1420 respectively.

CIVILIS, CLAUDIUS, or more correctly, JULIUS, leader of the
Batavian revolt against Rome (A.D. 60-70). He was twice
imprisoned .on a charge of rebellion, and narrowly escaped
execution. During the disturbances that followed the death
of Nero, he took up arms under pretence of siding with Vespasian
and induced the inhabitants of his native country to rebel.
The Batavians, who had rendered valuable aid under the early
emperors, had been well treated in order to attach them to the
cause of Rome. They were exempt from tribute, but were
obliged to supply a large number of men for the army, and the

CIVILIZATION

403

burden of conscription and the oppressions of provincial governors
were important incentives to revolt. The Batavians were
immediately joined by several neighbouring German tribes,
the most important of whom were the Frisians. The Roman
garrisons near the Rhine were driven out, and twenty-four ships
captured. Two legions under Mummius Lupercus were defeated
at Castra Vetera (near the modern Xanten) and surrounded.
Eight cohorts of Batavian veterans joined their countrymen,
and the troops sent by Vespasian to the relief of Vetera threw in
their lot with them. The result of these accessions to the forces of
Civilis was a rising in Gaul. Hordeonius Flaccus was murdered
by his troops (70), and the whole of the Roman forces were in-
duced by two commanders of the Gallic auxiliaries Julius
Classicus and Julius Tutor to revolt from Rome and join
Civilis. The whole of Gaul thus practically declared itself
independent, and the foundation of a new kingdom of Gaul
was contemplated. The prophetess Velleda predicted the com-
plete success of Civilis and the fall of the Roman Empire. But
disputes broke out amongst the different tribes and rendered
co-operation impossible; Vespasian, having successfully ended
the civil war, called upon Civilis to lay down his arms, and on
his refusal resolved to take strong measures for the suppression
of the revolt. The arrival of Petillius Cerialis with a strong force
awed the Gauls and mutinous troops into submission; Civilis was
defeated at Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Treves) and Vetera,
and forced to withdraw to the island of the Batavians. He
finally came to an agreement with Cerialis whereby his country-
men obtained certain advantages, and resumed amicable
relations with Rome. From this time Civilis disappears from

history.

The chief authority for the history of the insurrection is Tacitus,
Historiae, iv., v. , whose account breaks off at the beginning of Civilis' s
speech to Cerialis; see also Josephus, Bellum Judaicum, vii. 4.
There is a monograph by E. Meyer, Der Freiheitskrieg der Bataver
unler Civilis (1856); see also Merivale, Hist, of the Romans under
the Empire, ch. 58; H. Schiller, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit,
bk. ii. ch. 2, 54(1883).

CIVILIZATION. The word " civilization " is an obvious
derivative of the Lat. civis, a citizen, and civilis, pertaining to
a citizen. Etymologically speaking, then, it would be putting no
undue strain upon the word to interpret it as having to do with
the entire period of human progress since mankind attained
sufficient intelligence and social unity to develop a system of
government. But in practice " civilization " is usually inter-
preted in a somewhat narrower sense, as having application
solely to the most recent and comparatively brief period of time
that has elapsed since the most highly developed races of men
have used systems of writing. This restricted usage is probably
explicable, in part at least, by the fact that the word, though
distinctly modern in origin, is nevertheless older than the inter-
pretation of social evolution that now finds universal acceptance.
Only very recently has it come to be understood that primitive
societies vastly antedating the historical period had attained
relatively high stages of development and fixity, socially and
politically. Now that this is understood, however, nothing but
an arbitrary and highly inconvenient restriction of meanings
can prevent us from speaking of the citizens of these early
societies as having attained certain stages of civilization. It will
be convenient, then, in outlining the successive stages of human
progress here, to include under the comprehensive term " civiliza-
tion " those long earlier periods of " savagery " and " barbarism "
as well as the more recent period of higher development to which
the word " civilization " is sometimes restricted.

Adequate proof that civilization as we now know it is the
result of a long, slow process of evolution was put forward not

long after the middle of the ipth century by the
savagery s t u dents of palaeontology and of prehistoric archaeo-
barism. l8y- A recognition of the fact that primitive man

used implements of chipped flint, of polished stone,
and of the softer metals for successive ages, before he attained
a degree of technical skill and knowledge that would enable
him to smelt iron, led the Danish archaeologists to classify the
stages of human progress under these captions: the Rough

Stone Age; the Age of Polished Stone; the Age of Bronze;
and the Age of Iron. These terms acquired almost universal
recognition, and they retain popularity as affording a very broad
outline of the story of human progress. It is obviously desirable,
lowever, to fill in the outlines of the story more in detail.
To some extent it has been possible to do so, largely through
the efforts of ethnologists who have studied the social condi-
tions of existing races of savages. A recognition of the principle
that, broadly speaking, progress has everywhere been achieved
along the same lines and through the same sequence of changes,
makes it possible to interpret the past history of the civilized
races of to-day in the light of the present-day conditions of other
races that are still existing under social and political conditions
of a more primitive type. Such races as the Maoris and the
American Indians have furnished invaluable information to
the student of social evolution; and the knowledge thus gained
has been extended and fortified by the ever-expanding researches
of the palaeontologist and archaeologist.

Thus it has become possible to present with some confidence
a picture showing the successive stages of human development
during the long dark period when our prehistoric ancestor was
advancing along the toilsome and tortuous but on the whole
always uprising path from lowest savagery to the stage of relative
enlightenment at which we find him at the so-called "dawnings
of history." That he was for long ages a savage before he
attained sufficient culture to be termed, in modern phraseology,
a barbarian, admits of no question. Equally little in doubt is It
that other long ages of barbarism preceded the final ascent
to civilization. The precise period of time covered by these
successive " Ages " is of course only conjectural; but something
like one hundred thousand years may perhaps be taken as a
safe minimal estimate. At the beginning of this long period,
the most advanced race of men must be thought of as a pro-
miscuous company of pre-troglodytic mammals, at least partially
arboreal in habit, living on uncooked fruits and vegetables, and
possessed of no arts and crafts whatever nor even of the know-
ledge of the rudest implement. At the end of the period, there
emerges into the more or less clear light of history a large-
brained being, living in houses of elaborate construction, supply-
ing himself with divers luxuries through the aid of a multitude
of elaborate handicrafts, associated with his fellows under the
sway of highly organized governments, and satisfying aesthetic
needs through the practice of pictorial and literary arts of a
high order. How was this amazing transformation brought
about?

If an answer can be found to that query, we shall have a clue
to all human progress, not only during the prehistoric but also
during the historic periods; for we may well believe
that recent progress has not departed from the scheme
of development impressed on humanity during that
long apprenticeship. Ethnologists believe that an
answer can be found. They believe that the metamorphosis from
beast-like savage to cultured civilian may be proximally ex-
plained (certain potentialities and attributes of the species being
taken for granted) as the result of accumulated changes that
found their initial impulses in a half-dozen or so of practical
inventions. Stated thus, the explanation seems absurdly simple.
Confessedly it supplies only a proximal, not a final, analysis
of the forces impelling mankind along the pathway of progress.
But it has the merit of tangibility; it presents certain highly
important facts of human history vividly: and it furnishes a
definite and fairly satisfactory basis for marking successive stages
of incipient civilization.

In outlining the story of primitive man's advancement, upon
such a basis, we may follow the scheme of one of the most
philosophical of ethnologists, Lewis H. Morgan, who made a
provisional analysis of the prehistoric period that still remains
among the most satisfactory attempts in this direction. Morgan '
divides the entire epoch of man's progress from bestiality to
civilization into six successive periods, which he names respec-
tively the Older, Middle and Later periods of Savagery, and
the Older, Middle and Later periods of Barbarism.

404

CIVILIZATION

The first of these periods, when mankind was in the lower
status of savagery, comprises the epoch when articulate speech
A was being developed. Our ancestors of this epoch
inhabited a necessarily restricted tropical territory,
and subsisted upon raw nuts and fruits. They had no know-
ledge of the uses of fire. All existing races of men had advanced
beyond this condition before the opening of the historical period.

The Middle Period of Savagery began with a knowledge of the
uses of fire. This wonderful discovery enabled the developing
. race to extend its habitat almost indefinitely, and to

include flesh, and in particular fish, in its regular
dietary. Man could now leave the forests, and wander along
the shores and rivers, migrating to climates less enervating
than those to which he had previously been confined. Doubtless
he became an expert fisher, but he was as yet poorly equipped
for hunting, being provided, probably, with no weapon more
formidable than a crude hatchet and a roughly fashioned spear.
The primitive races of Australia and Polynesia had not advanced
beyond this middle status of savagery when they were discovered
a few generations ago. It is obvious, then, that in dealing with
the further progress of nascent civilization we have to do with
certain favoured portions of the race, which sought out new
territories and developed new capacities while many tribes of
their quondam peers remained static and hence by comparison
seemed to retrograde.

The next great epochal discovery, in virtue of which a portion
of the race advanced to the Upper Status of Savagery, was that
of the bow and arrow, a truly wonderful implement.
arrow!"* The possessor of this device could bring down the
fleetest animal and could defend himself against the
most predatory. He could provide himself not only with food
but with materials for clothing and for tent-making, and thus
could migrate at will back from the seas and large rivers, and
far into inhospitable but invigorating temperate and sub-Arctic
regions. The meat diet, now for the first time freely available,
probably contributed, along with the stimulating climate, to
increase the physical vigour and courage of this highest savage,
thus urging him along the paths of progress. Nevertheless
many tribes came thus far and no further, as witness the Atha-
pascans of the Hudson's Bay Territory and the Indians of the
valley of the Columbia.

We now come to the marvellous discovery that enabled our
ancestor to make such advances upon the social conditions of
Pottery hk forbears as to entitle him, in the estimate of his
remote descendants, to be considered as putting
savagery behind him and as entering upon the Lower Status of
Barbarism. The discovery in question had to do with the
practice of the art of making pottery (see CERAMICS). Hitherto
man had been possessed of no permanent utensils that could
withstand the action of fire. He could not readily boil water
except by some such cumbersome method as the dropping of
heated stones into a wooden or skin receptacle. The effect
upon his dietary of having at hand earthen vessels in which
meat and herbs could be boiled over a fire must have been
momentous. Various meats and many vegetables become
highly palatable when boiled that are almost or quite inedible
when merely roasted before a fire. Bones, sinews and even
hides may be made to give up a modicum of nutriment in this
way; and doubtless barbaric man, before whom starvation
always loomed threateningly, found the crude pot an almost
perennial refuge. And of course its use as a cooking utensil
was only one of many ways in which the newly discovered
mechanism exerted a civilizing influence.

The next great progressive movement, which carried man
into the Middle Status of Barbarism, is associated with the
Domestic domes . ticat i n of animals in the Eastern hemisphere,
animals. and ^h the use f irrigation in cultivating the soil and
of adobe bricks and stone in architecture in the Western
hemisphere. The dog was probably the first animal to be
domesticated, but the sheep, the ox, the camel and the horse
were doubtless added in relatively rapid succession, so soon
as the idea that captive animals could be of service had been

Iron.

clearly conceived. Man now became a herdsman, no longer
dependent for food upon the precarious chase of wild animals.
Milk, procurable at all seasons, made a highly important addition
to his dietary. With the aid of camel and horse he could traverse
wide areas hitherto impassable, and come in contact with
distant peoples. Thus commerce came to play an extended
r61e in the dissemination of both commodities and ideas. In
particular the nascent civilization of the Mediterranean region
fell heir to numerous products of farther Asia, gums, spices,
oils, and most important of all, the cereals. The cultivation of
the latter gave the finishing touch to a comprehensive and
varied diet, while emphasizing the value of a fixed abode. For
the first time it now became possible for large numbers of people
to form localized communities. A natural consequence was
the elaboration of political systems, which, however, proceeded
along lines already suggested by the experience of earlier epochs.
All this tended to establish and emphasize the idea of nation-
ality, based primarily on blood-relationship; and at the same
time to develop within the community itself the idea of property,
that is to say, of valuable or desirable commodities which have
come into the possession of an individual through his enterprise
or labour, and which should therefore be subject to his voluntary
disposal. At an earlier stage of development, all property had
been of communal, not of individual, ownership. It appears, then,
that our mid-period barbarian had attained if the verbal con-
tradiction be permitted a relatively high stage of civilization.

There remained, however, one master craft of which he had
no conception. This was the art of smelting iron. When,
ultimately, his descendants learned the wonderful
secrets of that art, they rose in consequence to the
Upper Status of Barbarism. This culminating practical inven-
tion, it will be observed, is the first of the great discoveries
with which we have to do that was not primarily concerned
with the question of man's food supply. Iron, to be sure, has
abundant uses in the same connexion, but its most direct and
obvious utilities have to do with weapons of war and with
implements calculated to promote such arts of peace as house-
building, road-making and the construction of vehicles. Wood
and stone could now be fashioned as never before. Houses
could be built and cities walled with unexampled facility; to
say nothing of the making of a multitude of minor implements
and utensils hitherto quite unknown, or at best rare and costly.
Nor must we overlook the aesthetic influence of edged imple-
ments, with which wood and stone could readily be sculptured
when placed in the hands of a race that had long been accustomed
to scratch the semblance of living forms on bone or ivory and to
fashion crude images of clay. In a word, man, the " tool-making
animal," was now for the first time provided with tools worthy
of his wonderful hands and yet more wonderful brain.

Thus through the application of one revolutionary invention
after another, the most advanced races of men had arrived,
after long ages of effort, at a relatively high stage of development.
A very wide range of experiences had enabled man to evolve
a complex body politic, based on a fairly secure social basis,
and his brain had correspondingly developed into a relatively
efficient and stable organ of thought. But as yet he had devised
no means of communicating freely with other people at a distance
except through the medium of verbal messages; nor had he
any method by which he could transmit his experiences to
posterity more securely than by fugitive and falh'ble oral tradi-
tions. A vague symbolization of his achievements was preserved
from generation to generation in myth-tale and epic, but he
knew not how to make permanent record of his history. Until
he could devise a means to make such record, he must remain,
in the estimate of his descendants, a barbarian, though he might
be admitted to have become a highly organized and even in
broad sense a cultured being.

At length, however, this last barrier was broken. Some rac
or races devised a method of symbolizing events and ultimately
of making even abstruse ideas tangible by means of writing.
graphic signs. In other words, a system of writing
was developed. Man thus achieved a virtual conquest over time

CIVILIZATION

405

as he had earlier conquered space. He could now transmit
the record of his deeds and his thoughts to remote posterity.
Thus he stood at the portals of what later generations would term
secure history. He had graduated out of barbarism, and become
in the narrower sense of the word a civilized being. Henceforth,
his knowledge, his poetical dreamings, his moral aspirations
might be recorded in such form as to be read not merely by his
contemporaries but by successive generations of remote posterity.
The inspiring character of such a message is obvious. The validity
of making this great culminating intellectual achievement the
test of " civilized " existence need not be denied. But we should
ill comprehend the character of the message which the earlier
generations of civilized beings transmit to us from the period
which we term the " dawning of history " did we not bear
constantly in mind the long series of progressive stages of
" savagery " and ", barbarism " that of necessity preceded the
final stage of " civilization " proper. The achievements of
those earlier stages afforded the secure foundation for the pro-
gress of the future. A multitude of minor arts, in addition
to the important ones just outlined, had been developed; and
for a long time civilized man was to make no other epochal
addition to the list of accomplishments that came to him as a
heritage from his barbaric progenitor. Indeed, even to this
day the list of such additions is not a long one, nor, judged in
the relative scale, so important as might at first thought be
supposed. Whoever considers the subject carefully must admit
the force of Morgan's suggestion that man's achievements as a
barbarian, considered in their relation to the sum of human
progress, " transcend, in relative importance, all his subsequent
works."

Without insisting on this comparison, however, let us ask
what discoveries and inventions man has made within the
historical period that may fairly be ranked with the half-dozen
great epochal achievements that have been put forward as
furnishing the keys to all the progress of the prehistoric periods.
In other words, let us sketch the history of progress during the ten
thousand years or so that have elapsed since man learned the
art of writing, adapting our sketch to the same scale which we
have already applied to the unnumbered millenniums of the pre-
historic period. The view of world-history thus outlined will be
a very different one from what might be expected by the student
of national history; but it will present the essentials of the
progress of civilization in a suggestive light.

Without pretending to fix an exact date, which the historical
records do not at present permit, we may assume that the
most advanced race of men elaborated a system of
vUiza- wr j t ; ng not i ess tnan s j x thousand years before the
beginning of the Christian era. Holding to the
terminology already suggested for the earlier periods,
we may speak of man's position during the ensuing generations
as that of the First or Lowest Status of civilization. If we review
the history of this period we shall find that it extends unbroken
over a stretch of at least four or five thousand years. During
the early part of this period such localized civilizations as those
of the Egyptians, the Sumerians, the Babylonians and the Hittites
rose, grew strong and passed beyond their meridian. This sug-
gests that we must now admit the word " civilization " to yet
another definition, within its larger meaning: we must speak
of " a civilization," as that of Egypt, of Babylonia, of Assyria,
and we must understand thereby a localized phase of society bear-
ing the same relation to civilization as a 'whole that a wave bears
to the ocean or a tree to the forest. Such other localized civiliza-
tions as those of Phoenicia, Carthage, Greece, Rome, Byzantium,
the Sassanids, in due course waxed and waned, leaving a tre-
mendous imprint on national history, but creating only minor
and transitory ripples in the great ocean of civilization . Progress
the elaboration of the details of earlier methods and inventions
took place as a matter of course. Some nation, probably the
Phoenicians, gave a new impetus to the art of writing by develop-
a phonetic alphabet; but this achievement, remarkable as
it was in itself, added nothing fundamental to human capacity.
Literatures had previously flourished through the use of hiero-

tlon
proper.

glyphic and syllabic symbols; and the Babylonian syllables
continued in vogue throughout western Asia for a long time
after the Phoenician alphabet had demonstrated its intrinsic
superiority.

Similarly the art of Egyptian and Assyrian and Greek was but
the elaboration and perfection of methods that barbaric man
had practised away back in the days when he was a cave-dweller.
The weapons of warfare of Greek and Roman were the spear
and the bow and arrow that their ancestors had used in the period
of savagery, aided by sword and helmet dating from the upper
period of barbarism. Greek and Roman government at their
best were founded upon the system of gentes that barbaric man
had profoundly studied, as witness, for example, the federal
system of the barbaric Iroquois Indians existing in America
before the coming of Columbus. And if the Greeks had better
literature, the Romans better roads and larger cities, than their
predecessors, these are but matters of detailed development,
the like of which had marked the progress of the more important
arts and the introduction of less important ancillary ones in
each antecedent period. The axe of steel is no new implement,
but a mere perfecting of the axe of chipped flint. The Iliad
represents the perfecting of an art that unnumbered generations
of barbarians practised before their camp-fires.

Thus for six or seven thousand years after man achieved
civilization there was rhythmic progress in many lines, but there
came no great epochal invention to usher in a new Onat
ethnic period. Then, towards the close of what inventions
historians of to-day are accustomed to call the middle of the
ages, there appeared in rapid sequence three or four
inventions and a great scientific discovery that, taken
together, were destined to change the entire aspect of European
civilization. The inventions were gunpowder, the mariner's
compass, paper and the printing-press, three of which appear to
have been brought into Europe by the Moors, whether or not
they originated in the remote East. The scientific discovery
which must be coupled with these inventions was the Copernican
demonstration that the sun and not the earth is the centre of our
planetary system. The generations of men that found them-
selves (i) confronted with the revolutionary conception of the
universe given by the Copernican theory; (2) supplied with the
new means of warfare provided by gunpowder; (3) equipped
with an undreamed-of guide across the waters of the earth; and
(4) enabled to promulgate knowledge with unexampled speed and
cheapness through the aid of paper and printing-press such
generations of men might well be said to have entered upon a new
ethnic period. The transition in their mode of thought and in
their methods of practical life was as great as can be supposed
to have resulted, in an early generation, from the introduction
of iron, or in a yet earlier from the invention of the bow and
arrow. So the Europeans of about the isth century of the
Christian era may be said to have entered upon the Second or
Middle Status of civilization.

The new period was destined to be a brief one. It had com-
passed only about four hundred years when, towards the close
of the i8th century, James Watt gave to the world
the perfected steam-engine. Almost contemporane-
ously Arkwright and Hargreaves developed revolu-
tionary processes of spinning and weaving by machinery.
Meantime James Hutton and William Smith and their successors
on the one hand, and Erasmus Darwin, Francois Lamarck, and
(a half-century later) Charles Darwin on the other, turned men's
ideas topsy-turvy by demonstrating that the world as the
abiding-place of animals and man is enormously old, and that
man himself instead of deteriorating from a single perfect pair
six thousand years removed, has ascended from bestiality through
a slow process of evolution extending over hundreds of centuries.
The revolution in practical life and in the mental life of our race
that followed these inventions and this new presentation of
truth probably exceeded in suddenness and in its far-reaching
effects the metamorphosis effected at any previous transition
from one ethnic period to another. The men of the igth century,
living now in the period that may be termed the Upper Status

406

CIVILIZATION

of civilization, saw such changes effected in the practical affairs
of their everyday lives as had not been wrought before during the
entire historical period. Their fathers had travelled in vehicles
drawn by horses, quite as their remoter ancestors had done since
the time of higher barbarism. It may be doubted whether
there existed in the world in the year 1800 a postal service that
could compare in speed and efficiency with the express service
of the Romans of the time of Caesar; far less was there a tele-
graph service that could compare with that of the ancient
Persians. Nor was there a ship sailing the seas that a Phoenician
trireme might not have overhauled. But now within the
lifetime of a single man the world was covered with a network
of steel rails on which locomotives drew gigantic vehicles, laden
with passengers at an hourly speed almost equalling Caesar's
best journey of a day; over the land and under the seas were
stretched wires along which messages coursed from continent
to continent literally with the speed of lightning; and the waters
of the earth were made to teem with gigantic craft propelled
without sail or oar at a speed which the Phoenician captain of
three thousand years ago and the English captain of the i8th
century would alike have held incredible.

There is no need to give further details here of the industrial
revolutions that have been achieved in this newest period of
Soclalaad civilization, since in their broader outlines at least
political they are familiar to every one. Nor need we dwell
organize- upon the revolution in thought whereby man has for
the first time been given a clear inkling as to his
origin and destiny. It suffices to point out that such periods
of fermentation of ideas as this suggests have probably always
been concomitant with those outbursts of creative genius that
gave the world the practical inventions upon which human
progress has been conditioned. The same attitude of receptivity
to new ideas is pre-requisite to one form of discovery as to the
other. Nor, it may be added, can either form of idea become
effective for the progress of civilization except in proportion as a
large body of any given generation are prepared to receive it.
Doubtless here and there a dreamer played with fire, in a literal
sense, for generations before the utility of fire as a practical aid
to human progress came to be recognized in practice. And
to seek an illustration at the other end of the scale we know
that the advanced thinkers of Greece and Rome believed in the
antiquity of the earth and in the evolution of man two thousand
years before the coming of Darwin. We have but partly solved
the mysteries of the progress of civilization, then, when we have
pointed out that each tangible stage of progress owed its initiative
to a new invention or discovery of science. To go to the root
of the matter we must needs explain how it came about that a
given generation of men was in mental mood to receive the new
invention or discovery.

The pursuit of this question would carry us farther into the
realm of communal and racial psychology to say nothing of
the realm of conjecture than comports with the purpose of
this article. It must suffice to point out that alertness of mind
that all mentality is, in the last analysis, a reaction to the
influences of the environment. It follows that man may subject
himself to new influences and thus give his mind a new stimulus
by changing his habitat. A fundamental secret of progress is
revealed in this fact. Man probably never would have evolved
from savagery had he remained in the Tropics where he doubtless
originated. But successive scientific inventions enabled him,
as has been suggested, to migrate to distant latitudes, and thus
more or less involuntarily to become the recipient of new creative
and progressive impulses. After migrations in many directions
had resulted in the development of divers races, each with
certain capacities and acquirements due to its unique environ-
ment, there was opportunity for the apph'cation of the principle
of environmental stimulus in an indirect way, through the
mingling and physical intermixture of one race with another.
Each of the great localized civilizations of antiquity appears
to have owed its prominence in part at least perhaps very
largely to such intermingling of two or more races. Each
of these civilizations began to decay so soon as the nation had

remained for a considerable number of generations in its localized
environment, and had practically ceased to receive accretions
from distant races at approximately the same stage of develop-
ment. There is a suggestive lesson for present-day civiliza-
tion in that thought-compelling fact. Further evidence of the
application of the principle of environmental stimulus, operating
through changed habitat and racial intermixture, is furnished
by the virility of the colonial peoples of our own day. The
receptiveness to new ideas and the rapidity of material progress
of Americans, South Africans and Australians are proverbial.
No one doubts, probably, that one or another of these countries
will give a new stimulus to the progress of civilization, through
the promulgation of some great epochal discovery, in the not
distant future. Again, the value of racial intermingling is
shown yet nearer home in the long-continued vitality of the
British nation, which is explicable, hi some measure at least', by
the fact that the Celtic element held aloof from the Anglo-Saxon
element century after century sufficiently to maintain racial
integrity, yet mingled sufficiently to give and receive the fresh
stimulus of " new blood." It is interesting in this connexion
to examine the map of Great Britain with reference to the
birthplaces of the men named above as being the originators
of the inventions and discoveries that made the close of the i8th
century memorable as ushering in a new ethnic era. It may be
added that these names suggest yet another element in the
causation of progress: the fact, namely, that, however necessary
racial receptivity may be to the dynamitic upheaval of a new
ethnic era, it is after all individual genius that applies its
detonating spark.

Without further elaboration of this aspect of the subject
it may be useful to recapitulate the analysis of the evolution
of civilization above given, prior to characterizing
it from another standpoint. It appears that the entire Nlae

. , . , periods of

period of human progress up to the present may be progress.
divided into nine periods which, if of necessity more
or less arbitrary, yet are not without certain warrant of logic.
They may be defined as follows: (i) The Lower Period of
Savagery, terminating with the discovery and application of the
uses of fire. (2) The Middle Period of Savagery, terminating
with the invention of the bow and arrow. (3) The Upper Period
of Savagery, terminating with the invention of pottery. (4) The
Lower Period of Barbarism, terminating with the domestication
of animals. (5) The Middle Period of Barbarism, terminating
with the discovery of the process of smelting iron ore. (6) The
Upper Period of Barbarism, terminating with the development
of a system of writing meeting the requirements of literary
composition. (7) The First Period of Civilization (proper)
terminating with the introduction of gunpowder. (8) The Second
Period of Civilization, terminating with the invention of a
practical steam-engine. (9) The Upper Period of Civilization,
which is still in progress, but which, as will be suggested hi a
moment, is probably nearing its termination.

It requires but a glance at the characteristics of these successive
epochs to show the ever-increasing complexity of the inventions
that delimit them and of the conditions of life that they
connote. Were we to attempt to characterize in a few phrases the
entire story of achievement thus outlined, we might say that
during the three stages of Savagery man was attempting to make
himself master of the geographical climates. His unconscious
ideal was, to gain a foothold and the means of subsistence in
every zone. During the three periods of Barbarism the ideal
of conquest was extended to the beasts of the field, the vegetable
world, and the mineral contents of the earth's crust. During the
three periods of Civilization proper the ideal of conquest has
become still more intellectual and subtle, being now extended
to such abstractions as an analysis of speech-sounds, and to such
intangibles as expanding gases and still more elusive electric
currents: in other words, to the forces of nature, no less than
to tangible substances. Hand in hand with this growing
complexity of man's relations with the external world has
gone a like increase of complexity in the social and political
organizations that characterize man's relations with his fellow-

CIVILIZATION

407

men. In savagery the family expanded into the tribe; in
barbarism the tribe developed into the nation. The epoch of
civilization proper is aptly named, because it has been a time in
which citizenship, in the narrower national significance, has
probably been developed to its apogee. Throughout this period,
in every land, the highest virtue has been considered to be
patriotism, by which must be understood an instinctive
willingness on the part of every individual to defend even with
his life the interests of the nation into which he chances to be
born, regardless of whether the national cause in which he struggles
be in any given case good or bad, right or wrong. The communal
judgment of this epoch pronounces any man a traitor who will
not uphold his own nation even in a wrong cause and the word
" traitor " marks the utmost brand of ignominy.

But while the idea of nationality has thus been accentuated,
there has been a never-ending struggle within the bounds of the
Nation- nat ' on itself to adjust the relations of one citizen to
aiity and another. The ideas that might makes right, that the
cosmo- strong man must dominate the weak, that leadership
j n jjjg commun jty properly belongs to the man who is
physically most competent to lead these ideas were
a perfectly natural, and indeed an inevitable, outgrowth of the
conditions under which man fought his way up through savagery
and barbarism. Man in the first period of civilization inherited
these ideas, along with the conditions of society that were their
concomitants. So throughout the periods when the oriental
civilizations of Egypt and Babylonia and Assyria and Persia
were dominant, a despotic form of government was accepted
as the natural order of things. It does not appear that any other
form was even considered as a practicality. A despot might
indeed be overthrown, but only to make way for the coronation
of another despot. A little later the Greeks and Romans modified
the conception of a heaven-sent individual monarch; but they
went no further than to substitute a heaven-favoured community,
with specially favoured groups (Patricii) within the community.
With this, national egoism reached its climax; for each people
regarded its own citizens as the only exemplars of civilization,
openly branding all the rest of the world as "barbarians," fit
subjects for the exaction of tribute or for the imposition of the
bonds of actual slavery. During the middle ages there was a
reaction towards individualism as opposed to nationalism:
but the entire system of feudalism, with its clearly recognized
conditions of over-lordship and of vassaldom, gave expression,
no less clearly than oriental despotism and classical "demo-
cracy " had done, to the idea of individual inequality; of
divergence of moral and legal status based on natural inheritance.
Thus this idea, a reminiscence of barbarism, maintained its
dominance throughout the first period of civilization.

But gunpowder, marking the transition to the second period
of civilization, came as a great levelling influence. With its aid
the weakest peasant might prove more than a match for the most
powerful knight. Before its assaults the castle of the lord ceased
to be an impregnable fortress. And while gunpowder thus
levelled down the power of the mighty, the printing-press levelled
up the intelligence, and hence the power and influence of the
lowly. Meantime the mariner's compass opened up new terri-
tories beyond the seas, and in due course men of lowly origin were
seen to attain to wealth and power through commercial pursuits,
thus tending to break in upon the established social order. In
the colonial territories themselves all men were subjected more
or less to the same perils and dependent upon their own efforts.
Success and prominence in the community came not as a birth-
right, but as the result of demonstrated fitness. The great
lesson that the interests of all members of a community are,
in the last analysis, mutual could be more clearly distinguished
in these small colonies than in larger and older bodies politic.
Through various channels, therefore, in the successive genera-
tions of this middle period of civilization, the idea gained ground
that intelligence and moral worth, rather than physical prowess,
should be the test of greatness; that it is incumbent on the strong
in the interests of the body politic to protect the weak; and that,
in the long run, the best interests of the community are conserved

if all its members, without exception, are given moral equality
before the law. This idea of equal rights and privileges for all
members of the community for each individual " the greatest
amount of liberty consistent with a like liberty of every other
individual " first found expression as a philosophical doctrine
towards the close of the i8th century; at which time also tenta-
tive efforts were made to put it into practice. It may be said
therefore to represent the culminating sociological doctrine of
the middle period of civilization, the ideal towards which all
the influences of the period had tended to impel the race.

It will be observed, however, that this ideal of individual
equality within the body politic in no direct wise influences the
status of the body politic itself as the centre of a localized
civilization that may be regarded as in a sense antagonistic to
all other similarly localized civilizations. If there were any such
influence, it would rather operate in the direction of accentuating
the patriotism of the member of a democratical community, as
against that of the subject of a despot, through the sense of
personal responsibility developed in the former. The develop-
ments of the middle period of civilization cannot be considered,
therefore, to have tended to decrease the spirit of nationality,
with its concomitant penalty of what is sometimes called pro-
vincialism. The history of this entire period, as commonly
presented, is largely made up of the records of international
rivalries and jealousies, perennially culminating in bitterly
contested wars. It was only towards the close of the epoch that
the desirability of free commercial intercourse among nations
began to find expression as a philosophical creed through the
efforts of Quesnay and his followers; and the doctrine that both
parties to an international commercial transaction are gainers
thereby found its first clear expression in the year 1776 in the
pages of Condillac and of Adam Smith.

But the discoveries that ushered in the third period of civiliza-
tion were destined to work powerfully from the outset for the
breaking down of international barriers, though, of course,
their effects would not be at once manifest. Thus the substitu-
tion of steam power for water power, besides giving a tremendous
impetus to manufacturing in general, mapped out new industrial
centres in regions that nature had supplied with coal but not
always with other raw materials. To note a single result,
England became the manufacturing centre of the world, drawing
its raw materials from every corner of the globe; but in so
doing it ceased to be self-supporting as regards the production
of food-supplies. While growing in national wealth, as a result
of the new inventions, England has therefore lost immeasurably
in national self-sufficiency and independence; having become
in large measure dependent upon other countries both for the
raw materials without which her industries must perish and for
the foods to maintain the very life of her people.

What is true of England in this regard is of course true in
greater or less measure of all other countries. Everywhere,
thanks to the new mechanisms that increase industrial efficiency,
there has been an increasing tendency to specialization; and
since the manufacturer must often find his raw materials in one
part of the world and his markets in another, this implies
an ever-increasing intercommunication and interdependence
between the nations. This spirit is obviously fostered by the
new means of transportation by locomotive and steamship, and
by the electric communication that enables the Londoner, for
example, to transact business in New York or in Tokio with
scarcely an hour's delay; and that puts every one in touch at
to-day's breakfast table with the happenings of the entire world.
Thanks to the new mechanisms, national isolation is no longer
possible; globe-trotting has become a habit with thousands of
individuals of many nations; and Or'.ent and Occident, repre-
senting civilizations that for thousands of years were almost
absolutely severed and mutually oblivious of each other, have
been brought again into close touch for mutual education and
betterment. The Western mind has learned with amazement
that the aforetime Terra Incognita of the far East has nurtured
a gigantic civilization having ideals in many ways far different
from our own. The Eastern mind has proved itself capable, in

408

CIVILIZATION

self-defence, of absorbing the essential practicalities of Western
civilization within a single generation. Some of the most
important problems of world-civilization of the immediate
future hinge upon the mutual relations of these two long-severed
communities, branched at some early stage of progress to
opposite hemispheres of the globe, but now brought by the new
mechanisms into daily and even hourly communication.

While the new conditions of the industrial world have thus

tended to develop a new national outlook, there has come about,

as a result of the scientific discoveries already referred

Modem . & nQ j egs s jg n ifi can t broadening of the mental and

Humanism. f * *

spiritual horizons. Here also the trend is away from
the narrowly egoistic and towards the cosmopolitan view.
About the middle of the ipth century Dr Pritchard declared
that many people debated whether it might not be permissible
for the Australian settlers to shoot the natives as food for their
dogs; some of the disputants arguing that savages were without
the pale of human brotherhood. To-day the thesis that all
mankind are one brotherhood needs no defence. The most
primitive of existing aborigines are regarded merely as brethren
who, through some defect or neglect of opportunity, have lagged
behind in the race. Similarly the defective and criminal classes
that make up so significant a part of the population of even
our highest present-day civilizations, are no longer regarded
with anger or contempt, as beings who are suffering just punish-
ment for wilful transgressions, but are considered as pitiful
victims of hereditary and environmental influences that they
could neither choose nor control. Insanity is no longer thought
of as demoniac possession, but as the most lamentable of diseases.

The changed attitude towards savage races and defective
classes affords tangible illustrations of a fundamental transforma-
tion of point of view which doubtless represents the most import-
ant result of the operation of new scientific knowledge in the
course of the igth century. It is a transformation that is only
partially effected as yet, to be sure; but it is rapidly making
headway, and when fully achieved it will represent, probably,
the most radical metamorphosis of mental view that has taken
place in the entire course of the historical period. The essence
of the new view is this: to recognize the universality and the
invariability of natural law; stated otherwise, to understand
that the word " supernatural " involves a contradiction of
terms and has in fact no meaning. Whoever has grasped the
full import of this truth is privileged to sweep mental horizons
wider by far than ever opened to the view of any thinker of an
earlier epoch. He is privileged to forecast, as the sure heritage
of the future, a civilization freed from the last ghost of supersti-
tion an Age of Reason in which mankind shall at last find
refuge from the hosts of occult and invisible powers, the fearsome
galaxies of deities and demons, which have haunted him thus
far at every stage of his long journey through savagery, barbar-
ism and civilization. Doubtless here and there a thinker, even in
the barbaric eras, may have realized that these ghosts that so
influenced the everyday lives of his fellows were but children
of the imagination. But the certainty that such is the case
could not have come with the force of demonstration even to
the most clear-sighted thinker until igth-century science had
investigated with penetrating vision the realm of molecule
and atom; had revealed the awe-inspiring principle of the
conservation of energy; and had offered a comprehensible
explanation of the evolution of one form of life from another,
from monad to man, that did not presuppose the intervention of
powers more " supernatural " than those that operate about
us everywhere to-day.

The stupendous import of these new truths could not, of
course, make itself evident to the generality of mankind in a
single generation, when opposed to superstitions of a thousand
generations' standing. But the new knowledge has made its
way more expeditiously than could have been anticipated;
and its effects are seen on every side, even where its agency is
scarcely recognized. As a single illustration, we may note the
familiar observation that the entire complexion of orthodox
teaching of religion has been more altered in the past fifty

years than in two thousand years before. This of course is not
entirely due to the influence of physical and biological science;
no effect has a unique cause, in the complex sociological scheme.
Archaeology, comparative philology and textual criticism have
also contributed their share; and the comparative study of
religions has further tended to broaden the outlook and to make
for universality, as opposed to insularity, of view. It is coming
to be more and more widely recognized that all theologies are
but the reflex of the more or less faulty knowledge of the times
in which they originate; that the true and abiding purpose of
religion should be the practical betterment of humanity the
advancement of civilization in the best sense of the word; and
that this end may perhaps be best subserved by different systems
of theology, adapted to the varied genius of different times and
divers races. Wherefore there is not the same enthusiastic
desire to-day that found expression a generation ago, to impose
upon the cultured millions of the East a religion that seems to
them alien to their manner of thought, unsuited to their needs
and less distinctly ethical in teaching than their own religions.

Such are but a few of the illustrations that might be cited from
many fields to suggest that the mind of our generation is becom-
ing receptive to a changed point of view that augurs the coming
of a new ethnic era. If one may be permitted to enter very
tentatively the field of prophecy, it seems not unlikely that the
great revolutionary invention which will close the third period
of civilization and usher in a new era is already being evolved.
It seems not over-hazardous to predict that the air-ship, in one
form or another, is destined to be the mechanism that will give
the new impetus to human civilization; that the next era will
have as one of its practical ideals the conquest of the air; and
that this conquest will become a factor in the final emergence of
humanity from the insularity of nationalism to the broad view
of cosmopolitanism, towards which, as we have seen, the tend-
encies of the present era are verging. That the gap to be
covered is a vastly wide one no one need be reminded who recalls
that the civilized nations of Europe, together with America and
Japan, are at present accustomed to spend more than three
hundred million pounds each year merely that they may keep
armaments in readiness to fly at one another's throats should
occasion arise. Formidable as these armaments now seem,
however, the developments of the not very distant future will
probably make them quite obsolete; and sooner or later, as
science develops yet more deadly implements of destruction,
the time must come when communal intelligence will rebel at
the suicidal folly of the international attitude that characterized,
for example, the opening decade of the 2oth century. At some
time, after the first period of cosmopolitanism shall be ushered
in as a tenth ethnic period, it will come to be recognized that
there is a word fraught with fuller meanings even than the word
patriotism. That word is humanitarianism. The enlightened
generation that realizes the full implications of that word will
doubtless marvel that their ancestors of the third period of
civilization should have risen up as nations and slaughtered one
another by thousands to settle a dispute about a geographical
boundary. Such a procedure will appear to have been quite as
barbarous as the cannibalistic practices of their yet more remote
ancestors, and distinctly less rational, since cannibalism might
sometimes save its practiser from starvation, whereas warfare
of the civilized type was a purely destructive agency.

Equally obvious must it appear to the cosmopolite of some
generation of the future that quality rather than mere numbers
must determine the efficiency of an> given community. Race
suicide will then cease to be a bugbear; and it will no longer be
considered rational to keep up the census at the cost of pro-
pagating low orders of intelligence, to feed the ranks of paupers,
defectives and criminals. On the contrary it will be thought
fitting that man should become the conscious arbiter of his own
racial destiny to the extent of applying whatever laws of heredity
he knows or may acquire in the interests of his own species, as
he has long applied them in the case of domesticated animals.
The survival and procreation of the unfit will then cease to be
a menace to the progress of civilization. It does not follow that

CIVILIZATION

409

all men will be brought to a dead level of equality of body and
mmd, nor that individual competition will cease; but the average
physical mental status of the race will be raised immeasurably
through the virtual elimination of that vast company of defectives
which to-day constitutes so threatening an obstacle to racial
progress. There are millions of men in Europe and America
to-day whose whole mental equipment despite the fact that they
have been taught to read and write is far more closely akin to
the average of the Upper Period of Barbarism than to the highest
standards of their own time| and these undeveloped or atavistic
persons have on the average more offspring than are produced
by the more highly cultured and intelligent among their con-
temporaries. " Race suicide " is thereby prevented, but the pro-
gress of civilization is no less surely handicapped. We may well
believe that the cosmopolite of the future, aided by science,
will find rational means to remedy this strange illogicality. In so
doing he will exercise a more consciously purposeful function,
and perhaps a more directly potent influence, in determining
the line of human progress than he has hitherto attempted to
assume, notwithstanding the almost infinitely varied character
of the experiments through which he has worked his way from
savagery to civilization.

All these considerations tend to define yet more clearly the
ultimate goal towards which the progressive civilization of past
and present appears to be trending. The contempla-
t' on f this 8 oa l brinS 8 into view the outlines of a vastly
suggestive evolutionary cycle. For it appears that
the social condition of cosmopolite man, so far as the present-day
view can predict it, will represent a state of things, magnified
to world-dimensions, that was curiously adumbrated by the social
system of the earliest savage. At the very beginning of the
journey through savagery, mankind, we may well believe, con-
sisted of a limited tribe, representing no great range or variety
of capacity, and an almost absolute identity of interests. Thanks
to this community of interests, which was fortified by the
recognition of blood-relationship among all members of the tribe,
a principle which we now define as " the greatest ultimate
good to the greatest number " found practical, even if unwitting,
recognition; and therein lay the germs of all the moral develop-
ment of the future. But obvious identity of interests could be
recognized only so long as the tribe remained very small. So
soon as its numbers became large, patent diversities of interest,
based on individual selfishness, must appear, to obscure the
larger harmony. And as savage man migrated hither and thither,
occupying new regions and thus developing new tribes and
ultimately a diversity of " races," all idea of community of
interests, as between race and race, must have been absolutely
banished. It was the obvious and patent fact that each race was
more or less at rivalry, in disharmony, with all the others. In
the hard struggle for subsistence, the expansion of one race meant
the downfall of another. So far as any principle of " greatest
good " remained in evidence, it applied solely to the members of
one's own community, or even to one's particular phratry or
gens.

Barbaric man, thanks to his conquest of animal and vegetable
nature, was able to extend the size of the unified community,
and hence to develop through diverse and intricate channels
the application of the principle of " greatest good " out of which
the idea of right and wrong was elaborated. But quite as little
as the savage did he think of extending the application of the
principle beyond the bounds of his own race. The laws with
which he gave expression to his ethical conceptions applied,
of necessity, to his own people alone. The gods with which his
imagination peopled the world were locaf in habitat, devoted
to the interests of his race only, and at enmity with the gods of
rival peoples. As between nation and nation, the only principle
of ethics that ever occurred to him was that might makes right.
Civilized man for a long time advanced but slowly upon this view
of international morality. No Egyptian or Babylonian or
Hebrew or Greek or Roman ever hesitated to attack a weaker
nation on the ground that it would be wrong to do so. And
few indeed are the instances in which even a modern nation has

judged an international question on any other basis than that
of self-interest. It was not till towards the close of the ipth
century that an International Peace Conference gave tangible
witness that the idea of fellowship of nations was finding recogni-
tion; and in the same recent period history has recorded the first
instance of a powerful nation vanquishing a weaker one without
attempting to exact at least an " indemnifying " tribute.

But the citizen of the future, if the auguries of the present
prove true, will be able to apply principles of right and wrong
without reference to national boundaries. He will understand
that the interests of the entire human family are, in the last
analysis, common interests. The census through which he
attempts to estimate " the greatest good of the greatest number "
must include, not his own nation merely, but the remotest
member of the human race. On this universal basis must be
founded that absolute standard of ethics which will determine
the relations of cosmopolite man with his fellows. When this
ideal is attained, mankind will again represent a single family,
as it did in the day when our primeval ancestors first entered
on the pathway of progress; but it will be a family whose habitat
has been extended from the narrow glade of some tropical forest
to the utmost habitable confines of the globe. Each member of
this family will be permitted to enjoy the greatest amount of
liberty consistent with the like liberty of every other member;
but the interests of the few will everywhere be recognized as
subservient to the interests of the many, and such recognition
of mutual interests will establish the practical criterion for the
interpretation of international affairs.

But such an extension of the altruistic principle by no means
presupposes the elimination of egoistic impulses of individual-
ism. On the contrary, we must suppose that man at
the highest stages of culture will be, even as was the
savage, a seeker after the greatest attainable degree of
comfort for the least necessary expenditure of energy.
The pursuit of this ideal has been from first to last the ultimate
impelling force in nature urging man forward. The only change
has been a change hi the interpretation of the ideal, an altered
estimate as to what manner of things are most worth the purchase-
price of toil and self-denial. That the things most worth the
having cannot, generally speaking, be secured without such toil
and self-denial, is a lesson that began to be inculcated while man
was a savage, and that has never ceased to be reiterated genera-
tion after generation. It is the final test of progressive civiliza-
tion that a given effort shall produce a larger and larger modicum
of average individual comfort. That is why the great inventions
that have increased man's efficiency as a worker have been the
necessary prerequisites to racial progress. Stated otherwise, that
is why the industrial factor is everywhere the most powerful
factor in civilization; and why the economic interpretation is
the most searching interpretation of history at its every stage.
It is the basal fact that progress implies increased average
working efficiency a growing ratio between average effort and
average achievement that gives sure warrant for such a prog-
nostication as has just been attempted concerning the future
industrial unification of our race. The efforts of civilized man
provide him, on the average, with a marvellous range of comforts,
as contrasted with those that rewarded the most strenuous
efforts of savage or barbarian, to whom present-day necessaries
would have been undreamed-of luxuries. But the ideal ratio
between effort and result has by no means been achieved;
nor will it have been until the inventive brain of man has pro-
vided a civilization in which a far higher percentage of citizens
will find the life-vocations to which they are best adapted by
nature, and in which, therefore, the efforts of the average worker
may be directed with such vigour, enthusiasm and interest as can
alone make for true efficiency; a civilization adjusted to such
an economic balance that the average man may live in reasonable
comfort without heart-breaking strain, and yet accumulate a
sufficient surplus to ensure ease and serenity for his declining
days. Such, seemingly, should be the normal goal of progressive
civilization. Doubtless mankind in advancing towards that
goal will institute many changes that could by no possibility be

CIVIL LAW CIVIL LIST

foretold; but (to summarize the views just presented) it seems a
safe augury from present-day conditions and tendencies that the
important lines of progress will include (i) the organic better-
ment of the race through wise application of the laws of heredity;
(2) the lessening of international jealousies and the consequent
minimizing of the drain upon communal resources that attends
a military regime; and (3) an ever-increasing movement towards
the industrial and economic unification of the world. (H.S.Wi.)

AUTHORITIES. A list of works dealing with the savage and
barbarous periods of human development will be found appended
to the article ANTHROPOLOGY. Special reference may here be made
to E. B. Tylor's Early History of Mankind (1865), Primitive Culture
(1871) and Anthropology (1881); Lord Avebury's Prehistoric Times
(new edition, 1900) and Origin of Civilization (new edition, 1902) ;
A. H. Keane's Man Past and Present (1899) ; and Lewis H. Morgan's
Ancient Society (1877). The earliest attempt at writing a history
of civilization which has any value for the 20th-century reader
was F. Guizot's in 1828-1830, a handy English translation by
William Hazlitt being included in Bphn's Standard Library under
the title of The History of Civilization. The earlier lectures, de-
livered at the Old Sorbonne, deal with the general progress ol
European civilization, whilst the greater part of the work is an
account of the growth of civilization in France. Guizot's attitude
is somewhat antiquated, but this book still has usefulness as a store-
house of facts. T. H. Buckle's famous work, The History of Civiliza-
tion in England (1857-1861), though only a gigantic unfinished
introduction to the author's proposed enterprise, holds an important
place in historical literature on account of the new method which
it introduced, and has given birth to a considerable number of
valuable books on similar lines, such as Lecky's History of European
Morals (1869) and Rise and Influence of Rationalism in Europe
(1865). J. W. Draper's History of the Intellectual Development of
Europe (1861) undertook, from the American stand-point, " the
labour of arranging the evidence offered by the intellectual history
of Europe in accordance with physiological principles, so as to
illustrate the orderly progress of civilization." Its objective treat-
ment and wealth of learning still give it great value to the student.
Since the third quarter of the igth century it may be said that all
serious historical work has been more or less a history of civilization
as displayed in all countries and ages, and a bibliography of the
works bearing on the subject would be coextensive with the cata-
logue of a complete historical library. Special mention, however,
may be made of such important and suggestive works as C. H.
Pearson's National Life and Character (1893); Benjamin Kidd's
Social Evolution (1894) and Principles of Western Civilization
(1902); Edward Eggleston's Transit of Civilization (1901); C.
Seignobos's Histoire de la. civilisation (1887); C. Faulmann's Illus-
trirte Culturgeschichte (1881); G. Ducoudray's Histoire de la
civilisation (1886); J. von Hellwald's Kulturgeschichte (1896);
I Lippert's Kulturgeschichte der Menschheit (1886); O. Henne-am-
Rhyn's Die Kultur der Vergangenheit, Gegentvart und'Zukunft (1890) ;
G. Kurth's Origines de la civilisation moderns (1886), &c. The vast
collection of modern works on sociology, from Herbert Spencer
onwards, should also be consulted; see bibliography attached to
the article SOCIOLOGY. The historical method on which practically
all the articles of the present edition of the Ency. Brit, are planned,
makes the whole work itself in essentials the most comprehensive
history of civilization in existence.

CIVIL LAW, a phrase which, with its Latin equivalent jus
civile, has been used in a great variety of meanings. Jus civile
was sometimes used to distinguish that portion of the Roman
law which was the proper or ancient law of the city or state of
Rome from tiiejus gentium, or the law common to all the nations
comprising the Roman world, which was incorporated with
the former through the agency of the praetorian edicts. This
historical distinction remained as a permanent principle of division
in the body of the Roman law. One of the first propositions of
the Institutes of Justinian is the following: " Jus autem civile
vel gentium ita dividitur. Omnes populi qui legibus et moribus
reguntur partim suo proprio, partim communi omnium hominum
jure utuntur; nam quod quisque populus ipsi sibi jus constituit,
id ipsius civitatis proprium est, vocaturque jus civile quasi jus
proprium ipsius civitatis. Quod vero naturalis ratio inter omnes
homines constituit, id apud omnes peraeque custoditur, voca-
turque jus gentium quasi quo jure omnes gentes utuntur." The
jus gentium of this passage is elsewhere identified with ./MS naturale,
so that the distinction comes to be one between civil law and
natural or divine law. The municipal or private law of a state
is sometimes described as civil law in distinction to public or
international law. Again, the municipal law of a state may be
divided into civil law and criminal law. The phrase, however,

is applied par excellence to the system of law created by the
genius of the Roman people, and handed down by them to the
nations of the modern world (see ROMAN LAW). The civil law
in this sense would be distinguished from the local or national
law of modern states. The civil law in this sense is further to
be distinguished from that adaptation of its principles to ecclesi-
astical purposes which is known as the canon law (q.v.).

CIVIL LIST, the English term for the account in which are
contained all the expenses immediately applicable to the sup-
port of the British sovereign's household and the honour and
dignity of the crown. An annual sum is settled by the British
parliament at the beginning of the reign on the sovereign, and is
charged on the consolidated fund. But it is only from the reign
of William IV. that the sum thus voted has been restricted solely
to the personal expenses of the crown. Before his accession
many charges properly belonging to the ordinary expenses of
government had been placed on the civil list. The history
of the civil list dates from the reign of William and HM
Mary. Before the Revolution no distinction had
been made between the expenses of government in time of
peace and the expenses relating to the personal dignity and
support of the sovereign. The ordinary revenues derived from
the hereditary revenues of the crown, and from certain taxes
voted for life to the king at the beginning of each reign, were
supposed to provide for the support of the sovereign's dignity
and the civil government, as well as for the public defence in
time of peace. Any saving made by the king in the expenditure
touching the government of the country or its defence would go to
swell his privy purse. But with the Revolution a step forward
was made towards the establishment of the principle that the
expenses relating to the support of the crown should be separated
from the ordinary expenses of the state. The evils of the old
system under which no appropriation was made of the ordinary
revenue granted to the crown for life had been made manifest
in the reigns of Charles II. and James II.; it was their control
of these large revenues that made them so independent of
parliament. Moreover, while the civil government and the de-
fences suffered, the king could use these revenues as he liked. The
parliament of William and Mary fixed the revenue of the crown
in time of peace at 1,200,000 per annum; of this sum about
700,000 was appropriated towards the " civil list." But from
this the sovereign was to defray the expenses of the civil service
and the payment of pensions, as well as the cost of the support
of the royal household and his own personal expenses. It was
from this that the term " civil list " arose, to distinguish it from
the statement of military and naval charges. The revenue voted
to meet the civil list consisted of the hereditary revenues of the
crown and a part of the excise duties. Certain changes and addi-
tions were made in the sources of revenue thus appropriated
between the reign of William and Mary and the accession of
George III., when a different system was adopted. Generally
speaking, however, the sources of revenue remained as settled
at the Revolution.

Anne had the same civil list, estimated to produce an annual
income of 700,000. During her reign a debt of 1,200,000 was
incurred. This debt was paid by parliament and ^aae,
charged on the civil list itself. George I. enjoyed the George I.
same revenue by parliamentary grant, in addition to and
an annual sum of 120,000 on the aggregate fund. Oeor s el1 -
A debt of 1,000,000 was incurred, and discharged by parliament
in the same manner as Anne's debt had been. To George II.
a civil list of 800,000 as a minimum was granted, parliament
undertaking to make up any deficiency if the sources of income
appropriated to its service fell short of that sum. Thus in 1 746
a debt of 456,000 was paid by parliament on the civil list.
On the accession of George III. a change was made in the system
of the civil list. Hitherto the sources of revenue appropriated
to the service of the civil list had been settled on
the crown. If these revenues exceeded the sum they
were computed to produce annually, the surplus went to the king.
George III., however, surrendered the life-interest in the heredi-
tary revenues and the excise duties hitherto voted to defray

CIVIL LIST

411

the civil list expenditure, and any claim to a surplus for a fixed
amount. The king still retained other large sources of revenue
which were not included in the civil list, and were free from the
control of parliament. The revenues from which the civil list
had been defrayed were henceforward to be carried into, and
made part of, the aggregate fund. In their place a fixed civil
list was granted at first of 723,000 per annum, to be increased
to 800,000 on the falling in of certain annuities to members
of the royal family. From this 800,000 the king's household
and the honour and dignity of the crown were to be supported,
as well as the civil service offices, pensions and other charges
still laid on the list.

During the reign of George III. the civil list played an import-
ant part in the history of the struggle on the part of the king
to establish the royal ascendancy. From the revenue appropri-
ated to its service came a large portion of the money employed
by the king in creating places and pensions for his supporters
in parliament, and, under the colour of the royal bounty, bribery
was practised on a large scale. No limit was set to the amount
applicable to the pensions charged on the civil list, so long as the
sum granted could meet the demand ; and there was no principle
on which the grant was regulated. Secret pensions at the king's
pleasure were paid out of it, and in every way the independence
of parliament was menaced; and though the more legitimate
expenses of the royal household were diminished by the king's
penurious style of living, and though many charges not directly
connected with the king's personal expenditure were removed,
the amount was constantly exceeded, and applications were
made from time to time to parliament to pay off debts incurred;
and thus opportunity was given for criticism. In 1769 a debt
of 513,511 was paid off in arrears; and in spite of the demand
for accounts and for an inquiry into the cause of the debt, the
ministry succeeded in securing this vote without
ness of " S rant; i n g suc h information. All attempts to investigate
civiiiist. the civil list were successfully resisted, though Lord
Chatham went so' far as to declare himself convinced
that the funds were expended in corrupting members of parlia-
ment. Again, in 1777, an application was made to parliament
to pay off 618,340 of debts; and in view of the growing dis-
content Lord North no longer dared to withhold accounts. Yet,
in spite of strong opposition and free criticism, not only was the
amount voted, but also a further 100,000 per annum, thus
raising the civil list to an annual sum of 900,000.

In 1779, at a time when the expenditure of the country and
the national debt had been enormously increased by the Ameri-
can War, the general dissatisfaction found voice in parliament,
and the abuses of the civil list were specially singled out for
attack. Many petitions were presented to the House of Commons
praying for its reduction, and a motion was made in the House
of Lords in the same sense, though it was rejected. In 1780
Burke brought forward his scheme of economic reform, but his
name was already associated with the growing desire to remedy
the evils of the civil list by the publication in 1 769 of his pamphlet
on " The Causes of the Present Discontent." In this scheme
Burke freely animadverts on the profusion and abuse of the
civil list, criticizing the useless and obsolete offices and the
offices performed by deputy. In every department he discovers
jobbery, waste and peculation. His proposal was that the many
offices should be reduced and consolidated, that the pension
list should be brought down to a fixed sum of 60,000 per annum,
and that pensions should be conferred only to reward merit or
fulfil real public charity. All pensions were to be paid at the
exchequer. He proposed also that the civil list should be
divided into classes, an arrangement which later was carried
into effect. In 1 780 Burke succeeded in bringing in his Establish-
ment Bill; but though at first it met with considerable support,
and was even read a second time, Lord North's government
defeated it in committee. The next year the bill was again
introduced into the House of Commons, and Pitt made his
first speech in its favour. The bill was, however, lost on the
second reading.

In 1782 the Rockingham ministry, pledged to economic

reform, came into power; and the Civil List Act 1782 was
introduced and carried with the express object of limiting the
patronage and influence of ministers, or, in other
words, the ascendancy of the crown over parliament,
Not only did the act effect the abolition of a
number of useless offices, but it also imposed restraints on the
issue of secret service money, and made provision for a more
effectual supervision of the royal expenditure. As to the pension
list, the annual amount was to be limited to 95,000; no pension
to any one person was to exceed i 200, and all pensions were to
be paid at the exchequer, thus putting a stop to the secret
pensions payable during pleasure. Moreover, pensions were
only to be bestowed in the way of royal bounty for persons in
distress or as a reward for merit. Another very important
change was made by this act: the civil list was divided into
classes, and a fixed amount was to be appropriated to each
class. The following were the classes:

1. Pensions and allowances of the royal family.

2. Payment of salaries of lord chancellor, speaker and judges.

3. Salaries of ministers to foreign courts resident at the same.

4. Approved bills of tradesmen, artificers and labourers for any

article supplied and work done for His Majesty's service.

5. Menial servants of the household.

6. Pension list.

7. Salaries of all other places payable out of the civil list revenues.

8. Salaries and pensions of treasurer or commissioners of the

treasury and of the chancellor of the exchequer.

Yet debt was still the condition of the civil list down to the
end of the reign, in spite of the reforms established by the
Rockingham ministry, and notwithstanding the removal from
the list of many charges unconnected with the king's personal
expenses. The debts discharged by parliament between 1782,
the date of the passing of the Civil List Act, and the end of
George III.'s reign, amounted to 2,300,000. In all, during
his reign 3,398,061 of debt owing by the civil list was paid off.

With the regency the civil list was increased by 70,000 per
annum, and a special grant of 100,000 was settled on the prince
regent. In 1816 the annual amount was settled at 1,083,727,
including the establishment of the king, now insane; though
the civil list was relieved from some annuities payable to the
royal family. Nevertheless, the fund still continued charged
with such civil expenses as the salaries of judges, ambassadors
and officers of state, and with pensions granted for public
services. Other reforms were made as regards the definition
of the several classes of expenditure, while the expenses of the
royal household were henceforth to be audited by a treasury
official the auditor of the civil list. On the accession of George
IV. the civil list, freed from the expenses of the late king, was
settled at 845,727. On William IV. coming to the throne a
sum of 510,000 per annum was fixed for the service of the civil
list. The king at the same time surrendered all the sources of
revenue enjoyed by his predecessors, apart from the civil list,
represented by the hereditary revenues of Scotland the Irish
civil list, the droits of the crown and admiralty, the 45% duties,
the West India duties, and other casual revenues hitherto vested
in the crown, and independent of parliament. The revenues
of the duchy of Lancaster were still retained by the crown.
In return for this surrender and the diminished sum voted,
the civil list was relieved from all the charges relating rather
to the civil government than to the support of the dignity of the
crown and the royal household. The future expenditure was
divided into five classes, and a fixed annual sum was appropriated
to each class. The pension list was reduced to 75,000. The
king resisted an attempt on the part of the select committee to
reduce the salaries of the officers of state on the grounds that
this touched his prerogative, and the ministry of Earl Grey
yielded to his remonstrance.

The civil list of Queen Victoria was settled on the same prin-
ciples as that of William IV. A considerable reduc-
tion was made in the aggregate annual sum voted, vtaorfa's
from 510,000 to 385,000, and the pension list was civiiiist.
separated from the ordinary civil list. The civil list
proper was divided into the following five classes, with a fixed
sum appropriated to each:

412

CIVIL SERVICE

Privy purse 60,000

Salaries of household .... 131,260

Expenses of household .... 172,500

Royal bounty, &c 13,200

Unappropriated . . . 8,040

In addition the queen might, on the advice of her ministers
grant pensions up to 1200 per annum, in accordance with i
resolution of the House of Commons of February i8th, 1834
" to such persons as have just claims on the royal beneficenci
or who, by their personal services to the crown, by the perform
ance of duties to the public, or by their useful discoveries in
science and attainments in literature and art, have merited the
gracious consideration of the sovereign and the gratitude o
their country." The service of these pensions increased the
annual sum devoted to support the dignity of the crown and the
expenses of the household to about 409,000. The list of pensions
must be laid before parliament within thirty days of 2oth June
Thus the civil list was reduced in amount, and relieved from the
very charges which gave it its name as distinct from the state-
ment of military and naval charges. It now really only dealt
with the support of the dignity and honour of the crown anc
the royal household. The arrangement was most successful
and during the last three reigns there was no application to
parliament for the discharge of debts incurred on the civil list.

The death of Queen Victoria rendered it necessary that
a renewed provision should be made for the civil list; and King
Civil List Edwaf d VII., following former precedents, placed
Act 1901. unreservedly at the disposal of parliament his heredi-
tary revenues. A select committee of the House of
Commons was appointed to consider the provisions of the civil
list for the crown, and to report also on the question of grants
for the honourable support and maintenance of Her Majesty the
Queen and the members of the royal family. The committee in
their conclusions were guided to a considerable extent by the
actual civil list expenditure during the last ten years of the last
reign, and made certain recommendations which, without undue
interference with the sovereign's personal arrangements, tended
towards increased efficiency and economy in the support of the
sovereign's household and the honour and dignity of the crown.
On their report was based the Civil List Act 1901, which estab-
lished the new civil list. The system that the hereditary revenues
should as before be paid into the exchequer and be part of the
consolidated fund was maintained. The amount payable for
the civil list was increased from 385,000 to 470,000. In the
application of this sum the number of classes of expenditure
to which separate amounts were to be appropriated was increased
from five to six. The following was the new arrangement of
classes: ist class, Their Majesties' privy purse, 110,000;
2nd class, salaries of His' Majesty's household and retired allow-
ances, 125,800; 3rd class, expenses of His Majesty's household,
193,000; 4th class, works (the interior repair and decoration
of Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle), 20,000; sth class,
royal bounty, alms and special services, 13,200; 6th class,
unappropriated, 8000. The system relating to civil list pensions,
established by the Civil List Act 1837, continued to apply, but
the pensions were not regarded as chargeable on the sum paid
for the civil list. The committee also advised that the mastership
of the Buckhounds should not be continued; and the king, on
the advice of his ministers, agreed to accept their recommenda-
tion. The maintenance of the royal hunt thus ceased to be a
charge on the civil list. The annuities of 20,000 to the prince
of Wales, of 10,000 to the princess of Wales, and of 18,000 to
His Majesty's three daughters, were not included in the civil
list, though they were conferred by the same act. Other grants
made by special acts of parliament to members of the royal
family were also excluded from it; these were 6000 to the
princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein, 6000 to the princess
Louise (duchess of Argyll), 25,000 to the duke of Connaught,
6000 to the duchess of Albany, 6000 to the princess Beatrice
(Henry of Battenberg), and 3000 to the duchess of Mecklenburg-
Strelitz.

It may be interesting to compare with the British civil list the
corresponding figures in other countries. These are as follows,

the figures being those, for convenience, of 1905. Spain, 280,000
exclusive of allowances to members of the royal family ; Portugal'
97.333. >n addition to 1333 to the queen-consorttotal c ,
grant to the royal family, 116,700; Italy, 602,000, '
from which was deducted 16,000 for the children of the
deceased Prince Amedeo, duke of Aosta, 16,000 to Prince *

Tommaso, duke of Genoa, and 40,000 to Queen Margherita;
Belgium, 140,000; Netherlands, 50,000, with, in addition,
4000 for the maintenance of the royal palaces ; Germany, 770,500
(Krondotations Rente), the sovereign also possessing large private
property (Kronfideikommiss and SchatullguUr), the revenue from
which contributed to the expenditure of the court and the members
of the royal family; Denmark, 55,500, in addition to 6600 to
the heir-apparent; Norway, 38,888; Sweden, 72,700; Greece,
52,000, which included 4000 each from Great Britain, France
and Russia; Austria-Hungary, 941,666, made up of 387,500 as
emperor of Austria out of the revenues of Austria, and 554,166 as
king of Hungary out of the revenues of Hungary; Japan, 300,000;
Rumania, 47,000, in addition to revenues from certain crown lands;
Servia, 48,000; Bulgaria, 40,000, besides 30,000 for maintenance
of palaces, &c. ; Montenegro, 8300; Russia had no civil list, the
sovereign having all the revenue from the crown domains (actual
amount unknown, but supposed to amount to over 4,000,000);
the president of the French Republic had a salary of 24,000 a
year, with a further 24,000 for expenses; and the president of the
United States had a salary of $50,000 (from 1909, $75,000).

CIVIL SERVICE, the generic name given to the aggregate of
all the public servants, or paid civil administrators and clerks,
of a state. It is the machinery by which the executive, through
the various administrations, carries on the central government
of the country.

British Empire. The appointments to the civil service until
the year 1855 were made by nomination, with an examination
not sufficient to form an intellectual or even a physical test.
It was only after much consideration and almost years of dis-
cussion that the nomination system was abandoned. Various
commissions reported on the civil service, and orders in council
were issued. Finally in 1855 'a qualifying examination of a
stringent character was instituted, and in 1870 the principle
of open competition was adopted as a general rule. On the
report of the Playfair Commission (1876), an order in council
was issued dividing the civil service into an upper and lower
division. The order in council directed that a lower division
should be constituted, and men and boy clerks holding per-
manent positions replaced the temporary assistants and writers.
The " temporary " assistant was not found to be advantageous
to the service. In December 1886 a new class of assistant
clerks was formed to replace the men copyists. In 1887 the
Ridley Commission reported on the civil service estabb'shment.
In 1890 two orders in council were issued based on the reports
of the Ridley Commission, which sat from 1886 to 1890. The
first order constituted what is now known as the second division
of the civil service. The second order in council concerned the
officers of the ist class, and provision was made for the possible
promotion of the second division clerks to the first division after
eight years' service.

The whole system is under the administration of the civil
service commissioners, and power is given to them, with the
approval of the treasury, to prescribe the subjects of examina-
tion, limits of age, &c. The age is fixed for compulsory retire-
ment at sixty-five. In exceptional cases a prolongation of five
years is within the powers of the civil service commissioners.
The examination for ist class clerkships is held concurrently
with that of the civil service of India and Eastern cadetships
n the colonial service. Candidates can compete for all three
or for two. In addition to the intellectual test the candidate
must fulfil the conditions of age (22 to 24), must present re-
commendations as to character, and pass a medical examination.
This examination approximates closely to the university type
of education. Indeed, there is little chance of success except
or candidates who have had a successful university career,
md frequently, in addition, special preparation by a private
eacher. The subjects include the language and literature of
Cngland, France, Germany, Italy, ancient Greece and Rome,
Sanskrit and Arabic, mathematics (pure and applied), natural
cience (chemistry, physics, zoology, &c.), history (English,
""reek, Roman and general modern), political economy and

CIVIL SERVICE

economic history, mental and moral philosophy, Roman and
English law and political science. The candidate is obliged to
reach a certain standard of knowledge in each subject before
any marks at all are allowed him. This rule was made to prevent
success by mere cramming, and to ensure competent knowledge
on the basis of real study.

The maximum scale of the salaries of clerks of Class I. is as
follows: 3rd class, 200 a year, increasing by 20 a year to
500; and class, 600, increasing by 25 a year to 800; ist
class, 850, increasing by 50 a year to 1000. Their pensions
are fixed by the Superannuation Act 1859, 22 Viet. c. 26:

"To any person who shall have served ten years and upwards,
and under eleven years, an annual allowance of ten-sixtieths of
the annual salary and emoluments of his office:

" For eleven years and under twelve years, an annual allowance
of eleven-sixtieths of such salary and emoluments:

" And in like manner a further addition to the annual allow-
ance of one-sixtieth in respect of each additional year of such service,
until the completion of a period of service of forty years, when the
annual allowance of forty-sixtieths may be granted; and no ad-
ditions shall be made in respect of any service beyond forty years."

The " ordinary annual holidays allowed to officers " (ist class)
" shall not exceed thirty-six week-days during each of their first
ten years of service and forty-eight week-days thereafter." Order
in Council, isth August 1890.

" Within that maximum heads of departments have now, as
they have hitherto had, an absolute discretion in fixing the annual
leave."

Sick leave can be granted on full salary for not more than six
months, on half-salary for another six months.

The scale of salary for 2nd division clerks begins at 70 a year,
increasing by 5 to 100; then 100 a year, increasing by 7, IDS.
to 190; and then 190 a year, increasing by 10 to 250. The
highest is 300 to 500. Advancement in the 2nd division to the
higher ranks depends on merit, not seniority. The ordinary
annual holiday of the 2nd division clerks is 14 working days for
the first five years, and 21 working days afterwards. They can
be allowed sick leave for six months on full pay and six months
on half-pay. The subjects of their examination are: (i) hand-
writing and orthography, including copying MS.; (2) arithmetic;

(3) English composition; (4) precis, including indexing and digest
of returns; (5) book-keeping and shorthand writing; (6) geo-
graphy and English history; (7) Latin; (8) French; (9) Ger-
man; (10) elementary mathematics; (n) inorganic chemistry
with elements of physics. Not more than four of the subjects

(4) to (n) can be taken. The candidate must be between the
ages of 17 and 20. A certain number of the places in the 2nd
division were reserved for the candidates from the boy clerks
appointed under the old system. The competition is severe, only
about one out of every ten candidates being successful. Candi-
dates are allowed a choice of departments subject to the exigencies
of the services.

There is also a class of boy copyists who are almost entirely
employed in London, a few in Dublin and Edinburgh, and, very
seldom, in some provincial towns. The subjects of their examination
are: Obligatory- handwriting and orthography, arithmetic and
English composition. Optional (any two of the following): (l)
copying MS.; (2) geography; (3) English history; (4) translation
from one of the following languages Latin, French or German;

(5) Euclid, bk. i. and ii., and algebra, up to and including simple
equations; (6) rudiments of chemistry and physics. Candidates
must be between the ages of 15 and 18. They have no claims to
superannuation or compensation allowance. Boy copyists are not
retained after the age of 20.

Candidates for the civil service of India take the same ex-
amination as for ist class clerkships. Candidates successful in
the examination must subsequently spend one year in England.
They receive for that year 150 if they elect to live at one of the
universities or colleges approved by the secretary of state for
Ind:a. They are submitted to a final examination in the following
subjects Indian Penal Code and the Code of Criminal Procedure,
the principal vernacular language of the province to which they
are assigned, the Indian Evidence Act (these three subjects are
compulsory), either Hindu and Mahommedan Law, or Sanskrit,
Arabic or Persian, Burmese (for Burma only). A candidate may
not take J-, rabic or Sanskrit both in the first examination and in
the final. They must also pass a thorough examination in riding.

On reaching India their salary begins at 400 rupees a month.
They may take, as leave, one-fourth of the time on active
service in periods strictly limited by regulation. After 25 years'
service (of which 2 1 must be active service) they can retire on a
pension of 1000 a year. The unit of administration is the district.
At the head of the district is an executive officer called either
collector-magistrate or deputy-commissioner. In most provinces
he is responsible to the commissioner, who corresponds directly
with the provincial government. The Indian civilian after four
years' probation in both branches of the service is called upon
to elect whether he will enter the revenue or judicial department,
and this choice as a rule is held to be final for his future work.

Candidates for the Indian Forest Service have to pass a com-
petitive examination, one of the compulsory subjects being German
or French. They have also to pass a severe medical examination,
especially in their powers of vision and hearing. They must be
between the ages of 18 and 22. Successful candidates are required
to pass a three years' course, with a final examination, seven
terms of the course at an approved school of forestry, the rest of
the time receiving practical instruction in continental European
forests. On reaching India they start as assistant conservators at
380 rupees a month. The highest salary, that of inspector-general
of forests, in the Indian Forest Service is 2650 rupees a month.

The Indian Police Service is entered by a competitive examination
of very much the same kind as for the forest service, except that
special subjects such as German and botany are not included. The
candidates are jimited in age to 19 and 21. They must pass a
riding examination. A free passage out is given them. They are
allotted as probationers, their wishes being consulted as far as
possible as to their province. A probationer receives 300 rupees
a month. A district superintendent can rise to 1200 rupees a
month, while there are a few posts with a salary of 3000 rupees a
month in the police service. The leave and pension in both these
departments follow the general rules for Indian services.

The civil service also includes student interpreterships for
China, Japan and Siam, and for the Ottoman dominions, Persia,
Greece and Morocco. Both these classes of student interpreters
are selected by open competition. Their object is to supply the
consular service in the above-named countries with persons
having a thorough knowledge of the language of the country
in which they serve.

In the first case, China, Japan, &c., they learn their language in
the country itself, receiving 200 as probationers. Then they be-
come assistants in a consulate. The highest post is that of consul-
general. In the case of student interpreters for the Ottoman do-
minions, Persia, Greece and Morocco, the successful candidates learn
their languages at Oxford. Turkish is taught gratuitously, but
they pay the usual fees for other languages. At Oxford they receive
200 a year for two years. On leaving Oxford they become assistants
under the embassy at Constantinople, the legations at Teheran,
Athens or Morocco, or at one of H.B.M. consulates. As assistants
they receive 300 a year. The consuls, the highest post to which
they can reach, receive in the Levant from 500 to 1600 a year.
The civil services of Ceylon, Hong-Kong, the Straits Settlements,
and the Malay Peninsula are supplied by the Eastern cadetships.
The limits of age for the examination are 1 8 and 24. The cadets
are required to learn the native language of the colony or
dependency to which they are assigned. In the case of the Straits
Settlements and Malay cadets they may have to learn Chinese or
Tamil, as well as the native language. The salaries are: passed
cadets, 3500 rupees per annum, gradually increasing until first-class
officers receive from 12,000 to 18,000 rupees per annum. They are
allowed three months' vacation on full pay in two years, and leave
of absence on half-pay after six years service, or before that if
urgently needed. They can retire for ill-health after ten years with
fifteen-sixtieths of their annual salary. Otherwise they can add
one-sixtieth of their annual salary to their pension for every
additional year's service up to thirty-five years' service.

In spite of the general rule of open competition, there are still
a few departments where the system of nomination obtains,
accompanied by a severe test of knowledge, either active or
implied. Such are the foreign office, British Museum, and board
of education.

The employment of women in the civil service has been
principally developed in the post office. Women are employed
in the post office as female clerks, counter clerks, telegraphists,
returners, sorters and post-mistresses all over the United King-
dom. The board of agriculture, the customs and the India office
employ women. The department of agriculture, the board of
education generally, the local government board, all to a certain

CIVIL SERVICE

extent employ women, whilst in the home office there are an
increasing number of women inspectors of workshops and
factories.

In 1881 the postmaster-general took a decided step in favour of
female employment, and with the consent of the treasury instituted
female clerkships. Female clerks dp not come in contact with the
public. Their duties are purely clerical, and entirely in the account-
ant-general's department at the sayings bank. Their leave is one
month per annum; their pension is on the ordinary civil service
scale. The examination is competitive; the subjects are hand-
writing and spelling, arithmetic, English composition, geography,
English history, French or German. Candidates must be between
the ages of 18 and 20. Whether unmarried or widows they must
resign on marriage. The class of girl clerks take the same subjects
in a competitive examination. They must be between the ages of
16 and 18; they serve only in the Savings Bank department. If
competent they can pass on later to female clerkships. The salaries
of the female clerkships range from 200 to 500 in the higher
grade, 55 to 190 in the 2nd class, whilst girl clerks are paid from
35 to 40, with the chance of advancement to higher posts.

United States. Civil service reform, like other great adminis-
trative reforms, began in America in the latter half of the igth
century. Personal and partisan government, with all the en-
tailed evils of the patronage system, culminated in Great Britain
during the reign of George III., and was one of the efficient
causes of the American revolution. Trevelyan characterizes the
use of patronage to influence legislation, and the giving of colonial
positions as sinecures to the privileged classes and personal
favourites of the administration, by saying, " It was a system
which, as its one achievement of the first order, brought about
the American War, and made England sick, once and for all,
of the very name of personal government." It was natural that
the founders of the new government in America, after breaking
away from the mother-country, should strive to avoid the evils
which had in a measure brought about the revolution. Their
intention that the administrative officers of the government
should hold office during good behaviour is manifest, and was
given thorough and practical effect by every administration
during the first forty years of the life of the government. The
constitution fixed no term of office in the executive branch of
the government except those of president and vice-president;
and Madison, the expounder of the constitution, held that the
wanton removal of a meritorious officer was an impeachable
offence. Not until nine years after the passage of the Four Years'
Tenure of Office Act in 1820 was there any material departure
from this traditional policy of the government. This act
(suggested by an appointing officer who wished to use the
power it gave in order to secure his own nomination for the
presidency, and passed without debate and apparently without
any adequate conception of its full effect) opened the doors of
the service to all the evils of the " spoils system." The foremost
statesmen of the time were not slow to perceive the baleful
possibilities of this legislation, Jefferson, 1 Webster, Clay, Calhoun,
Benton and many others being recorded as condemning and
deploring it in the strongest terms. The transition to the
" spoils system " was not, however, immediate, and for the next
nine years the practice of reappointing all meritorious officers
was practically universal; but in 1829 this practice ceased,
and the act of 1820 lent the sanction of law to the system of
proscriptions which followed, which was a practical
"spoils application of the theory that " to the victor belong
system." the spoils of the enemy." In 1836 the provisions of
this law, which had at first been confined mainly to
officers connected with the collection of revenue, were extended
to include also all postmasters receiving a compensation of $1000
per annum or more. It rapidly became the practice to regard all
these four years' tenure offices as agencies not so much for the
transaction of the public business as for the advancement of
political ends. The revenue service from being used for political
purposes merely came to be used for corrupt purposes as well,
with the result that in one administration frauds were practised
upon the government to the extent of $7 5 ,000,000. The corrupt-
1 See letter to Monroe, November 29th, 1820, Jefferson's Writings,
vii. 190. A quotation from this letter is given at p. 454 of the
Fifteenth Report of tlte U.S. Civil Service Commission.

ing influences permeated the whole body politic. Political re-
tainers were selected for appointment not on account of their
ability to do certain work but because they were followers of
certain politicians; these " public servants " acknowledged
no obligation except to those politicians, and their public duties,
if not entirely disregarded, were negligently and inefficiently
performed. Thus grew a saturnalia of spoils and corruption
which culminated in the assassination of a president.

Acute conditions, not theories, give rise to reforms. In
the congressional election of November 1882, following the
assassination of President Garfield as an incident in the opera-
tion of the spoils system, the voice of the people commanding
reform was unmistakable. Congress assembled in December 1882,
and during the same month a bill looking to the improvement
of the civil service, which had been pending in the Senate for
nearly two years, was finally taken up and considered by that
body. In the debate upon this bill its advocates declared that
it would " vastly improve the whole civil service of the country,"
which they characterized as being at that time " inefficient,
expensive and extravagant, and in many instances corrupt." J
This bill passed the Senate on the 27th of December

1882, and the House on the 4th of January 1883, and
was signed by the president on the i6th of January

1883, coming into full operation on the i6th of July 1883.
It is now the national civil service law. The fundamental prin-
ciples of this law are: (i) selection by competitive examina-
tion for all appointments to the " classified service," with a
period of probationary service before absolute appointment;
(2) apportionment among the states and territories, according
to population, of all appointments in the departmental service
at Washington; (3) freedom of all the employees of the govern-
ment from any necessity to contribute to political campaign
funds or to render political services. For putting these principles
into effect the Civil Service Commission was created, and penalties
were imposed for the solicitation or collection from government
employees of contributions for political purposes, and for the
use of official positions in coercing political action. The com-
mission, in addition to its regular duties of aiding in the prepara-
tion of civil service rules, of regulating and holding examinations,
and certifying the results thereof for use in making appointments,
and of keeping records of all changes in the service, was given
authority to investigate and report upon any violations of the
act or rules.' The " classified " service to which the act applies
has grown, by the action of successive presidents in progressively
including various branches of tne service within it, from 13,924
positions in 1883 to some 80,000 (in round numbers) in 1900,
constituting about 40 % of the entire civil service of the govern-
ment and including practically all positions above the grade of
mere labourer or workman to which appointment is not made
directly by the president with the consent of the Senate. 3 A
very large class to which the act is expressly applicable, and
which has been partly brought within its provisions by executive
action, is that of fourth-class postmasters, of whom there are
between 70,000 and 80,000 (about 15,000 classified in 1909).

In order to provide registers of eligibles for the various grades
of positions in the classified service, the United States Civil
Service Commission holds annually throughout the country
about 300 different kinds of examinations. In the work of
preparing these examinations and of marking the papers of
competitors in them the commission is authorized by law
to avail itself, in addition to its own corps of trained men, of
the services of the scientific and other experts in the various
executive departments. In the work of holding the examina-
tions it is aided by about 1300 local boards of examiners, which
are its local representatives throughout the country and are

2 See Senate Report No. 576, 47th Congress, 1st session ; also U.S.
Civil Service Commission's Third Report, p. 1 6 et seq., Tenth Report,
pp. 136, 137, and Fifteenth Report, pp. 483, 484.

3 The progressive classification of the executive civil service,
showing the growth of the merit system, is discussed, with statistics,
in the U.S. Civil Service Commission's Sixteenth Report, pp. 129-137.
A revision of this discussion, with important additions, appears in
the Seventeenth Report.

CIVIL SERVICE

located at the principal post offices, custom houses and other
government offices, being composed of three or more Federal
employees in those offices. About 50,000 persons annually
compete in these examinations, and about 10,000 of those who
are successful receive appointments through regular certification.
Persons thus appointed, however, must serve six months " on
probation " before their appointment can be made absolute.
At the end of this probation, if his service has not been satis-
factory, the appointee is simply dropped; and the fact that less
than i % of those appointed prove thus deficient on trial is high
testimony to the practical nature of the examinations held by
the commission, and to their aptness for securing persons qualified
for all classes of positions.

The effects of the Civil Service Act within the scope of its
actual operation have amply justified the hopes and promises of
its advocates. After its passage, absentee holders of lucrative
appointments were required to report for duty or to sever their
connexion with the service. Improved methods were adopted
in the departments, and superfluous and useless work was no
longer devised in order to provide a show of employment and a
locus standi for the parasites upon the public service. Individual
clerks were required, and by reason of the new conditions were
enabled, to do more and better work; and this, coupled with
the increase in efficiency in the service on account of new blood
coming in through the examinations, made possible an actual
decrease in the force required in many offices, notwithstanding
the natural growth in the amount of work to be done. 1 Ex-
perience proves that the desire to create new and unnecessary
positions was in direct proportion to the power to control them,
for where the act has taken away this power of control the desire
had disappeared naturally. There is no longer any desire on
the part of heads of departments to increase the number or
salaries of classified positions which would fall by law within the
civil service rules and be subject to competitive examinations.
Thus the promises of improvement and economy in the service
have been fulfilled.

The chief drawback to the full success of the act within its
intended scope of operation has been the withholding of
certain positions in the service from the application of the
vital principle of competition. The Civil Service Act contem-
plated no exceptions, within the limits to which it was made
applicable, to the general principle of competition upon merit
for entrance to the service. In framing the first civil service
rules, however, in 1883, the president, yielding to the pressure
of the heads of some of the departments, and against the
urgent protest of the Civil Service Commission, excepted from
the requirement of examination large numbers of positions in the
higher grades of the service, chiefly fiduciary and administrative
positions such as cashiers, chief clerks and chiefs of division.
These positions being thus continued under the absolute control
of the appointing officer, the effect of their exception from
examination was to retain just that much of the old or " spoils "
system within the nominal jurisdiction of the new or " merit "
system. Even more: under the old system, while appointments
from the outside had been made regardless of fitness, still those
appointments had been made in the lower grades, the higher
positions being filled by promotion within the service, usually of
the most competent, but under the new system with its exceptions,
while appointments to the lower grades were filled on the basis of
merit, the pressure for spoils at each change of administration
forced inexperienced, political or personal favourites in at the top.
This blocked promotions and demoralized the service. Thus, while
the general effect of the act was to limit very greatly the number
of vicious appointments, at the same time the effect of these
exceptions was to confine them to the upper grades, where the
demoralizing effect of each upon :he service would be a maximum.
By constant efforts the Civil Service Commission succeeded in
having position after position withdrawn from this excepted
class, until by the action of the president, on the 6th of May 1896,
it was finally reduced almost to a minimum. By subsequent

1 For details justifying these statements, see U.S. Civil Service
Commission's Fourteenth Report, pp. 12-14.

presidential action, however, on the agth of May 1809, the
excepted class was again greatly extended. 1

A further obstacle to the complete success of the merit system,
and one which prevents the carrying forward of the reform to
the extent to which it has been carried in Great Britain, is
inherent in the Civil Service Act itself. All postmasters who
receive compensation of $1000 or more per annum, and all
collectors of customs and collectors of internal revenue, are
appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate, and
are therefore, by express provision of the act, not " required
to be classified." The universal practice of treating these
offices as political agencies instead of as administrative business
offices is therefore not limited by the act. Such officers are
active in political work throughout the country, and their
official position adds greatly to their power to affect the political
prospects of the leaders in their districts. Accordingly the
Senate, from being, as originally intended, merely a confirming
body as to these officers, has become in a large measure, actually
if not formally, a nominating body, and holds with tenacity
to the power thus acquired by the individual senators. Thorough
civil service reform requires that these positions also, and all
those of fourth-class postmasters (partly classified by order of
ist Dec. 1908), be made subject to the merit system, for in
them is the real remaining stronghold of the spoils system. Even
though all their subordinates be appointed through examination,
it will be impossible to carry the reform to ultimate and complete
success so long as the officers in charge are appointed mainly
for political reasons and are changed with every change of
administration.

The purpose of the act to protect the individual employees
in the service from the rapacity of the " political barons " has
been measurably, if not completely, successful. The power
given the Civil Service Commission, to investigate and report
upon violations of the law, has been used to bring to light such
abuses as the levying of political contributions, and to set the
machinery of the law in motion against them. While compara-
tively few actual prosecutions have been brought about, and
although the penalties imposed by the act for this offence have
been but seldom inflicted, still the publicity given to all such
cases by the commission's investigations has had a wholesome
deterrent effect. Before the passage of the act, positions were
as a general rule held upon a well-understood lease-tenure, the
political contributions for them being as securely and as certainly
collected as any rent. Now, however, it can be said that these
forced contributions have almost entirely disappeared. The
efforts which are still made to collect political funds from govern-
ment employees in evasion of the law are limited in the main
to persuasion to make " voluntary " contributions, and it has
been possible so to limit and obstruct these efforts that their
practical effect upon the character of the service is now very
small.

The same evils that the Federal Civil Service Act was designed
to remedy exist to a large degree in many of the state govern-
ments, and are especially aggravated in the administra-
tion of the local governments of some of the larger State
cities. The chief, if not the only, test of fitness for tiaa?
office in many cases has been partly loyalty, honesty
and capacity being seldom more than secondary considerations.
The result has been the fostering of dishonesty and extravagance,
which have brought weakness and gross corruption into the
administration of the local governments. In consequence of
this there has been a constantly growing tendency, among the
more intelligent class of citizens, to demand that honest business
methods be applied to local public service, and that appointments
be made on the basis of intelligence and capacity, rather than
of party allegiance. The movement for the reform of the civil
service of cities is going hand in hand with the movement for
general municipal reform, those reformers regarding the merit

2 For the scope of these exceptions, see Civil Service Rule VI.,
at p. 57 of the U.S. Civil Service Commission's Fifteenth and Sixteenth
Reports. A statement of the number of positions actually affected
by this action of the president appears in the Seventeenth Report.

416

CIVITA CASTELLANA CIVITA VECCHIA

system of appointments as not merely the necessary and only
safe bulwark to preserve the results of their labours, but also as
the most efficient means for bringing about other reforms.
Hence civil service reform is given a leading position in all
programmes for the reform of state and municipal governments.
This has undoubtedly been due, in the first instance, at least, to
the success which attended the application of the merit system
to the Federal service, municipal and state legislation following
in the wake of the national civil service law. In New York an act
similar to the Federal Civil Service Act was passed on the 4th
of May 1883, and in 1894 the principles of the merit system
were introduced by an amendment into the state constitution,
and made applicable to cities and villages as well. In Massa-
chusetts an act was passed on the 3rd of June 1884 which in
its general features was based upon the Federal act and the
New York act. Similar laws were passed in Illinois and Wisconsin
in 1895, and in New Jersey in 1908; the laws provide for the
adoption of the merit system in state and municipal govern-
ment. In New Orleans, La., and in Seattle, Wash., the merit
system was introduced by an amendment to the city charter
in 1896. The same result was accomplished by New Haven,
Conn., in 1897, and by San Francisco, Cal., in 1899. In still
other cities the principles of the merit system have been enacted
into law, in some cases applying to the entire service and in
others to only a part of it.

The application of the merit system to state and municipal
governments has proved successful wherever it has been given
a fair trial. 1 As experience has fostered public confidence in the
system, and at the same time shown those features of the law
which are most vulnerable, and the best means for fortifying
them, numerous and important improvements upon the pioneer
act applying to the Federal service have been introduced in
the more recent legislation. This is particularly true of the acts
now in force in New York (passed in 1899) and in Chicago.
The power of the commission to enforce these acts is materially
greater than the power possessed by the Federal commission.
In .making investigations they are not confined to taking the
testimony of voluntary witnesses, but may administer oaths,
and compel testimony and the production of books and papers
where necessary; and in taking action they are not confined
to the making of a report of the findings in their investigations,
but may themselves, in many cases, take final judicial action.
Further than this, the payment of salaries is made dependent
upon the certificate of the commission that the appointments
of the recipients were made in accordance with the civil service
law and rules. Thus these commissions have absolute power
to prevent irregular or illegal appointments by refractory
appointing officers. Their powers being so much greater than
those of the national commission, their action can be much
more drastic in most cases, and they can go more directly to the
heart of an existing abuse, and apply more quickly and effectually
the needed remedy.

Upon the termination of the Spanish-American War, the
necessity for the extension of the principles of the merit system
to the new territories, the responsibility for whose government
the results of this war had thrown upon the United States, was
realized. By the acts providing for civil government in Porto
Rico (April izth, 1900) and Hawaii (April 3oth, 1900), the
provisions of the Civil Service Act and Rules were applied to
those islands. Under this legislation the classification applies
to all positions which are analogous to positions in the Federal
service, those which correspond to positions in the municipal
and state governments being considered as local in character,
and not included in the classification.

On the 1 9th of September 1900 the United States Philippine
Commission passed an act " for the establishment and mainten-
ance of an efficient and honest civil service in the Philippine
Islands." This act, in its general features, is based upon the
national civil service law, but includes also a number of the

1 In the U. S. Civil Service Commission's Fifteenth Report, pp. 489-
502, the " growth of the civil service reform in states and cities" is
historically treated, briefly, but with some thoroughness.

stronger points to be found in the state and municipal law
mentioned above. Among these are the power given the civil
service board to administer oaths, summon witnesses, and require
the production of official records; and the power to stop pay-
ment of salaries to persons illegally appointed. Promotions are
determined b> competitive examinations, and are made through-
out the service, as there are no excepted positions. A just
right of preference in local appointments is given to natives.
The president of the Philippine commission in introducing this
bill said: " The purpose of the United States government . . .
in these islands is to secure for the Filipino people as honest
and as efficient a government as may be possible. ... It is the
hope of the commission to make it possible for one entering the
lowest ranks to reach the highest, under a tenure based solely
upon merit." Judging by past experience it is believed that
this law is well adapted to accomplish the purpose above stated.

For fuller information upon the details of the present workings
of the merit system in the Federal service, recourse should be had
to the publications of the U.S. Civil Service Commission, which are
to be found in the public libraries in all the principal cities in the
United States, or which may be had free of charge upon application
to the commission. The Manual of Examinations, published semi-
annually, gives full information as to the character of the examina-
tions held by the commission, together with the schedule of dates
and places for the holding of those examinations. The Annual
Reports of the commission contain full statistics of the results of its
work, together with comprehensive statements as to the difficulties
encountered in enforcing the law, and the means used to overcome
them. In the Fifteenth Report, pp. 443-485, will be found a very
valuable historical compilation from original sources, upon the
" practice of the presidents in appointments and removals in the
executive civil service, from 1789 to 1883." In the same report,
pp. 511-517, is a somewhat comprehensive bibliography of "civil
service " in periodical literature in the I9th century, brought down
to the end of 1898. See also C. R. Fish, The Civil Service and the
Patronage (New York, 1905).

In most European countries the civil service is recruited on much
the same lines as in the United Kingdom and the United States,
that is, either by examination or by nomination or by both. In
some cases the examination is purely competitive, in other cases,
as in France, holders of university degrees get special privileges, such
as being put at the head of the list, or going up a certain number of
places; or, as in Germany, many departmental posts are filled by
nomination, combined with the results of general examinations,
either at school or university. In the publications of the United
States Department of Labour and Commerce for 1904-1905 will
be found brief details of the systems adopted by the various foreign
countries for appointing their civil service employees.

CIVITA CASTELLANA (anc. Falerii, q.v.), a town and episcopal
see of the province of Rome, 45 m. by rail from the city of Rome
(the station is 5 m. N.E. of the town). Population (1901) 5265.
The cathedral of S. Maria possesses a fine portico, erected in
1 2 10 by Laurentius Romanus, his son Jacobus and his grandson
Cosmas, in the cosmatesque style, with ancient columns and
mosaic decorations: the interior was modernized in the i8th
century, but has some fragments of cosmatesque ornamentation.
The citadel was erected by Pope Alexander VI. from the designs
of Antonio da Sangallo the elder, and enlarged by Julius II.
and Leo X. The lofty bridge by which the town is approached
belongs to the i8th century. Mount Soracte lies about 6 m.
to the south-east.

CIVITA VECCHIA, a seaport town and episcopal see of Italy,
in the province of Rome, 50 m. N.W. by rail and 35 m. direct
from the city of Rome. Pop. (1871)8143; (1901) 17,589. It
is the ancient Centum Cellae, founded by Trajan. Interesting
descriptions of it are given by Pliny the Younger (Epist. vi. 31)
and Rutilius Namat. i. 237. The modern harbour works rest
on the ancient foundations, and near it the cemetery of detach-
ments of the Classes Misenensis and Ravennas has been found
(Corp. Inscr. Lat. vol. xi., Berlin, 1888, pp. 3520 seq.). Remains
of an aqueduct and other Roman buildings are preserved; the
imperial family had a villa her z. Procopius mentions it in the
6th century as a strong and populous place, but it was destroyed
in 813 by the Saracens. Leo IV. erected a new city for the
inhabitants on the site where th^y had taken refuge, about 8 m.
N.N.E. of Civita Vecchia towards the hills, near La Farnesina,
where its ruins may still be seen; the city walls and some of
the streets and buildings may be traced, and an inscription

CLACKMANNAN CLACKMANNANSHIRE

(which must have stood over one of the city gates) recording
its foundation has been discovered. It continued to exist under
the name Cencelle as a feudal castle until the isth century.
In the meantime, however, the inhabitants returned to the old
town by the shore in 889 and rebuilt it, giving it the name
Civitas Vetus, the modern Civita Vecchia (see O. Marucchi in
Nuovo Bullettino di archeologia cristiana, vi., 1900, p. 195 seq.).
In 1 508 Pope Julius II. began the construction of the castle
from the designs of Bramante, Michelangelo being responsible
for the addition of the central tower. It is considered by Burck-
hardt the finest building of its kind. Pius IV. added a convict
prison. The arsenal was built by Alexander VII. and designed
by Bernini. Civita Vecchia was the chief port of the Papal
State and has still a considerable trade. There are cement
factories in the town, and calcium carbide is an important article
of export. The principal imports are coal, cattle for the home
markets, and fire-bricks from the United Kingdom. Three
miles N.E. were the Aquae Tauri, warm springs, now known
as Bagni della F errata: considerable remains of the Roman
baths are still preserved. About i m. W. of these are other
hot springs, those of the Ficoncella, also known in Roman times.

CLACKMANNAN, the county town of Clackmannanshire,
Scotland. Pop. 1505. It lies near the north bank of the Forth,
2 m. E. of Alloa, with two stations on the North British railway.
Among the public buildings are the parish church, the tower of
which, standing on a commanding eminence, is a conspicuous
landmark. Clackmannan Tower is now a picturesque ruin,
but at one time played an important part in Scottish history,
and was the seat of a lineal descendant of the Bruce family
after the failure of the male line. The old market cross still
exists, and close to it stands the stone that gives the town its
name (Gaelic, clack, stone; Manann, the name of the district).
A large spinning-mill and coalpits lend a modern touch in
singular contrast with the quaint, old-world aspect of the place.
About i m. to the S.E. is Kennet House, the seat of Lord Balfour
of Burleigh, another member of the Bruce family.

CLACKMANNANSHIRE, the smallest county in Scotland,
bounded S.W. by the Forth, W. by Stirlingshire, N.N.E. and
N.W. by Perthshire, and E. by Fifeshire. It has an area of
35,160 acres, or about 55 sq. m. An elevated ridge starting on
the west, runs through the middle of the county, widening
gradually till it reaches the eastern boundary, and skirting
the alluvial or carse lands in the valleys of the Forth and Devon.
Still farther to the N. the Ochil hills form a picturesque feature
in the landscape, having their generally verdant surface broken
by bold projecting rocks and deeply indented ravines. The
principal summits are within the limits of the shire, among
them Ben Cleuch (2363 ft.), King's Seat (2111 ft.), Whitewisp
(2110 ft.), the Law (above Tillicoultry, 2094 ft.) and Blairdenon
(2072 ft.), on the northern slope, in which the river Devon takes
its rise. The rivers of importance are the Devon and the Black
or South Devon. The former, noted in the upper parts for its
romantic scenery and its excellent trout-fishing, runs through the
county near the base of the Ochils, and falls into the Forth at
the village of Cambus, after a winding course of 33 m., although
as the crow flies its source is only s| m. distant. The Black
Devon, rising in the Cleish Hills, flows westwards in a direction
nearly parallel to that of the Devon, and falls into the Forth
near Clackmannan. It supplies motive power to numbers of
mills and collieries; and its whole course is over coal strata.
The Forth is navigable as far as it forms the boundary of the
county, and ships of 500 tons burden run up as far as Alloa.
The only lake is Gartmorn, i m. long by about % of a mile broad,
which has been dammed in order to furnish water to Alloa and
power to mills. The Ochils are noted for the number of their
glens. Though these are mostly small, they are well wooded
and picturesque, and those at Menstrie, Alva, Tillicoultry and
Dollar are particularly beautiful.

Geology. This county is divided geologically into two areas, the
boundary line skirting the southern margin of the Ochils and running
westwards from a point north of Dollar by Alva in the direction of
Airthrey in Stirlingshire. The northern portion forms part of the

volcanic range of the Ochils which belongs to the Old Red Sandstone
period, and consists of a great succession of lavas basalts and
andesites with intercalations of tuff and agglomerate. As the
rocks dip gently towards the north and form the highest ground
in the county they must reach a great thickness. They are pierced
by small intrusive masses of diorite, north of Tillicoultry House.
The well-marked feature running E. and W. along the southern
base of the Ochils indicates a line of fault or dislocation which
abruptly truncates the Lower Old Red volcanic rocks and brings
down an important development of Carboniferous strata occupying
the southern part of the county. These belong mainly to the Coal-
measures and comprise a number of valuable coal-seams which
have been extensively worked. The Clackmannan field is the
northern continuation of the great Lanarkshire basin which extends
nprthwards by Slamannan, Falldrk and the Carron Ironworks to
Alloa. Along the eastern margin between Cairnmuir and Bruce-
field the underlying Millstone Grit, consisting mainly of false-
bedded sandstones, comes to the surface. Close to the nver Devon
south of Dollar the Vicars Bridge Limestone, which there marks the
top of the Carboniferous Limestone series, rises from beneath the
Millstone Grit. The structure of the Clackmannan field is interesting.
The strata are arranged in synclinal form, the highest seams being
found near the Devon ironworks, and they are traversed by a series
of parallel east and west faults each with a downthrow to the south,
whereby the coals are repeated and the field extended. During
mining operations evidence has been obtained of the existence of
a buried river-channel, filled with boulder clay and stratified de-
posits along the course of the Devon, which extends below the
present sea-level and points to greater elevation of the land in
pre-glacial time. An excellent example of a dolerite dyke trending
slightly north of west occurs in the north part of the county where
it traverses the volcanic rocks of Lower Old Red Sandstone age.

Industries. The soil is generally productive and well culti-
vated, though the greater part of the elevated range which is
interposed between the carse lands on the Forth and the vale
of Devon at the base of the Ochils on the north consists of inferior
soils, often lying upon an impervious clay. Oats are the chief
crop, but wheat and barley are profitably grown. Sheep-
farming is successfully pursued, the Ochils affording excellent
pasturage, and cattle, pigs and horses are also raised. There is
a small tract of moorland in the east, called the Forest, bounded
on its northern margin by the Black Devon. Iron-ore (haema-
tite), copper, silver, lead, cobalt and arsenic have all been
discovered in small quantity in the Ochils, between Alva and
Dollar. Ironstone found either in beds, or in oblate balls
embedded in slaty clay, and yielded from 25 to 30 % of iron
is mined for the Devon iron-works, near Clackmannan. Coal
has been mined for a long period. The strata which compose the
field are varieties of sandstone, shale, fire-clay and argillaceous
ironstone. There is a heavy continuous output of coal at the
mines at Sauchie, Fishcross, Coalsnaughton, Devonside, Clack-
mannan and other pits. The spinning-mills at Alloa, Tillicoultry
and Alva are always busy, Alloa yarns and fingering being widely
famous. The distilleries at Glenochil and Carsebridge and the
breweries in Alloa and Cambus do a large export business.
The minor trades include glass-blowing, pottery, coopering,
tanning, iron-founding, electrical apparatus making, ship-
building and paper-making.

The north British railway serves the whole county, while the
Caledonian has access to Alloa.

Population and Government. The population was 33,140
in 1891 and 32,029 in 1901, when 170 persons spoke Gaelic and
English and one person Gaelic only. The county unites with
Kinross-shire in returning one member to parliament. Clack-
mannan (pop. 1505) is the county town, but Alloa (14,458),
Alva (4624), and Tillicoultry (3338) take precedence in popula-
tion and trade. Menstrie (pfep. 898) near Alloa has a large
furniture factory and the great distillery of Glenochil. To the
north-east of Alloa is the thriving mining village of Sauchie.
Clackmannan forms a sheriffdom with Stirling and Dumbarton
shires, and a sheriff-substitute sits at Alloa. Most of the schools
in the shire are under school-board control, but there are a
few voluntary schools, besides an exceptionally well-equipped
technical school in Alloa and a well-known academy at Dollar.

See James Wallace, The Sheriffdom of Clackmannan: a Sketch
of its History (Edinburgh, 1890); D. Beveridge, Between the Ochils
and the Forth (Edinburgh, 1888); John Crawford, Memorials of
Alloa (1885) ; William Gibson, Reminiscences of Dollar, Tillicoultry,

vi. 14

CLACTON-ON-SEA CLAIRVOYANCE

CLACTON-OK-SEA, a watering-place in the Harwich parlia-
mentary division of Essex, England; 71 m. E.N.E. from London
by a branch from Colchester of the Great Eastern railway;
served also by steamers from London in the summer months.
P6p. of urban district (1901) 7456. Clay cliffs of slight altitude
rise from the sandy beach and face south-eastward. In the
neighbourhood, however, marshes fringe the shore. The church
of Great Clacton, at the village ij m. inland, is Norman and
later, and of considerable interest. Clacton is provided with
a pier, promenade and marine parade; and is the seat of various
convalescent and other homes.

CLADEL, LEON (1835-1892), French novelist, was bom at
Montauban (Tarn-et-Garonne) on the I3th of March 1835.
The son of an artisan, he studied law at Toulouse and became
a solicitor's clerk in Paris. He made a reputation in a limited
circle by his first book, Les Martyrs ridicules (1862), a novel for
which Charles Baudelaire, whose literary disciple Cladel was,
wrote a preface. He then returned to his native district of
Quercy, where he produced a series of pictures of peasant life in
Eral le dompteur (1865), Le Nomme Qouael (1868) and other
volumes. Returning to Paris he published the two novels
which are generally acknowledged as his best work, Le Bouscassie
(1869) and La File votive de Saint Bartholomee Porte-glaive (1872).
Une Maudile (1876) was judged dangerous to the public morals
and cost its author a month's imprisonment. Other works by
Cladel are Les Va-nu-pieds (1873), a volume of short stories;
N'a qu'un ceil (1882), Urbains el ruraux (1884), Gueux de marque
(1887), and the posthumous Juive errante (1897). He died at
Sevres on the 2oth of July 1892.

See La Vie de Leon Cladel (Paris, 1905), by his daughter Judith
Cladel, containing also an article on Cladel by Edmond Picard, a
complete list of his works, and of the critical articles on his work.

CLAFLIN, HORACE BRIGHAM (1811-1885), American
merchant, was born in Milford, Massachusetts, on the i8th of
December 1 81 1. He was educated at Milford Academy, became
a clerk in his father's store in Milford, and in 1831, with his
brother Aaron and his brother-in-law Samuel Daniels, succeeded
to his father's business. In 1832 the firm opened a branch store
in Worcester, Mass., and in 1833 Horace B. Claflin and Daniels
secured the sole control of this establishment and restricted their
dealing to dry goods. In 1843 Claflin removed to New York
City and became a member of the firm of Bulkley & Claflin,
whosesale dry goods merchants. In 1851 and in 1864 the firm
was reorganized, being designated in these respective years
as Claflin, Mellin & Company and H. B. Claflin & Company.
Under Claflin's management the business increased so rapidly
that the sales for a time after 1865 probably exceeded those
of any other mercantile house in the world. Though the firm
was temporarily embarrassed at the beginning of the Civil War,
on account of its large business interests in the South, and during
the financial panic of 1873, the promptness with which Mr
Claflin met these crises and paid every dollar of his liabilities
greatly increased his reputation for business ability and integrity.
He died at Fordham, New York, on the i4th of November 1885.

CLAIRAULT (or CLAIRAUT), ALEXIS CLAUDE (1713-1765),
French mathematician, was born on the i3th or 7th of May 1713,
at Paris, where his father was a teacher of mathematics. Under
his father's tuition he made such rapid progress in mathematical
studies that in his thirteenth year he read before the French
Academy an account of the properties of four curves which he
had then discovered. When only sixteen he finished a treatise,
Recherches sur les courbes d double courbure, which, on its publica-
tion in 1731, procured his admission into the Academy of
Sciences, although even then he was below the legal age. In
1736, together with Pierre Louis Maupertuis, he took part in the
expedition to Lapland, which was undertaken for the purpose
of estimating a degree of the meridian, and on his return he
published his treatise Theorie de la figure de la terre (1743). In
this work he promulgated the theorem, known as " Clairault's
theorem," which connects the gravity at points on the surface
of a rotating ellipsoid with the compression and the centrifugal
force at the equator (see EARTH, FIGURE OF THE). He obtained

an ingenious approximate solution of the problem of the three
bodies; in 1750 he gained the prize of the St Petersburg Academy
for his essay Theorie de la lune; and in 1759 he calculated the
perihelion of Halley's comet. He also detected singular solutions
in differential equations of the first order, and of the second and
higher degrees. Clairault died at Paris, on the I7th of May 1765.

CLAIRON, LA (1723-1803), French actress, whose real name
was CLAIRE JOSEPH HIPPOLYTE LERIS, was born at Conde sur
1'Escaut, Hainaut, on the 25th of January 1723, the natural
daughter of any army sergeant. In 1736 she made her first stage
appearance at the Comedie Italienne, in a small part in Mariv a,ux's
fie des esclaves. After several years in the provinces she returned
to Paris. Her life, meanwhile, had been decidedly irregular,
even if not to the degree indicated by the libellous pamphlet
Histoire de la demoiselle Cronel, dile Fretillon, actrice de la Comedie
de Rouen, ecrite par elle-meme (The Hague, 1 746), or to be inferred
from the disingenuousness of her own Memoires d'Hippolyte
Clairon (1798); and she had great difficulty in obtaining an
order to make her debut at the Come'die Francaise. Succeeding,
however, at last, she had the courage to select the title-r&le of
Phedre (1743), and she obtained a veritable triumph. During
her twenty-two years at this theatre, dividing the honours
with her rival Mile Dumesnil, she filled many of the classical
r61es of tragedy, and created a great number of parts in the plays
of Voltaire, Marmontel, Saurin, de Belloy and others. She
retired in 1766, and trained pupils for the stage, among them
Mile Raucourt. Goldsmith called Mile Clairon " the most perfect
female figure I have ever seen on any stage " (The Bee, 2nd No.);
and Garrick, while recognizing her unwillingness or inability
to make use of the inspiration of the instant, admitted that
" she has everything that art and a good understanding with
great natural spirit can give her."

CLAIRVAUX, a village of north-eastern France, in the depart-
ment of Aube, 40 m. E.S.E. of Troyes on the Eastern railway to
Belfort. Clairvaux (Clara Vallis) is situated in the valley of the
Aube on the eastern border of the Forest of Clairvaux. Its
celebrity is due to the abbey founded in 1115 by St Bernard,
which became the centre of the Cistercian order. The buildings
(see ABBEY) belong for the most part to the i8th century, but
there is a large storehouse which dates from the I2th century.
The abbey, suppressed at the Revolution, now serves as a prison,
containing on an average 800 inmates, who are employed in
agricultural and industrial occupations. Clairvaux has iron-
works of some importance.

CLAIRVOYANCE (Fr. for " clear-seeing "), a technical term in
psychical research, properly equivalent to lucidity, a super-
normal power of obtaining knowledge in which no part is played
by (a) the ordinary processes of sense-perception or (b) super-
normal communication with other intelligences, incarnate, or
discarnate. The word is also used, sometimes qualified by the
word telepathic, to mean the power of gaining supernormal
knowledge from the mind of another (see TELEPATHY). It is
further commonly used by spiritualists to mean the power of
seeing spirit f >rms, or, more vaguely, of discovering facts by some
supernormal means.

Lucidity. Few experiments have been made to test the
existence of this faculty. If communications from discarnate
minds are regarded as possible, there are no means of distinguish-
ing facts obtained in this way from facts obtained by independent
clairvoyance. In practice no evidence has been obtained
pointing to the possession by a discarnate spirit of knowledge not
possessed by any living person (see MEDIUM). As explanation of
the few successful experiments in independent clairvoyance we
have the choice of three explanations: (i) lucidity; (2) telepathy
from living persons; (3) hyperr esthesia. The second possibility
was overlooked in Richet's diagram experiments; it cannot be
assumed that a picture put into an envelope and not consciously
recalled has been in reality forgotten. Similarly the clairvoyant
diagnosis of diseases may depend on knowledge gained tele-
pathically from the patient, who may be subliminaLy aware of
diseased states of the body. The most elaborate experiments are
by Prof. Richet with a hypnotized subject who succeeded in

CLAMECY CLAN

419

naming twelve cards out of sixty-eight. But no precautions were
taken against hyperaesthesia further than enclosing the card in a
second envelope. There is a power possessed by a certain number
of people, of naming a card drawn by them or held in the hand
face downwards, so that there is no normal knowledge of its suit
and number. Few thorough trials have been made; but it seems
to point to some kind of hyperaesthesia rather than to clair-
voyance; in the Richet experiments even if the envelopes
excluded hyperaesthesia of touch on the part of the medium,
there may have been subliminal knowledge on Prof. Richet's
part of the card which he put in the envelope. The experience
known as the deja vu has sometimes been explained as due to
clairvoyance.

Telepathic Clairvoyance. For a discussion of this see TELE-
PATHY and CRYSTAL-GAZING. It may be noted here that some
curious relation seems to exist between apparently telepathic
acquisition of knowledge and the arrival of a letter, newspaper,
&c., from which the same knowledge could be directly gained.
We are confronted with a similar problem in attempting an
explanation of the power of mediums to state correctly facts
delating to objects placed in their hands. Of a somewhat
different character is retrocognition (q.v.), where the knowledge in
many cases, if telepathic, must be derived from a discarnate mind.

Clairvoyance, as a term of spiritualism, with its correlative
clairaudience, is the name given to the power of seeing and hearing
discarnate spirits of dead relatives and others, with whom the
living are said to be surrounded. More vaguely it includes the
power of gaining knowledge, either through the spirit world or by
means of psychometry (i.e. the supernormal acquisition of
knowledge about owners of objects, writers of letters, &c.).
Some evidence for these latter powers has been accumulated by
the Society for Psychical Research, but in many cases the
piecing together of normally acquired knowledge, together with
shrewd guessing, suffices to explain the facts, especially where the
investigator has had no special training for his task.

See Richet, Experimentelle Studien (1891); also in Proc. S.P.R.
vi. 66. For a criticism see N. W. Thomas, Thought Transference,
pp. 44-48. For Clairvoyance in general see F. W. H. Myers, Human
Personality, and in Proc. S.P.R. xi. 334 et sec]. For a criticism of the
evidence see Mrs Sidgwick in Proc. S.P.R. vii. 30, 356. (N. W. T.)

CLAMECY, a town of central France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Nievre, at the confluence of the Yonne
and Beuvron and on the Canal du Nivernais, 46 m. N.N.E. of
Nevers on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 4455. Its
principal building is the church of St Martin, which dates chiefly
from the I3th, i4th and isth centuries. The tower and facade
are of the i6th century. The chevet, which is surrounded by an
aisle, is rectangular a feature found in few French churches.
Of the old castle of the counts of Nevers, vaulted cellars alone
remain. A church in the suburb of Bethlehem, dating from the
1 2th and i3th centuries, now serves as part of an hotel. The
public institutions include the Bub-prefecture, tribunals of first
instance and of commerce and a communal college. Among the
industrial establishments are saw-mills, fulling-mills and flour-
mills, tanneries and manufactories of boots and shoes and
chemicals; and there is considerable trade in wine and cattle and
in wood and charcoal, which is conveyed principally to Paris, by
way of the Yonne.

In the early middle ages Clamecy belonged to the abbey of St
Julian at Auxerre; in the nth century it passed to the counts of
Nevers, one of whom, Herve, enfranchised the inhabitants in
1213. After the capture of Jerusalem by Saladin in 1188,
Clamecy became the seat of the bishops of Bethlehem, who till the
Revolution resided in the hospital of Panthenor, bequeathed by
William IV., count of Nevers. On the coup d'etat of 1851 an
insurrection broke out in the town, and was repressed by the new
authorities with great severity.

CLAN (Gaelic clann, O. Ir. eland, connected with Lat. planta,
shoot or scion, the ancient Gaelic or Goidelic substituting k for p) ,
a group of people united by common blood, and usually settled in
a common habitat. The clan system existed in Ireland and the
Highlands of Scotland from early times. In its strictest sense the

system was peculiar to those countries, but, in its wider meaning
of a group of kinsmen forming a self-governing community, the
system as represented by the village community has been shown
by Sir H. Maine and others to have existed at one time or
another in all lands.

Before the use of surnames and elaborate written genealogies,
a tribe in its definite sense was called in Celtic a tuath, a word
of wide affinities, from a root tu, to grow, to multiply, existing
in all European languages. When the tribal system began to
be broken up by conquest and by the rise of towns and of terri-
torial government, the use of a common surname furnished a
new bond for keeping up a connexion between kindred. The
head of a tribe or smaller group of kindred selected some ancestor
and called himself his Ua, grandson, or as it has been anglicized
O', e.g. Ua Conchobair (O' Conor), Ua Suilleabhain (O'Sullivan).
All his kindred adopted the same name, the chief using no
fore-name however. The usual mode of distinguishing a person
before the introduction of surnames was to name his father and
grandfather, e.g. Owen, son of Donal, son of Dermot. This
naturally led some to form their surnames with Mac, son, instead
of Ua, grandson, e.g. MacCarthaigh, son of Carthach (Mac Carthy) ,
Mac Ruaidhri, son of Rory (Macrory). Both methods have been
followed in Ireland, but in Scotland Mac came to be exclusively
used. The adoption of such genealogical surnames fostered the
notion that all who bore the same surname were kinsmen, and
hence the genealogical term clann, which properly means the
descendants of some progenitor, gradually became synonymous
with tuath, tribe. Like all purely genealogical terms, clann may
be used in the limited sense of a particular tribe go'verned by a
chief, or in that of many tribes claiming descent from a common
ancestor. In the latter sense it was synonymous with sll, siol,
seed e.g. Siol Alpine, a great clan which included the smaller
clans of the Macgregors, Grants, Mackinnons,Macnabs,Macphies,
Macquarries and Macaulays.

The clan system in the most archaic form of which we have
any definite information can be best studied in the Irish tuath,
or tribe. 1 This consisted of two classes: (i) tribesmen, and
(2) a miscellaneous class of slaves, criminals, strangers and their
descendants. The first class included tribesmen by blood in the
male line, including all illegitimate children acknowledged by
their fathers, and tribesmen by adoption or sons of tribeswomen
by strangers, foster-sons, men who had done some signal service
to the tribe, and lastly the descendants of the second class after
a certain number of generations. Each tuath had a chief called
a rig, king, a word cognate with the Gaulish rig-s or rix, the
Latin reg-s or rex, and the Old Norse rik-ir. The tribesmen
formed a number of communities, each of which, like the tribe
itself, consisted of a head, ceann fine, his kinsmen, slaves and
other retainers. This was the fine, or sept. Each of these
occupied a certain part of the tribe-land, the arable part being
cultivated under a system of co-tillage, the pasture land co-
grazed according to certain customs, and the wood, bog and
mountains forming the marchland of the sept being the un-
restricted common land of the sept. The sept was in fact a
village community.

What the sept was to the tribe, the homestead was to the sept.
The head of a homestead was an aire, a representative freeman
capable of acting as a witness, compurgator and bail. These
were very important functions, especially when it is borne in
mind that the tribal homestead was the home of many of the
kinsfolk of the head of the family as well as of his own children.
The descent of property being according to a gavel-kind custom,
it constantly happened that when an aire died the share of his
property which each member of his immediate family was en-
titled to receive was not sufficient to qualify him to be an aire.
In this case the family did not divide the inheritance, but
remained together as " a joint and undivided family," one of the
members being elected chief of the family or household, and in

1 The following account of the Irish clan-system differs in some
respects from that in the article on BREHON LAWS (q.v.); but it is
retained here in view of the authority of the writer and the admitted
obscurity of the whole subject. (Eo. E.B.)

420

CLAN

this capacity enjoyed the rights and privileges of an aire. Sir
H. S. Maine directed attention to this kind of family as an
important feature of the early institutions of all Indo-European
nations. Beside the " joint and undivided family," there was
another kind of family which we might call " the joint family."
This was a partnership composed of three or four members of a
sept whose individual wealth was not sufficient to qualify each
of them to be an aire, but whose joint wealth qualified one of the
co-partners as head of the joint family to be one.

So long as there was abundance of land each family grazed
its cattle upon the tribe-land without restriction; unequal
increase of wealth and growth of population naturally led to its
limitation, each head of a homestead being entitled to graze
an amount of stock in proportion to his wealth, the size of his
homestead, and his acquired position. The arable land was no
doubt applotted annually at first; gradually, however, some
of the richer families of the tribe succeeded in evading this
exchange of allotments and converting part of the common land
into an estate in sevralty. Septs were at first colonies of the
tribe which settled on the march -land; afterwards the conversion
of part of the common land into an estate in sevralty enabled
the family that acquired it to become the parent of a new sept.
The same process might, however, take place within a sept
without dividing it; in other words, several members of the
sept might hold part of the land of the sept as separate estate.
The possession of land in sevralty introduced an important
distinction into the tribal system it created an aristocracy.
An aire whose family held the same land for three generations
was called a flaith, or lord, of which rank there were several
grades according to their wealth in land and chattels. The aires
whose wealth consisted in cattle only were called b6-aires, or
cow-aires, of whom there were also several grades, depending
on their wealth in stock. When a b6-aire had twice the wealth
of the lowest class of flaith he might enclose part of the land
adjoining his house as a lawn; this was the first step towards
his becoming a flaith. The relations which subsisted between
the flaiths and the b6-aires formed the most curious part of the
Celtic tribal system, and throw a flood of light on the origin
of the feudal system. Every tribesman without exception owed
ceilsinne to the rig, or chief, that is, he was bound to become
his ceile. or vassal. This consisted in paying the rig a tribute
in kind, for which the ceile was entitled to receive a proportionate
amount of stock without having to give any bond for their
return, giving him service, e.g. in building his dun, or stronghold,
reaping his harvest, keeping his roads clean and in repair, killing
wolves, and especially service in the field, and doing him homage
three times while seated every time he made his return of tribute.
Paying the " calpe " to the Highland chiefs represented this
kind of vassalage, a colpdach or heifer being in many cases the
amount of food-rent paid by a free or saer ceile. A tribesman
might, however, if he pleased, pay a higher rent on receiving
more stock together with certain other chattels for which no
rent was chargeable. In this case he entered into a contract,
and was therefore a bond or doer ceile. No one need have
accepted stock on these terms, nor could he do so without the
consent of his sept, and he might free himself at any time from
his obligation by returning what he had received, and the rent
due thereon.

What every one was bound to do to his rig, or chief, he might
do voluntarily to the flaith of his sept, to any flaith of the tribe,
or even to one of another tribe. He might also become a bond
ceile. In either case he might renounce his ceileship by returning
a greater or lesser amount of stock than what he had received
according to the circumstances under which he terminated his
vassalage. In cases of disputed succession to the chiefship of a
tribe the rival claimants were always anxious to get as many
as possible to become their vassals. Hence the anxiety of minor
chieftains, in later times in the Highlands of Scotland, to induce
the clansmen to pay the " calpe " where there happened to be a
doubt as to who was entitled to be chief.

The effect of the custom of gavel-kind was to equalize the
wealth of each and leave no one wealthy enough to be chief.

The " joint and undivided family " and the formation of " joint
families," or gilds, was one way of obviating this result; another
way was the custom of tanistry. The headship of the tribe was
practically confined to the members of one family; this was
also the case with the headship of a sept. Sometimes a son
succeeded his father, but the rule was that the eldest and most
capable member of the geilfine, that is, the relatives of the actual
chief to the fifth degree, 1 was selected during his lifetime to be
his successor generally the eldest surviving brother or son of
the preceding chief. The man selected as successor to a chief
of a tribe, or chieftain of a sept, was called the tanist, and
should be " the most experienced, the most noble, the most
wealthy, the wisest, the most learned, the most truly popular,
the most powerful to oppose, the most steadfast to sue for
profits and (be sued) for losses." In addition to these qualities
he should be free from personal blemishes and deformities and
of fit age to lead his tribe or sept, as the case may be, to battle. 1
So far as selecting the man of the geilfine who was supposed to
possess all those qualities, the office of chief of a tribe or chieftain
of a sept was elective, but as the geilfine was represented by four
persons, together with the chief or chieftain, the election was
practically confined to one of the four. In order to support
the dignity of the chief or chieftain a certain portion of the tribe
or sept land was attached as an apanage to the office; this land,
with the duns or fortified residences upon it, went to the suc-
cessor, but a chief's own property might be gavelled. This
custom of tanistry applied at first probably to the selection of
the successors of a rig, but was gradually so extended that even
a b&-aire bad a tanist.

A sept might have only one flaith, or lord, connected with
it, or might have several. It sometimes happened, however,
that a sept might be so broken and reduced as not to have even
one man qualified to rank as a flaith. The rank of a flaith
depended upon the number of his ceiles, that is, upon his wealth.
The flaith of a sept, and the highest when there was more than
one, was ceann fine, or head of the sept, or as he was usually
called in Scotland, the chieftain. He was also called the flaith
geilfine, or head of the geilfine, that is, the kinsmen to the fifth
degree from among whom should be chosen the tanist, and who,
according to the custom of gavel-kind, were the immediate heirs
who received the personal property and were answerable for the
liabilities of the sept. The flaiths of the different septs were the
vassals of the rig, or chief of the tribe, and performed certain
functions which were no doubt at first individual, but in time
became the hereditary right of the sept. One of those was the
office of maer, or steward of the chief's rents, &c. ; 3 and another
that of aire tuisi, leading aire, or taoisech, a word cognate with
the Latin duc-s or dux, and Anglo-Saxon here-tog, leader of the
" here," or army. The taoisech was leader of the tribe in battle;
in later times the term seems to have been extended to several
offices of rank. The cadet of a Highland clan was always called
the taoisech, which has been translated captain; after the
conquest of Wales the same term, tywysaug, was used for a ruling
prince. Slavery was very common in Ireland and Scotland;

1 The explanation here given of geilfine is different from that given
in the introduction to the third volume of the Ancient Laws of
Ireland, which was followed by Sir H. S. Maine in his account of it
in his Early History of Institutions, and which the present writer
believes to be erroneous.

2 It should also be mentioned that illegitimacy was not a bar.
The issue of " handfast" marriages in Scotland were eligible to be
chiefs, and even sometimes claimed under feudal law.

3 This office is of considerable importance in connexion with early
Scottish history. In the Irish annals the rig , or chief of a great tribe
(mor tuath), such as of Ross, Moray, Marr, Buchan, &c., is called a
mor maer, or great maer. Sometimes the same person is called king
also in these annals. Thus Findlaec, or Finlay, son of Ruadhri, the
father of Shakespeare's Macbeth, is called king of Moray in the
Annals of Ulster, and mor maer in the Annals of Tighernach. The
term is never found in Scottish charters, but it occurs in the Book
of the Abbey of Deir in Buchan, now in the library of the university
of Cambridge. The Scotic kings and their successors obviously
regarded the chiefs of the great tribes in question merely as their
maers, while their tribesmen only knew them as kings. From these
" mor-maerships," which corresponded with the ancient mor tuatha,
came most, if not all, the ancient Scottish earldoms.

CLANRICARDE

421

in the former slaves constituted a common element in the
stipends or gifts which the higher kings gave their vassal sub-
reguli. Female slaves, who were employed in the houses of
chiefs and flaiths in grinding meal with the hand-mill or quern,
and in other domestic work, must have been very common, for
the unit or standard for estimating the wealth of a bd-aire, blood-
fines, &c., was called a cumhal, the value of which was three
cows, but which literally meant a female slave. The descendants
of those slaves, prisoners of war, forfeited hostages, refugees
from other tribes, broken tribesmen, &c., gathered round the
residence of the rig and flaiths, or squatted upon their march-
lands, forming a motley band of retainers which made a consider-
able element in the population, and one of the chief sources of
the wealth of chiefs and flaiths. The other principal source of
their income was the food-rent paid by ceiles, and especially
by the daer or bond ceiles, who were hence called biathachs,
from biad, food. Aflaith, but not a rig, might, if he liked, go to
the house of his ceile and consume his food-rent in the house of
the latter.

Under the influence of feudal ideas and the growth of the
modern views as to ownership of land, the chiefs and other
lords of clans claimed in modern times the right of best owing
the tribe-land as turcrec, instead of stock, and receiving rent not
for cattle and other chattels as in former times, but proportionate
to the extent of land given to them. The turcrec-land seems to
have been at first given upon the same terms as turcrec-stock.,
but gradually a system of short leases grew up; sometimes,
too, it was given on mortgage. In the Highlands of Scotland
ceiles who received turcrec-\a.nd were called " taksmen." On the
death. of the chief or lord, his successor either bestowed the
land upon the same person or gave it to some other relative.
In this way in each generation new families came into possession
of land, and others sank into the mass of mere tribesmen. Some-
times a "taksmaii" succeeded in acquiring his land in perpetuity,
by gift, marriage or purchase, or CVCD by the " strong hand."
The universal prevalence of exchangeable allotments, or the
rundale system, shows that down to even comparatively modern
times some of the land was still recognized as the property of
the tribe, and was cultivated in village communities.

The chief governed the clan by the aid of a council called
the sabaid (sab, a prop), but the chief exercised much power,
especially over the miscellaneous body of non-tribesmen who
lived on his own estate. This power seems to have extended
to life and death. Several of the flaiths, perhaps, all heads of
septs, also possessed somewhat extensive powers of the same
kind.

The Celtic dress, at least in the middle ages, consisted of a
kind of shirt reaching to a little below the knees called a lenn,
a jacket called an inar, and a garment called a brat, consisting
of a single piece of cloth. This was apparently the garb of the
aires, who appear to have been further distinguished by the
number of colours in their dress, for we are told that while a
slave had clothes of one colour, a reg tuatha, or chief of a tribe,
had five, and an ollamh and a superior king six. The breeches
was also known, and cloaks with a cowl or hood, which buttoned
up tight in front. The lenn is the modern kilt, and the brat the
plaid, so that the dress .of the Irish and Welsh in former times
was the same as that of the Scottish Highlander.

By the abolition of the heritable jurisdiction of the Highland
chiefs, and the general disarmament of the clans by the acts
passed in 1747 after the rebellion of 1745, the clan system was
practically broken up, though its influence still lingers in the
more remote districts. An act was also passed in 1747 for-
bidding the use of the Highland garb; but the injustice and
impolicy of such a law being generally felt it was afterwards
repealed. (W. K. S.)

CLANRICARDE, ULICK DE BURGH (BOURKE or BURKE),
ist EARL or (d. 1544), styled MacWilliam, and Ne-gan or Na-
gCeann (i.e. " of the Heads," " having made a mount of the
heads of men slain in battle which he covered up with earth "),
was the son of Richard or Rickard de Burgh, lord of Clanricarde,
by a daughter of Madden of Portumna, and grandson of Ulick de

Burgh, lord of Clanricarde (1467-1487), the collateral heir male of
the earls of Ulster. On the death of the last earl in 1333, his only
child Elizabeth had married Lionel, duke of Clarence, and the
earldom became merged in the crown, in consequence of which
the de Burghs abjured English laws and sovereignty, and chose
for their chiefs the sons of Sir William, the " Red " earl of
Ulster's brother, the elder William taking the title of MacWilliam
Eighter (Uachtar, i.e. Upper), and becoming the ancestor of the
earls of Clanricarde, and his brother Sir Edmond that of Mac-
William Oughter (Ochtar, i.e. Lower), and founding the family
of the earls of Mayo. In 1361 the duke of Clarence was sent over
as lord-lieutenant to Ireland to enforce his claims as husband of
the heir general, but failed, and the chiefs of the de Burghs
maintained their independence of English sovereignty for several
generations. Ulick de Burgh succeeded to the headship of his
clan, exercised a quasi-royal authority and held vast estates in
county Galway,in Connaught, including Loughry, Dunkcllin, Kil-
tartan (Hilltaraght) and Athenry, as well as Clare and Leitrim.
In March 1541, however, he wrote to Henry VIII., lamenting the
degeneracy of his family, " which have been brought to Irish and
disobedient rule by reason of marriage and nurseing with those
Irish, sometime rebels, near adjoining to me," and placing
himself and his estates in the king's hands. The same year he was
present at Dublin, when the act was passed making Henry VIII.
king of Ireland. In 1543, in company with other Irish chiefs, he
visited the king at Greenwich, made full submission, undertook to
introduce English manners and abandon Irish names, received a
regrant of the greater part of his estates with the addition of
other lands, was confirmed in the captainship and rule of Clanri-
carde, and was created on the ist of July 1543 earl of Clanricarde
and baron of Dunkellin in the peerage of Ireland; with unusual
ceremony. " The making of McWilliam earl of Clanricarde
made all the country during his time quiet and obedient," states
Lord Chancellor Cusake in his review of the state of Ireland in
I553- 1 He did not live long, however, to enjoy his new English
dignities, but died shortly after returning to Ireland about March
1544. He is called by the annalist of Loch Ce " a haughty and
proud lord," who reduced many under his yoke, and by the Four
Masters " the most illustrious of the English in Connaught."

Clanricarde married (i) Grany or Grace, daughter of Mulrone
O'Carroll, " prince of Ely," by whom he had Richard or Rickard
" the Saxon," who succeeded him as 2nd earl of Clanricarde
(grandfather of the 4th earl, whose son became marquess of
Clanricarde), this alliance being the only one declared valid.
After parting with his first wife he married (2) Honora, sister
of Ulick de Burgh, from whom he also parted. He married
(3) Mary Lynch, by whom he had John, who claimed the
earldom in 1568. Other sons, according to Burke's Peerage,
were Thomas " the Athlete," shot in 1545, Redmond " of the
Broom " (d. 1595), and Edmund (d. 1597).

See also A nnals of Ireland by the Four Masters (ed. by O. Connellan,
1846), p. 132 note, and reign of Henry VIII.; Annals of Loch Ce
(Rerum Brit. Medii Aevi Scriptores) (54) (1871); Hist. Mem. of the
O'Briens, by J. O. Donoghue (1860), pp 159, 519; Ireland under the
Tudors, by R. Bagwell, vol. i. ; State Papers, Ireland, Carew MSS.
and Gairdner's Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; Cotton MSS.
Brit. Mus., Titus B xi. f. 388. (P. C. Y.)

CLANRICARDE, ULICK DE BURGH (BOURKE or BURKE),
MARQUESS OF (1604-1657 or 1658), son of Richard, 4th earl of
Clanricarde, created in 1628 earl of St Albans, and of Frances,
daughter and heir of Sir Francis Walsingham, and widow of Sir
Philip Sidney and of Robert Devereux, earl of Essex, was born in
1604. He was summoned to the House of Lords as Lord Burgh in
1628, and succeeded his father as 5th earl in 1635. He sat in the
Short Parliament of 1640 and attended Charles I. in the Scottish
expedition. On the outbreak of the Irish rebellion Clanricarde
had powerful inducements for joining the Irish the ancient
greatness and independence of his family, his devotion to the
Roman Catholic Church, and strongest of all, the ungrateful
treatment meted out by Charles I. and Wentworth to his father,
one of Elizabeth's most stanch adherents in Ireland, whose lands
were appropriated by the crown and whose death, it was popularly
1 Cal. of State Pap., Carew MSS. 1515-1574, p. 246.

422

CLANVOWE CLAPARfcDE

asserted, was hastened by the harshness of the lord-lieutenant.
Nevertheless at the crisis his loyalty never wavered. Alone of the
Irish Roman Catholic nobility to declare for the king, he returned
to Ireland, took up his residence at Portumna, kept Galway, of
which he was governor, neutral, and took measures for the
defence of the county and for the relief of the Protestants,
making " his house and towns a refuge, nay, even a hospital for
the distressed English." 1 In 1643 he was one of the com-
missioners appointed by the king to confer with the Irish con-
federates, and urged the wisdom of a cessation of hostilities in a
document which he publicly distributed. He was appointed
commander of the English forces in Connaught in 1644, and in
1646 was created a marquess and a privy councillor. He sup-
ported the same year the treaty between Charles I. and the
confederates, and endeavoured after its failure to persuade
Preston, the general of the Irish, to agree to a peace; but the
latter, being advised by Rinuccini, the papal nuncio, refused in
December. Together with Ormonde, Clanricarde opposed the
nuncio's policy; and the royalist inhabitants of Galway
having through the latter's influence rejected the cessation of
hostilities, arranged with Lord Inchiquin in 1648, he besieged the
town and compelled its acquiescence. In 1649 he reduced Sligo.
On Ormonde's departure in December 1650 Clanricarde was
appointed deputy lord-lieutenant, but he was not trusted by the
Roman Catholics, and was unable to stem the tide of the parlia-
mentary successes. In 1651 he opposed the offer of Charles, duke
of Lorraine, to supply money and aid on condition of being
acknowledged " Protector " of the kingdom. In May 1652
Galway surrendered to the parliament, and in June Clanricarde
signed articles with the parliamentary commissioners which
allowed his departure from Ireland. In August he was excepted
from pardon for life and estate, but by permits, renewed from
time to time by the council, he was enabled to remain in England
for the rest of his life, and in 1653 500 a year was settled upon
him by the council of state in consideration of the protection
which he had given to the Protestants in Ireland at the time of
the rebellion. He died at Somerhill in Kent in 1657 or 1658 and
was buried at Tunbridge.

The " great earl," as he was called, supported Ormonde in his
desire to unite the English royalists with the more moderate
Roman Catholics on the basis of religious toleration under the
authority of the sovereign, against the papal scheme advocated by
Rinuccini, and in opposition to the parliamentary and Puritan
policy. By the author of the Aphorismical Discovery, who
represents the opinion of the native Irish, he is denounced as the
" masterpiece of the treasonable faction," " a foe to his king,
nation and religion," and by the duke of Lorraine as " a traitor
and a base fellow "; but there is no reason to doubt Clarendon's
opinion of him as " a person of unquestionable fidelity . . . and
of the most eminent constancy to the Roman Catholic religion of
any man in the three kingdoms," or the verdict of Hallam, who
describes him " as perhaps the most unsullied character in the
annals of Ireland."

He married Lady Anne Compton, daughter of William
Compton, ist earl of Northampton, but had issue only one
daughter. On his death, accordingly, the marquessate and the
English peerages became extinct, the Irish titles reverting to his
cousin Richard, 6th earl, grandson of the 3rd earl of Clanricarde.
Henry, the I2th earl (1742-1797), was again created a marquess in
1789, but the marquessate expired at his death without issue, the
earldom going to his brother. In 1825 the I4th earl (1802-1874)
was created a marquess; he was ambassador at St Petersburg,
and later postmaster-general and lord privy seal, and married
George Canning's daughter. His son (b. 1832), who achieved
notoriety in the Irish land agitation, succeeded him as 2nd
marquess.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. See the article " Burgh, Ulick de," in the Diet,
of Nat. Biography, and authorities there given; Hist, of the Irish
Confederation, by R. Sellings, ed. by I. T. Gilbert (1882); Aphoris-
mical Discovery (Irish Archaeological Society, 1879); Memoirs of
the Marquis of Clanricarde (1722, repr. 1744); Memoirs of Ulick,

1 Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of Earl of Egmont, i. 223.

Marquis of Clanricarde, by John, nth earl (1757) ; Life of Ormonde,
by T. Carte (1851); S. R. Gardiner's Hist, of the Civil War and
of the Commonwealth; Thomason Tracts (Brit. Mus.) E 371 (11),
456 (10); Col. of State Papers, Irish, esp. Introd. 1633-1647 and
Domestic; Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Marq. of Ormonde and Earl
of Egmont. (P. C. Y.)

CLANVOWE, SIR THOMAS, the name of an English poet first
mentioned in the history of English literature by F. S. Ellis in
1896, when, in editing the text of The Book of Cupid, God of Love,
or The Cuckoo and the Nightingale, for the Kelmscott Press, he
stated that Professor Skeat had discovered that at the end of the
best of the MSS. the author was called Clanvowe. In 1897 this
information was confirmed and expanded by Professor Skeat in
the supplementary volume of his Clarendon Press Chaucer (1894-
1 897) . The beautiful romance of The Cuckoo and the Nightingale
was published by Thynne in 1 53 2, and was attributed by him, and
by successive editors down to the days of Henry Bradshaw, to
Chaucer. It was due to this error that for three centuries
Chaucer was supposed to be identified with the manor of Wood-
stock, and even painted, in fanciful pictures, as lying

"Under a maple that is fair and green,
Before the chamber-window of the Queen
At Wodestock, upon the greene lea."

But this queen could only be Joan of Navarre, who arrived
in 1403, three years after Chaucer's death, and it is to the
spring of that year that Professor Skeat attributes the composi-
tion of the poem. Sir Thomas Clanvowe was of a Herefordshire
family, settled near Wigmore. He was a prominent figure in the
courts of Richard II. and Henry IV., and is said to have been a
friend of Prince Hal. He was one of those who " had begun to
mell of Lollardy, and drink the gall of heresy." He was one of the
twenty-five knights who accompanied John Beaufort (son of
John of Gaunt) to Barbary in 1390.

The date of his birth is unknown, and his name is last mentioned
in 1404. The historic and literary importance of The Cuckoo and
the Nightingale is great. It is the work of a poet who had studied
the prosody of Chaucer with more intelligent care than either
Occleve or Lydgate, and who therefore forms an important link
between the I4th and 1 5th centuries in English poetry. Clanvowe
writes with a surprising delicacy and sweetness, in a five-line
measure almost peculiar to himself. Professor Skeat points out a
unique characteristic of Clanvowe's versification, namely, the
unprecedented freedom with which he employs the suffix of the
final -e, and rather avoids than seeks elision. The Cuckoo and the
Nightingale was imitated by Milton in his sonnet to the Nightin-
gale, and was rewritten in modern English by Wordsworth. It is
a poem of so much individual beauty, that we must regret the
apparent loss of everything else written by a poet of such unusual
talent.

See also a critical edition of the Bake of Cupide by Dr Erich
Vollmer (Berlin, 1898). (E. G.)

CLAPAREDE, JEAN LOUIS RENfi ANTOINE EDOUARD

(1832-1870), Swiss naturalist, was born at Geneva on the 24th of
April 1832. He belonged to a French family, some members of
which had taken refuge in that city after the revocation of the
Edict of Nantes. In i8s2he began to study medicine and natural
science at Berlin, where he was greatly influenced by J. Miiller
and C. G. Ehrenberg, the former being at that period engaged in
his important researches on the Echinoderms. In 1855 he
accompanied Miiller to Norway, and there spent two months on a
desolate reef that he might obtain satisfactory observations.
The latter part of his stay at Berlin he devoted, along with J.
Lachmann, to the study of the Infusoria and Rhizopods. In 1857
lie obtained the degree of doctor, and in 1862 he was chosen
professor of comparative anatomy at Geneva. In 1859 he
visited England, and in company with W. B. Carpenter made a
voyage to the Hebrides; and in 1863 he spent some months in the
Bay of Biscay. On the appearance of Darwin's work on the
Origin of Species, he adopted his theories and published a
valuable series of articles on the subject in the Revue Germanique
'1861). During 1865 and 1866 ill-health rendered him incapable
of work, and he determined to pass the winter of 1866-1867 in

CLAPPERTON CLARE

423

Naples. The change of climate produced some amelioration, and
his energy was attested by two elaborate volumes on the
Annelidae of the gulf. He again visited Naples with advantage
in 1868; but in 1870, instead of recovering as before, he grew
worse, and on the 3 ist of May he died at Siena on his way home.
His Recherches sur la structure des annelides sedentaires were
published posthumously in 1873.

CLAPPERTON, HUGH (1788-1827), Scottish traveller in West-
Central Africa, was born in 1 788 at Annan, Dumfriesshire, where
his father was a surgeon. He gained some knowledge of practical
mathematics and navigation, and at thirteen was apprenticed on
board a vessel which traded between Liverpool and North
America. After having made several voyages across the Atlantic
he was impressed for the navy, in which he soon rose to the rank
of midshipman. During the Napoleonic wars he saw a good deal
of active service, and at the storming of Port Louis, Mauritius, in
November 1810, he was first in the breach and hauled down the
French flag. In 1814 he went to Canada, was promoted to the
rank of lieutenant, and to the command of a schooner on the
Canadian lakes. In 1817, when the flotilla on the lakes was
dismantled, he returned home on half-pay.

In 1820 Clapperton removed to Edinburgh, where he made
the acquaintance of Walter Oudney, M.D., who aroused in him an
interest in African travel. Lieut. G. F. Lyon, R.N., having
returned from an unsuccessful attempt to reach Bornu from
Tripoli, the British government determined on a second expedi-
tion to that country. Dr Oudney was appointed by Lord
Bathurst, then colonial secretary, to proceed to Bornu as consul
with the object of promoting trade, and Clapperton and Major
Dixon Denham (q.v.) were added to the party. From Tripoli,
early in 1822, they set out southward to Murzuk, and from this
point Clapperton and Oudney visited the Ghat oasis. Kuka, the
capital of Bornu, was reached in February 1823, and Lake Chad
seen for the first time by Europeans. At Bornu the travellers
were well received by the sultan; and after remaining in the
country till the i4th of December they again set out for the
purpose of exploring the course of the Niger. At Murmur, on the
road to Kano, Oudney died (January 1824). Clapperton con-
tinued his journey alone through Kano to Sokoto, the capital of
the Fula empire, where by order of Sultan Bello he was obliged to
stop, though the Niger was only five days' journey to the west.
Worn out with his travel he returned by way of Zaria and
Katsena to Kuka, where he again met Denham. The two
travellers then set out for Tripoli, reached on the 26th of January
1825. An account of the travels was published in 1826 under the
title of Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and
Central Africa in the years 1822-1824.

Immediately after his return Clapperton was raised to the rank
of commander, and sent out with another expedition to Africa,
the sultan Bello of Sokoto having professed his eagerness to open
up trade with the west coast. Clapperton landed at Badagry in
the Bight of Benin, and started overland for the Niger on the 7th
of December 1825, having with him his servant Richard Lander
(q.v.), Captain Pearce, R.N., and Dr Morrison, navy surgeon and
naturalist. Before the month was out Pearce and Morrison were
dead of fever. Clapperton continued his journey, and, passing
through the Yoruba country, in January 1826 he crossed the
Niger at Bussa, the spot where Mungo Park had died twenty years
before. In July he arrived at Kano. Thence he went to Sokoto,
intending afterwards to go to Bornu. The sultan, however,
detained him, and being seized with dysentery he died near
Sokoto on the I3th of April 1827.

Clapperton was the first European to make known from
personal observation the semi-civilized Hausa countries, which he
visited soon after the establishment of the Sokoto empire by the
Fula. In 1829 appeared the Journal of a Second Expedition into
the Interior of Africa, &c., by the late Commander Clapperton,
to which was prefaced a biographical sketch of the explorer by his
uncle, Lieut. -colonel S. Clapperton. Lander, who had brought
back the journal of his master, also published Records of Captain
Clapperton's Last Expedition to Africa . . . with the subsequent
Adventures of the Author (2 vols., London, 1830).

CLAQUE (Fr. claquer, to clap the hands), an organized body
of professional applauders in the French theatres. The hiring
of persons to applaud dramatic performances was common in
classical times, and the emperor Nero, when he acted, had his
performance greeted by an encomium chanted by five thousand
of his soldiers, who were called Angustals. The recollection of
this gave the 16th-century French poet, Jean Daurat, an idea
which has developed into the modern claque. Buying up a
number of tickets for a performance of one of his plays, 'he dis-
tributed them gratuitously to those who promised publicly to
express their approbation. It was not, however, till 1820 that
a M. Sauton seriously undertook the systematization of the
claque, and opened an office in Paris for the supply of claqueurs.
By 1830 the claque had become a regular institution. The
manager of a theatre sends an order for any number of claqueurs.
These people are usually under a chef de claque, whose duty it is
to judge where their efforts are needed and to start the demonstra-
tion of approval. This takes several forms. Thus there are
commissaires, those who learn the piece by heart, and call the
attention of their neighbours to its good points between the
acts. The rieurs are those who laugh loudly at the jokes. The
pleureurs, generally women, feign tears, by holding their hand-
kerchiefs to their eyes. The chalouilleurs keep the audience in a
good humour, while the bisseurs simply clap their hands and cry
bis I bis! to secure encores.

CLARA, SAINT (1194-1253), foundress of the Franciscan
nuns, was born of a knightly family in Assisi in 1194. At
eighteen she was so impressed by a sermon of St Francis that
she was filled with the desire to devote herself to the kind of life
he was leading. She obtained an interview with him, and to
test her resolution he told her to dress in penitential sackcloth
and beg alms for the poor in the streets of Assisi. Clara readily
did this, and Francis, satisfied as to her vocation, told her to
come to the Portiuncula arrayed as a bride. The friars met her
with lighted candles, and at the foot of the altar Francis shore
off her hair, received her vows of poverty, chastity and obedience,
and invested her with the Franciscan habit, 1212. He placed
her for a couple of years in a Benedictine convent in Assisi,
until the convent at St Damian's, close to the town, was ready.
Her two younger sisters, and, after her father's death, her
mother and many others joined her, and the Franciscan nuns
spread widely and rapidly (see CLARES, POOR). The relations
of friendship and sympathy between St Clara and St Francis
were very close, and there can be no doubt that she was one of
the truest heirs of Francis's inmost spirit. After his death
Clara threw herself wholly on the side of those who opposed
mitigations in the rule and manner of life, and she was one of
the chief upholders of St Francis's primitive idea of poverty
(see FRANCISCANS). She was the close friend of Brother Leo
and the other " Companions of St Francis," and they assisted
at her death. For forty years she was abbess at St Damian's,
and the great endeavour of her life was that the rule of the nuns
should be purged of the foreign elements that had been intro-
duced, and should become wholly conformable to St Francis's
spirit. She lived just long enough to witness the fulfilment of
her great wish, a rule such as she desired being approved by the
pope two days before her death on the nth of August 1253.

The sources for her life are to be found in the Bollandist Ada
Sanctorum on the nth of August, and sketches in such Lives of the
Saints as Alban Butler's. See also Wetzer und Welte, Kirchen-
lexicon (2nd ed.), art. " Clara." (E. C. B.)

CLARE, the name of a famous English family. The ancestor
of this historic house, " which played," in Freeman's words,
" so great a part alike in England, Wales and Ireland," was
Count Godfrey, eldest of the illegitimate sons of Richard the
Fearless, duke of Normandy. His son, Count Gilbert of Brionne,
had two sons, Richard, lord of Bienfaite and Orbec, and Baldwin,
lord of Le Sap and Meulles, both of whom accompanied the
Conqueror to England. Baldwin, knowji as " De Meulles " or
" of Exeter," received the hereditary shrievalty of Devon with
great estates in the West Country, and left three sons, William,
Robert and Richard, of whom the first and last were in turn

424

sheriffs of Devon. Richard, known as " de Bienfaite," or
" of Tunbridge," or " of Clare," was the founder of the house
of Clare.

Richard derived his English appellation from his strongholds
at Tunbridge and at Clare, at both of which his castle-mounds
still remain. The latter, on the borders of Essex and Suffolk,
was the head of his great "honour" which lay chiefly in the
eastern counties. Appointed joint justiciar in the king's absence
abroad, he took a leading part in suppressing the revolt of 1075.
By his wife, Rohese, daughter of Walter Giffard, through whom
great Giffard estates afterwards came to his house, he left five
sons and two daughters. Roger was his heir in Normandy,
Walter founded Tintern Abbey, Richard was a monk, and
Robert, receiving the forfeited fief of the Baynards in the eastern
counties, founded, through his son Walter, the house of Fitz-
Walter (extinct 1432), of whom the most famous was Robert
FitzWalter, the leader of the barons against King John. Of
this house, spoken of by Jordan Fantosme as " Clarreaus,"
the Daventrys of Daventry (extinct 1380) and Fawsleys of
Fawsley (extinct 1392) were cadets. One of Richard's two
daughters married the famous Walter Tirel.

Gilbert, Richard's heir in England, held his castle of Tunbridge
against William Rufus, but was wounded and captured. Under
Henry I., who favoured the Clares, he obtained a grant of
Cardigan, and carried his arms into Wales. Dying about 1115,
he left four sons, of whom Gilbert, the second, inherited Chep-
stow, with Nether-Gwent, from his uncle, Walter, the founder
of Tintern, and was created earl of Pembroke by Stephen about
1138; he was father of Richard Strongbow, earl of Pembroke
(q.v.). The youngest son Baldwin fought for Stephen at the
battle of Lincoln (1141) and founded the priories of Bourne
and Deeping on lands acquired with his wife. The eldest son
Richard, who was slain by the Welsh on his way to Cardigan
in 1135 or 1136, left two sons Gilbert and Roger, of whom
Gilbert was created earl of Hertfordshire by Stephen.

It was probably because he and the Clares had no interests in
Hertfordshire that they were loosely and usually styled the
earls of (de) Clare. Dying in 1152, Gilbert was succeeded by
his brother Roger, of whom Fitz-Stephen observes that " nearly
all the nobles of England were related to the earl of Clare, whose
sister, the most beautiful woman in England, had long been
desired by the king " (Henry II.). He was constantly fighting
the Welsh for his family possessions in Wales and quarrelled
with Becket over Tunbridge Castle. In 1173 or 1174 he was
succeeded by his son Richard as third earl, whose marriage
with Amicia, daughter and co-heir of William, earl of Gloucester,
was destined to raise the fortunes of his house to their highest
point. He and his son Gilbert were among the " barons of the
Charter," Gilbert, who became fourth earl in 1217, obtained
also, early in 1218, the earldom of Gloucester, with its great
territorial " Honour," and the lordship of Glamorgan, in right
of his mother; " from this time the house of Clare became the
acknowledged head of the baronage." Gilbert had also inherited
through his father his grandmother's " Honour of St Hilary "
and a moiety of the Giffard fief; but the vast possessions of
his house were still further swollen by his marriage with a
daughter of William (Marshal), earl of Pembroke, through
whom his son Richard succeeded in 1245 to a fifth of the Marshall
lands including the Kilkenny estates in Ireland. Richard's
successor, Gilbert, the "Red" earl, died in 1295, the most
powerful subject in the kingdom.

On his death his earldoms seem to have been somewhat
mysteriously deemed to have passed to his widow Joan, daughter
of Edward I.; for her second husband, Ralph de Monthermer,
was summoned to parliament in right of them from 1299 to 1306.
After her death, however, in 1307, Earl Gilbert's son and name-
sake was summoned in 1308 as earl of Gloucester and Hertford,
though only sixteen. A nephew of Edward II. and brother-in-
law of Gaveston, he played a somewhat wavering part in the
struggle between the king and the barons. Guardian of the
realm in 1311 and regent in 1313, he fell gloriously at Bannock-
burn (June 24th, 1314), when only twenty-three, rushing on

CLARE, J.

the enemy " like a wild boar, making his sword drunk with
their blood."

The earl was the last of his mighty line, and his vast posses-
sions in England (in over twenty counties), Wales and Ireland
fell to his three sisters, of whom Elizabeth, the youngest, wife
of John de Burgh, obtained the "Honour of Clare" and trans-
mitted it to her son William de Burgh, 3rd earl of Ulster, whose
daughter brought it to Lionel, son of King Edward III., who
was thereupon created duke of Clarence, a title associated ever
since with the royal house. The " Honour of Clare," vested in
the crown, still preserves a separate existence, with a court and
steward of its own.

Clare College, Cambridge, derived its name from the above
Elizabeth, "Lady of Clare," who founded it as Clare Hall in

1347-

Clare County in Ireland derives its name from the family,
though whether from Richard Strongbow, or from Thomas de
Clare, a younger son, who had a grant of Thomond in 1276, has
been deemed doubtful.

Clarenceux King of Arms, an officer of the Heralds' College,
derives his style, through Clarence, from Clare.

See J. H. Round's Geoffrey de Mandeville, Feudal England, Com-
mune of London, and Peerage Studies; also his " Family of Clare "
in Arch. Journ. Ivi., and " Origin of Armorial Bearings " in Ib. li. ;
Parkinson's " Clarence, the origin and bearers of the title," in The
Antiquary, v. ; Clark's "Lords of Glamorgan" in Arch. Journ.
xxxy. ; Planche's "Earls of Gloucester" in Journ. Arch. Assoc.
xxvi. ; Dugdale's Baronage, vol. i., and Monasticon Anglicanum;
G. E. C[okayne]'s Complete Peerage. (J. H. R.)

CLARE, JOHN (1793-1864), English poet, commonly known
as " the Northamptonshire Peasant Poet," the son of a farm
labourer, was born at Helpstone near Peterborough, on the
I3th of July 1793. At the age of seven he was taken from
school to tend sheep and geese; four years later he began to
work on a farm, attending in the winter evenings a school where
he is said to have learnt some algebra. He then became a pot-boy
in a public-house and fell in love with Mary Joyce, but her
father, a prosperous farmer, forbade her to meet him. Subse-
quently he was gardener at Burghley Park. He enlisted in the
militia, tried camp life with gipsies, and worked as a lime burner
in 1817, but in the following year he was obliged to accept
parish relief. Clare had bought a copy of Thomson's Seasons
out of his scanty earnings and had begun to write poems. In
1819 a bookseller at Stamford, named Drury, lighted on one of
Clare's poems, The Setting Sun, written on a scrap of paper
enclosing a note to his predecessor in the business. He be-
friended the author and introduced his poems to the notice
of John Taylor, of the publishing firm of Taylor & Hussey,
who issued the Poems Descriptive of Rural Life and Scenery
in 1820. This book was highly praised, and in the next year
his Village Minstrel and other Poems were published. He was
greatly patronized; fame, in the shape of curious visitors, broke
the tenor of his life, and the convivial habits that he had formed
were indulged more freely. He had married in 1820, and an
annuity of 15 guineas from Lord Exeter, in whose service he had
been, was supplemented by subscription, and he became pos-
sessed of 45 annually, a sum far beyond what he had ever
earned, but new wants made his income insufficient, and in
1823 he was nearly penniless. The Shepherd's Calendar (1827)
met with little success, which was not increased by his hawking
it himself. As he worked again on the fields his health tem-
porarily improved; but he soon became seriously ill. Lord
Fitzwilliam presented him with a new cottage and a piece of
ground, but Clare could not settle in his new home. Gradually
his mind gave way. His last and best work, the Rural Muse
(1835), was noticed by " Christopher North " alone. He had
for some time shown symptoms of insanity; and in July 1837 he
was removed to a private asylum, and afterwards to the North-
ampton general lunatic asylum, where he died on the 2oth of
May 1864. Clare's descriptions of rural scenes show a keen and
loving appreciation of nature, and his love-songs and ballads
charm by their genuine feeling; but his vogue was no doubt
largely due to the interest aroused by his humble position in life.

CLARE, LORD

425

See the Life of John Clare, by Frederick Martin (1865); and Life
and Remains of John Clare, by J. L. Cherry (1873), which, though
not so complete, contains some of the poet's asylum verses and prose
fragments.

CLARE, JOHN FITZGIBBON, IST EARL OF (1749-1802), lord
chancellor of Ireland, was the second son of John Fitzgibbon,
who had abandoned the Roman Catholic faith in order to
pursue a legal career. He was educated at Trinity College,
Dublin, where he was highly distinguished as a classical scholar,
and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated in 1770. In
1772 he was called to the Irish bar, and quickly acquired a very
lucrative practice; he also inherited his father's large fortune
on the death of his elder brother. In 1778 he entered the Irish
House of Commons as member for Dublin University, and at
first gave a general support to the popular party led by Henry
Grattan (q.v.). He was, however, from the first hostile to that
part of Grattan's policy which aimed at removing the disabilities
of the Roman Catholics; he endeavoured to impede the Relief
Bill of 1778 by raising difficulties about its effect on the Act of
Settlement. He especially distrusted the priests, and many
years later explained that his life-long resistance to all concession
to the Catholics was based on his " unalterable opinion " that
" a conscientious Popish ecclesiastic never will become a well-
attached subject to a Protestant state, and that the Popish
clergy must always have a commanding influence on every
member of that communion." As early as 1780 Fitzgibbon
began to separate himself from the popular or national party,
by opposing Grattan's declaration of the Irish parliament's
right to independence. There is no reason to suppose that in
this change of view he was influenced by corrupt or personal
motives. His cast of mind naturally inclined to authority
rather than to democratic liberty; his hostility to the Catholic
claims, and his distrust of parliamentary reform as likely to
endanger the connexion of Ireland with Great Britain, made him
a sincere opponent of the aims which Grattan had in view.
In reply, however, to a remonstrance from his constituents
Fitzgibbon promised to support Grattan's policy in the future,
and described the claim of Great Britain to make laws for Ireland
as " a daring usurpation of the rights of a free people."

For some time longer there was no actual breach between him
and Grattan. Grattan supported the appointment of Fitzgibbon
as attorney-general in 1783, and in 1785 the latter highly eulo-
gized Grattan's character and services to the country in a speech
in which he condemned Flood's volunteer movement. He also
opposed Flood's Reform Bill of 1784; and from this time
forward he was in fact the leading spirit in the Irish government,
and the stiffest opponent of all concession to popular demands.
In 1784 the permanent committee of revolutionary reformers in
Dublin, of whom Napper Tandy was the most conspicuous,
invited the sheriffs of counties to call meetings for the election of
delegates to attend a convention for the discussion of reform; and
when the sheriff of the county of Dublin summoned a meeting for
this purpose Fitzgibbon procured his imprisonment for contempt
of court, and justified this procedure in parJiament, though Lord
Erskine declared it grossly illegal. In the course of the debates
on Pitt's commercial propositions in 1785, which Fitzgibbon
supported in masterly speeches, he referred to Curran in terms
which led to a duel between the two lawyers, when Fitzgibbon
was accused of a deliberation in aiming at his opponent that was
contrary to etiquette. His antagonism to Curran was life-long
and bitter, and after he became chancellor his hostility to the
famous advocate was said to have driven the latter out of
practice. In January 1787 Fitzgibbon introduced a stringent
bill for repressing the Whiteboy outrages. It was supported by
Grattan, who, however, procured the omission of a clause
enacting that any Roman Catholic chapel near which an illegal
oath had been tendered should be immediately demolished. His
influence with the majority in the Irish parliament defeated
Pitt's proposed reform of the tithe system in Ireland, Fitzgibbon
refusing even to grant a committee to investigate the subject.
On the regency question in 1789 Fitzgibbon, in opposition to
Grattan, supported the doctrine of Pitt in a series of powerful

speeches which proved him a great constitutional lawyer; he
intimated that the choice for Ireland might in certain eventu-
alities rest between complete separation from England and
legislative union; and, while he exclaimed as to the latter
alternative, " God forbid that I should ever see that day!" he
admitted that separation would be the worse evil of the two.

In the same year Lord Lifford resigned the chancellorship, and
Fitzgibbon was appointed in his place, being raised to the peerage
as Baron Fitzgibbon. His removal to the House of Lords
greatly increased his power. In the Commons, though he had
exercised great influence as attorney-general, his position had
been secondary; in the House of Lords and in the privy council
he was little less than despotic. " He was," says Lecky, " by far
the ablest Irishman who had adopted without restriction the
doctrine that the Irish legislature must be maintained in a
condition of permanent and unvarying subjection to the English
executive." But the Engh'sh ministry were now embarking on a
policy of conciliation in Ireland. The Catholic Relief Bill of 1 793
was forced on the Irish executive by the cabinet in London, but
it passed rapidly and easily through the Irish parliament.
Lord Fitzgibbon, while accepting the bill as inevitable under the
circumstances that had arisen, made a most violent though
exceedingly able speech against the principle of concession,
which did much to destroy the conciliatory effect of the measure;
and as a consequence of this act he began persistently to urge the
necessity for a legislative union. From this date until the union
was carried, the career of Fitzgibbon is practically the history of
Ireland. True to his inveterate hostility to the popular claims,
he was opposed to the appointment of Lord Fitzwilliam (q.v.) as
viceroy in 1795, and was probably the chief influence in procuring
his recall; and it was Fitzgibbon who first put it into the head of
George III. that the king would violate his coronation oath if he
consented to the admission of Catholics to parliament. When
Lord Camden, Fitzwilliam's successor in the viceroyalty, arrived
in Dublin on the 3ist of March 1795, Fitzgibbon's carriage was
violently assaulted by the mob, and he himself was wounded;
and in the riots that ensued his house was also attacked. But as
if to impress upon the Catholics the hopelessness of their case, the
government who had made Fitzgibbon a viscount immediately
after his attack on the Catholics in 1793 now bestowed on him a
further mark of honour. In June 1795 he was created earl of
Clare. On the eve of the rebellion he warned the government
that while emancipation and reform might be the objects aimed
at by the better classes, the mass of the disaffected had in view
" the separation of the country from her connexion with Great
Britain, and a fraternal alliance with the French Republic."
Clare advocated stringent measures to prevent an outbreak; but
he was neither cruel nor immoderate, and was inclined to mercy
in dealing with individuals. He attempted to save Lord Edward
Fitzgerald (q.v.) from his fate by giving a friendly warning to his
friends, and promising to facilitate his escape from the country;
and Lord Edward's aunt, Lady Louisa Conolly, who was con-
ducted to his death-bed in prison by the chancellor in person,
declared that " nothing could exceed Lord Clare's kindness."
His moderation and humanity after the rebellion was extolled by
Cornwallis. He threw his great influence on the side of clemency,
and it was through his intervention that Oliver Bond, when
sentenced to death, was reprieved; and that an arrangement was
made by which Arthur O'Connor, Thomas Emmet and other
State prisoners were allowed to leave the country.

In October 1798 Lord Clare, who since 1793 had been con-
vinced of the necessity for a legislative union if the connexion
between Great Britain and Ireland was to be maintained, and
who was equally determined that the union must be unaccom-
panied by Catholic emancipation, crossed to England and
successfully pressed his views on Pitt. In 1799 he induced the
Irish House of Lords to throw out a bill for providing a permanent
endowment of Maynooth. On the loth of February 1800 Clare in
the House of Lords moved the resolution approving the union in
a long and powerful speech, in which he reviewed the history of
Ireland since the Revolution, attributing the evils of recent years
to the independent constitution of 1782, and speaking of Grattan

426

CLARE

in language of deep personal hatred. He was not aware of the
assurance which Cornwallis had been authorized to convey to the
Catholics that the union was to pave the way for emancipation,
and when he heard of it after the passing of the act he bitterly
complained that Pitt and Castlereagh had deceived him. After
the union Clare became more violent than ever in his opposition
to any policy of concession in Ireland. He died on the 28th of
January 1802; his funeral in Dublin was the occasion of a riot
organized " by a gang of about fourteen persons under orders of
a leader." His wife, in compliance with his death-bed request,
destroyed all his papers. His two sons, John (1792-1851) and
Richard Hobart (1793-1864), succeeded in turn to the earldom,
which became extinct on the death of the latter, whose only
son, John Charles Henry, Viscount Fitzgibbon (1829-1854), was
killed in the charge of the Light Brigade at Balaklava.

Lord Clare was in private life an estimable and even an amiable
man; many acts of generosity are related of him; the determina-
tion of his character swayed other wills to his purpose, and his
courage was such as no danger, no obloquy, no public hatred or
violence could disturb. Though not a great orator like Flood or
Grattan, he was a skilful and ready debater, and he -was by far
the ablest Irish supporter of the union. He was, however,
arrogant, overbearing and intolerant to the last degree. He was
the first Irishman since the Revolution to hold the office of lord
chancellor of Ireland. " Except where his furious personal anti-
pathies and his ungovernable arrogance were called into action,
he appears to have been," says Lecky, " an able, upright and
energetic judge "; but as a politician there can be little question
that Lord Clare's bitter and unceasing resistance to reasonable
measures of reform did infinite mischief in the history of Ireland,
by inflaming the passions of his countrymen, driving them into
rebellion, and perpetuating their political and religious divisions.

See W. E. H. Lecky, History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century
(5 vols., London, 1892); J. R. O'Flanagan, The Lives of the Lord
Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal in Ireland (2 vols., London,
1870) ; Cornwallis Correspondence, ed. by C. Ross (3 vols., London,
1859): Charles Phillips, Recollections of Curran and some of his
Contemporaries (London, 1822); Henry Grattan, Memoirs of the
Life and Times of the Right Honble. Henry Grattan (5 vols., London,
1839-1846); Lord Auckland, Journal and Correspondence (4 vols.,
London, 1861) ; Charles Coote, History of the Union of Great Britain
and Ireland (London, 1802). (R. J. M.)

CLARE, a county in the province of Munster, Ireland, bounded
N. by Galway Bay and Co. Galway, E. by Lough Derg, the river
Shannon, and counties Tipperary and Limerick, S. by the estuary
of the Shannon, and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. The area is
852,389 acres, or nearly 1332 sq. m. Although the surface of the
county is hilly, and in some parts even mountainous, it nowhere
rises to a great elevation. Much of the western baronies of
Moyarta and Ibrickan is composed of bog land. Bogs are
frequent also in the mountainous districts elsewhere, except in
the limestone barony of Burren, the inhabitants of some parts of
which supply themselves with turf from the opposite snores of
Connemara. Generally speaking, the eastern parts of the county
are mountainous, with tracts of rich pasture-land interspersed;
the west abounds with bog; and the north is rocky and best
adapted for grazing sheep. In the southern part, along the banks
of the Fergus and Shannon, are the bands of rich low grounds
called corcasses, of various breadth, indenting the land in a great
variety of shapes. They are composed of deep rich loam, and are
distinguished as the black corcasses, adapted for tillage, and the
blue, used more advantageously as meadow land. The coast is
in general rocky, and occasionally bold and precipitous in the
extreme, as may be observed at the picturesque cliffs of Moher
within a few miles of Ennistimon and Lisdoonvarna, which rise
perpendicularly at O'Brien's Tower to an elevation of 580 ft.
The coast of Clare is indented with several bays, the chief of
which are Ballyvaghan, Liscannor and Malbay; but from
Black Head to Loop Head, that is, along the entire western
boundary of the county formed by the Atlantic, there is no safe
harbour except Liscannor Bay. Malbay takes its name from its
dangers to navigators, and the whole coast has been the scene of
many fatal disasters. The county possesses only one large river,

the Fergus; but nearly 100 m. of its boundary-line are washed by
the river Shannon, which enters the Atlantic Ocean between this
county and Kerry. The numerous bays and creeks on both sides
of this great river render its navigation safe in every wind; but
the passage to and from Limerick is often tedious, and the port of
Kilrush has from that cause gained in importance. The river
Fergus is navigable from the Shannon to the town of Clare, which
is the terminating point of its natural navigation, and the port of
all the central districts of the county.

There are a great number of lakes and tarns in the county, of
which the largest are Loughs Muckanagh, Graney, Atedaun and
Dromore; but they are more remarkable for beauty than for
size or utility, with the exception of the extensive and navigable
Lcugh Derg, formed by the river Shannon between this county
and Tipperary. The salmon fishery of the Shannon, both as a
sport and as an industry, is famous; the Fergus also holds
salmon, and there is much good trout-fishing in the lakes for
which Ennis is a centre, and in the streams of the Atlantic sea-
board. Clare is a county which, like all the western counties of
Ireland, repays visitors in search of the pleasures of seaside
resorts, sport, scenery or antiquarian interest. Yet, again like
other western counties, it was long before it was rendered
accessible. Communications, however, are now satisfactory.

Geology. Upper Carboniferous strata cover the county west of
Ennis, the coast-sections in them being particularly fine. Shales
and sandstones alternate, now horizontal, as in the Cliffs of Mc5her,
now thrown into striking folds. The Carboniferous Limestone forms
a barren terraced country, often devoid of soil, through the Burren
in the north, and extends to the estuary of the Fergus and the
Shannon. On the east, the folding has brought up two bold masses
of Old Red Sandstone, with Silurian cores. Slieve Bernagh, the more
southerly of these, rises to 1746 ft. above Killaloe, and the hilly
country here traversed by the Shannon is in marked contrast with
the upper course of the river through the great limestone plain.

Minerals. Although metals and minerals have been found in
many places throughout the county, they do not often show
themselves in sufficient abundance to induce the application of
capital for their extraction. The principal metals are lead, iron
and manganese. The Milltown lead mine in the barony of Tulla
is probably one of the oldest mines in Ireland, and formerly, if the
extent of the ancient excavations may be taken as a guide, there
must have been a very rich deposit. Copper pyrites occurs in
several parts of Burren, but in small quantity. Coal exists at
Labasheeda on the right bank of the Shannon, but the few and
thin seams are not productive. The nodules of clay-ironstone in
the strata that overlie the limestone were mined and smelted
down to 1750. Within half a mile of the Milltown lead mine are
immense natural vaulted passages of limestone, through which
the river Ardsullas winds a singular course. The lower limestone
of the eastern portion of the county has been found to contain
several very large deposits of argentiferous galena. Flags, easily
quarried, are procured near Kilrush, and thinner flags near
Ennistimon. Slates are quarried in several places, the best being
those of Broadford and Killaloe, which are nearly equal to the
finest procured in Wales. A species of very fine black marble is
obtained near Ennis; jt takes a high polish, and is free from the
white spots with which the black Kilkenny marble is marked. '

The mineral springs, which are found in many places, are
chiefly chalybeate. That of Lisdoonvarna, a sulphur spa, about
8 m. from Ennistimon, has been celebrated since the i8th century
for its medicinal qualities, and now attracts a large number of
visitors annually. It lies 9 m. by road N. of Ennistimon. There
are chalybeate springs of less note at Kilkishen, Burren, Broad-
foot, Lehinch, Kilkee, Kilrush, Killadysart, and near Milltown
Malbay. Springs called by the people " holy " or " blessed "
wells, generally mineral waters, are common; but the belief in
their power of performing cures in inveterate maladies is nearly
extinct.

Watering-places. The Atlantic Ocean and the estuary of the
Shannon afford many situations admirably adapted for summer
bathing-places. Among the most frequented of these localities
are Milltown Malbay, with one of the best beaches on the western
coast; and the neighbouring Spanish Point (named from the
scene of the wreck of two ships of the Armada) ; Lehinch, about

CLAREMONT CLARENCE

427

2 m. from Ennistimon on Liscannor Bay, and near the interesting
cliffs of Moher, has a magnificent beach. Kilkee is the most
fashionable watering-place on the western coast of Ireland; and
Kilrush on the Shannon estuary is also favoured.

Industries. The soil and surface of the county are in general
better adapted for grazing than for tillage, and the acreage
devoted to the former consequently exceeds three times that of
the latter. Agriculture is in a backward state, and not a fifth of
the total area is under cultivation, while the acreage shows a
decrease even in the principal crops of oats and potatoes. Cattle,
sheep, poultry and pigs, however, all receive considerable
attention. Owing to the mountainous nature of the county nearly
one-seventh of the total area is quite barren.

There are no extensive manufactures, although flannels and
friezes are made for home use, and hosiery of various kinds,
chiefly coarse and strong, is made around Ennistimon and other
places. There are several fishing stations on the coast, and cod,
haddock, ling, sole, turbot, ray, mackerel and other fish abound,
but the rugged nature of the coast and the tempestuous sea
greatly hinder the operations of the fishermen. Near Pooldoody
is the great Burren oyster bed called the Red Bank, where a
large establishment is maintained, from which a constant supply
of the excellent Red Bank oysters is furnished to the Dublin
and other large markets. Crabs and lobsters are caught on the
shores of the Bay of Galway in every creek from Black Head to
Ardfry. In addition to the Shannon salmon fishery mentioned
above, eels abound in every rivulet, and form an important
article of consumption.

The Great Southern & Western railway line from Limerick to
Sligo intersects the centre of the county from north to south.
From Ennis on this line the West Clare railway runs to Ennis-
timon on the coast, where it turns south and follows the coast by
Milltown Malbay to Kilkee and Kilrush. Killaloe in the east of
the county is the terminus of a branch of the Great Southern
& Western railway.

Population and Administration. The population (126,244
in 1891; 112,334 in 1901; almost wholly Roman Catholic and
rural) shows a decrease among the most serious of the Irish
counties, and the emigration returns are proportionately heavy.
The principal towns, all of insignificant size, are Ennis (pop.
5093, the county town), Kilrush (4179), Kilkee (1661) and
Killaloe (885); but several of the smaller settlements, as resorts,
are of more than local importance. The county, which is divided
into ii baronies, contains 79 parishes, and includes the Protest-
ant diocese of Kilfenora, the greater part of Killaloe, and a
very small portion of the diocese of Limerick. It is within the
Roman Catholic dioceses of Killaloe and Limerick. The assizes
are held at Ennis, and quarter sessions here and at Ennistimon,
Killaloe, Kilrush and Tulla. The county is divided into the
East and West parliamentary divisions, each returning one
member.

History. This county, together with part of the neighbouring
district, was anciently called Thomond, that is, North Munster,
and formed part of the monarchy of the celebrated Brian
Boroihme, who held his court at Kincora near Killaloe, where
his palace was situated on the banks of the Shannon. The site
is still distinguished by extensive earthen ramparts. Settle-
ments were effected by the Danes, and in the I3th century by
the Anglo-Normans, but without permanently affecting the
possession of the district by its native proprietors. In 1543
Murrogh O'Brien, after dispossessing his nephew and vainly
attempting a rebellion against the English rule, proceeded
to England and submitted to Henry VIII., resigning his name
and possessions. He soon received them back by an English
tenure, together with the title of earl of Thomond, on condition
of adopting the English dress, manners and customs. In 1565
this part of Thomond (sometimes called O'Brien's country)

was added to Connaught, and made one of the six new counties
into which that province was divided by Sir Henry Sidney.
It was named Clare, the name being traceable either to Richard
de Clare (Strongbow), earl of Pembroke, or to his younger
brother, Thomas de Clare, who obtained a grant of Thomond

from Edward I. in 1276, and whose family for some time main-
tained a precarious position in the district. Towards the close
of the reign of Elizabeth, Clare was detached from the govern-
ment of Connaught and given a separate administration; but
at the Restoration it was reunited to Munster.

Antiquities. The county abounds with remains of antiquities,
both military and ecclesiastical, especially in the north-western
part. There still exist above a hundred fortified castles, several
of which are inhabited. They are mostly of small extent, a
large portion being fortified dwellings. The chief of them is
Bunratty Castle, built in 1277, once inhabited by the earls of
Thomond, 10 m. W. of Limerick, on the Shannon. Those of
Ballykinvarga, Ballynalackan and Lemaneagh, all in the north-
west, should also be mentioned. Raths or encampments are
to be found in every part. They are generally circular, com-
posed either of large stones without mortar or of earth thrown
up and surrounded by one or more ditches. The list of abbeys
and other religious houses formerly flourishing here (some now
only known by name, but many of them surviving in ruins)
comprehends upwards of twenty. The most remarkable are
Quin, considered one of the finest and most perfect specimens
of ancient monastic architecture in Ireland; Corcomroe; Ennis,
in which is a very fine window of uncommonly elegant workman-
ship; and those on Inniscattery or Scattery Island, in the
Shannon, said to have been founded by St Senan (see KILRUSH).
Kilfenora, 5 m. N.E. of Ennistimon, was until 1752 a separate
diocese, and its small cathedral is of interest, with several
neighbouring crosses and a holy well. The ruined churches
of Kilnaboy, Nouhaval and Teampul Cronan are the most
noteworthy of many in the north-west. Five round towers are
to be found in various stages of preservation at Scattery
Island, Drumcliffe, Dysert O'Dea, Kilnaboy and Inniscaltra
(Lough Derg). The cathedral of the diocese of Killaloe is at
the town of that name. Cromlechs are found, chiefly in the
rocky limestone district of Burren in the N.W., though there
are some in other baronies. That at Ballygannor is formed of a
stone 40 ft. long and 10 broad.

See papers by T. J. Westropp in Proceedings of the Royal Irish
Academy " Distribution of Cromlechs in County Clare" (1897);
and " Churches of County Clare, and Origin of Ecclesiastical
Divisions " (1900).

CLAREMONT, a city of Sullivan county, New Hampshire,
U.S.A., situated in the W. part of the state, bordering on the
Connecticut river. Pop. (1890) 5565; (1900) 6498 (1442 for-
eign-born); (1910) 7529. Area, 6 sq. m. It is served by two
branches of the Boston & Maine railway. In Claremont is the
Fiske free library (1873), housed in a Carnegie building (1904).
The Stevens high school is richly endowed by the gift of Paran
Stevens, a native of Claremont. The city contains several
villages, the principal being Claremont, Claremont Junction
and West Claremont. Sugar river, flowing through the city
into the Connecticut and falling 223 ft.within the city limits,
furnishes good water-power. Among the manufactures are
woollen and cotton goods, paper, mining and quarrying
machinery, rubber goods, linens, shoes, wood trim and pearl
buttons. The first settlement here was made in 1762, and a
township was organized in 1764; in 1908 Claremont was
chartered as a city. It was named from Claremont, Lord
Clive's country place.

CLARENCE, DUKES OF. The early history of this English
title is identical with that of the family of Clare (</..), earls of
Gloucester, who are sometimes called earls of Clare, of which
word Clarence is a later form. The first duke of Clarence was
Lionel of Antwerp (see below), third son of Edward III., who
was created duke in 1362, and whose wife Elizabeth was a
direct descendant of the Clares, the " Honour of Clare " being
among the lands which she brought to her husband. When
Lionel died without sons in 1368 the title became extinct; but
in 1412 it was revived in favour of Thomas (see below), the
second son of Henry IV. The third creation of a duke of Clarence
took place in 1461, and was in favour of George (see below),
brother of the King Edward IV. When this duke, accused by

428

CLARENDON, IST EARL OF

the king, was attainted and killed in 1478, his titles and estates
were forfeited. There appears to have been no other creation
of a duke of Clarence until 1789, when William, third son of
George III., was made a peer under this title. Having merged
in the crown when William became king of Great Britain and
Ireland in 1830, the title of duke of Clarence was again revived
in 1890 in favour of Albert Victor (1864-1892), the elder son of
King Edward VII., then prince of Wales, only to become extinct
for the fifth time on his death in 1892.

LIONEL OF ANTWERP, duke of Clarence (1338-1368), third
son of Edward III., was born at Antwerp on the 29th of November
1338. Betrothed when a child to Elizabeth (d. 1363), daughter
and heiress of William de Burgh, 3rd earl of Ulster (d. 1332),
he was married to her in 1352; but before this date he had
entered nominally into possession of her great Irish inheritance.
Having been named as his father's representative in England
in 1345 and again in 1346, Lionel was created earl of Ulster, and
joined an expedition into France in 1355, but his chief energies
were reserved for the affairs of Ireland. Appointed governor
of that country, he landed at Dublin in 1361, and in November
of the following year was created duke of Clarence, while his
father made an abortive attempt to secure for him the crown
of Scotland. His efforts to secure an effective authority over
his Irish lands were only moderately successful; and after
holding a parliament at Kilkenny, which passed the celebrated
statute of Kilkenny in 1367, he threw up his task in disgust
and returned to England. About this time a marriage was
arranged between Clarence and Violante, daughter of Galeazzo
Visconti, lord of Pavia (d. 1378); the enormous dowry which
Galeazzo promised with his daughter being exaggerated by the
rumour of the time. Journeying to fetch his bride, the duke
was received in great state both in France and Italy, and was
married to Violante at Milan in June 1368. Some months were
then spent in festivities, during which Lionel was taken ill at
Alba, where he died on the 7th of October 1368. His only child
Philippa, a daughter by his first wife, married in 1368 Edmund
Mortimer, 3rd earl of March (1351-1381), and through this
union Clarence became the ancestor of Edward IV. The poet
Chaucer was at one time a page in Lionel's household.

THOMAS, duke of Clarence (c. 1388-1421), who was nominally
lieutenant of Ireland from 1401 to 1413, and was in command of
the English fleet in 1405, acted in opposition to his elder brother,
afterwards King Henry V., and the Beauforts during the later
part of the reign of Henry IV.; and was for a short time at the
head of the government, leading an unsuccessful expedition
into France in 1412. When Henry V., however, became king
in 1413 no serious dissensions took place between the brothers,
and as a member of the royal council Clarence took part in the
preparations for the French war. He was with the English king
at Harfleur, but not at Agincourt, and shared in the expedition
of 1417 into Normandy, during which he led the assault on Caen,
and distinguished himself as a soldier in other similar undertak-
ings. When Henry V. returned to England in 1421, the duke
remained in France as his lieutenant, and was killed at Beauge
whilst rashly attacking the French and their Scottish allies on
the 22nd of March 1421. He left no legitimate issue, and the
title again became extinct.

GEORGE, duke of Clarence (1440-1478) , younger son of Richard,
duke of York, by his wife Cicely, daughter of Ralph Neville,
ist earl of Westmorland, was born in Dublin on the 2ist of
October 1440. Soon after his elder brother became king as
Edward IV. in March 1461, he was created duke of Clarence,
and his youth was no bar to his appointment as lord-lieutenant
of Ireland in the following year. Having been mentioned as a
possible husband for Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, after-
wards duke of Burgundy, Clarence came under the influence of
Richard Neville, earl of Warwick, and in July 1469 was married
at Calais to the earl's elder daughter Isabella. With his father-
in-law he then acted in a disloyal manner towards the king.
Both supported the rebels in the north of England, and when
their treachery was discovered Clarence was deprived of his
office as lord-lieutenant and fled to France. Returning to

England with Warwick in September 1470, he witnessed the
restoration of Henry VI., when the crown was settled upon
himself in case the male line of Henry's family became extinct.
The good understanding, however, between Warwick and his
son-in-law was not lasting, and Clarence was soon secretly re-
conciled with Edward. The public reconciliation between
the brothers took place when the king was besieging Warwick
in Coventry, and Clarence then fought for the Yorkists at
Barnet and Tewkesbury. After Warwick's death in April 1471
Clarence appears to have seized the whole of the vast estates of
the earl, and in March 1472 was created by right of his wife earl
of Warwick and Salisbury. He was consequently greatly dis-
turbed when he heard that his younger brother Richard, duke of
Gloucester, was seeking to marry Warwick's younger daughter
Anne, and was claiming some part of Warwick's lands. A violent
quarrel between the brothers ensued, but Clarence was unable
to prevent Gloucester from marrying, and in 1474 the king
interfered to settle the dispute, dividing the estates between
his brothers. In 1477 Clarence was again a suitor for the hand
of Mary, who had just become duchess of Burgundy. Edward
objected to the match, and Clarence, jealous of Gloucester's
influence, left the court. At length Edward was convinced
that Clarence was aiming at his throne. The duke was thrown
into prison, and in January 1478 the king unfolded the charges
against his brother to the parliament. He had slandered the
king; had received oaths of allegiance to himself and his heirs;
had prepared for a new rebellion; and was in short incorrigible.
Both Houses of Parliament passed the bill of attainder, and the
sentence of death which followed was carried out on the I7th
or i8th of February 1478. It is uncertain what share Gloucester
had in his brother's death; but soon after the event the rumour
gained ground that Clarence had been drowned in a butt of
malmsey wine. Two of the duke's children survived their
father: Margaret, countess of Salisbury (1473-1541), and
Edward, earl of Warwick (1475-1499), who passed the greater
part of his life in prison and was beheaded in November 1499.

On the last-named see W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. iii.
(Oxford, 1895); Sir J. H. Ramsay, Lancaster and York (Oxford,
1892); C. W. C. Oman, Warwick the Kingmaker (London, 1891).
On the title generally see G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage (1887-
1898).

CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE, IST EARL OF (1609-1674),
English historian and statesman, son of Henry Hyde of Dinton,
Wiltshire, a member of a family for some time established at
Norbury, Cheshire, was born on the i8th of February 1609.
He entered Magdalen Hall, Oxford, in 1622 (having been refused
a demyship at Magdalen College), and graduated B.A. in 1626.
Intended originally for holy orders, the death of two elder
brothers made him his father's heir, and in 1625 he entered the
Middle Temple. At the university his abilities were more
conspicuous than his industry, and at the bar his time was
devoted more to general reading and to the society of eminent
scholars and writers than to the study of law treatises. This
wandering from the beaten track, however, was not without its
advantages. In later years Clarendon declared " next the
immediate blessing and providence of God Almighty " that he
" owed all the little he knew and the little good that was in him
to the friendships and conversation ... of the most excellent
men in their several kinds that lived in that age." l These in-
cluded Ben Jonson, Selden, Waller, Hales, and especially Lord
Falkland; and from their influence and the wide reading in
which he indulged, he doubtless drew the solid learning and
literary talent which afterwards distinguished him.

In 1629 he married his first wife, Anne, daughter of Sir George
Ayliffe, who died six months afterwards; and secondly, in 1634,
Frances, daughter of Sir Thomas Aylesbury, Master of Requests.
In 1633 he was called to the bar, and obtained quickly a good
position and practice. His marriages had gained for him in-
fluential friends, and in December 1634 he was made keeper of
the writs and rolls of the common pleas; while his able conduct
of the petition of the London merchants against Portland earned
Laud's approval. He was returned to the Short Parliament
1 Life, \. 25.

CLARENDON, IST EARL OF

429

in 1640 as member for Wootton Bassett. Respect and venera-
tion for the law and constitution of England were already
fundamental principles with Hyde, and the flagrant violations
and perversions of the law which characterized the twelve
preceding years of absolute rule drove him into the ranks of the
popular party. He served on numerous and important com-
mittees, and his parliamentary action was directed chiefly to-
wards the support and restoration of the law. He assailed the
jurisdiction of the earl marshal's court, and in the Long Parlia-
ment, in which he sat for Saltash, renewed his attacks and
practically effected its suppression. In 1641 he served on the
committees for inquiring into the status of the councils of Wales
and of the North, distinguished himself by a speech against the
latter, and took an important part in the proceedings against
the judges. He supported Strafford's impeachment, and did
not vote against the attainder, subsequently making an un-
successful attempt through Essex to avert the capital penalty. 1
Hyde's allegiance, however, to the church of England was as
staunch as his support of the law, and was soon to separate
him from the popular faction. In February 1641 he opposed
the reception of the London petition against episcopacy, and in
May the project for unity of religion with the Scots, and the bill
for the exclusion of the clergy from secular office. He showed
special energy in his opposition to the Root and Branch Bill,
and, though made chairman of the committee on the bill on the
nth of July in order to silence his opposition, he caused by his
successful obstruction the failure of the measure. In consequence
he was summoned to the king's presence, and encouraged in his
attitude, and at the beginning of the second session was regarded
as one of the king's ablest supporters in the Commons. He
considered the claims put forward at this time by parliament
as a violation and not as a guarantee of the law and constitution.
He opposed the demand by the parliament to choose the king's
ministers, and also the Grand Remonstrance, to which he wrote
a reply published by the king.

He now definitely though not openly joined the royal cause,
and refused office in January 1642 with Colepeper and Falkland
in order to serve the king's interests more effectually. Charles
undertook to do nothing in the Commons without their advice.
Nevertheless a few days afterwards, without their knowledge and
by the advice of Lord Digby, he attempted the arrest of the five
members, a resort to force which reduced Hyde to despair, and
which indeed seemed to show that things had gone too far for an
appeal to the law. He persevered, nevertheless, in his legal policy,
to which Charles after the failure of his project again returned,
joined the king openly in June, and continued to compose the
king's answers and declarations in which he appealed to the
" known Laws of the land " against the arbitrary and illegal
acts of a seditious majority in the parliament, his advice to the
king being " to shelter himself wholly under the law, . . . pre-
suming that the king and the law together would have been
strong enough for any encounter." Hyde's appeal had great
influence, and gained for the king's cause half the nation. It by no
means, however, met with universal support among the royalists,
Hobbes jeering at Hyde's love for " mixed monarchy," and the
courtiers expressing their disapproval of the " spirit of accommo-
dation " which " wounded the regality." It was destined to
failure owing principally to the invincible distrust of Charles
created in the parliament leaders, and to the fact that Charles was
simultaneously carrying on another and an inconsistent policy,
listening to very different advisers, such as the queen and Digby,
and resolving on measures (such as the attempt on Hull) without
Hyde's knowledge or approval.

War, accordingly, in spite of his efforts, broke out. He was
expelled the House of Commons on the nth of August 1642, and
was one of those excepted later from pardon. He showed great
activity in collecting loans, was present at Edgehill, though not as
a combatant, and followed the king to Oxford, residing at All
Souls College from October 1642 till March 1645. O n the 22nd of

1 Hist, of the Rebellion, iii. 164, the account being substantially
accepted by Gardiner, in spite of inaccuracies in details (Hist. ix.
341, note).

February he was made a privy councillor and knighted, and on
the 3rd of March appointed chancellor of the exchequer. He
was an influential member of the " Junto " which met every
week to discuss business before it was laid before the council.
His aim was to gain over some of the leading Parliamentarians
by personal influence and personal considerations, and at the
Uxbridge negotiations in January 1645, where he acted as
principal manager on the king's side, while remaining firm on the
great political questions such as the church and the militia, he
tried to win individuals by promises of places and honours. He
promoted the assembly of the Oxford parliament in December
1643 as a counterpoise to the influence and status of the Long
Parliament. Hyde's policy and measures, however, all failed.
They had been weakly and irregularly supported by the king, and
were fiercely opposed by the military party, who were jealous of
the civil influence, and were urging Charles to trust to force and
arms alone and eschew all compromise and concessions. Charles
fell now under the influence of persons devoid of all legal and
constitutional scruples, sending to Glamorgan in Ireland " those
strange powers and instructions inexcusable to justice, piety and
prudence." 2

Hyde's influence was much diminished, and on the 4th of March
1645 ne left the king for Bristol as one of the guardians of the
prince of Wales and governors of the west. Here the disputes
between the council and the army paralysed the proceedings, and
lost, according to Hyde, the finest opportunity since the outbreak
of the war of raising a strong force and gaining substantial
victories in that part of the country. After Hopton's defeat on
the i6th of February 1646, at Torrington, Hyde accompanied the
prince, on the 4th of March, to Stilly, and on the lyth of April, for
greater security, to Jersey. He strongly disapproved of the
prince's removal to France by the queen's order and of the
schemes of assistance from abroad, refused to accompany him,
and signed a bond to prevent the sale of Jersey to the French
supported by Jermyn. He opposed the projected sacrifice of the
church to the Scots and the grant by the king of any but personal
or temporary concessions, declaring that peace was only possible
" upon the old foundations of government in church and state."
He was especially averse to Charles's tampering with the Irish
Romanists. " Oh, Mr Secretary," he wrote to Nicholas, " those
stratagems have given me more sad hours than all the mis-
fortunes in war which have befallen the king and look like the
effects of God's anger towards us." 3 He refused to compound for
his own estate. While in Jersey he resided first at St Helier and
afterwards at Elizabeth Castle with Sir George Carteret. He
composed the first portion of his History and kept in touch with
events by means of an enormous correspondence. In 1648 he
published A Full answer to an infamous and tr ailerons Pamphlet
. . ., a reply to the resolution of the parliament to present no
more addresses to the king and a vindication of Charles.

On the outbreak of the second Civil War Hyde left Jersey
(26th of June 1648) to join the queen and prince at Paris. He
landed at Dieppe, sailed from that port to Dunkirk, and thence
followed the prince to the Thames, where Charles had met the
fleet, but was captured and robbed by a privateer, and only joined
the prince in September after the latter's return to the Hague.
He strongly disapproved of the king's concessions at Newport.
When the army broke off the treaty and brought Charles to trial
he endeavoured to save his life, and after the execution drew up a
letter to the several European sovereigns invoking their assistance
to avenge it. Hyde strongly opposed Charles II. 's ignominious
surrender to the Covenanters, the alliance with the Scots, and
the Scottish expedition, desiring to accomplish whatever was
possible there through Montrose and the royalists, and inclined
rather to an attempt in Ireland. His advice was not followed, and
he gladly accepted a mission with Cottington to Spain to obtain
money from the Roman Catholic powers, and to arrange an
alliance between Owen O'Neill and Ormonde for the recovery of
Ireland, arriving at Madrid on the 26th of November 1649. The
defeat, however, of Charles at Dunbar, and the confirmation of
Cromwell's ascendancy, influenced the Spanish government
1 Clarendon St. Pap. ii. 337. Ibid.

4-30

against them, and they were ordered to leave in December 1650.
Hyde arrived at Antwerp in January 1651, and in December
rejoined Charles at Paris after the latter's escape from Worcester.
He now became one of his chief advisers, accompanying him in
his change of residence to Cologne in October 1654 and to
Bruges in 1658, and was appointed lord chancellor on the I3th
of January 1658. His influence was henceforth maintained in
spite of the intrigues of both Romanists and Presbyterians, as
well as the violent and openly displayed hostility of the queen,
and was employed unremittingly in the endeavour to keep
Charles faithful to the church and constitution, and in the pre-
vention of unwise concessions and promises which might estrange
the general body of the royalists. His advice to Charles was to
wait upon the turn of events, " that all his activity was to
consist in carefully avoiding to do anything that might do him
hurt and to expect some blessed conjuncture." 1 In 1656, during
the war between England and Spain, Charles received offers of
help from the latter power provided he could gain a port in
England, but Hyde discouraged small isolated attempts. He
expected much from Cromwell's death. The same year he made
an alliance with the Levellers, and was informed of their plots to
assassinate the protector, without apparently expressing any
disapproval. 2 He was well supplied with information from
England, 3 and guided the action of the royalists with great
ability and wisdom during the interval between Cromwell's
death and the Restoration, urged patience, and advocated the
obstruction of a settlement between the factions contending for
power and the fomentation of their jealousies, rather than
premature risings.

The Restoration was a complete triumph for Hyde's policy.
He lays no stress on his own great part in it, but it was owing
to him that the Restoration was a national one, by the consent
and invitation of parliament representing the whole people
and not through the medium of one powerful faction enforcing
its will upon a minority, and that it was not only a restoration
of Charles but a restoration of the monarchy. By Hyde's
advice concessions to the inconvenient demands of special
factions had been avoided by referring the decision to a " free
parliament," and the declaration of Breda reserved for parlia-
ment the settlement of the questions of amnesty, religious
toleration and the proprietorship of forfeited lands.

Hyde entered London with the king, all attempts at effecting
his fall having failed, and immediately obtained the chief place
in the government, retaining the chancellorship of the exchequer
till the I3th of May 1661, when he surrendered it to Lord Ashley.
He took his seat as speaker of the House of Lords and in the
court of chancery on the ist of June 1660. On the 3rd of
November 1660 he was made Baron Hyde of Hindon, and on
the zoth of April 1661 Viscount Combury and earl of Clarendon,
receiving a grant from the king of 20,000 and at different times
of various small estates and Irish rents. The marriage of his
daughter Anne to James, duke of York, celebrated in secret in
September 1660, at first alarmed Clarendon on account of the
public hostility he expected thereby to incur, but finding his
fears unconfirmed he acquiesced in its public recognition in
December, and thus became related in a special manner to the
royal family and the grandfather of two English sovereigns. 4

Clarendon's position was one of great difficulties, but at the
same time of splendid opportunities. In particular a rare
occasion now offered itself of settling the religious question on a
broad .principle of comprehension or toleration; for the monarchy
had been restored not by the supporters of the church alone
but largely by the influence and aid of the nonconformists and
also of the Roman Catholics, who were all united at that happy

1 Hist, of the Rebellion, xiii. 140.

2 Clarendon Slate Papers, iii. 316, 325, 341 34-5

Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of F. W. Leyborne-Popkam, 227.

* Anne Hyde (1637-1671), eldest daughter of the chancellor, was
the mother by James of Queen Mary and Queen Anne, besides six
other children, including four sons who all died in infancy. She
became a Roman Catholic in 1670 shortly before her death, and
was buried in the vault of Mary, queen of Scots, in Henry VII.'s
chapel m Westminster Abbey.

CLARENDON, IST EARL OF

moment by a common loyalty to the throne. Clarendon appears
to have approved of comprehension but not of toleration. He
had already in April 1660 sent to discuss terms with the leading
Presbyterians in England, and after the Restoration offered
bishoprics to several, including Richard Baxter. He drew up
the royal declaration of October, promising limited episcopacy
and a revised prayer-book and ritual, which was subsequently
thrown out by parliament, and he appears to have anticipated
some kind of settlement from the Savoy Conference which sat
in April 1661. The failure of the latter proved perhaps that the
differences were too great for compromise, and widened the
breach. The parliament immediately proceeded to pass the
series of narrow and tyrannical measures against the dissenters
known as the Clarendon Code. The Corporations Act, obliging
members of corporations to denounce the Covenant and take
the sacrament according to the Anglican usage, became law
on the aoth of December 1661, the Act of Uniformity enforcing
the use of the prayer-book on ministers, as well as a declaration
that it was unlawful to bear arms against the sovereign, on the
i pth of May 1662, and these were followed by the Conventicle Act
in 1664 suppressing conventicles and by the Five-Mile Act in 1665
forbidding ministers who had refused subscription to the Act of
Uniformity to teach or reside within 5 m. of a borough. Clarendon
appears to have reluctantly acquiesced in these civil measures
rather than to have originated them, and to have endeavoured
to mitigate their injustice and severity. He supported the con-
tinuance of the tenure by presbyterian ministers of livings not
held by Anglicans and an amendment in the Lords allowing a
pension to those deprived, earning the gratitude of Baxter and
the nonconformists. On the I7th of March 1662 he introduced
into parliament a declaration enabling the king to dispense
with the Act of Uniformity in the case of ministers of merit.*
But once committed to the narrow policy of intolerance, Claren-
don was inevitably involved in all its consequences. His char-
acteristic respect for the law and constitution rendered him
hostile to the general policy of indulgence, which, though the
favourite project of the king, he strongly opposed in the Lords,
and in the end caused its withdrawal. He declared that he could
have wished the law otherwise, " but when it was passed, he
thought it absolutely necessary to see obedience paid to it
without any connivance." 6 Charles was greatly angered. It
was believed in May 1663 that the intrigues of Bennet and
Buckingham, who seized the opportunity of ingratiating them-
selves with the king by zealously supporting the indulgence,
had secured Clarendon's dismissal, and in July Bristol ventured
to accuse him of high treason in the parliament; but the attack,
which did not receive the king's support, failed entirely and only
ended in the banishment from court of its promoter. Clarendon's
opposition to the court policy in this way acquired a personal
character, and he was compelled to identify himself more com-
pletely with the intolerant measures of the House of Commons.
Though not the originator of the Conventicle Act or of the Five-
Mile Act, he has recorded his approval, 7 and he ended by taking
alarm at plots and rumours and by regarding the great party
of nonconformists, through whose co-operation the monarchy
had been restored, as a danger to the state whose " faction was
their religion." 8

Meanwhile Clarendon's influence and direction had been
predominant in nearly all departments of state. He supported
the exception of the actual regicides from the Indemnity, but
only ten out of the twenty-six condemned were executed, and
Clarendon, with the king's support, prevented the passing of a
bill in 1 66 1 for the execution of thirteen more. He upheld the
Act of Indemnity against all the attempts of the royalists to
upset it. The conflicting claims to estates were left to be decided
by the law. The confiscations of the usurping government accord-
ingly were cancelled, while the properly executed transactions

'See Hist. MSS. Comm.: Various Collections, ii. 118, and MSS.
of Duke of Somerset, 94.

6 Continuation, 339. ' 76. 511, 776.

8 Lister's Life of Clarendon, ii. 295; Hist. MSS. Comm.: Various
Collections, ii. 379.

CLARENDON, IST EARL OF

43 1

between individuals were necessarily upheld. There can be
little doubt that the principle followed was the only safe
one in the prevailing confusion. Great injustice was indeed
suffered by individuals, but the proper remedy of such injustice
was the benevolence of the king, which there is too much reason
to believe proved inadequate and partial. The settlement of
the church lands which was directed by Clarendon presented
equal difficulties and involved equal hardships. In settling
Scotland Clarendon's aim was to make that kingdom dependent
upon England and to uphold the Cromwellian union. He
proposed to establish a council at Whitehall to govern Scottish
affairs, and showed great zeal in endeavouring to restore episco-
pacy through the medium of Archbishop Sharp. His influence,
however, ended with the ascendancy of Lauderdale in 1663.
He was, to some extent at least, responsible for the settlement
in Ireland, but, while anxious for an establishment upon a
solid Protestant basis, urged " temper and moderation and
justice " in securing it. He supported Ormonde's wise and
enlightened Irish administration, and in particular opposed
persistently the prohibition of the import of Irish cattle into
England, incurring thereby great unpopularity. He showed
great activity in the advancement of the colonies, to whom he
allowed full freedom of religion. He was a member of the council
for foreign plantations, and one of the eight lords proprietors
of Carolina in 1663; and in 1664 sent a commission to settle
disputes in New England. In the department of foreign
affairs he had less influence. His policy was limited to the
maintenance of peace " necessary for the reducing [the king's]
own dominions into that temper of subjection and obedience
as they ought to be in." 1 In 1664 he demanded, on behalf
of Charles, French support, and a loan of 50,000 against dis-
turbance at home, and thus initiated that ignominious system
of pensions and dependence upon France which proved so
injurious to English interests later. But he was the promoter
neither of the sale of Dunkirk on the 27th of October 1662, the
author of which seems to have been the earl of Sandwich, 2 nor
of the Dutch War. He attached considerable value to the
possession of the former, but when its sale was decided he con-
ducted the negotiations and effected the bargain. He had
zealously laboured for peace with Holland, and had concluded
a treaty for the settlement of disputes on the 4th of September
1662. Commercial and naval jealousies, however, soon involved
the two states in hostilities. Cape Corso and other Dutch
possessions on the cost of Africa, and New Amsterdam in
America, were seized by squadrons from the royal navy in 1664,
and hostilities were declared on the 22nd of February 1665.
Clarendon now gave his support to the war, asserted the extreme
claims of the English crown over the British seas, and contem-
plated fresh cessions from the Dutch and an alliance with Sweden
and Spain. According to his own account he initiated the policy
of the Triple Alliance, 3 but it seems clear that his inclination
towards France continued in spite of the intervention of the
latter state in favour of Holland; and he took part in the
negotiations for ending the war by an undertaking with Louis
XIV. implying a neutrality, while the latter seized Flanders.
The crisis in this feeble foreign policy and in the general official
mismanagement was reached in June 1667, when the Dutch
burnt several ships at Chatham and when " the roar of foreign
guns were heard for the first and last time by the citizens of
London." 4

The whole responsibility for the national calamity and disgrace,
and for the ignominious peace which followed it, was unjustly
thrown on the shoulders of Clarendon, though it must be admitted
that the disjointed state of the administration and want of
control over foreign policy were largely the causes of the disaster,
and for these Clarendon's influence and obstruction of official
reforms were to some extent answerable. According to Sir
William Coventry, whose opinion has weight and who acknow-
ledges the chancellor's fidelity to the king, while Clarendon " was

1 Continuation, 1170.

1 Hist. MSS. Comm. : MSS. of F. W. Leyborne-Popham, 250.

1 Continuation, 1066. * Macaulay's Hist, of England, i. 193.

so great at the council board and in the administration of matters,
there was no room for anybody to propose any remedy to what
was remiss . . . he managing all tlu'ngs with that greatness which
will now be removed." * He disapproved of the system of boards
and committees instituted during the Commonwealth, as giving
too much power to the parliament, and regarded the administra-
tion by the great officers of state, to the exclusion of pure men of
business, as the only method compatible with the dignity and
security of the monarchy. The lowering of the prestige of the
privy council, and its subordination first to the parliament and
afterwards to the military faction, he considered as one of the
chief causes of the fall of Charles I. He aroused a strong feeling of
hostility in the Commons by his opposition to the appropriation of
supplies in 1665, and to the audit of the war accounts in 1666, as
" an introduction to a commonwealth " and as " a new encroach-
ment," and by his high tone of prerogative and authority, while
by his advice to Charles to prorogue parliament he incurred their
resentment and gave colour to the accusation that he had advised
the king to govern without parliaments. He was unpopular
among all classes, among the royalists on account of the Act
of Indemnity, among the Presbyterians because of the Act of
Uniformity. It was said that he had invented the maxim " that
the king should buy and reward his enemies and do little for his
friends, because they are his already. " 6 Every kind of mal-
administration was currently ascribed to him, of designs to govern
by a standing army, and of corruption. He was credited with
having married Charles purposely to a barren queen in order to
raise his own grandchildren to the throne, with having sold
Dunkirk to France, and his magnificent house in St James's was
nicknamed " Dunkirk House," while on the day of the Dutch
attack on Chatham the mob set up a gibbet at his gate and broke
his windows. He had always been exceedingly unpopular at
court, and kept severely aloof from the revels and licence which
reigned there. Evelyn names " the buffoons and the misses to
whom he was an eyesore." 7 He was intensely disliked by the
royal mistresses, whose favour he did not condescend to seek, and
whose presence and influence were often the subject of his
reproaches, 8 A party of younger men of the king's own age,
more congenial to his temperament, and eager to drive the old
chancellor from power and to succeed him in office, had for some
time been endeavouring to undermine his influence by ridicule and
intrigue. Surrounded by such general and violent animosity,
Clarendon's only hope could be in the support of the king. But
the chancellor had early and accurately gauged the nature and
extent of the king's attachment to him, which proceeded neither
from affection nor gratitude but " from his aversion to be
troubled with the intricacies of his affairs," and in 1661 he had
resisted the importunities of Ormonde to resign the great seal for
the lord treasurership with the rank of " first minister," " a title
newly translated out of French into English," on account of the
obloquy this position would incur and the further dependence
which it entailed upon the inconstant king. 9 Charles, long weary
of the old chancellor's rebukes, was especially incensed at this
time owing to his failure in securing Frances Stuart (la Belle
Stuart) for his seraglio, a disappointment which he attributed to
Clarendon, and was now alarmed by the hostility which his
administration had excited. He did not scruple to sacrifice at
once the old adherent of his house and fortunes. " The truth is,"
he wrote Ormonde, " his behaviour and humour was grown so
insupportable to myself and all the world else that I could no
longer endure it, and it was impossible for me to live with it and
do these things with the Parliament that must be done, or the
government will be lost." 10 By the direction of Charles, James
advised Clarendon to resign before the meeting of parliament, but
in an interview with the king on the 26th of August Clarendon
refused to deliver up the seal unless dismissed, and urged him not
to take a step ruinous to the interests both of the chancellor

1 Pepys's Diary, Sept. 2, 1667.

Hist. MSS. Comm., 7th Rep. 162. 7 Diary, iii. 95, 96.

1 Lives from the Clarendon Gallery, by Lady Th. Lewis, i. 39;
Burnet's Hist, of his own Times, i. 209.

* Continuation, 88. 10 Lister's Life of Clarendon, ii. 416.

432

CLARENDON, IST EARL OF

himself and of the crown. 1 He could not believe his dismissal was
really intended, but on the 3oth of August he was deprived of the
great seal, for which the king received the thanks of the parlia-
ment on the i6th of October. On the I2th of November his im-
peachment, consisting of various charges of arbitrary government,
corruption and maladministration, was brought up to the Lords,
but the latter refused to order his committal, on the ground that
the Commons had only accused him of treason in general without
specifying any particular charge. Clarendon wrote humbly to
the king asking for pardon, and that the prosecution might be
prevented, but Charles had openly taken part against him, and,
though desiring his escape, would not order or assist his departure
for fear of the Commons. Through the bishop of Hereford,
however, on the 2pth of November he pressed Clarendon to fly,
promising that he should not during his absence suffer in his
honour or fortune. Clarendon embarked the same night for
Calais, where he arrived on the 2nd of December. The Lords
immediately passed an act for his banishment and ordered the
petition forwarded by him to parliament to be burnt.

The rest of Clarendon's life was passed in exile. He left
Calais for Rouen on the 25th of December, returning on the
2ist of January 1668, visiting the baths of Bourbon in April,
thence to Avignon in June, residing from July 1668 till June
1671 at Montpellier, whence he proceeded to Moulins and to
Rouen again in May 1674. His sudden banishment entailed
great personal hardships. His health at the time of his flight
was much impaired, and on arriving at Calais he fell dangerously
ill; and Louis XIV., anxious at this time to gain popularity
in England, sent him peremptory and repeated orders to quit
France. He suffered severely from gout, and during the greater
part of his exile could not walk without the aid of two men.
At Evreux, on the 23rd of April 1668, he was the victim of a
murderous assault by English sailors, who attributed to him the
non-payment of their wages, and who were on the point of
despatching him when he was rescued by the guard. For some
time he was not allowed to see any of his children; even corre-
spondence with him was rendered treasonable by the Act of
Banishment; and it was not apparently till 1671, 1673 and 1674
that he received visits from his sons, the younger, Lawrence
Hyde, being present with him at his death.

Clarendon bore his troubles with great dignity and fortitude.
He found consolation in religious duties, and devoted a portion
of every day to the composition of his Contemplations on the
Psalms, and of his moral essays. Removed effectually from
the public scene, and from all share in present politics, he turned
his attention once more to the past and finished his History and
his Autobiography. Soon after reaching Calais he had written,
on the i7th of December 1667, to the university of Oxford,
desiring as his last request that the university should believe
in his innocence and remember him, though there could be no
further mention of him in their public devotions, in their private
prayers. 2 In 1668 he wrote to the duke and duchess of York to
remonstrate on the report that they had turned Roman Catholic,
to the former urging " You cannot be without zeal for the
Church to which your blessed father made himself a sacrifice,"
adding that such a change would bring a great storm against
the Romanists. He entertained to the last hopes of obtaining
leave to return to England. He asked for permission in June
1671 and in August 1674. In the dedication of his Brief View
of Mr Hobbes's Book Leviathan he repeats " the hope which
sustains my weak, decayed spirits that your Majesty will at
some time call to your remembrance my long and incorrupted
fidelity to your person and your service "; but his petitions
were not even answered or noticed. He died at Rouen on the
9th of December 1674. He was buried hi Westminster Abbey
at the foot of the steps at the entrance to Henry VII. 's chapel.
He left two sons, Henry, 2nd earl of Clarendon, and Lawrence,
earl of Rochester, his daughter Anne, duchess of York, and a
third son, Edward, having predeceased him. His male descend-
ants became extinct on the death of the 4th earl of Clarendon
and 2nd earl of Rochester in 1753, the title of Clarendon being

1 Continuation, 1137. 2 Clarendon St. Pap. iii. Suppl. xxxvii.

revived in 1776 in the person of Thomas Villiers, who had
married the granddaughter and heir of the last earl.

As a statesman Clarendon had obvious limitations and failings.
He brought to the consideration of political questions an essenti-
ally legal but also a narrow mind, conceiving the law, " that
great and admirable mystery," and the constitution as fixed,
unchangeable and sufficient for all time, in contrast to Pym,
who regarded them as living organisms capable of continual
development and evolution; and he was incapable of compre-
hending and governing the new conditions and forces created
by the civil wars. His character, however, and therefore to
some extent his career, bear the indelible marks of greatness.
He left the popular cause at the moment of its triumph and
showed in so doing a strict consistency. In a court degraded
by licence and self-indulgence, he maintained his self-respect
and personal dignity regardless of consequences, and in an age
of almost universal corruption and self-seeking he preserved a
noble integrity and patriotism. At the Restoration he showed
great moderation in accepting rewards. He refused a grant
of 10,000 acres hi the Fens from the king on the ground that
it would create an evil precedent, and amused Charles and James
by his indignation at the offer of a present of 10,000 from the
French minister Fouquet, the only present he accepted from
Louis XIV. being a set of books printed at the Louvre. His
income, however, as lord chancellor was very large, and Clarendon
maintained considerable state, considering it due to the dignity
of the monarchy that the high officers should carry the external
marks of greatness. The house built by him hi St James's
was one of the most magnificent ever seen in England, and was
filled with a collection of portraits, chiefly those of contemporary
statesmen and men of letters. It cost Clarendon 50,000, in-
volved him deeply in debt and was considered one of the chief
causes of the " gust of envy " that caused his fall. 3 He is
described as " a fair, ruddy, fat, middle-statured, handsome
man," and his appearance was stately- and dignified. He
expected deference from his inferiors, and one of the chief
charges which he brought against the party of the young poli-
ticians was the want of respect with which they treated himself
and the lord treasurer. His industry and devotion to public
business, of which proofs still remain in the enormous mass of his
state papers and correspondence, were exemplary, and were
rendered all the more conspicuous by the negligence, inferiority
in business, and frivolity of his successors. As lord chancellor
Clarendon made no great impression hi the court of chancery.
His early legal training had long been interrupted, and his
political preoccupations probably rendered necessary the
delegation of many of his judicial duties to others. According
to Speaker Onslow his decrees were always made with the aid
of two judges. Burnet praises him, however, as " a very good
chancellor, only a little too rough but very . impartial in the
administration of justice," and Pepys, who saw him presiding
in his court, perceived him to be " a most able and ready man." *
According to Evelyn, " though no considerable lawyer " he was
" one who kept up the fame and substance of things in the
nation with . . . solemnity." He made good appointments
to the bench and issued some important orders for the reform
of abuses in his court. 6 As chancellor of Oxford University,
to which office he was elected on the 27th of October 1660,
Clarendon promoted ( he restoration of order and various educa-
tional reforms. In 1753 his manuscripts were left to the univer-
sity by his great-grandson Lord Cornbury, and in 1868 the
money gained by publication was spent in erecting the Clarendon
Laboratory, the profits of the History having provided in 1713
a building for the university press adjoining the Sheldonian
theatre, known since the removal of the press to its present
quarters as the Clarendon Building.

Clarendon had risen to high office largely through his literary
and oratorical gifts. His eloquence was greatly admired by

' Evelyn witnessed its demolition in 1683 Diary, May ipth,

Sept. 1 8th; Lives from the Clarendon Gallery, by Lady Th. Lewis,
i. 40.

4 Diary, July I4th, 1664. ' Lister, ii. 528.

CLARENDON, IST EARL OF

433

Evelyn and Pepys, though Burnet criticises it as too copious.
He was a great lover of books and collected a large library, was
well read in the Roman and in the contemporary histories both
foreign and English, and could appreciate Carew, Ben Jonson and
Cowley. As a writer and historian Clarendon occupies a high
place in English literature. His great work, the History of the
Rebellion, is composed in the grand style. A characteristic
feature is the wonderful series of well-known portraits, drawn
with great skill and liveliness and especially praised by Evelyn
and by Macaulay. The long digressions, the lengthy sentences,
and the numerous parentheses do not accord with modern taste
and usage, but it may be observed that these often follow more
closely the natural involutions of the thought, and express the
argument more clearly, than the short disconnected sentences,
now generally employed, while in rhythm and dignity Clarendon's
style is immeasurably superior. The composition, however, of
the work as a whole is totally wanting in proportion, and the
book is overloaded with state papers, misplaced and tedious in the
narrative. In considering the accuracy of the history it is
important to remember the dates and circumstances of the
composition of its various portions. The published History is
mainly a compilation of two separate original manuscripts, the
first being the history proper, written between 1646 and 1648,
with the advantage of a fresh memory and the help of various
documents and authorities, and ending in March 1644, and the
second being the Life, extending from 1609 to 1660, but composed
long afterwards in exile and without the aid of papers between
1668 and 1670. The value of any statement, therefore, in the
published History depends chiefly on whether it is taken from the
History proper or the Life. In 1671 these two manuscripts were
united by Clarendon with certain alterations and modifications
making Books i.-vii.of the published History, while Books viii.-xv.
were written subsequently, and, being composed for the most
part without materials, are generally inaccurate, with the notable
exception of Book ix., made up from two narratives written at
Jersey in 1646, and containing very little from the Life. Sincerity
and honest conviction are present on every page, and the in-
accuracies are due not to wilful misrepresentation, but to failure
of memory and to the disadvantages under which the author
laboured in exile. But they lessen considerably the value of his
work, and detract from his reputation as chronicler of con-
temporary events, for which he was specially fitted by his
practical experience in public business, a qualification declared
by himself to be the " genius, spirit and soul of an historian."
In general, Clarendon, like many of his contemporaries, failed
signally to comprehend the real issues and principles at stake in
the great struggle, laying far too much stress on personalities
and never understanding the real aims and motives of the
Presbyterian party. The work was first published in 1702-1704
from a copy of a transcript made by Clarendon's secretary, with
a few unimportant alterations, and was the object of a violent
attack by John Oldmixon for supposed changes and omissions
in Clarendon and Whitelocke compared (1727) and again in a
preface to his History of England (1730), repelled and refuted by
John Burton in the Genuineness of Lord Clarendon's History
Vindicated (1744). The history was first published from the
original in 1826; the best edition being that of 1888 edited by
W. D. Macray and issued by the Clarendon Press. The Lord
Clarendon's History . . . Compleated, a supplement containing
portraits and illustrative papers, was published in 1717, and An
Appendix to the History, containing a life, speeches and various
pieces, La 1724. The Sutherland Clarendon in the Bodleian
library at Oxford contains several thousand portraits and
illustrations of the History. The Life of Edward, earl of Clarendon
. . .[and the] Continuation of the History . . ., the first consisting
of that portion of the Life not included in the History, and the
second of the account of Clarendon's administration and exile in
France, begun in 1672, was published in 1759, the History of the
Reign of King Charles II. from the Restoration . . ., published
about 1755, being a surreptitious edition of this work, of which
the latest and best edition is that of the Clarendon Press of 1857.
Clarendon was also the author of The Difference and Disparity

between the Estate and Condition of George, duke of Buckingham
and Robert, earl of Essex, a youthful production vindicating
Buckingham, printed in Reliquiae Wottonianae (1672), i. 184;
Animadversions on a Book entitled Fanaticism (1673); A Brief
View . . . of the dangerous . . . errors in . . . Mr Hobbes's
book entitled " Leviathan " (1676); The History of the Rebellion
and Civil War in Ireland (1719); A Collection of Several Pieces of
Edward, earl of Clarendon, containing reprints of speeches from
the journals of the House of Lords and of the History of the
Rebellion in Ireland (1727); A Collection of Several Tracts
containing his Vindication in answer to his impeachment,
Reflections upon several Christian Duties, Two Dialogues on
Education and on the want of Respect due to age, and Contempla-
tions on the Psalms (1727); Religion and Policy (1811); Essays
moral and entertaining on the various faculties and passions of the
human mind (1815, and in British Prose Writers, 1819, vol. i.);
Speeches in Rushworth's Collections (1692), pt. iii. vol. i. 230,
333! Declarations and Manifestos (Clarendon being the author of
nearly all on the king's side between March 1642 and March 1645,
the first being the answer to the Grand Remonstrance in January
1642, but not of the answer to the XIX. Propositions or the
apology for the King's attack upon Brentford) in the published
History, Rushworth's Collections, E. Husband's Collections of
Ordinances and Declarations (1646), Old Parliamentary History
(1751-1762), Somers Tracts, State Tracts, Harleian Miscellany,
Thomasson Tracts (Brit. Mus.),E. 157 (14); and a large number of
anonymous pamphlets aimed against the parliament, including
Transcendent and Multiplied Rebellion and Treason (1645), ^
Letter from a True and Lawful Member of Parliament . . . to one
of the Lords of his Highness's Council (1656), and Two Speeches
made in the House of Peers on Monday igth Dec. [1642] . . .
(Somers Tracts, Scott, vi. 576); Second Thoughts (n.d., in favour
of a limited toleration) is ascribed to him in the Catalogue in the
British Museum; A Letter . . . to one of the Chief Ministers of
the Nonconf arming Party . . . (Saumur, 7th May 1674) has been
attributed to him on insufficient evidence.

Clarendon's correspondence, amounting to over 100 volumes,
is in the Bodleian library at Oxford, and other letters are to be
found in Additional MSS. in the British Museum. Selections
have been published under the title of State Papers Collected by
Edward, earl of Clarendon (Clarendon State Papers) between 1767
and 1786, and the collection has been calendared up to 1657 in
1869, 1872, 1876. Other letters of Clarendon are to be found in
Lister's Life of Clarendon, iii.; Nicholas Papers (Camden Soc.,
1886); Diary of J. Evelyn, appendix; Sir R. Fanshaw's Original
Letters (1724); Warburton's Life of Prince Rupert (1849);
Barwick's Life of Barwick (1724); Hist. MSS. Comm. loth Rep.
pt. vi. pp. 193-216, and in the Harleian Miscellany.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Clarendon's autobiographical works and Letters
enumerated above, and the MS. Collection in the Bodleian library.
The Lives of Clarendon by T. H. Lister (1838), and by C. H. Firth
in the Diet, of Nat. Biography (with authorities there collected),
completely supersede all earlier accounts including that in Lives
of All the Lord Chancellors (1708), in Macdiarmid's Lives of British
Statesmen (1807), and in the different Lives by Wood in Athenae
Oxonienses (Bliss), iii. 1018; while those in J. H. Browne's Lives
of the Prime Ministers of England (1858), in Lodge's Portraits, in
Lord Campbell's Lives of the Chancellors, iii. no (1845), and in
Foss's Judges, supply no further information. In Historical Inquiries
respecting the Character of Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon, various
charges against Clarendon were collected by G. A. Ellis (1827) and
answered by Lister, vol. ii. 529, and by Lady Th. Lewis in Lives of
the Contemporaries of Lord Clarendon (1852), i. preface pt. i. For
criticisms of the History see Gardiner's Civil Wars (1893), iii. 121;
Ranke's Hist, of England, vi. 3-29; Die Politik Karls des Ersten
. . . und Lord Clarendon's Darstellung, by A. Buff (1868); article
in the Diet, of Nat. Biog. by C. H. Firth, and especially a series of
admirable articles by the same author in the Eng. Hist. Review
(1904). For description of the MS., Macray's edition of the History
(1888), Lady Th. Lewis's Lives from the Clarendon Gallery, i. introd.
pt. ii.; for list of earlier editions, Alh. Oxon. (Bliss) iii. 1017. Lord
Lansdowne defends Sir R. Granville against Clarendon's strictures
in the Vindication (Genuine Works of G. Granville, Lord Lansdowne,
j- 53 ['73 2 ]). an d Lord Ashburnham defends John Ashburnham
in A Narrative by John Ashburnham (1830). See also Notes at
Meetings of the Privy Council between Charles II. and the Earl of
Clarendon (Roxburghe Club, 1896); General Orders of the High
Court of Chancery, by J. Beames (1815), 147-221 ; S. R. Gardiner's

434

Hist, of England, of the Civil War and of the Commonwealth; Lord
Clarendon, by A. Chassant (account of the assault at Evreux) (1891) ;
Annals of the Bodleian Library, by W. D. Macray (1868); Masson's
Life of Milton; Life of Sir G. Savile, by H. C. Fpxcroft (1898);
Col. of St. Pap. Dom., esp. 1667-1668, 58, 354, 370; Hist. MSS. Comm.
SeHes, MSS, of J. M. Heathcote and Various Collections, vol. ii.;
Add. MSS. in the British Museum; Notes and Queries, 6 ser. v. 283,
9 ser. xi. 182, I ser. ix. 7; Pepys's Diary; J. Evelyn's Diary and
Correspondence ; Gen. Catalogue in British Museum ; Edward Hyde,
earl of Clarendon (1909), a lecture delivered at Oxford during the
Clarendon centenary by C. H. Firth. (P. C. Y.)

CLARENDON, GEORGE WILLIAM FREDERICK VILLIERS,
4TH EARL or(in the Villiers line) (1800-1870), English diplomatist
and statesman, was born in London on the I2th of January 1800.
He was the eldest son of Hon. George Villiers (1750-1827,
youngest son of the ist earl of Clarendon (second creation), by
Theresa, only daughter of the first Lord Boringdon, and grand-
daughter of the first Lord Grantham. The earldom of the lord
chancellor Clarendon became extinct in the Hyde line by the
death of the 4th earl, his last male descendant. Jane Hyde,
countess of Essex, the sister of that nobleman (she died in 1724),
left two daughters; of these the eldest, Lady Charlotte, became
heiress of the Hyde family. She married Thomas Villiers (1709-
1786), second son of the 2nd earl of Jersey, who served with
distinction as English minister in Germany, and in 1776 the
earldom of Clarendon was revived in his favour. The connexion
with the Hyde family was therefore in the female line and
somewhat remote. But a portion of the pictures and plate of the
great chancellor was preserved to this branch of the family, and
remains at The Grove, their family seat at Hertfordshire. The
2nd and 3rd earls were sons of the ist, and, neither of them
having sons, the title passed, on the death of the 3rd earl (John
Charles) in 1838, to their younger brother's son.

Young George Villiers entered upon life in circumstances
which gave small promise of the brilliancy of his future career.
He was well born; he was heir presumptive to an earldom;
and his mother was a woman of great energy, admirable good
sense, and high feeling. But the means of his family were
contracted; his education was desultory and incomplete; he
had not the advantages of a training either at a public school or
in the House of Commons. He went up to Cambridge at the
early age of sixteen, and entered St John's College on the 2gth
of June 1816. In 1820, as the eldest son of an earl's biother
with royal descent, he was enabled to take his M.A. degree
under the statutes of the university then in force. In the same
year he was appointed attache to the British embassy at St
Petersburg, where he remained three years, and gained that
practical knowledge of diplomacy which was of so much use to
him in after-life. He had received from nature a singularly
handsome person, a polished and engaging address, a ready
command of languages, and a remarkable power of composition.

Upon his return to England in 1823 he was appointed to a
commissionership of customs, an office which he retained for
about ten years. In 1831 he was despatched to France to
negotiate a commercial treaty, which, however, led to no result.
On the 1 6th of August 1833 he was appointed minister at the
court of Spain. Ferdinand VII. died within a month of his
arrival at Madrid, and the infant queen Isabella, then in the
third year of her age, was placed by the old Spanish law of female
inheritance on her contested throne. Don Carlos, the late
king's brother, claimed the crown by virtue of the Salic law of
the House of Bourbon which Ferdinand had renounced before
the birth of his daughter. Isabella II. and her mother Christina,
the queen regent, became the representatives of constitutional
monarchy, Don Carlos of Catholic absolutism. The conflict
which had divided the despotic and the constitutional powers
of Europe since the French Revolution of 1830 broke out into
civil war in Spain, and by the Quadruple Treaty, signed on the
22nd of April 1834, France and England pledged themselves to
the defence of the constitutional thrones of Spain and Portugal.
For six years Villiers continued to give the most active and
intelligent support to the Liberal government of Spain. He
was accused, though unjustly, of having favoured the revolution

CLARENDON, 4 TH EARL OF

of La Granja, which drove Christina, the queen mother, out of
the kingdom, and raised Espartero to the regency. He un-
doubtedly supported the chiefs of the Liberal party, such as
Espartero, against the intrigues of the French court; but the
object of the British government was to establish the throne
of Isabella on a truly national and liberal basis and to avert
those complications, dictated by foreign influence, which eventu-
ally proved so fatal to that princess. Villiers received the
grand cross of the Bath in 1 838 in acknowledgment of his services,
and succeeded, on the death of his uncle, to the title of earl of
Clarendon; in the following year, having left Madrid, he married
Katharine, eldest daughter of James Walter, first earl of Verulam.

In January 1840 he entered Lord Melbourne's administration
as lord privy seal, and from the death of Lord Holland in the
autumn of that year Lord Clarendon also held the office of
chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster until the dissolution of the
ministry in 1841. Deeply convinced that the maintenance of a
cordial understanding with France was the most essential
condition of peace and of a liberal policy hi Europe, he reluctantly
concurred hi the measures proposed by Lord Palmerston for
the expulsion of the pasha of Egypt from Syria; he strenuously
advocated, with Lord Holland, a more conciliatory policy
towards France; and he was only restrained from sending in
his resignation by the dislike he felt to break up a cabinet he
had so recently joined.

The interval of Sir Robert Peel's great administration (1841-
1846) was to the leaders of the Whig party a period of repose;
but Lord Clarendon took the warmest interest hi the triumph
of the principles of free trade and in the repeal of the corn-laws,
of which his brother, Charles Pelham Villiers (<?..), had been
one of the earliest champions. For this reason, upon the forma-
tion of Lord John Russell's first administration, Lord Clarendon
accepted the office of president of the Board of Trade. Twice
in his career the governor-generalship of India was offered him,
and once the governor-generalship of Canada; these he refused
from reluctance to withdraw from the politics of Europe. But
in 1847 a sense of duty compelled him to take a far more laborious
and uncongenial appointment. The desire of the cabinet was
to abolish the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland, and Lord Clarendon
was prevailed upon to accept that office, with a view to transform
it ere long into an Irish secretaryship of state. But he had not
been many months in Dublin before he acknowledged that the
difficulties then existing in Ireland could only be met by the
most vigilant and energetic authority, exercised on the spot.
The crisis was one of extraordinary peril. Agrarian crimes of
horrible atrocity had increased threefold. The Cathoh'c clergy
were openly disaffected. This was the second year of the Irish
famine, and extraordinary measures were required to regulate
the bounty of the government and the nation. In 1848 the
revolution in France let loose fresh elements of discord, which
culminated in an abortive insurrection, and for a lengthened
period Ireland was a prey to more than her wonted symptoms
of disaffection and disorder. Lord Clarendon remained viceroy
of Ireland till 1852, and left behind him permanent marks of
improvement. His services were expressly acknowledged in the
queen's speech to both Houses of Parliament on the sth of
September 1848 this being the first time that any civil services
obtained that honour; and he was made a knight of the Garter
(retaining also the grand cross of the Bath by special order) on
the 23rd of March 1849.

Upon the formation of the coalition ministry between the
Whigs and the Peelites, in 1853, under Lord Aberdeen, Lord
Clarendon became foreign minister. The country was already
" drifting " into the Crimean War, an expression of his own
which was never forgotten. Clarendon was not responsible for
the policy which brought war about; but when it occurred he
employed every means in his power to stimulate and assist the
war departments, and above all he maintained the closest
relations with the French. The tsar Nicholas had speculated
on the impossibility of the sustained joint action of France and
England in council and in the field. It was mainly by Lord
Clarendon at Whitehall and by Lord Raglan before Sevastopol

CLARENDON, 2ND EARL OF

435

that such a combination was rendered practicable, and did
eventually triumph over the enemy. The diplomatic conduct
of such an alliance for three years between two great nations
jealous of their military honour and fighting for no separate
political advantage, tried by excessive hardships and at moments
on the verge of defeat, was certainly one of the most arduous
duties ever performed by a minister. The result was due in the
main to the confidence with which Lord Clarendon had inspired
the emperor of the French, and to the affection and regard of
the empress, whom he had known in Spain from her childhood.

In 1856 Lord Clarendon took his seat at the congress of Paris
convoked for the restoration of peace, as first British pleni-
potentiary. It was the first time since the appearance of Lord
Castlereagh at Vienna that a secretary of state for foreign
affairs had been present in person at a congress on the continent.
Lord Clarendon's first care was to obtain the admission of
Italy to the council chamber as a belligerent power, and to
raise the barrier which still excluded Prussia as a neutral one.
But in the general anxiety of all the powers to terminate the war
there was no small danger that the objects for which it had
been undertaken would be abandoned or forgotten. It is due
entirely to the firmness of Lord Clarendon that the principle
of the neutralization of the Black Sea was preserved, that the
Russian attempt to trick the allies out of the cession in Bessarabia
was defeated, and that the results of the war were for a time
secured. The congress was eager to turn to other subjects,
and perhaps the most important result of its deliberations was
the celebrated Declaration of the Maritime Powers, which
abolished privateering, defined the right of blockade, and
limited the right of capture to enemy's property in enemy's
ships. Lord Clarendon has been accused of an abandonment
of what are termed the belligerent rights of Great Britain, which
were undoubtedly based on the old maritime laws of Europe.
But he acted in strict conformity with the views of the British
cabinet, and the British cabinet adopted those views because it
was satisfied that it was not for the benefit of the country to
adhere to practices which exposed the vast mercantile interests
of Britain to depredation, even by the cruisers of a secondary
maritime power, and which, if vigorously enforced against
neutrals, could not fail to embroil her with every maritime
state in the world.

Upon the reconstitution of the Whig administration in 1859,
Lord John Russell made it a condition of his acceptance of office
under Lord Palmerston that the foreign department should be
placed in his own hands, which implied that Lord Clarendon
should be excluded from office, as it would have been inconsistent
alike with his dignity and his tastes to fill any other post in the
government. The consequence was that from 1859 till 1864
Lord Clarendon remained out of office, and the critical relations
arising out of the Civil War in the United States were left to the
guidance of Earl Russell. But he re-entered the cabinet in May
1864 as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster; and upon the
death of Lord Palmerston in 1865, Lord Russell again became
prime minister, when Lord Clarendon returned to the foreign
office, which was again confided to him for the third time upon
the formation of Mr Gladstone's administration in 1868. To
the last moment of his existence, Lord Clarendon continued to
devote every faculty of his mind and every instant of his life
to the public service; and he expired surrounded by the boxes
and papers of his office on the 27th of June 1870. No man owed
more to the influence of a generous, unselfish and liberal dis-
position. If he had rivals he never ceased to treat them with the
consideration and confidence of friends, and he cared but little
for the ordinary prizes of ambition in comparison with the
advancement of the cause of peace and progress.

He was succeeded as sth earl by his eldest son, EDWARD HYDE
VILLIERS (b. 1846), who became lord chamberlain in 1900.

See also the article (by Henry Reeve) in Fraser's Magazine, August
1876.

CLARENDON, HENRY HYDE, 2ND EARL OF (1638-1709),
English statesman, eldest son of the first earl, was born on the
2nd of June 1638. He accompanied his parents into exile and

assisted his father as secretary, returning with them in 1660.
In 1661 he was returned to parliament for Wiltshire as Lord
Cornbury. He became secretary in 1662 and lord chamberlain
to the queen in 1665. He took no part in the life of the court,
and on the dismissal of his father became a vehement opponent
of the administration, defended his father in the impeachment,
and subsequently made effective attacks upon Buckingham
and Arlington. In 1674 he became earl of Clarendon by his
father's death, and in 1679 was made a privy councillor. He
was not included in Sir W. Temple's council of that year, but
was reappointed in 1680. In 1682 he supported Halifax's
proposal of declaring war on France. On the accession of James
in 1685 he was appointed lord privy seal, but shortly afterwards,
in September, was removed from this office to that of lord-
lieutenant of Ireland. Clarendon was embarrassed in bis
estate, and James required a willing agent to carry out his
design by upsetting the Protestant government and the Act of
Settlement. Clarendon arrived in Dublin on the gth of January
1686. He found himself completely in the power of Tyrconnel,
the commander-in-chief; and though, like his father, a staunch
Protestant, elected this year high steward of Oxford University,
and detesting the king's policy, he obeyed his orders to introduce
Roman Catholics into the government and the army and upon the
bench, and clung to office till after the dismissal of his brother,
the earl of Rochester, in January 1687, when he was recalled
and succeeded by Tyrconnel. He now supported the church
in its struggle with James, opposed the Declaration of Indulgence,
wrote to Mary an account of the resistance of the bishops, 1 and
visited and advised the latter in the Tower. He had no share,
however, in inviting William to England. He assured James
in September that the Church would be loyal, advised the
calling of the parliament, and on the desertion of his son, Lord
Cornbury, to William on the I4th of November, expressed to
the king and queen the most poignant grief. In the council
held on the 27th, however, he made a violent and unseasonable
attack upon James's conduct, and on the ist of December set
out to meet William, joined him on the 3rd at Berwick near
Salisbury, and was present at the conference at Hungerford
on the Sth, and again at Windsor on the i6th. His wish was
apparently to effect some compromise, saving the crown for
James. According to Burnet, he advised sending James to
Breda, and according to the duchess of Marlborough to the
Tower, but he himself denies these statements. 2 He opposed
vehemently the settlement of the crown upon William and Mary,
voted for the regency, and refused to take the oaths of the new
sovereigns, remaining a non-juror for the rest of his life. He
subsequently retired to the country, engaged in cabals against
the government, associated himself with Richard Graham, Lord
Preston, and organizing a plot against William, was arrested on
the 24th of June 1690 by order of his niece, Queen Mary, and
placed in the Tower. Liberated on the isth of August, he im-
mediately recommenced his intrigues. On Preston's arrest on
the 3ist of December, a compromising letter from Clarendon
was found upon him, and he was named by Preston as one of his
accomplices. He was examined before the privy council and
again imprisoned in the Tower on the 4th of January 1691,
remaining in confinement till the 3rd of July. This closed his
public career. In 1702, on Queen Anne's accession, he presented
himself at court, " to talk to his niece," but the queen refused to
see him till he had taken the oaths. He died on the 315! of
October 1709, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

His public career had been neither distinguished nor useful, but
it seems natural to ascribe its failure to small abilities and to the
conflict between personal ties and political convictions which
drew him in opposite directions, rather than, following Macaulay,
to motives of self-interest. He was a man of some literary taste,
a fellow of the Royal Society ( 1 684) , the author of The History and
Antiquities of the Cathedral Church of Winchester . . . continued
by S. Gale (1715), and he collaborated with his brother Rochester
in the publication of his father's History (1702-1704). He

1 Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of (he Duke of Buccleuch, ii. 31.
1 Correspondence and Diary (1828), ii. 286.

43 6

CLARENDON, CONSTITUTIONS OF CLARI

married (i) in 1660, Theodosia, daughter of Lord Capel, and (2)
in 1670, Flower, daughter of William Backhouse of Swallowfield
in Berkshire, and widow of William Bishopp and of Sir William
Backhouse, Bart. He was succeeded by his only son, Edward
(1661-1724), as 3rd earl of Clarendon; and, the latter having no
surviving son, the title passed to Henry, 2nd earl of Rochester
(1672-1753), at whose death without male heirs it became extinct
in the Hyde line.

CLARENDON, CONSTITUTIONS OF, a body of English laws
issued at Clarendon in 1164, by which Henry II. endeavoured to
settle the relations between Church and State. Though they
purported to declare the usages on the subject which prevailed in
the reign of Henry I. they were never accepted by the clergy, and
were formally renounced by the king at Avranches in September
1172. Some of them, however, were in part at least, as they all
purported to be, declaratory of ancient usage and remained in
force after the royal renunciation. Of the sixteen provisions the
one which provoked the greatest opposition was that which
declared in effect that criminous clerks were to be summoned to
the king's court, and from there, after formal accusation and
defence, sent to the proper ecclesiastical court for trial. If found
guilty they were to be degraded and sent back to the king's court
for punishment. Another provision, which in spite of all opposi-
tion obtained a permanent place in English law, declared that all
suits even between clerk and clerk concerning advowsons and
presentations should be tried in the king's court. By other
provisions appeals to Rome without the licence of the king were
forbidden. None of the clergy were to leave the realm, nor were
the king's tenants-in-chief and ministers to be excommunicated or
their lands interdicted without the royal permission. Pleas of
debt, whether involving a question of good faith or not, were to
be in the jurisdiction of the king's courts. Two most interesting
provisions, to which the clergy offered no opposition, were: (i) if
a dispute arose between a clerk and a layman concerning a
tenement which the clerk claimed as free-alms (frankalmoign)
and the layman as a lay-fee, it should be determined by the
recognition of twelve lawful men before the king's justice whether
it belonged to free-alms or lay-fee, and if it were found to belong
to free-alms then the plea was to be held in the ecclesiastical
court, but if to lay-fee, in the court of the king or of one of his
magnates; (2) a declaration of the procedure for election to
bishoprics and royal abbeys, generally considered to state the
terms of the settlement made between Henry I. and Anselm in
1107.

AUTHORITIES. J. C. Robertson, Materials for History of Thomas
Becket, Rolls Series (1875-1885) ; Sir F. Pollock and F. W. Maitland,
History of English Law before the Time of Ed. I. (Cambridge,
1898), and F. W. Maitland, Roman Canon Law in the Church of
England (1898); the text of the Constitutions is printed by W.
Stubbs in Select Charters (Oxford, 1895). (G. J. T.)

CLARES, POOR, otherwise Clarisses, Franciscan nuns, so
called from their foundress, St Clara (q.v.). She was professed by
St Francis in the Portiuncula in 1212, and two years later she
and her first companions were established in the convent of St
Damian's at Assisi. The nuns formed the " Second Order of St
Francis," the friars being the " First Order," and the Tertiaries
(?.!).) the " Third." Before Clara's death in 1253, the Second
Order had spread all over Italy and into Spain, France and
Germany; in England they were introduced c. 1293 and estab-
lished in London, outside Aldgate, where their name of Minoresses
survives in the Minories; there were only two other English
houses before the Dissolution. St Francis gave the nuns no rule,
but only a " Form of Life " and a " Last Will," each only five
lines long, and coming to no more than an inculcation of his idea
of evangelical poverty. Something more than this became
necessary as soon as the institute began to spread; and during
Francis's absence in the East, 1219, his supporter Cardinal
Hugolino composed a rule which made the Franciscan nuns
practically a species of unduly strict Benedictines, St Francis's
special characteristics being eliminated. St Clara made it her
life work to have this rule altered, and to get the Franciscan
character of the Second Order restored; in 1247 a " Second
Rule " was approved which went a long way towards satisfying

her desires, and finally in 1253 a " Third," which practically gave
what she wanted. This rule has come to be known as the " Rule
of the Clares "; it is one of great poverty, seclusion and austerity
of life. Most of the convents adopted it, but several clung to
that of 1 247. To bring about conformity, St Bonaventura, while
general (1264), obtained papal permission to modify the rule of
1253, somewhat mitigating its austerities and allowing the
convents to have fixed incomes, thus assimilating them to the
Conventual Franciscans as opposed to the Spirituals. This rule
was adopted in many convents, but many more adhered to the
strict rule of 1 253. Indeed a counter-tendency towards a greater
strictness set in, and a number of reforms were initiated, intro-
ducing an appalling austerity of life. The most important of
these reforms were the Coletines (St Colette, c. 1400) and the
Capucines (c. 1540; see CAPUCHINS). The half-dozen forms of
the Franciscan rule for women here mentioned are still in use in
different convents, and there are also a great number of religious
institutes for women based on the rule of the Tertiaries. By the
term " Poor Clares " the Coletine nuns are now commonly
understood; there are various convents of these nuns, as of other
Franciscans, in England and Ireland. Franciscan nuns have
always been very numerous; there are now about 150 convents of
the various observances of the Second Order, in every part of the
world, besides innumerable institutions of Tertiaries.

See Helyot, Hist, des ordres religieux (1792), vii. cc. 25-28 and
38-42; Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon (2nd ed.), art. " Clara ";
Max Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen (1896), i. 47, 48,
who gives references to all the literature. For a scientific study
of the beginnings see Lempp, " Die Anfange des Klarissenordens
in Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte, xiii. (1892), 181 ff. (E. C. B.)

CLARET (from the Fr. vin claret, mod. clairet, wine of a light
clear colour, from Lat. clarus, clear) , the English name for the red
Bordeaux wines. The term was originally used in France for
light-yellow or light-red wines, as distinguished from the vins
rouges and the vins blancs; later it was applied to red wines
generally, but is rarely used in French, and never with the
particular English meaning (see WINE).

CLARETIE, JULES ARSENE ARNAUD (1840- ), French
man of letters and director of the Theatre Franjais, was born at
Limoges on the 3rd of December 1840. After studying at the
lycee Bonaparte in Paris, he became an active journalist, achiev-
ing great success as dramatic critic to the Figaro and to the
Opinion nationale. He was a newspaper correspondent during
the Franco-German War, and during the Commune acted as staff-
officer in the National Guard. In 1885 he became director of the
Theatre Francais, and from that time devoted his time chiefly to
its administration. He was elected a member of the Academy in
1888, and took his seat in Feburary 1889, being received by
Ernest Renan. The long list of his works includes Histoire de la
revolution de 1870-1871 (new ed., 5 vols., 1875-1876); Cinq ans
apres; I' Alsace et la Lorraine depuis I'annexion (1876); some
annual volumes of reprints of his articles in the weekly press,
entitled La Vie <J Paris; La Vie moderne au theatre (1868-1869);
Holier e, sa vie et son auvre (1871); Histoire de la litter alure
fran^aise, QOO-IQOO (2nd ed. 1905); Candidatl (1887), a novel of
contemporary life; Brichanteau, comedien franc.ais (1896);
several plays, some of which are based on novels of his own Les
Muscadins( 1 8 7 4) , Le Regi ment d e Champagne( 1 8 7 7 ) , Les M ira beau
(1879), Monsieur le ministre (1883), and others; and the opera,
La Naiiarraise, based on his novel La Cigarette, and written with
Henri Cain to the music of Massenet. La Navarraise was first
produced at Covent Garden (June 1894) with Mme Calve in the
part of Anita. His (Euvres completes were published in 1897-
1904.

CLARI, GIOVANNI CARLO MARIA, Italian musical com-
poser, chapel-master at Pistoia, was born at Pisa about the year
1669. The time of his death is unknown. He was the most
celebrated pupil of Colonna, chapel-master of S. Petronio, at
Bologna. He became maestro di cappella at Pistoia about 1712, at
Bologna in 1720, and at Pisa in 1736. He is supposed to have
died about 1745. The works by which Clari distinguished
himself pre-eminently are his vocal duets and trios, with a basso
continue, published between 1 740 and 1 747. These compositions,

CLARINA CLARINET

437

which combine graceful melody with contrapuntal learning, were
much admired by Cherubini. They appear to have been admired
by Handel also, since he did not hesitate to make appropriations
from them. Clari composed one opera, 77 Savio delirante,
produced at Bologna in 1695, and a large quantity of church
music, several specimens of which were printed in Novello's
Fitzwilliam Music.

CLARINA, a comparatively new instrument of the wood-wind
class (although actually made of metal), a hybrid possessing
characteristics of both oboe and clarinet. The clarina was
invented by W. Heckel of Biebrich-am-Rhein, and has been used
since 1891 at the Festspielhaus, Bayreuth, in Tristan und Isolde,
as a substitute for the Holztrompete made according to Wagner's
instructions. The clarina has been found more practical and more
effective in producing the desired tone-colour. The clarina is a
metal instrument with the conical bore and fingering of the oboe
and the clarinet single-reed mouthpiece. The compass of the

Notation. tm. Real sounds. g-

=3=

instrument is as shown, and it stands in the key of Bb. Like the
clarinet, the clarina is a transposing instrument, for which the
music must be written in a key a tone higher than that of the
composition. The timbre resulting from the combination of
conical bore and single-reed mouthpiece has in the lowest
register affinities with the cor anglais, in the middle with the
saxophone, and in the highest with the clarinet. Other
German orchestras have followed the example of Bayreuth.
The clarina has also been found very effective as a solo
instrument. (K. S.)

CLARINET, or CLARIONET (Fr. darinette; Ger. Clarinelte,
Klarinett; Ital. clarinetto, chiarinetto) , a wood-wind instrument
having a cylindrical bore and played by means of a single-reed
mouthpiece. The word " clarinet " is said to be derived from
clarinetto, a diminutive of clarino, the Italian for (i) the soprano
trumpet, (2) the highest register of the instrument, (3) the
trumpet played musically without the blare of the martial
instrument. The word " clarionet " is similarly derived from
" clarion," the English equivalent of clarino. It is suggested that
the name clarinet or clarinetto was bestowed on account of the
resemblance in timbre between the high registers of the clarino
and clarinet. By adding the speaker-hole to the old chalumeau,
J. C. Denner gave it an additional compass based on the over-
blowing of the harmonic twelfth, and consisting of an octave and
a half of harmonics, which received the name of clarino, while
the lower register retained the name of chalumeau. There is
something to be said also in favour of another suggested deriva-
tion from the Italian chiarina, the name for reed instruments and
the equivalent for tibia and aulos. At the beginning of the i8th
century in Italy clarinetto, the diminutive of clarino, would be
masculine, whereas chiarinetta or clarinetta would be feminine, 1 as
in Doppelmayr's account of the invention written in 1730. The
word " clarinet " is sometimes used in a generic sense to denote
the whole family, which consists of the clarinet, or discant
corresponding to the violin, oboe, &c.; the alto clarinet in E;
the basset horn in F (q.v.); the bass clarinet (q.v.), and the
pedal clarinet (q.v.).

The modern clarinet consists of five (or four) separate pieces:
(i) the mouthpiece; (2) the bulb; (3) the upper middle joint, or
left-hand joint ; (4) the lower middle joint, or right-hand joint 2 ;
(5) the beU; which (the bell excepted) when joined together, form
a tube with a continuous cylindrical bore, 2 ft. or more in length,
according to the pitch of the instrument. The mouthpiece,
including the beating or single-reed common to the whole
clarinet family, has the appearance of a beak with the point
bevelled off and thinned at the edge to correspond with the end of

1 See Gottfried Weber's objection to this derivation in " tlber
Clarinette und Basset-horn," Caectiia (Mainz, 1829), vol. xi. pp. 36
and 37, note.

* Nos. 3 and 4 are sometimes made in one, as for instance in
Messrs Rudall, Carte & Company's modification, the Klussmann
patent.

the reed shaped like a spatula. The under part of the mouthpiece
(fig. 2) is flattened in order to form a table for the support of the
reed which is adjusted thereon with great nicety, allowing just
the amount of play requisite to set in vibration
the column of air within the tube.

The mouthpiece, which is subject to con-
tinual fluctuations of dampness and dryness,
and to changes of temperature, requires to be
made of a material having great powers of
resistance, such as cocus wood, ivory or
vulcanite, which are mostly used for the
purpose in England. A longitudinal aperture
i in. long and J in. wide, communicating with
the bore, is cut in the table and covered by
the reed. The aperture is thus closed except
towards the point, where, for the distance of
J to J in., the reed is thinned and the table
curves backwards towards the point, leaving
a gap between the ends of the mouthpiece and
of the reed of i mm. or about the thickness of
a sixpence for the B flat clarinet. The curve
of the table and the size of the gap are there-
fore of considerable importance. The reed is
cut from a joint of the Arundo donax or saliva,
which grows wild in the regions bordering on
the Mediterranean. A flat slip of the reed is
cut, flattened on one side and thinned to a
very delicate edge on the other. At first the
reed was fastened to the table by means of
many; turns of a fine waxed cord. The metal
band adjusted by means of two screws, known
as the " ligature," was introduced about 1817
by Ivan Miiller. The reed is set in vibration
by the breath of the performer, and being
flexible it beats against the table, opening
and closing the gap at a rate depending on
the rate of the vibrations it sets up in the
air column, this rate varying according to the
length of the column as determined by opening
the lateral holes and keys. A cylindrical tube
played by means of a reed has the acoustic
properties of a stopped pipe, i.e. the funda-
mental tone produced by the tube is an FIG. i. Clarinet
octave lower than the corresponding tone of (Albert Model),
an open pipe of the same length, and over-
blows a twelfth; whereas tubes having a conical bore like the
oboe, and played by means of a reed, speak as open pipes and
overblow an octave. This forms the fundamental difference
between the instruments of the oboe and
clarinet families. Wind instruments de-
pending upon lateral holes for the produc-
tion of their scale must either have as
many holes pierced in the bore as they
require notes, or make use of the property
possessed by the air-column of dividing
into harmonics or partials of the funda-
mental tones. Twenty to twenty-two
holes is the number generally accepted as
the practical limit for the clarinet; beyond
that number the fingering and mechanism
become too complicated. The compass of
the clarinet is therefore extended through
the medium of the harmonic overtones.
In stopped pipes a node is formed near
the mouthpiece, and they are therefore only
able to produce the uneven harmonics, such
as the ist, 3rd, sth, 7th, &c., correspond-
ing to the fundamental, and the diatonic intervals of the 5th
one octave above, and of the 3rd and 7th two octaves above the
fundamental. By pressing the reed with the lip near the base
where it is thicker and stiff er, and increasing the pressure of the
breath, the air-column is forced to divide and to sound the

FIG. 2. Clarinet
Mouthpiece, a, the
mouthpiece showing
the position of the
bore inside; b, the
single or beating
reed.

CLARINET

harmonics, a principle well understood by the ancient Greeks
and Romans in playing upon the aulos and tibia. 1 This is
easier to accomplish with the double reed than with the beating
reed; in fact with a tube of wide diameter, such as that of the
modern clarinet, it would not be possible by this means alone
to do justice to the tone of the instrument or to the music now
written for it. The bore of the aulos was very much narrower
than that of the clarinet.

In order to facilitate the production of the harmonic notes
on the clarinet, a small hole, closed by means of a key and called
the " speaker," is bored near the mouthpiece. By means of
this small hole the air-column is placed in communication with
the external atmosphere, a ventral segment is formed, and the
air-column divides into three equal parts, producing a triple
number of vibrations resulting in the third note of the harmonic
series, at an interval of a twelfth above the fundamental. 2 In a
wind instrument with lateral holes the fundamental note corre-
sponding to any particular hole is produced when all the holes
below that hole are open and it itself and all above it are closed,
the effective length of the resonating tube being shortened as
each of the closed holes is successively uncovered. In order to
obtain a complete chromatic scale on the clarinet at least eighteen
holes are required. This series produces with the bell-note a
succession of nineteen semitones, giving the range of a twelfth
and known as the fundamental scale or c/talnmeau register, so
called, no doubt, because it was the compass (without chromatic
semitones) of the more primitive predecessor of the clarinet,
known as the chalumeau, which must not be confounded with
the shawm or schalmey of the middle ages.
The fundamental scale of the modern clarinet in C extends from
o .I
Cff ^r lo The next octave and a half is obtained by opening

the speaker key, whereby each of the fundamental notes is repro-
duced a twelfth higher; the bell-note thus jumps from E to BJf,
the first key gives instead of F its twelfth C#, and so on, extending

the compass to JL j==: , which ends the natural compass of the

instrument, although a skilful performer may obtain another octave
by cross-fingering. The names of the holes and keys on the
clarinet are derived not from the notes of the fundamental
scale, but from the name of the twelfth produced by overblowing
with the speaker key open; for instance, the first key near
the bell is known not as the E key but as the Bif. The use of
the speaker key forms the greatest technical difficulty in learning
to play the clarinet, on account of the thumb having to do double
duty, closing one hole and raising the lever of the speaker key
simultaneously. In a clarinet designed by Richard Carte this
difficulty was ingeniously overcome by placing the left thumb-hole
towards the front, and closing it by a thumb-lever or with a ring
action by the first or second finger of the left hand, thus leaving the
thumb free to work the speaker key alone.

There is good reason to think that the ancient Greeks understood
the advantage of a speaker-hole, which they called Syrinx, for
facilitating the production of harmonics on the aulos. The credit
of the discovery of this interesting fact is due to A. A. Howard, 3
of Harvard University; it explains many passages in the classics
which before were obscure (see AULOS). Plutarch relates 4 that
Telephanes of Megara was so incensed with the syrinx that he never
allowed his instrument-makers to place one on any of his auloi ; he
even went so far as to absent himself, principally on account of the
syrinx, from the Pythian games. Telephanes was a great virtuoso
who scorned the use of a speaker-hole, being able to obtain his har-
monics on the aulos by the mere control of lips and teeth.

The modern clarinet has from thirteen to nineteen keys, some being
normally open and others closed. In order to understand why,
when once the idea of adding keys to the chalumeau had been
conceived, the number rose so slowly, keys being added one or two
at a time by makers of various nationalities at long intervals, it is

'Aristotle (de Audib. 802 b 18, and 804 a) and Porphyry (ed.
Wallis, pp. 249 and 252) mention that if the performer presses the
zeuge (mouthpiece) or the glottai (reeds) of the pipes, a sharper tone
is produced.

1 Cf. V. C. Mahillon, Elements d'acoustique musicale et instru-
mental? (Brussels, 1874), p. 161; and Fr. Zamminer, Die Musik
und die musikalischen Instrumente in ihrer Beziehung zu den Gesetzen
der Akustik . . . (Giessen, 1855), pp. 297 and 298.

* " The Aulos or Tibia," Harvard Studies, iv. (Boston, 1893).

4 De Musica, 1138.

necessary to consider the effect of boring holes in the side of a
cylindrical tube. If it were possible to proceed from an absolute
tneoretical basis, there would be but little difficulty ; there are, how-
ever, practical reasons which make this a matter of great difficulty.
According to V. Mahillon, 6 the theoretical length Of a Bt> clarinet
(French pitch diapason normal A =435 vibrations), is 39 cm. when
the internal diameter of the bore measures exactly 1-4 cm. Any
increase in the diameter of the cylindrical bore for a given length
of tube raises the pitch proportionally and in the same way a decrease
lowers it. A bore narrow in proportion to the length facilitates the
production of the harmonics, which is no doubt the reason why the
aulos was made with a very narrow diameter, and produced such
deep notes in proportion to its length. In determining the position
of the holes along the tube, the thickness of the wood to be pierced
must be taken into consideration, for the length of the passage from
the main bore to the outer air adds to the length of the resonating
column; as, however, the clarinet tube is reckonsd as a closed one,
only half the extra length must be taken into account. When placed
in its correct theoretical position, a hole should have its diameter
equal to the diameter of the main bore, which is the ideal condition
for obtaining a full, rich tone; it is, however, feasible to give the
hole a smaller diameter, altering its position by placing it nearer
the mouthpiece. These laws, which were likewise known to the
Greeks and Romans,' had to be rediscovered by experience in the
i8th and I9th centuries, during which the mechanism of the key
system was repeatedly ^improved. Due consideration having been
given to these points, it will also be necessary to remember that
the stopping of the seven open holes leaves only the two little fingers
(the thumb of the right hand being in the ordinary clarinet engaged
in supporting the instrument) free at all times for key service,
the other fingers doing duty when momentarily disengaged. The
fingering of the clarinet is_the most difficult of any instrument in
the orchestra, for it differs in all four octaves of its compass. Once
mastered, however, it is the same for all clarinets, the music being
always written in the key of C.

The actual tonality of the clarinet is determined by the diatonic
scale produced when, starting with keys untouched and finger and
thumb-holes closed, the fingers are raised one by one from the holes.
In the Bl? clarinet, the real sounds thus produced are

being part of the scale of B|> major. By the closing of two open
keys, the lower Eb and D are added.

The following are the various sizes of clarinets with the key proper
to each :

El>, a minor third above the C clarinet.

Bb, a tone below

The high F, 4 tones above

The D, i tone above

The low G, a fourth below

The A, a minor third below

The Bif I semitone below ,,

The alto clarinet in El>, a fifth below the Bb clarinet.

The tenor or basset horn, in F, a fifth below the C clarinet.

The bass clarinet in B|>, an 8 below that in B[>.

The pedal clarinet in Bb, an 8 Te below the bass clarinet.

The clarinets in Bt> and A are used in the orchestra; those in
C and El> in military bands.

History. Although the single beating-reed associated with
the instruments of the clarinet family has been traced in ancient
Egypt, the double reed, characteristic of the oboe family, being
of simpler construction, was probably of still greater antiquity.
An ancient Egyptian pipe found in a mummy-case and now
preserved in the museum at Turin was found to contain a beating-
reed sunk 3 in. below the end of the pipe, which is the principle
of the drone. It would appear that the double chalumeau,
called arghoul (q.v.) by the modern Egyptians, was known in
ancient Egypt, although it was not perhaps in common use.
The Musee Guimet possesses a copy of a fresco from the tombs at
Saqqarah (executed under the direction of Mariette Bey) as-
signed to the 4th or sth dynasty, on which is shown a concert
with dancing; the instruments used are two harps, the long
oblique flute " nay," blown from the end without any mouthpiece
or embouchure, and an instrument identified as an arghoul '

5 Op. cit. pp. 160 et seq.; and Wilhelm Altenburg, Die Klarinette
(Heilbronn, 1904), p. 9, who refers to Mahillon.

See Macrobius, Comm. in somnium Scipionis, ji. 4. 5 " nee
secus probamus in tibiis de quarum foraminibus vicinis inflantis
ori sonus acutus emittitur, de longinquis autem et termino proximis,
gravior: item acutior per patentiora foramina, gravior per angusta."

7 See Victor Loret, L'Egypte au temps des Pharaons la vie, la
science, et I'art (Paris, 1889), illustration p. 139 and p. 143. _ The
author gives no information about this fresco except that it is in the

CLARINET

439

from its resemblance to the modern instrument of the same
name. This is believed to be the only illustration of the ancient
double chalumeau yet found in Egypt, with the single exception
of a hieroglyph occurring also once only, i.e. the sign read As-it,
consisting of a cylindrical pipe with a beak mouthpiece bound
round with a cord tied in a bow. The bow is taken to indicate
the double parallel pipes bound together; the same sign without
the bow occurs frequently and is read Ma-it, 1 and is considered
to be the generic name for reed wind instruments. The beating-
reed was probably introduced into classic Greece from Egypt or
Asia Minor. A few ancient Greek instruments are extant, five
of which are in the British Museum. They are as nearly cylindri-
cal as would be the natural growing reed itself. The probability
is that both single and double reeds were at times used with the
Greek aulos and the Roman tibia. V. Mahillon and A. A.
Howard of Harvard have both obtained facsimiles of actual
instruments, some found at Pompeii and now deposited in the
museum at Naples, and others in the British Museum. Experi-
ments made with these instruments, whose original mouthpieces
have perished, show that with pipes of such narrow diameter
the fundamental scale and pitch are the same whether sounded
by means of a single or of a double reed, but the modern combina-
tion of single reed and cylindrical tube alone gives the full
pure tone quality. The subject is more fully discussed in the
article AuLOS. 2 The Roman tibia, if monuments can be trusted,
sometimes had a beak-shaped mouthpiece, as for instance that
attached to a pipe discovered at Pompeii, or that shown in a
scene on Trajan's column. 3 It is probable that when, at the
decline of the Roman empire, instrumental music was placed
by the church under a ban and the tibia more especially from
its association with every form of licence and moral depravity
this instrument, sharing the common fate, survived chiefly among
itinerant musicians who carried it into western Europe, where
it was preserved from complete extinction. An instrument
of difficult technique requiring an advanced knowledge of
acoustics was not, however, likely to flourish or even to be
understood among nations whose culture was as yet in its
infancy.

The tide of culture from the Byzantine empire filtered through
to the south and west, leaving many traces; a fresh impetus
was received from the east through the Arabs; and later, as a
result of the Crusades, the prototype of the clarinet, together
with the practical knowledge necessary for making the instru-
ment and playing upon it, may have been re-introduced through
any one or all of these sources. However this may be, the
instrument was during the Carolingian period identified with
the tibia of the Romans until such time as the new western
civilization ceased to be content to go back to classical Rome for
its models, and began to express itself, at first naively and
awkwardly, as the nth century dawned. The name then
changed to the derivatives of the Greek kalamos, assuming an
almost bewildering variety of forms, of which the commonest
are chalemie, chalumeau, schalmey, scalmeye, shawm, calemel,
kalemele. 4 The derivation of the name seems to point to a
Byzantine rather than an Arab source for the revival of the
instruments which formed the prototype of both oboe and
clarinet, but it must not be forgotten that the instruments with
a conical bore more especially those played by a reed are
primarily of Asiatic origin. At the beginning of the I3th century
Musee Guimet. It is probably identical with the second of the
mural paintings described on p. 190 of Petit guide illustre au Musee
Guimet, par L. de Milloue.

1 See Victor Loret, " Les flfltes egyptiennes antiques," Journal

asiaiique (Paris, 1889), [8], xiv. pp. 129, 130, 132.

2 See also A. A. Howard, " Study on the Aulos or Tibia," Harvard
Studies, vol. iv. (Boston, 1893) ; F. C. Geyaert, Musique de I'anti-
quite; Carl von Jan, article " Floete " in August Baumeister's
Denkmdler des klassischen Alterthums (Leipzig, 1884-1888), vol. i. ;
Dr Hugo Riemann, Handbuch der Musikgesch. vol. i. p. 90, &c.
(Leipzig, 1904) ; all of whom have not come to the same conclusions.
'Wilhelm Froehner, La Colonne trajane (Paris, 1872), t. ii. pi. 76.
" Aveuc aus ert vestus Guis
Ki leur cante et Kalemele,
En la muse au grant bourdon."

J. A. U. Scheler's Trouveres beiges.

in France, where the instrument remained a special favourite
until it was displaced by the clarinet, the chalumeau is mentioned
in some of the early romances: " Tabars et chalemiaux et
estrumens sonner " (Aye d' Avignon, v. 4137); " Grelles et
chelimiaus et buisines bruians " (Gui de Bourgogne, v. 1374),
&c. By the end of the I3th century, the German equivalent
Schalmey appears in the literature of that country, " Pusunen
und Schalmeyen schal moht niemen da gehoeren wal " (Frauen-
diensl, 492, fol. 5, Ulrich von Lichtenstein). The schalmey or
shawm is frequently represented in miniatures from the i3th
century, but it must have been known long before, since it was
at that period in use as the chaunter of the bag-pipe (q.v.),
a fully-developed complex instrument which presupposes a
separate previous existence for its component parts.

We have no reason to suppose that any distinction was drawn
between the single and double reed instruments during the
early middle ages if indeed the single reed was then known at
all for the derivatives of kalamos were applied to a variety of
pipes. The first clear and unmistakable drawing yet found of
the single reed occurs in Mersenne's Harmonic unherselle (p. 282),
where the primitive reed pipe is shown with the beating-reed
detached from the tube of the instrument itself, by making a
lateral slit and then splitting back a little tongue of reed towards
a knot. Mersenne calls this the simplest form of chalumeau or
wheat-stalk (tuyau de blf). It is evident that no significance
was then attached to the form of the vibrating reed, whether
single or double, for Mersenne and other writers of his time
call the chaunters of the musette and cornemuse chalumeaux
whether they are of cylindrical or of conical bore. The difference
in timbre produced by the two kinds of reeds was, however,
understood, for Mersenne states that a special kind of cornemuse
was used in concert with the hautbois de Poitou (an oboe whose
double reed was enclosed in an air chamber) and was distinguished
from the shepherd's cornemuse by having double reeds through-
out, whereas the drones of the latter instrument were furnished
with beating reeds. It is therefore evident that as late as 1636
(the date at which Mersenne wrote) in France the word " chalu-
meau " was not applied to the instrument transformed some
sixty years later into the clarinet, nor was it applied exclusively
to any one kind of pipe except when acting as the chaunter of
the bagpipe, and that independently of any structural charac-
teristics. The chaunter was still called chalumeau in 1737.'
Of the instrument which has been looked upon as the chalumeau,
there is but little trace in Germany or in France at the beginning
of the 1 7th century. A chalumeau with beak mouthpiece and
characteristic short cylindrical tube pierced with six holes
figures among the musical instruments used for the triumphal
procession of the emperor Maximilian I., commemorated by a
fine series of plates, 6 engraved on wood by Hans Burgkmair,
the friend and colleague of A. Dttrer. On the same plate (No.
79) are five schalmeys with double reeds and five chalumeaux
with single-reed beak mouthpieces; the latter instruments were
in all probability made in the Netherlands, which excelled from
the 1 2th century in the manufacture of all musical instruments.
No single-reed instrument, with the exception of the regal (q.v.),
is figured by S. Virdung, 7 M. Agricola 8 or M. Praetorius.'

A good idea of the primitive chalumeau may be gained from a
reproduction of one of the few specimens from the i6th or i7th
century still extant, which belonged to Cesare Snoeck and was
exhibited at the Royal Military Exhibition in London in 1890.'
The tube is stopped at the mouthpiece end by a natural joint of

"See Ernest Thoinan, Les Hotteterre et les Chedevitte, cflebres
facteurs de flutes, hautbois, bassons et musettes (Paris, 1894), p. 15
et seq., and Methode pour la musette, &c., par Hotteterre le Romain
(Paris, 1737).

6 The whole series of 135 plates has been reproduced in Jahrb. d.
Samml. des Allerh. Kaiserhauses (Vienna, 1883-1884).

7 Musica getutscht und auszgezogen (Basel, 1511).

8 Musica Instrumentalis Deudsch (Nuremberg, 1528 and 1545).

Syntagma Musicum (Wolfenbuttel, 1618). This work and those
mentioned in the two previous notes have been reprinted by the Ges.
f. Musikforschung in vols. xi., xx. and xiii. of Publikationen (Berlin).

10 See Descriptive Catalogue, by Capt. C. R. Day (London, 1891),
pi. iv. A and p. no, No. 221.

440

CLARINET

(a)

the reed, and a tongue has been detached just under the joint ;

there are six finger-holes and one for the thumb. An instrument

almost identical with the above, but with a rudimentary bell,

and showing plainly the detached tongue, is

4 figured by Jost Amman in 1589.' A plate in

Diderot and d'Alembert's Encycloptdie* shows a
less primitive instrument, outwardly cylindrical
and having a separate mouthpiece joint and a
clarinet reed but no keys. A chalumeau without
keys, but consisting apparently of three joints
mouthpiece, main tube and bell, is figured on
the title-page of a musical work* dated 1690;
it is very similar to the one represented in fig. 3,
except that only six holes are visible.

In his biographical notice of J. Christian
Denner (1655-1707), J. G. Doppelmayr 4 states
that at the beginning of the i8th century
" Denner invented a new kind of pipe, the so-
called clarinet, which greatly delighted lovers of
music; he also made great improvements in the
stock or rackett-fagottos, known in the olden
time and finally also in the chalumeaux." It
is probable that the improvements in the
chalumeau to which Doppelmayr alludes with-
out understanding them consisted (a) in giving
the mouthpiece the shape of a beak and adding
a separate reed tongue as in that of the modern
clarinet, unless this change had already taken
place in the Netherlands, the country which the
unremitting labours of E. van der Straeten 6
have revealed as taking the lead in Europe from
the I4th to the i6th century in the construc-
tion of musical instruments of all kinds; (b) in
the boring of two additional holes for A and B
near the mouthpiece and covering them with
two keys; (c) in replacing the long cylindrical
mouthpiece joint by a bulb, thus restoring one
of the characteristic features of the tibia, 6 known
(&) Back view, as the 3X/ws. There are a few of these improved
chalumeaux in existence, two being in the
Bavarian national museum at Munich, the one in high A, in a bad
state of preservation, the second in C, marked J. C. Denner, of
which V. Mahillon has made a facsimile 7 for the museum of the
Brussels Conservatoire. There are two keys and eight holes;
the first consists of two small holes on the same level giving a
semitone if only one be closed. If the thumb-key be left open,
the sounds of the fundamental scale (shown in the black notes
below) rise a twelfth to form the second register (the white notes)

(b)

(From Diderot

and d'Alembert's

Encyclopedic.)

FIG. 3.
Chalumeau,

1767.
(a) Front,

This early clarinet or improved chalumeau has a clarinet mouth-
piece, but no bulb; it measures 50 cm. (20 in.), whereas the One in
A mentioned above is only 28 cm. in length, the long cylindrical
tube between mouthpiece and key-joint, afterwards turned into
the bulb, being absent. Mahillon was probably the first to point
out that the so-called invention of the clarinet by J. C. Denner
consisted in providing a device the speaker-key to facilitate
the production of the harmonics of the fundamental. Can we be
sure that the same result was not 'obtained on the old chalumeau

1 Wappenbuch, p. ui, " Musica."

' Paris, 1767, vol. v. " Planches," pi. ix. 20, 21, 22.

8 Dr Theofilo Muffat, " Componimenti musicali per il cembalo,"
in Denkmaler d. Tonkunst in Osterreich, Bd. iii.

* Historische Nachricht von den Niirnbergischen Mathematicis u.
Kiinstlern, &c. (Nuremberg, 1730), p. 305.

6 Histoire de la musique aux Pays Bas avant le XIX' sikcle.

' For a facsimile of one of the Pompeii tibiae, see Capt. C. R.
Day, op. cit. pi. iv. C. and p. 109.

7 Catalogue descriptif (Ghent, 1896), vol. ii. p. 211, No. 911, where
an illustration is given.' See also Capt. C. R. Day, op. cit, pi. iv.
B and Errata where the description is printed.

before keys were added, by partially uncovering the hole for the
thumb ?

The Berlin museum possesses an early clarinet with two keys,
marked J. B. Oberlender, derived from the Snoeck collection.
Paul de Wit's collection has a similar specimen by Enkelmer.
The Brussels Conservatoire possesses clarinets with two keys by
Flemish makers, G. A. Rottenburgh and J. B. Willems'; the
latter, with a small bulb and bell, is in G a fifth above the C
clarinet. The next improvements in the clarinet, made in 1720,
are due to J. Denner, probably a son of J. C. Denner. They
consisted in the addition of a bell and in the removal of the
speaker-hole and key nearer the mouthpiece, involving the
reduction of the diameter of the hole. The effect of this change of
position was to turn the B^ into Bt>, for J.Denner introduced into
the hole, nearly as far as the axis of the bore, a small metal
drainage tube 9 for the moisture of the breath. In the modern
clarinet, the same result is attained by raising this little tube
slightly above the surface of the main tube, placing a key on the
top of it, and bending the lever. In order to produce the missing
B^, J. Denner lengthened the tube and pierced another hole, the
low E, covered by an open key with a long lever which, when
closed, gives the desired B as its twelfth, thus forming a connexion
between the two registers. A clarinet with three keys, of similar
construction (about 1750), marked J. W. Kenigsperger, is pre-
served in the Bavarian national museum, at Munich. Another
in Bb marked Lindner 10 belongs to the collection at Brussels.
About the middle of the i8th century, the number of keys was
raised to five, some say 11 by Barthold Fritz of Brunswick

(1697-1766), who added keys for C# and D#.

According to Altenburg 12 the Eb or D# key is due to the virtuoso
Joseph Beer (1744-1811). The sixth key was added about 1790
by the celebrated French virtuoso Xavier Lefebure (or Lefevre),

and produced G$.

Anton Stadler and his brother,

both clarinettists in the Vienna court orchestra and instrument-
makers, are said to have lengthened the tube of the Bt> clarinet,
extending the compass down to C (real sound Bb). It was for
the Stadler brothers that Mozart wrote his quintet for strings,
with a fine obbligato for the clarinet in A (1789), and the clarinet
concerto with orchestra in 1791.

This, then, was the state of the clarinet in 1810 when Ivan
Muller, then living in Paris, carried the number of keys up to
thirteen, and made several structural improvements already
mentioned, which gave us the modern instrument and in-
augurated a new era in the construction and technique of the
clarinet. Miiller's system is still adopted in principle by most
clarinet makers. The instrument was successively improved
during the igth century by the Belgian makers Bachmann, the
elder Sax, Albert and C. Mahillon, whose invention in 1862 of the
C# key with double action is now generally adopted. In Paris the
labours' of Lefebure, Buffet-Crampon, and Goumas are pre-
eminent. In 1842 H. E. Klose conceived the idea of adapting to
the clarinet the ingenious mechanism of movable rings, invented
by Boehm for the flute, and he entrusted the execution of this
innovation to Buffet-Crampon; this is the type of clarinet
generally adopted in French orchestras. From this adaptation
has sprung the erroneous notion that Klose 's clarinet was
constructed according to the Boehm system; Klose 's lateral
divisions of the tube do not follow those applied by Boehm to
the flute.

In England the clarinet has also passed through several
progressive stages since its introduction about 1770, and first of

8 For a description with illustration see V. Mahillon's Catalogue
descriptif (Ghent, 1896), vol. ii. p. 215, No. 916.
" See Wilhelm Altenburg, op. cit. p. 6.

10 See V. Mahillon, Catal. descript. (1896), p. 213, No. 913.

11 H. Welcker von Gontershausen, Die musikalischen Tonwerk-
zeuge (Frankfort-on-Main, 1855), p. 141.

u Op. cit. p. 6.

CLARK, SIR A. CLARK, F. E.

441

all at the hands of Cornelius Ward. The principal improvements
were due to Richard Carte, who took out a patent in 1858 for an
improved Boehm clarinet which possessed some claim to the
name, since Boehm's principle of boring the holes at theoretically
correct intervals and of venting the holes
by means of open holes below was carried
out. Carte made several modifications of
his original patent, his chief endeavour
being to so dispose the key-work as to
reduce the difficulties in fingering. By the
extension of the principle of the ring
action, the work of the third and little
fingers of the left hand was simplified and
the fingering of certain difficult notes and
shakes greatly facilitated. Messrs Rudall,
Carte & Company have made further
improvements in the clarinet, which are
embodied in KJussmann's patent (fig. 4);
these consist in the introduction of the
duplicate G# key, a note which has
hitherto formed a serious obstacle to
perfect execution. The duplicate key,
operated by the third or second finger of
the right hand, releases the fourth finger
of the left hand. The old G# is still re-
tained and may be used in the usual way
if desired. The body of the instrument
is now made in one joint, and the position
of the Gift hole is mathematically correct,
whereby perfect intonation for C#, G$ and
Ft) is secured. Other improvements were
made in Paris by Messrs Evette & Schaeffer
and by M. Paradis, 1 a clarinet-player in
the band of the Garde R6publicaine, and
very great improvements in boring and in
key mechanism were effected by Albert
of Brussels (see fig. i).

The clarinet appears to have received
appreciation in the Netherlands earlier
than in its own native land. According
to W. Altenburg (op. oil. p. n), 2 a MS. is
preserved in the cathedral at Antwerp of
a mass written by A. J. Faber in 1720,
which is scored for a clarinet. Johann
Mattheson, 3 Kapellmeister at Hamburg,
mentions clarinet music in 1713, although
Handel, whose rival he was, does not appear to have known the
instrument. Joh. Christ. Bach scored for the clarinet in 1763 in
his opera Orione performed in London, and Rameau had already
employed the instrument in 1751 in a theatre for his pastoral
entitled A cante et Cephise* The clarinet was formally introduced
into the orchestra in Vienna in 1767,5 Gluck having contented
himself with the use of the chalumeau in Orfeo (1762) and in
Alceste (1767).' The clarinet had already been adopted in
military bands in France in 1755, where it very speedily com-
pletely replaced the oboe. One of Napoleon Bonaparte's bands
is said to have had no less than twenty clarinets.

For further' information on the clarinet at the beginning of the
igth century, consult the Methods by Ivan Miiller and Xavier
Lef<5bure, and Joseph Froehlich's admirable work on the instruments
of the orchestra; and Gottfried Weber's articles in Ersch and
Gruber's Encyclopaedia. See also BASSET HORN; BASS CLARINET
and PEDAL CLARINET. (K. S.)

CLARK, SIR ANDREW, Bart. (1826-1893), British physician,
was born at Aberdeen on the 28th of October 1826. His father,
who also was a medical man, died when he was only a few years

1 See Capt. C. R. Day, op. cit. p. 106.

* V. Mahillon, Catal. desc. (1880), p. 182, refers his statement to
the Chevalier L. de Burbure.

* Das neu-eroffnete Orchester (Hamburg, 1713).
4 Mahillon, Catal. desc. (1880), vol. i. p. 182.

1 See Chevalier Ludwig von Koechel, Die kaiserliche Hofmusik-
kapelle zu Wien, 1543-1867 (Vienna, 1869).
6 In the Italian edition of 1769 the part is scored for clarinet.

FIG. 4. Clarinet
(Boehm model, Kluss-
mann's patent).

old. After attending school in Aberdeen, he was sent by his
guardians to Dundee and apprenticed to a druggist; then
returning to Aberdeen he began his medical studies in the uni-
versity of that city. Soon, however, he went to Edinburgh,
where in the extra-academical school he had a student's career of
the most brilliant description, ultimately becoming assistant to
J. Hughes Bennett in the pathological department of the Royal
Infirmary, and assistant demonstrator of anatomy to Robert
Knox. But symptoms of pulmonary phthisis brought his
academic life to a close, and in the hope that the sea might
benefit his health he joined the medical department of the navy in
1848. Next year he became pathologist to the Haslar hospital,
where T. H. Huxley was one of his colleagues, and in 1853 he was
the successful candidate for the newly-instituted post of curator
to the museum of the London hospital. Here he intended to
devote all his energies to pathology, but circumstances brought
him into active medical practice. In 1854, the year in, which he
took his doctor's degree at Aberdeen, the post of 'assistant-
physician to the hospital became vacant and he was prevailed
upon to apply for it. He was fond of telling how his phthisical
tendencies gained him the appointment. " He is only a poor
Scotch doctor," it was said, " with but a few months to live; let
him have it." He had it, and two years before his death publicly
declared that of those who were on the staff of the hospital at the
time of his selection he was the only one remaining alive. In
1854 he became a member of the College of Physicians, and in
1858 a fellow, and then went in succession through all the offices
of honour the college has to offer, ending in 1888 with the
presidency, which he continued to hold till his death". From the
time of his selection as assistant physician to the London
hospital, his fame rapidly grew until he became a fashionable
doctor with one of the largest practices in London, counting
among his patients some of the most distinguished men of the
day. The great number of persons who passed through his
consulting-room every morning rendered it inevitable that to
a large extent his advice should become stereotyped and his
prescriptions often reduced to mere stock formulae, but in really
serious cases he was not to be surpassed in the skill and careful-
ness of his diagnosis and in his attention to detail. In spite
of the claims of his practice he found time to produce a good
many books, all written in the precise and polished style on
which he used to pride himself. Doubtless owing largely to
personal reasons, lung diseases and especially fibroid phthisis
formed his favourite theme, but he also discussed other subjects,
such as renal inadequacy, anaemia, constipation, &c. He died
in London on the 6th of November 1893, after a paralytic stroke
which was probably the result of persistent overwork.

CLARK, FRANCIS EDWARD (1851- ), American clergy-
man, was born of New England ancestry at Aylmer, Province of
Quebec, Canada, on the 1 2th of September 1851. He was the son
of Charles C. Symmes, but took the name of an uncle, the Rev.
E. W. Clark, by whom he was adopted after his father's death in
1853. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1873 an d a t
Andover Theological Seminary in 1876, was ordained in the
Congregational ministry, and was pastor of the Williston Congre-
gational church at Portland, Maine, from 1876 to 1883, and of
the Phillips Congregational church, South Boston, Mass., from
1883 to 1887. On the 2nd of February 1881 he founded at
Portland the Young People's Society of Christian Endeavor,
which, beginning as a small society in a single New England
church, developed into a great interdenominational organiza-
tion, which in 1908 had 70,761 societies and more than 3,500,000
members scattered throughout the United States, Canada, Great
Britain, Australia, South Africa, India, Japan and China.
After 1887 he devoted his time entirely to the extension of this
work, and was president of the United Societies of Christian
Endeavor and of the World's Christian Endeavor Union, and
editor of the Christian Endeavor World (originally The Golden
Ride) . Among his numerous publications are The Children and the
Church (1882); Looking OutonLife (1883); Young People's Prayer
Meetings (1884); Some Christian Endeavor Saints (1889); World
Wide Endeavor (1895); A New Way Round an Old World (1000).

442

See his The Young People's Christian Endeavor, where it began,
&c. (Boston, 1895) ; Christian Endeavor Manual (Boston, 1903) ;
and Christian Endeavor in All Lands: Record of Twenty-five Years
of Progress (Philadelphia, 1907).

CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS (1752-1818), American frontier
military leader, was born near Charlottesville, in Albemarle
county, Virginia, on the ipth of November 1752. Early in life
he became a land-surveyor; he took part in Lord Dunmore's
War (1774), and in 1775 went as a surveyor for the Ohio Company
to Kentucky (then a district of Virginia), whither he removed
early in 1776. His iron will, strong passions, audacious courage
and magnificent physique soon made him a leader among his
frontier neighbours, by whom in 1776 he was sent as a delegate
to the Virginia legislature. In this capacity he was instrumental
in bringing about the organization of Kentucky as a county of
Virginia, and also obtained from Governor Patrick Henry a
supply of powder for the Kentucky settlers. Convinced that
the Indians were instigated and supported in their raids against
the American settlers by British officers stationed in the forts
north of the Ohio river, and that the conquest of those forts
would put an end to the evil, he went on foot to Virginia late
in 1777 and submitted to Governor Henry and his council a
plan for offensive operations. On the and of January 1778 he
was commissioned lieutenant-colonel, received' 1200 in de-
preciated currency, and was authorized to enlist troops; and
by the end of May he was at the falls of the Ohio (the site of
Louisville) with about 175 men. The expedition proceeded
to Fort Kaskaskia, on the Mississippi, in what is now Illinois.
This place and Cahokia, also on the Mississippi, near St Louis,
were defended by small British garrisons, which depended upon
the support of the French habitants. The French being willing
to accept the authority of Virginia, both forts were easily taken.
Clark gained the friendship of Father Pierre Gibault, the priest
at Kaskaskia, and through his influence the French at Vincennes
on the Wabash were induced (late in July) to change their
allegiance. On the i7th of December Lieut. -Governor Henry
Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit, recovered Vincennes
and went into winter quarters. Late in February 1779 he was
surprised by Clark and compelled to give up Vincennes and its
fort, Fort Sackville, and to surrender himself and his garrison
of about So men, as prisoners of war. With the exception of
Detroit and several other posts on the Canadian frontier the
whole of the North-West was thus brought under American
influence; many of the Indians, previously hostile, became
friendly, and the United States was put in a position to demand
the cession of the North-West in the treaty of 1783.' For this
valuable service, in which Clark had freely used his own private
funds, he received practically no recompense either from Virginia
or from the United States, and for many years before his death
he lived in poverty. To him and his men, however, the Virginia
legislature granted 150,000 acres of land in 1781, which was
subsequently located in what are now Clark, Floyd and Scott
counties, Indiana; Clark's individual share was 8049 acres, but
from this he realized little. Clark built Fort Jefferson on the
Mississippi, 4 or 5 m. below the mouth of the Ohio, in 1780,
destroyed the Indian towns Chillicothe and Piqua in the same
year, and in November 1782 destroyed the Indian towns on the
Miami river. With this last expedition his active military
service virtually ended, and in July 1783 he was relieved of his
command by Virginia. Thereafter he lived on part of the land
granted to him by Virginia or in Louisville for the rest of his
life. In 1793 he accepted from Citizen Genet a commission as
" major-general in the armies of France, and commander-in-chief
of the French Revolutionary Legion in the Mississippi Valley,"
and tried to raise a force for an attack upon the Spanish
possessions in the valley of the Mississippi. The scheme,
however, was abandoned after Genet's recall. Disappointed
at what he regarded as his country's ingratitude, and broken
down by excessive drinking and paralysis, he lost his once
powerful influence and lived in comparative isolation until his
death, near Louisville, Kentucky, on the I3th of February
1818.

CLARK, G. R. CLARK, J. L.

See W. H. English, Conquest of the Country north-west of the
River Ohio, 1778-1783, and Life of George Rogers Clark (2 vols.,
Indianapolis and Kansas City, 1896), an accurate and detailed work,
which represents an immense amount of research among both
printed and manuscript sources. Clark's own accounts of his
expeditions, and other interesting documents, are given in the
appendix to this work.

CLARK, WILLIAM (1770-1838), the well-known explorer, was
the youngest brother of the foregoing. He was born in Caroline
county, Virginia, on the ist of August 1770. At the age of
fourteen he removed with his parents to Kentucky, settling
at the falls of the Ohio (Louisville). He entered the United
States army as a lieutenant of infantry in March 1792, and
served under General Anthony Wayne against the Indians in
1794. In July 1796 he resigned his commission on account of
ill-health. In 1803-1806, with Meriwether Lewis (q.v.), he
commanded the famous exploring expedition across the continent
to the mouth of the Columbia river, and was commissioned
second lieutenant in March 1804 and first lieutenant in January
1806. In February he again resigned from the army. He then
served for a few years as brigadier-general of the Louisiana
territorial militia, as Indian agent for " Upper Louisiana," as
territorial governor of Missouri in 1813-1820, and as superin-
tendent of Indian affairs at St Louis from 1822 until his death
there on the ist of September 1838.

CLARK, SIR JAMES (1788-1870), English physician, was born
at Cullen, Banffshire, and was educated at the grammar school
of Fordyce and at the universities of Aberdeen and Edinburgh.
He served for six years as a surgeon in the army; then spent
some time in travelling on the continent, in order to investigate
the mineral waters and the climate of various health resorts;
and for seven years he lived in Rome. In 1826 he began to
practise in London. In 1835 he was appointed physician to the
duchess of Kent, becoming physician in ordinary to Queen
Victoria in 1837. In 1838 he was created a baronet. He pub-
lished The Influence of Climate in Chronic Diseases, containing
valuable meteorological tables (1829), and a Treatise on Pul-
monary Consumption (1835).

CLARK, JOHN BATES (1847- ), American economist,
was born at Providence, Rhode Island, on the 26th of January
1847. Educated at Brown University, Amherst College, Heidel-
berg and Zurich, he was appointed professor of political economy
at Carleton College, Minnesota, in 1877. In 1881 he became
professor of history and political science in Smith College,
Massachusetts; in 1892 professor of political economy in
Amherst College. He was appointed professor of political
economy at Columbia University in 1895. Among his works are:
The Philosophy of Wealth (1885); Wages (1889); Capital and its
Earnings (1898); The Control of Trusts (1901); The Problem
of Monopoly (1904); and Essentials of Economic Theory (1907).

CLARK, JOSIAH LATIMER (1822-1898), English engineer and
electrician, was born on the loth of March 1822 at Great Marlow,
Bucks. His first interest was in chemical manufacturing, but in
1848 he became assistant engineer at the Menai Straits bridge
under his elder brother Edwin (1814-1894), the inventor of the
Clark hydraulic lift graving dock. Two years later, when his
brother was appointed engineer to the Electric Telegraph
Company, he again acted as his assistant, and subsequently
succeeded him as chief engineer. In 1854 he took out a patent
" for conveying letters or parcels between places by the pressure
of air and vacuum," and later was concerned in the construction
of a large pneumatic despatch tube between the general post
office and Euston station, London. About the same period he
was engaged in experimental researches on the propagation of
the electric current in submarine cables, on which he published a
pamphlet in 1855, and in 1859 he was a member of the com-
mittee which was appointed by the government to consider the
numerous failures of submarine cable enterprises. Latimer
Clark paid much attention to the subject of electrical measure-
ment, and besides designing various improvements in method and
apparatus and inventing the Clark standard cell, he took a
leading part in the movement for the systematization of electrical
standards, which was inaugurated by the paper which he and Sir

CLARK, T. CLARKE, C. C.

C. T. Bright read on the question before the British Association in
1861. With Bright also he devised improvements in the insula-
tion of submarine cables. In the later part of his life he was a
member of several firms engaged in laying submarine cables, in
manufacturing electrical appliances, and in hydraulic engineering.
He died in London on the 3oth of October 1898. Besides pro-
fessional papers, he published an Elementary Treatise on Electrical
Measurement (1868), together with two books on astronomical
subjects, and a memoir of Sir W. F. Cooke.

CLARK, THOMAS (1801-1867), Scottish chemist, was born at
Ayr on the 3ist of March 1801. In 1826 he was appointed
lecturer on chemistry at the Glasgow mechanics' institute, and in
1831 he took the degree of M.D. at the university of that city.
Two years later he became professor of chemistry in Marischal
College, Aberdeen, but was obliged to give up the duties of that
position in 1844 through ill-health, though nominally he remained
professor till 1860. His name is chiefly known in connexion with
his process for softening hard waters, and his water tests,
patented in 1841. The last twenty years before his death at
Glasgow on the 27th of November 1867 were occupied with the
study of the historical origin of the Gospels.

CLARK, WILLIAM GEORGE (1821-1878), English classical
and Shakespearian scholar, was born at Barford Hall, Darlington,
in March 1821. He was educated at Sedbergh and Shrewsbury
schools and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was elected
fellow after a brilliant university career. In 1857 he was
appointed public orator. He travelled much during the long
vacations, visiting Spain, Greece, Italy and Poland. His
Peloponnesus (1858) was an important contribution to the
knowledge of the country at that time. In 1853 Clark had taken
orders, but left the Church in 1870 after the passing of the
Clerical Disabilities Act, of which he was one of the promoters.
He also resigned the public oratorship in the same year, and in
consequence of illness left Cambridge in 1873. He died at York
on the 6th of November 1878. He bequeathed a sum of money to
his old college for the foundation of a lectureship in English
literature. Although Clark was before all a classical scholar, he
published little in that branch of learning. A contemplated
edition of the works of Aristophanes, a task for which he was
singularly fitted, was never published. He visited Italy in 1868
for the express purpose of examining the Ravenna and other MSS.,
and on his return began the notes to the Acharnians, but they
were left in too incomplete a state to admit of publication in book
form even after his death (see Journal of Philology, viii., 1879).
He established the Cambridge Journal of Philology, and co-
operated with B. H. Kennedy and James Riddell in the pro-
duction of the well-known Sabrinae Corolla. The work by which
he is best known is the Cambridge Shakespeare (1863-1866),
containing a collation of early editions and selected emendations,
edited by him at first with John Glover and afterwards with
W. Aldis Wright. Gazpacho (i853)gives an account of his tour in
Spain; his visits to Italy at the time of Garibaldi's insurrection,
and to Poland during the insurrection of 1863, are described in
Vacation Tourists, ed. F. Gallon, i. and iii.

H. A. J. Munro in Journal of Philology (viii. 1879) describes Clark
as " the most accomplished and versatile man he ever met "; see
also notices by W. Aldis Wright in Academy (Nov. 23, 1878);
R. Burn in Athenaeum (Nov. 16, 1878); The Times (Nov. 8, 1878);
Notes and Queries, 5th series, x. (1878), p. 400.

CLARKE, ADAM (i762?-i832), British Nonconformist
divine, was born at Moybeg, Co. Londonderry, Ireland, in 1760
or 1762. After receiving a very limited education he was
apprenticed to a linen manufacturer, but, finding the employ-
ment uncongenial, he resumed school-life at the institution
founded by Wesley at Kingswood, near Bristol. In 1782 he
entered on the duties of the ministry, being appointed by Wesley
to the Bradford (Wiltshire)circuit. His popularity as a preacher
was very great, and his influence in the denomination is indicated
by the fact that he was three times (1806, 1814, 1822) chosen to
be president of the conference. He served twice on the London
circuit, the second period being extended considerably longer
than the rule allowed, at the special request of the British and
Foreign Bible Society, who had employed him in the preparation

443

of their Arabic Bible. Though ardent in his pastoral work, he
found time for diligent study of Hebrew and other Oriental
languages, undertaken chiefly with the view of qualifying himself
for the great work of his life, his Commentary on the Holy
Scriptures (8 vols., 1810-1826). In 1802 he published a Biblio-
graphical Dictionary in six volumes, to which he afterwards
added a supplement. He was selected by the Records Commis-
sion to re-edit Rymer's Foedera, a task which after ten years'
labour (1808-1818) he had to resign. He also wrote Memoirs of
the Wesley Family (1823), and edited a large number of religious
works. Honours were showered upon him (he was M.A., LL.D.
of Aberdeen), and many distinguished men in church and state
were his personal friends. He died in London on the i6th of
August 1832.

His Miscellaneous Works were published in 13 vols. (1836), and a
Life (3 vols.) by his son, J. B. B. Clarke, appeared in 1833.

CLARKE, SIR ANDREW (1824-1902), British soldier and
administrator, son of Colonel Andrew Clarke, of Co. Donegal,
Ireland, governor of West Australia, was born at Southsea,
England, on the 2?th of July 1824, and educated at King's
school, Canterbury. He entered the Royal Military Academy,
Woolwich, and obtained his commission in the army in 1844
as second lieutenant in the Royal Engineers. He was appointed
to his father's staff in West Australia, but was transferred to be
A.D.C. and military secretary to the governor of Tasmania;
and in 1847 he went to New Zealand to take part in the Maori
War, and for some years served on Sir George Grey's staff.
He was then made surveyor-general in Victoria, took a prominent
part in framing its new constitution, and held the office of
minister of public lands during the first administration (1855-
1857). He returned to England in 1857, and in 1863 was sent
on a special mission to the West Coast of Africa. In 1864 he
was appointed director of works for the navy, and held this
post for nine years, being responsible for great improvements
in the naval arsenals at Chatham, Portsmouth and Plymouth,
and for fortifications at Malta, Cork, Bermuda and elsewhere.
In 1873 he was made K.C.M.G., and became governor of the
Straits Settlements, where he did most valuable work in con-
solidating British rule and ameliorating the condition of the
people. From 1875 to 1880 he was minister of public works in
India; and on his return to England in 1881, holding then the
rank of lieutenant-colonel in the army, he was first appointed
commandant at Chatham and then inspector-general of fortifica-
tions (1882-1886). Having attained the rank of lieutenant-
general and been created G.C.M.G., he retired from official life,
and in 1886 and 1893 unsuccessfully stood for parliament as a
supporter of Mr Gladstone. During his last years he was agent-
general for Victoria. He died on the 29th of March 1902. Both
as a technical and strategical engineer and as an Imperial
administrator Sir Andrew Clarke was one of the ablest and most
useful public servants of his time; and his contributions to
periodical literature, as well as his official memoranda, contained
valuable suggestions on the subjects of imperial defence and
imperial consolidation which received too little consideration
at a period when the home governments were not properly alive
to their importance. He is entitled to remembrance as one of
those who first inculcated, from a wide practical experience,
the views of imperial administration and its responsibilities,
which in his last years he saw accepted by the bulk of his country-
men.

CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN (1787-1877), English author
and Shakespearian scholar, was born at Enfield, Middlesex,
on the isth of December 1787. His father, John Clarke, was a
schoolmaster, among whose pupils was John Keats. Charles
Clarke taught Keats his letters, and encouraged his love of
poetry. He knew Charles and Mary Lamb, and afterwards
became acquainted with Shelley, Leigh Hunt, Coleridge and
Hazlitt. Clarke became a music publisher in partnership with
Alfred Novello, and married in 1828 his partner's sister, Mary
Victoria (1800-1898), the eldest daughter of Vincent Novello.
In the year after her marriage Mrs Cowden Clarke began her
valuable Shakespeare concordance, which was eventually

444

issued in eighteen monthly parts (1844-1845), and in volume
form in 1845 as The Complete Concordance to Shakespeare, being
a Verbal Index to all the Passages in the Dramatic Works of the
Poet. This work superseded the Copious Index to . . . Shake-
speare (1790) of Samuel Ayscough, and the Complete Verbal
Index . . . (1805-1807) of Francis Twiss. Charles Cowden
Clarke published many useful books, and edited the text for
John Nichol's edition of the British poets; but his most import-
ant work consisted of lectures delivered between 1834 and 1856
on Shakespeare and other literary subjects. Some of the more
notable series were published, among them being Shakespeare's
Characters, chiefly those subordinate (1863), and Moli'ere's Char-
acters (1865). In 1859 he published a volume of original poems,
Carmina Minima. For some years after their marriage the
Cowden Clarkes lived with the Novellos in London. In 1849
Vincent Novello with his wife removed to Nice, where he was
joined by the Clarkes in 1856. After his death they lived at
Genoa at the " Villa Novello." They collaborated in The
Shakespeare Key, unlocking the Treasures of his Style . . .(1879),
and in an edition of Shakespeare for Messrs Cassell, which was
issued in weekly parts, and completed in 1868. It was reissued
in 1886 as Cassell's Illustrated Shakespeare. Charles Clarke died
on the I3th of March 1877 at Genoa, and his wife survived him
until the I2th of January 1898. Among Mrs Cowden Clarke's
other works may be mentioned The Girlhood of Shakespeare's
Heroines (3 vols., 1850-1852), and a translation of Berlioz's
Treatise upon Modern Instrumentation and Orchestration (1856).

See Recollections of Writers (1898), a joint work by the Clarkes
containing letters and reminiscences of their many literary friends;
and Mary Cowden Clarke's autobiography, My Long Life (1896).
A charming series of letters (1850-1861), addressed by her to an
American admirer of her work, Robert Balmanno, was edited by
Anne Upton Nettleton as Letters to an Enthusiast (Chicago, 1902).

CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL (1769-1822), English mineral-
ogist and traveller, was born at Willingdon, Sussex, on the 5th
of June 1769, and educated first at Tonbridge. In 1786 he ob-
tained the office of chapel clerk at Jesus College, Cambridge,
but the loss of his father at this time involved him in difficulties.
In 1790 he took his degree, and soon after became private tutor
to Henry Tufton, nephew of the duke of Dorset. In 1792 he
obtained an engagement to travel with Lord Berwick through
Germany, Switzerland and Italy. After crossing the Alps, and
visiting a few of the principal cities of Italy, including Rome,
he went to Naples, where he remained nearly two years. Having
returned to England in the summer of 1794, he became tutor
in several distinguished families. In 1799 he set out with a
Mr Cripps on a tour through the continent of Europe, beginning
with Norway and Sweden, whence they proceeded through
Russia and the Crimea to Constantinople, Rhodes, and afterwards
to Egypt and Palestine. After the capitulation of Alexandria,
Clarke was of considerable use in securing for England the
statues, sarcophagi, maps, manuscripts, &c., which had been
collected by the French savants. Greece was the country next
visited. From Athens the travellers proceeded by land to
Constantinople, and after a short stay in that city directed
their course homewards through Rumelia, Austria, Germany
and France. Clarke, who had now obtained considerable repu-
tation, took up his residence at Cambridge. He received the
degree of LL.D. shortly after his return in 1803, on account
of the valuable donations, including a colossal statue of the
Eleusinian Ceres, which he had made to the university. He
was also presented to the college living of Harlton, near Cam-
bridge, in 1805, to which, four years later, his father-in-law
added that of Yeldham. Towards the end of 1808 Dr Clarke
was appointed to the professorship of mineralogy in Cambridge,
then first instituted. Nor was his perseverance as a traveller
otherwise unrewarded. The MSS. which he had collected in the
course of his travels were sold to the Bodleian library for 1000;
and by the publication of his travels he realized altogether
a clear profit of 6595. Besides lecturing on mineralogy and
discharging his clerical duties, Dr Clarke eagerly prosecuted
the study of chemistry, and made several discoveries, principally
by means of the gas blow-pipe, which he had brought to a high

CLARKE, E. D. CLARKE, J. F.

degree of perfection. He was also appointed university librarian
in 1817, and was one of the founders of the Cambridge Philo-
sophical Society in 1819. He died in London on the gth of
March 1822. The following is a list of his principal works:
Testimony of Authors respecting the Colossal Statue of Ceres in
the Public Library, Cambridge (8vo, 1801-1803); The Tomb of
Alexander, a Dissertation on the Sarcophagus brought from Alex-
andria, and now in the British Museum (4to, 1805) ; A Methodical
Distribution of the Mineral Kingdom (fol., Lewes, 1807); A
Description of the Greek Marbles brought from the Shores of the
Euxine, Archipelago and Mediterranean, and deposited in the
University Library, Cambridge (8vo, 1809); Travels in various
Countries of Europe, Asia and Africa (410, 1810-1819; 2n d ed.,
1811-1823).
See Life and Remains, by Rev. W. Otter (1824).

CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE (1841- ), English
lawyer and politician, son of J. G. Clarke of Moorgate Street,
London, was born on the isth of February 1841. In 1859 he
became a writer in the India office, but resigned in the next year,
and became a law reporter. He obtained a Tancred law scholar-
ship in 1 86 1, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1864.
He joined the home circuit, became Q.C. in 1880, and a bencher of
Lincoln's Inn in 1882. In November 1877 he was successful in
securing the acquittal of Chief-Inspector Clarke from the charge
brought against certain Scotland Yard officials of conspiracy to
defeat justice, and his reputation was assured by his defence of
Patrick Staunton in the Penge murder case (1877), and of Mrs
Bartlett against the charge of poisoning her husband (1886).
Among other notable cases he was counsel for the plaintiff in the
libel action brought by Sir William Gordon-Gumming (1800)
against Mr and Mrs Lycett Green and others for slander, charging
him with cheating in the game of baccarat (in this case the prince
of Wales, afterwards Edward VII., gave evidence), and he
appeared for Dr Jameson, Sir John Willoughby and others when
they were tried (1896) under the Foreign Enlistment Act. He was
knighted in 1886. He was returned as Conservative member for
Southwark at a by-election early in 1880, but failed to retain his
seat at the general election which followed a month or two later;
he found a seat at Plymouth, however, which he retained until
1900. He was solicitor-general in the Conservative administra-
tion of 1886-1892, but declined office under the Unionist govern-
ment of 1895 when the law officers of the crown were debarred
from private practice. The most remarkable, perhaps, of his
speeches in the House of Commons was his reply to Mr Gladstone
on the second reading of the Home Rule Bill in 1893. In ^99
differences which arose between Sir Edward Clarke and his party
on the subject of the government's South African policy led to
his resigning his seat. At the general election of 1906 he was
returned at the head of the poll for the city of London, but he
offended a large section of his constituents by a speech against
tariff reform in the House of Commons on the i2th of March, and
shortly afterwards he resigned his seat on grounds of health.
He published a Treatise on the Law of Extradition (4th ed., 1903),
and also three volumes of his political and forensic speeches.

CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN (1810-1888), American preacher
and author, was born in Hanover, New Hampshire, on the 4th of
April 1810. He was prepared for college at the public Latin
school of Boston, and graduated at Harvard College in 1829, and
at the Harvard Divinity School in 1833. He was then ordained
as minister of a Unitarian congregation at Louisville, Kentucky,
which was then a slave state. Clarke soon threw himself heart
and soul into the national movement for the abolition of slavery,
though he was never what was then called in America a " radical
abolitionist." In 1839 he returned to Boston, where he and his
friends established (1841) the " Church of the Disciples." It
brought together a body of men and women active and eager in
applying the Christian religion to the social problems of the day,
and he would have said that the feature which distinguished it
from any other church was that they also were ministers of the
highest religious life. Ordination could make no distinction
between him and them. Of this church he was the minister from
1841 until 1850 and from 1854 until his death. He was also

CLARKE, J. S. CLARKE, SAMUEL

secretary of the Unitarian Association and, in 1867-1871
professor of natural religion and Christian doctrine at Harvard.
From the beginning of his active life he wrote freely for the press.
From 1836 until 1839 he was editor of the Western Messenger, a
magazine intended to carry to readers in the Mississippi Valley
simple statements of " liberal religion," involving what were then
the most radical appeals as to national duty, especially the
abolition of slavery. The magazine is now of value to collectors
because it contains the earliest printed poems of Ralph Waldo
Emerson, who was Clarke's personal friend. Most of Clarke's
earlier published writings were addressed to the immediate need
of establishing a larger theory of religion than that espoused
by people who were still trying to be Calvinists, people who
maintained what a good American phrase calls " hard-shelled
churches." But it would be wrong to call his work controversial.
He was always declaring that the business of the Church is
Eirenic and not Polemic. Such books as Orthodoxy: Its Truths
and Errors (1866) have been read more largely by members of
orthodox churches than by Unitarians. In the great moral
questions of his time Clarke was a fearless and practical advocate
of the broadest statement of human rights. Without caring
much what company he served in, he could always be seen and
heard, a leader of unflinching courage, in the front rank of the
battle. He published but few verses, but at the bottom he was a
poet. He was a diligent and accurate scholar, and among the
books by which he is best known is one called Ten Great Religions
(2 vols., 1871-1883). Few Americans have done more than
Clarke to give breadth to the published discussion of the subjects
of literature, ethics and religious philosophy. Among his later
books are Every-Day Religion (1886) and Sermons on the Lord's
Prayer (1888). He died at Jamaica Plain, Mass., on the 8th of
June 1888.

His Autobiography, Diary and Correspondence, edited by Edward
Everett Hale, was published in Boston in 1891. (E. E. H.)

CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER (1833-1899), American actor, was
born in Baltimore, Maryland, on the 3rd of September 1833, and
was educated for the law. He made his first appearance in
Boston as Frank Hardy in Paul Pry in 1851. In 1859 he married
Asia Booth, daughter of Junius Brutus Booth, and he was
associated with his brother-in-law Edwin Booth in the manage-
ment of the Winter Garden theatre in New York, the Walnut
Street theatre in Philadelphia and the Boston theatre. In 1867
he went to London, where he made his first appearance at the St
James's as Major Wellington de Boots in Stirling Coynes's
Everybody's Friend, rewritten for him and called The Widow's
Hunt. His success was so great that he remained in England for
the rest of his life, except for four visits to America. Among his
favourite parts were Toodles, which ran for 200 nights at the
Strand, Dr Pangloss in The Heir-at-law, and Dr Ollapod in The
Poor Gentleman. He managed several London theatres, includ-
ing the Haymarket, where he preceded the Bancrofts. He
retired in 1889, and died on the 24th of September 1899. His two
sons also were actors. X

CLARKE, MARCUS ANDREW HISLOP (1846-1881),
Australian author, was born in London on the 24th of April 1846.
He was the only son of William Hislop Clarke, a barrister of the
Middle Temple who died in 1863. He emigrated forthwith to
Australia, where his uncle, James Langton Clarke, was a county
court judge. He was at first a clerk in the bank of Australasia,
but snowed no business ability, and soon proceeded to learn
farming at a station on the Wimmera river, Victoria. He was
already writing stories for the Australian Magazine, when in 1867
he joined the staff of the Melbourne Argus through the introduc-
tion of Dr Robert Lewins. He also became secretary (1872) to
the trustees of the Melbourne public library and later (1876)
assistant librarian. He founded in 1868 the Yorick Club, which
soon numbered among its members the chief Australian men of
letters. The most famous of his books is For the Term of his
Natural Life (Melbourne, 1874), a powerful tale of an Australian
penal settlement, which originally appeared in serial form in a
Melbourne paper. He also wrote The Peripatetic Philosopher
(1869), a series of amusing papers reprinted from The Austral-

445

asian; Long Odds (London, 1870), a novel; and numerous
comedies and pantomimes, the best of which was Twinkle,
Twinkle, Little Star (Theatre Royal, Melbourne; Christmas,
1873). He married an actress, Marian Dunn. In spite of his
popular success Clarke was constantly involved in pecuniary
difficulties, which are said to have hastened his death at
Melbourne on the 2nd of August 1881.

See The Marcus Clarke Memorial Volume (Melbourne, 1884),
containing selections from his writings with a biography and list
of works, edited by Hamilton Mackinnon.

CLARKE, MARY ANNE (c.^o-iSsz), mistress of Frederick
duke of York, second son of George III., was born either in
London or at Oxford. Her father, whose name was Thompson,
seems to have been a tradesman in rather humble circumstances.
She married before she was eighteen, but Mr Clarke, the pro-
prietor of a stonemasonry business, became bankrupt, and she
left him. After other liaisons, she became in 1803 the mistress of
the duke of York, then commander-in-chief, maintaining a large
and expensive establishment in a fashionable district. The
duke's promised allowance was not regularly paid, and to escape
her financial difficulties Mrs Clarke trafficked in her protector's
position, receiving money from various promotion-seekers,
military, civil and even clerical, in return for her promise to secure
them the good services of the duke. Her procedure became a
public scandal, and in 1809 Colonel Wardle, M.P., brought eight
charges of abuse of military patronage against the duke in the
House of Commons, and a committee of inquiry was appointed,
before which Mrs Clarke herself gave evidence. The result of the
inquiry clearly established the charges as far as sh.e was con-
cerned, and the duke of York was shown to have been aware of
what was being done, but to have derived no pecuniary benefit
himself. He resigned his appointment as commander-in-chief,
and terminated his connexion with Mrs Clarke, who subsequently
obtained from him a considerable sum in cash and a pension, as
the price for withholding the publication of his numerous letters
tc her. Mrs Clarke died at Boulogne on the 2ist of June 1852.

See Taylor, Authentic Memoirs of Mrs Clarke; Clarke (? pseud.),
Life of Mrs M. A. Clarke; Annual Register, vol. li.

CLARKE, SAMUEL (1675-1729), English philosopher and
divine, son of Edward Clarke, an alderman, who for several years
was parliamentary representative of the city of Norwich, was
born on the i ith of October 1675, and educated at the free school
of Norwich and at Caius College, Cambridge. The philosophy of
Descartes was the reigning system at the university; Clarke,
however, mastered the new system of Newton, and contributed
greatly to its extension by publishing an excellent Latin version
of the Traiti de physique of Jacques Rohault (1620-1675) with
valuable notes, which he finished before he was twenty-two years
of age. The system of Rohault was founded entirely upon
Cartesian principles, and was previously known only through the
medium of a rude Latin version. Clarke's translation (1697)
continued to be used as a text-book in the university till sup-
planted by the treatises of Newton, which it had been designed to
introduce. Four editions were issued, the last and best being
that of 1718. It was translated into English in 1723 by his
brother Dr John Clarke (1682-1757), dean of Sarum.

Clarke afterwards devoted himself to the study of Scripture in
the original, and of the primitive Christian writers. Having taken
holy orders, he became chaplain to John Moore (1646-1714),
bishop of Norwich, who was ever afterwards his friend and patron.
In 1699 he published two treatises, one entitled Three Practical
Essays on Baptism, Confirmation and Repentance, and the other,
Some Reflections on that part of a book called Amyntor, or a
Defence of Milton's Life, which relates to the Writings of the
Primitive Fathers, and the Canon of the New Testament. In 1701
he published A Paraphrase upon the Gospel of St Matthew, which
was followed, in 1702, by the Paraphrases upon the Gospefs of St
Mark and St Luke, and soon afterwards by a third volume upon
St John. They were subsequently printed together in two
volumes and have since passed through several editions. He
intended to treat in the same manner the remaining books of the
New Testament, but his design was unfulfilled.

446

CLARKE, SAMUEL

Meanwhile he had been presented by Bishop Moore to the
rectory of Drayton, near Norwich. As Boyle lecturer, he dealt in
1704 with the Being and Attributes of God, and in 1705 with the
Evidences of Natural and Revealed Religion. These lectures, first
printed separately, were afterwards published together under the
title of A Discourse concerning the Being and Attributes of God, the
Obligations of Natural Religion, and the Truth and Certainty of the
Christian Revelation, in opposition to Hobbes, Spinoza, the author
of the Oracles of Reason, and other Denier s of Natural and Revealed
Religion.

In 1706 he wrote a refutation of Dr Henry Dodwell's views on
the immortality of the soul, and this drew him into controversy
with Anthony Collins. He also wrote at this time a translation of
Newton's Optics, for which the author presented him with 500.
In the same year through the influence of Bishop Moore, he
obtained the rectory of St Benet's, Paul's Wharf, London.
Soon afterwards Queen Anne appointed him one of her chaplains
in ordinary, and in 1700 presented him to the rectory of St
James's, Westminster. He then took the degree of doctor in
divinity, defending as his thesis the two propositions: Nullum
fidei Christianae dogma, in Sacris Scripluris traditum, est rectae
rationi dissentaneum, and Sine actionum humanarum libertate
nulla palest esse religio. During the same year, at the request of
the author, he revised Whiston's English translation of the
Apostolical Constitutions.

In 1712 he published a carefully punctuated and annotated
edition (folio 1712, octavo 1720) of Caesar's Commentaries, with
elegant engravings, dedicated to the duke of Marlborough.
During the same year he published his celebrated treatise on The
Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity. It is divided into three parts.
The first contains a collection and exegesis of all the texts in the
New Testament relating to the doctrine of the Trinity; in the
second the doctrine is set forth at large, and explained in
particular and distinct propositions; and in the third the
principal passages in the liturgy of the Church of England
relating to the doctrine of the Trinity are considered. Whiston
informs us that, some time before the publication of this book,
a message was sent to him from Lord Godolphin "that the
affairs of the public were with difficulty then kept in the hands of
those that were for liberty; that it was therefore an unseasonable
time for the publication of a book that would, make a great noise
and disturbance; and that therefore they desired him to forbear
till a fitter opportunity should offer itself," a message that
Clarke of course entirely disregarded. The ministers were right
in their conjectures; and the work not only provoked a great
number of replies, but occasioned a formal complaint from the
Lower House of Convocation. Clarke, in reply, drew up an
apologetic preface, and afterwards gave several explanations,
which satisfied the Upper House; and, on his pledging himself that
his future conduct would occasion no trouble, the matter dropped.

In 1715 and 1716 he had a discussion with Leibnitz relative
to the principles of natural philosophy and religion, which was
at length cut short by the death of his antagonist. A collection
of the papers which passed between them was published in 1717
(cf. G. v. Leroy, Die philos. Probleme in dent Briefwechsel Leibniz
ttnd Clarke, Giessen, 1893). In 1719 he was presented by Nicholas
ist Baron Lechmere, to the mastership of Wigston's hospital
in Leicester. In 1724 he published seventeen sermons, eleven
of which had not before been printed. In 1727, on the death
of Sir Isaac Newton, he was offered by the court the place of
master of the mint, worth on an average from 1200 to 1500
a year. This secular preferment, however, he absolutely refused.
In 1728 was published " A Letter from Dr Clarke to Benjamin
Hoadly, F.R.S., occasioned by the controversy relating to
the Proportion of Velocity and Force in Bodies in Motion,"
printed in the Philosophical Transactions. In 1729 he published
the first twelve books of Homer's Iliad. This edition, dedicated
to William Augustus, duke of Cumberland, was highly praised
by Bishop Hoadly. On Sunday, the nth of May 1729, when
going out to preach before the judges at Serjeants' Inn, he was
seized with a sudden illness, which caused his death on the
Saturday following (May 17, 1729).

Soon after his death his brother Dr John Clarke, dean of
Sarum, published, from his original manuscripts, An Exposition
of the Church Catechism, and ten volumes of sermons. The
Exposition is composed of the lectures which he read every
Thursday morning, for some months in the year, at St James's
church. In the latter part of his life he revised them with great
care, and left them completely prepared for the press. Three
years after his death appeared also the last twelve books of the
Iliad, published by his son Samuel Clarke, the first three of these
books and part of the fourth having, as he states, been revised
and annotated by his father.

In disposition Clarke was cheerful and even playful. An
intimate friend relates that he once found him swimming
upon a table. At another time Clarke on looking out at the
window saw a grave blockhead approaching the house; upon
which he cried out, "Boys, boys, be wise; here comes a fool."
Dr Warton, in his observations upon Pope's line,

" Unthought-of frailties cheat us in the wise,"
says, " Who could imagine that Locke was fond of romances;
that Newton once studied astrology; that Dr Clarke valued
himself on his agility, and frequently amused himself in a
private room of his house in leaping over the tables and chairs ? "

Philosophy. Clarke, though in no way an original thinker, was
eminent in theology, mathematics, metaphysics and philology, but
his chief strength lay in his logical power. The materialism of
Hobbes, the pantheism of Spinoza, the empiricism of Locke, the
determinism of Leibnitz, Collins' necessitarianism, Dodwell's denial
of the natural immortality of the soul, rationalistic attacks on
Christianity, and the morality of the sensationalists all these he
opposed with a thorough conviction of the truth of the principles
which he advocated. His fame as theologian and philosopher rests
to a large extent on his demonstration of the existence of God and
his theory of the foundation of rectitude. The former is not a purely
a priori argument, nor is it presented as such by its author. It
starts from a fact and it often explicitly appeals to facts. The
intelligence, for example, of the self-existence and original cause of
all things is, he says, " not easily proved a priori," but " dempn-
strably proved a posteriori from the variety and degrees of perfection
in things, and the order of causes and effects, from the intelligence
that created beings are confessedly endowed with, and from the
beauty, order, and final purpose of things." The propositions
maintained in the argument are " (i) That something has existed
from eternity; (2) that there has existed from eternity some one
immutable and independent being; (3) that that immutable and
independent being, which has existed from eternity, without any
external cause of its existence, must be self-existent, that is, neces-
sarily existing; (4) what the substance or essence of that being is,
which is self-existent or necessarily existing, we have no idea,
neither is it at all possible for us to comprehend it ; (5) that though
the substance or essence of the self-existent being is itself absolutely
incomprehensible to us, yet many of the essential attributes of his
nature are strictly demonstrable as well as his existence, and, in
the first place, that he must be of necessity eternal; (6) that the
self-existent being must of necessity be infinite and omnipresent;
(7) must be but one; (8) must be an intelligent being; (9) must be
not a necessary agent, but a being endued with liberty and choice ;
(10) must of necessity have infinite power; (ll) must be infinitely
wise, and (12) must of necessity be a being of infinite goodness,
justice, and truth, and all other moral perfections, such as become the
supreme governor and judge of the world."

In order to establish his sixth proposition, Clarke contends that
time and space, eternity and immensity, are not substances, but
attributes the attributes of a self-existent being. Edmund Law,
Dugald Stewart, Lord Brougham, and many other writers, have,
in consequence, represented Clarke as arguing from the existence
of time and space to the existence of Deity. This is a serious mistake.
The existence of an immutable, independent, and necessary being
is supposed to be proved before any reference is made to the nature
of time and space. Clarke has been generally supposed to have
derived the opinion that time and space are attributes of an infinite
immaterial and spiritual being from the Scholium Generate, first
published in the second edition of Newton's Principia (1714). The
truth is that his work on the Being and Attributes of God appeared
nine years before that Scholium. The view propounded by Clarke
may have been derived from the Midrash, the Kabbalah, Philo,
Henry More, or Cudworth, but not from Newton. It is a view
difficult to prove, and probably few will acknowledge that Clarke
has conclusively proved it.

His ethical theory of " fitness " (see ETHICS) is formulated on the
analogy of mathematics. He held that in relation to the will things
possess an objective fitness similar to the mutual consistency of
things in the physical universe. This fitness God has given to
actions, as he has given laws to Nature; and the fitness is as im-
mutable as the laws. The theory has been unfairly criticized by

CLARKE, T. S. CLARKSON

447

Jouffroy, Amedee Jacques, Sir James Mackintosh, Thomas Brown
and others. It is said, for example, that Clarke made virtue consist
in conformity to the relations of things universally, although the
whole tenor of his argument shows him to have had in view con-
formity to such relations only as belong to the sphere of moral
agency. It is true that he might have emphasized the relation of
moral fitness to the will, and in this respect J. F. Herbart (g.f.)
improved on Clarke's statement of the case. To say, however, that
Clarke simply confused mathematics and morals by justifying the
moral criterion on a mathematical basis is a mistake. He compared
the two subjects for the sake of the analogy.

Though Clarke can thus be defended against this and similar
criticism, his work as a whole can be regarded only as an attempt
to present the doctrines of the Cartesian school in a form which
would not shock the conscience of his time. His work contained
a measure of rationalism sufficient to arouse the suspicion of orthodox
theologians, without making any valuable addition to, or modi-
fication of, the underlying doctrine.

AUTHORITIES. See W. Whiston's Historical Memoirs, and the
preface by Benjamin Hoadly to Clarke's Works (4 vols., London,
1738-1742). See further on his general philosophical position
J. Hunt's Religious Thought in England, passim, but particularly in
vol. ii. 447-457, and vol. iii. 20-20 and 109-115, &c. ; Rob. Zimmer-
mann in the Denkschriften d. k. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Phil.-
Hist. Classe, Bd. xix. (Vienna, 1870); H. Sidgwick's Methods of
Ethics (6th ed., 1901), p. 384; A. Bain's Moral Science (1872),
p. 562 foil., and Mental Science (1872), p. 416; Sir L. Stephen's
English Thought in the Eighteenth Century (3rd ed., 1902), c. iii.;
J. E. le Rossignol, Ethical Philosophy of S. Clarke (Leipzig, 1892).

CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS (1860- ), American artist,
was born in Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, on the 25th of April 1860,
and graduated at Princeton in 1882. He was a pupil of the Art
Students' League, New York, and of the Ecole des Beaux Arts,
Paris, under J. L. Gerome; later he entered the atelier of
Dagnan-Bouveret, and, becoming interested in sculpture, worked
for a while under Henri M. Chapu. As a sculptor, he received
a medal of honour in Madrid for his " The Cider Press,"
now in the Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California, and
he made four caryatides of " The Seasons " for the Appellate
Court House, New York. He designed an " Alma Mater "
for Princeton University, and a model is in the library. Among
his paintings are his " Night Market in Morocco " (Philadelphia
Art Club), for which he received a medal at the International
Exposition in Berlin in 1891, and his " A Fool's Fool," exhibited
at the Salon in 1887 and now in the collection of the Pennsyl-
vania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia.

CLARKE, WILLIAM BRANWHITE (1798-1878), British
geologist, was born at East Bergholt, in Suffolk, on the 2nd of
June 1 798. He received his early education at Dedham grammar
school, and in 1817 entered Jesus College, Cambridge; he took
his B.A. in 1821, was ordained and became M.A. in 1824. In
1821 he was appointed curate of Ramsholt in Suffolk, and he
acted in his clerical capacity in other places until 1839. Having
become interested in geology through the teachings of Sedgwick,
he utilized his opportunities and gathered many interesting
facts on the geology of East Anglia which were embodied in a
paper " On the Geological Structure and Phenomena of Suffolk "
(Trans. Geol. Soc. 1837). He also communicated a series of
papers on the geology of S.E. Dorsetshire to the Magazine of
Nat. Hist. (1837-1838). In 1839, after a severe illness, he left
England for New South Wales, mainly with the object of benefit-
ing by the sea voyage. He remained, however, in that country,
and came to be regarded as the " Father of Australian Geology."
From the date of his arrival in New South Wales until 1870 he
was in clerical charge first of the country from Paramatta to
the Hawkesbury river, then of Campbelltown, and finally of
Willoughby. He zealously devoted attention to the geology
of the country, with results that have been of paramount import-
ance. In 1841 he discovered gold, being the first explorer
who had obtained it in situ in the country, finding it both in the
detrital deposits and in the quartzites of the Blue Mountains,
and he then declared his belief in its abundance. In 1849 he
made the first actual discovery of tin in Australia and in 1859
he made known the occurrence of the diamond. He was also
the first to indicate the presence of Silurian rocks, and to deter-
mine the age of the coal-bearing rocks in New South Wales.
In 1869 he announced the discovery of remains of Dinornis in

Queensland. He was a trustee of the Australian museum at
Sydney, and an active member of the Royal Society of New
South Wales. In 1860 he published Researches in the Southern
Gold-fields of New South Wales. He was elected F.R.S. in 1876,
and in the following year was awarded the Murchison medal
by the Geological Society of London. His contributions to
Australian scientific journals were numerous. He died near
Sydney, on the I7th of June 1878.

CLARKSON, THOMAS (1760-1846), English anti-slavery
agitator, was born on the 28th of March 1760, at Wisbeach, in
Cambridgeshire, where his father was headmaster of the free
grammar school. He was educated at St Paul's school and at
St John's College, Cambridge. Having taken the first place
among the middle bachelors as Latin essayist, he succeeded
in 1785 in gaining a similar honour among the senior bachelors.
The subject appointed by the vice-chancellor, Dr Peckhard, was
one in which he was himself deeply interested Anne liceat
imiitos in servitulem dare? (Is it right to make men slaves
against their will?). In preparing for this essay Clarkson
consulted a number of works on African slavery, of which the
chief was Benezet's Historical Survey of New Guinea; and the
atrocities of* which he read affected him so deeply that he de-
termined to devote all his energies to effect the abolition of the
slave trade, and gave up his intention of entering the church.

His first measure was to publish, with additions, an English
translation of his prize essay (June 1786). He then commenced
to search in all quarters for information concerning slavery. He
soon discovered that the cause had already been taken up to
some extent by others, most of whom belonged to the Society of
Friends, and among the chief of whom were William Dillwyn,
Joseph Wood and Granville Sharp. With the aid of these
gentlemen, a committee of twelve was formed in May 1787 to do
all that was possible to effect the abolition of the slave trade.
Meanwhile Clarkson had also gained the sympathy of Wilberforce,
Whitbread, Sturge and several other men of influence. Travel-
ling from port to port, he now commenced to collect a large mass
of evidence; and much of it was embodied in his Summary View
of the Slave Trade, and the Probable Consequences of its Abolition,
which, with a number of other anti-slavery tracts, was published
by the committee. Pitt, Grenville, Fox and Burke looked
favourably on the movement; in May 1788 Pitt introduced a
parliamentary discussion on the subject, and Sir W. Dolben
brought forward a bill providing that the number of slaves
carried in a vessel should be proportional to its tonnage. A
number of Liverpool and Bristol merchants obtained permission
from the House to be heard by council against the bill, but on
the i8th of June it passed the Commons. Soon after Clarkson
published an Essay on the Impolicy of the Slave Trade; and for
two months he was continuously engaged in travelling that he
might meet men who were personally acquainted with the facts
of the trade. From their lips he collected a considerable amount
of evidence; but only nine could be prevailed upon to promise to
appear before the privy council. Meanwhile other witnesses had
been obtained by Wilberforce and the committee, and on the
1 2th of May 1789 the former led a debate on the subject in the
House of Commons, in which he was seconded by Burke and
supported by Pitt and Fox.

It was now the beginning of the French Revolution, and in the
hope that he might arouse the French to sweep away slavery with
other abuses, Clarkson crossed to Paris, where he remained six
months. He found Necker head of the government, and obtained
from him some sympathy but little help. Mirabeau, however,
with his assistance, prepared a speech against slavery, to be
delivered before the National Assembly, and the Marquis de la
Fayette entered enthusiastically into his views. During this
visit Clarkson met a deputation of negroes from Santo Domingo,
who had come to France to present a petition to the National
Assembly, desiring to be placed on an equal footing with the
whites; but the storm of the Revolution permitted no sub-
stantial success to be achieved. Soon after his return home he
engaged in a search, the apparent hopelessness of which finely
displays his unshrinking laboriousness and his passionate

CLARKSVILLE CLASSICS

enthusiasm. He desired to find some one who had himself
witnessed the capture of the negroes in Africa; and a friend
having met by chance a man-of-war's-man who had done so,
Clarkson, though ignorant of the name and address of the sailor,
set out in search of him, and actually discovered him. His last
tour was undertaken in order to form anti-slavery committees
in all the principal towns. At length, in the autumn of 1794,
his health gave way, and he was obliged to cease active work.
He now occupied his time in writing a History of the Abolition
of the Slave Trade, which appeared in 1808. The bill for the
abolition of the trade became law in 1807; but it was still
necessary to secure the assent of the other powers to its principle.
To obtain this was, under pressure of the public opinion created
by Clarkson and his friends, one of the main objects of British
diplomacy at the Congress of Vienna, and in February 1815 the
trade was condemned by the powers. The question of concerting
practical measures for its abolition was raised at the Congress of
Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, but without result. On this occasion
Clarkson personally presented an address to the emperor
Alexander I., who communicated it to the sovereigns of Austria
and Prussia. In 1823 the Anti-Slavery Society was formed,
and Clarkson was one of its vice-presidents. He was for some
time blind from cataract; but several years before his death
on the 26th of September 1846, his sight was restored.

Besides the works already mentioned, he published the Portraiture
of Quakerism (1806), Memoirs of William Penn (1813), Researches,
Antediluvian, Patriarchal and Historical (1836), intended as a history
of the interference of Providence for man's spiritual good, and
Strictures on several of the remarks concerning himself made in the
Life of Wilberforce, in which his claim as originator of the anti-
slavery movement is denied.

See the lives by Thomas Elmes (1876) and Thomas Taylor (1839).

CLARKSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Montgomery
county, Tennessee, U.S.A., situated in the N. part of the state,
about 50 m. N.W. of Nashville, on the Cumberland river, at the
mouth of the Red river. Pop. (1890) 7924; (1900) 9431, of whom
5094 were negroes; (1910 census) 8548. It is served by the
Louisville & Nashville, and the Illinois Central railways, and by
passenger and freight steamboat lines on the Cumberland river.
The city hall and the public library are among the principal
public buildings, and the city is the seat of the Tennessee Odd
Fellows'home,andof the South- Western Presbyterian University,
founded in 1875. Clarksville lies in the centre of the dark
tobacco belt commonly known as the " Black Patch " and is
an important tobacco market, with an annual trade in that
staple of about $4,000,000, most of the product being exported
to France, Italy, Austria and Spain. The city is situated in a
region well adapted for the growing of wheat, Indian corn, and
vegetables, and for the raising of live-stock; and Clarksville is a
shipping point for the lumber chiefly oak, poplar and birch
and the iron-ore of the surrounding country, a branch of the
Louisville & Nashville railway extending into the iron district.
The city's principal manufactures -are flour and grist mill products,
chewing and smoking tobacco and snuff, furniture, lumber, iron,
and pearl buttons. The value of the factory product in 1905 was
$2,210,112, being 32% greater than in 1900. The municipality
owns its water-works. Clarksville was first settled as early as
1780, was named in honour of General George Rogers Clark, and
was chartered as a city in 1850.

CLASSICS. The term " classic " is derived from the Latin
epithet classicus, found in a passage of Aulus Gellius (xix. 8. 15),
where a " scriptor ' classicus ' " is contrasted with a " scriptor
proletarius." The metaphor is taken from the division of the
Roman people into classes by Servius Tullius, those in the first
class being called classici, all the rest infra classem, and those
in the last proletarii. 1 The epithet " classic " is accordingly
applied (i) generally to an author of the first rank, and (2) more

1 The above derivation is in accordance with English usage. In
the New English Dictionary the earliest example of the word
" classical " is the phrase " classical and canonical," found in the
Europae Speculum of Sir Edwin Sandys (1599), and, as applied to
a writer, it is explained as meaning " of the first rank or authority."
This exactly corresponds with the meaning of classicus in the above
passage of Gellius. On the other hand, the French word classique
(in Littre's view) primarily means " used in class."

particularly to a Greek or Roman author of that character.
Similarly, " the classics" is a synonym for the choicest products
of the literature of ancient Greece and Rome. It is to this
sense of the word that the following article is devoted in two
main divisions: (A) the general history of classical (i.e. Greek
and Latin) scholarship, and (B) its place in higher education.

(A) GENERAL HISTORY OF THE STUDY or THE CLASSICS

We may consider this subject in four principal periods:
(i.) the Alexandrian, c. 300-1 B.C.; (ii.) the Roman, A.D. c. 1-530;
(iii.) the Middle Ages, c. 530-1350; an d (iv.) the Modern Age,
c. 1350 to the present day.

(i.) The Alexandrian Age. The study of the Greek classics
begins with the school of Alexandria. Under the rule of Ptolemy
Philadelphus (285-247 B.C.), learning found a home in the
Alexandrian Museum and in the great Alexandrian Library.
The first four librarians were Zenodotus, Eratosthenes, Aristo-
phanes of Byzantium, and Aristarchus. Zenodotus produced
before 274 the first scientific edition of the Iliad and Odyssey,
an edition in which spurious lines were marked, at the beginning,
with a short horizontal dash called an obelus ( ). He also drew
up select lists of epic and lyric poets. Soon afterwards a classified
catalogue of dramatists, epic and lyric poets, legislators, philo-
sophers, historians, orators and rhetoricians, and miscellaneous
writers, with a brief biography of each, was produced by the
scholar and poet Callimachus (fl. 260). Among the pupils of
Callimachus was Eratosthenes who, in 234, succeeded Zenodotus
as librarian. Apart from his special interest in the history of the
Old Attic comedy, he was a man of vast and varied learning;
the founder of astronomical geography and of scientific chrono-
logy; and the first to assume the name of ^tXoXcryos. The
greatest philologist of antiquity was, however, his successor,
Aristophanes of Byzantium (195), who reduced accentuation
and punctuation to a definite system, and used a variety of
critical symbols in his recension of the Iliad and Odyssey. He
also edited Hesiod and Pindar, Euripides and Aristophanes,
besides composing brief introductions to the several plays, parts
of which are still extant. Lastly, he established a scientific
system of lexicography and drew up lists of the " best authors."
Two critical editions of the Iliad and Odyssey were produced by
his successor, Aristarchus, who was librarian until 146 B.C. and
was the founder of scientific scholarship. His distinguished
pupil, Dionysius Thrax (born c. 166 B.C.), drew up a Greek
grammar which continued in use for more than thirteen centuries.
The most industrious of the successors of Aristarchus was
Didymus (c. 65 B.C.-A.D. 10), who, in his work on the Homeric
poems, aimed at restoring the lost recensions of Aristarchus.
He also composed commentaries on the lyric and comic poets
and on Thucydides and Demosthenes; part of his commentary
on this last author was first published in 1904. He was a teacher
in Alexandria (and perhaps also in Rome); and his death,
about A.D. 10, marks the close of the Alexandrian age. He
is the industrious compiler who gathered up the remnants of
the learning of his predecessors and transmitted them to posterity.
The poets of that age, including Callimachus and Theocritus,
were subsequently expounded by Theon, who flourished under
Tiberius, and has been well described as " the Didymus of the
Alexandrian poets."

The Alexandrian canon of the Greek classics, which probably
had its origin in the lists drawn up by Callimachus, Aristophanes
of Byzantium and Aristarchus, included the following authors:

Epic poets (5) : Homer, Hesiod, Peisander, Panyasis, Antimachus.

Iambic poets (3) : Simonides of Amorgos, Archilochus, Hipponax.

Tragic poets (5) : Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Ion, Achaeus.

Comic poets, Old (7) : Epicharmus, Cratinus, Eupolis, Aristo-
phanes, Pherecrates, Crates, Plato. Middle (2) : Antiphanes, Alexis.
New (5) : Menander, Philippides, Diphilus, Philemon, Apollodorus.

Elegiac poets (4) : Callinus, Mimnermus, Philetas, Callimachus.

Lyric poets (9): Alcman, Alcaeus, Sappho, Stesichorus, Pindar,
Bacchylides, Ibycus, Anacreon, Simonides of Ceos. _

Orators (10) : Demosthenes, Lysias, Hypereides, Isocrates,
Aeschines, Lycurgus, Isaeus, Antiphon, Andocides, Deinarchus.

Historians (10): Thucydides, Herodotus, Xenophon, Philistius,
Theopompus, Ephorus, Anaximenes, Callisthenes, Hellanicus,
Polybius.

CLASSICS

449

The latest name in the above list is that of Polybius, who
died about 1 23 B.C. Apollonius Rhodius, Aratus and Theocritus
were subsequently added to the " epic " poets. Philosophers,
such as Plato and Aristotle, were possibly classed in a separate
" canon. "

While the scholars of Alexandria were mainly interested in
the verbal criticism of the Greek poets, a wider variety of studies
was the characteristic of the school of Pergamum, the literary
rival of Alexandria. Pergamum was a home of learning for a
large part of the 150 years of the Attalid dynasty, 283-133 B.C.

The grammar of the Stoics, gradually elaborated by Zeno,
Cleanthes and Chrysippus, supplied a terminology which, in
words such as " genitive," " accusative " and " aorist," has
become a permanent part of the grammarian's vocabulary;
and the study of this grammar found its earliest home in Per-
gamum. -

From about 168 B.C. the head of the Pergamene school was
Crates of Mallus, who (like the Stoics) was an adherent of the
principle of " anomaly " in grammar, and was thus opposed
to Aristarchus of Alexandria, the champion of " analogy."
He also opposed Aristarchus, and supported the Stoics, by
insisting on an allegorical interpretation of Homer. He is
credited with having drawn up the classified lists of the best
authors for the Pergamene library. His mission as an envoy
to the Roman senate, " shortly after the death of Ennius " in
169 B.C., had a remarkable influence on literary studies in Rome.
Meeting with an accident while he was wandering on the Palatine,
and being detained in Rome, he passed part of his enforced
leisure in giving lectures (possibly on Homer, his favourite
author), and thus succeeded in arousing among the Romans a
taste for the scholarly study of literature. The example set by
Crates led to the production of a new edition of the epic poem
of Naevius, and to the public recitation of the Annals of Ennius,
and (two generations later) the Satires of Lucilius.

( ii.) The Roman Age. (a) Latin Studies. In the ist century
B.C. the foremost scholar in Rome was L. Aelius Stilo (c. 154-
c. 74), who is described by Cicero as profoundly learned in Greek
and Latin literature, and as an accomplished critic of Roman
antiquities and of ancient authors. Of the plays then passing
under the name of Plautus, he recognized twenty-five as genuine.
His most famous pupil was Varro (116-27), the six surviving
books of whose great work on the Latin language are mainly
concerned with the great grammatical controversy on analogy
and anomaly a controversy which also engaged the attention
of Cicero and Caesar, and of the elder Pliny and Quintilian.
The twenty-one plays of Plautus accepted by Varro are doubtless
the twenty now extant, together with the lost Vidularia. The
influence of Varro's last work on the nine disciplines, or branches
of study, long survived in the seven " liberal arts " recognized
by St Augustine and Martianus Capella, and in the trivittm and
quadrivium of the middle ages.

Part of Varro's treatise on Latin was dedicated to Cicero (106-
43), who as an interpreter of Greek philosophy to his fellow-
countrymen enlarged the vocabulary of Latin by his admirable
renderings of Greek philosophical terms, and thus ultimately
gave us such indispensable words as " species," "quality " and
" quantity."

The earliest of Latin lexicons was produced about 10 B.C. by
Verrius Flaccus in a work, De Verborum Significatu, which
survived in the abridgment by Festus (,2nd century A.D.) and in
the further abridgment dedicated by Paulus Diaconus to Charles
the Great.

Greek models were diligently studied by Virgil and Horace.
Their own poems soon became the theme of criticism and of
comment; and, by the time of Quintilian and Juvenal, they
shared the fate (which Horace had feared) of becoming text-
books for use in schools.

Recensions of Terence, Lucretius and Persius, as well as
Horace and Virgil, were produced by Probus (d. A.D. 88), with
critical symbols resembling those invented by the Alexandrian
scholars. His contemporary Asconius is best known as the
author of an extant historical commentary on five of the speeches
VI. 15

of Cicero. In A.D. 88 Quintilian was placed at the head of the first
state-supported school in Rome. His comprehensive work on
the training of the future orator includes an outline of general
education, which had an important influence on the humanistic
schools of the Italian Renaissance. It also presents us with a
critical survey of the Greek and Latin classics arranged under the
heads of poets, historians, orators and philosophers (book x.
chap. i.). The lives of Roman poets and scholars were among the
many subjects that exercised the literary skill of Hadrian's
private secretary, Suetonius. One of his lost works is the
principal source of the erudition of Isidore of Seville (d. A.D. 636),
whose comprehensive encyclopaedia was a favourite text-book in
the middle ages. About the time of the death of Suetonius (A.D.
1 60) a work entitled the Noctes Atticae was begun by Aulus
Gellius. The author is an industrious student and a typical
scholar, who frequents libraries and is interested in the MSS.
of old Latin authors. Early in the 4th century the study of
grammar was represented in northern Africa by the Numidian
tiro, Nonius Marcellus (fl. 323), the author of an encyclopaedic
work in three parts, lexicographical, grammatical and antiquarian,
the main value of which lies in its quotations from early Latin
li terature. About the middle of the same century grammar had a
far abler exponent at Rome in the person of Aelius Donatus, the
preceptor of St Jerome, as well as the author of a text-book that
remained in use throughout the middle ages. The general state
of learning in this century is illustrated by Ausonius (c. 310-393),
the grammarian and rhetorician of Bordeaux, the author of the
Mosella, and the probable inspirer of the memorable decree of
Gratian (376), providing for the appointment and the payment of
teachers of rhetoric and of Greek and Latin literature in the
principal cities of Gaul. His distinguished friend, Q. Aurelius
Symmachus, the consul of A.D. 391, aroused in his own immediate
circle an interest in Livy, the whole of whose history was still
extant. Early in the 5th century other aristocratic Romans
interested themselves in the textual criticism of Persius and
Martial. Among the contemporaries of Symmachus, the devoted
adherent of the old Roman religion, was St Jerome (d. 420), the
most scholarly representative of Christianity in the 4th century,
the student of Plautus and Terence, of Virgil and Cicero, the
translator of the Chronology of Eusebius, and the author of the
Latin version of the Bible now known as the Vulgate. St
Augustine (d. 430) confesses to his early fondness for Virgil, and
also tells us that he received his first serious impressions from the
Hortensius of Cicero, an eloquent exhortation to the study of
philosophy, of which only a few fragments survive. In his
survey of the " liberal arts " St Augustine imitates (as we have
seen) the Disciplinae of Varro, and in the greatest of his works,
the De Civitate Dei (426), he has preserved large portions of the
Antiquitates of Varro and the De Republica of Cicero. About the
same date, and in the same province of northern Africa, Martianus
Capella produced his allegorical work on the " liberal arts," the
principal, and, indeed, often the only, text-book of the medieval
schools.

In the second half of the 5th century the foremost representa-
tive of Latin studies in Gaul was Apollinaris Sidonius (fl. 470),
whose Letters were modelled on those of the younger Pliny, while
his poems give proof of a wide though superficial acquaintance
with classical literature. He laments the increasing decline in
the classical purity of the Latin language.

An interest in Latin literature lived longest in Gaul, where
schools of learning flourished as early as the ist century
at Autun, Lyons, Toulouse, Nimes, Vienne, Narbonne and
Marseilles; and, from the 3rd century onwards, at Trier, Poitiers,
Besancon and Bordeaux.

About ten years after the death of Sidonius we find Asterius,
the consul of 494, critically revising the text of Virgil in Rome.
Boethius, who early in life formed the ambitious plan of expound-
ing and reconciling the opinions of Plato and Aristotle, continued
in the year of his sole consulship (510) to instruct his fellow-
countrymen in the wisdom of Greece. He is a link between the
ancient world and the middle ages, having been the last of the
learned Romans who understood the language and studied the

CLASSICS

literature of Greece, and the first to interpret to the middle ages
the logical treatises of Aristotle. He thereby gave the signal for
the age-long conflict between Nominalism and Realism, which
exercised the keenest intellects among the Schoolmen, while the
crowning work of his life, the Consolatio Philosophiae (524), was
repeatedly expounded and imitated, and reproduced in renderings
that were among the earliest literary products of the vernacular
languages of modern Europe. His contemporary, Cassiodorus
(c. 4&o-c. 575), after spending thirty years in the service of the
Ostrogothic dynasty at Ravenna, passed the last thirty-three
years of his long life on the shores of the Bay of Squillace, where
he founded two monasteries and diligently trained their inmates to
become careful copyists. In his latest work he made extracts for
their benefit from the pages of Priscian (fl. 512), a transcript of
whose great work on Latin grammar was completed at Constanti-
nople by one of that grammarian's pupils in 527, to be re-
produced in a thousand MSS. in the middle ages. More than ten
years before Cassiodorus founded his monasteries in the south of
Italy, Benedict of Nursia (480-543) had rendered a more
permanent service to the cause of scholarship by building,
amid the ruins of the temple of Apollo on the crest of Monte
Cassino, the earliest of those homes of learning that have
lent an undying distinction to the Benedictine order. The
learned labours of the Benedictines were no part of the original
requirements of the rule of St Benedict; but before the founder's
death his favourite disciple had planted a monastery in France,
and the name of that disciple is permanently associated with the
learned labours of the Benedictines of the Congregation of St
Maur (see MAURISTS).

(b) Greek Studies. Meanwhile, the study of the Greek classics
was ably represented at Rome in the Augustan age by Dionysius
of Halicarnassus (fl. 30-8 B.C.), the intelligent critic of the
ancient Attic orators, while the ist century of our era is the
probable date of the masterpiece of literary criticism known as
the treatise On the Sublime by Longinus (<?..).

The and century is the age of the two great grammarians,
Apollonius Dyscolus (the founder of scientific grammar and
the creator of the study of Greek syntax) and his son Herodian,
the larger part of whose principal work dealt with the subject
of Greek accentuation. It is also the age of the lexicographers
of Attic Greek, the most important of whom are Phrynichus,
Pollux (fl. A.D. 180) and Harpocration.

In the 4th century Demosthenes was expounded and imitated
by the widely influential teacher, Libanius of Antioch (c. 314-
c - 393)j the pagan preceptor of St Chrysostom. To the same
century we may assign the grammarian Theodosius of Alexandria,
who, instead of confining himself (like Dionysius Thrax) to the
tenses of TWTTO) in actual use, was the first to set forth all the
imaginary aorists and futures of that verb, which have thence
descended through the Byzantine age to the grammars of the
Renaissance and of modern Europe.

In the 5th century we may place Hesychius of Alexandria,
the compiler of the most extensive of our ancient Greek lexicons,
and Proclus, the author of a chrestomathy, to the extracts
from which (as preserved by Photius) we owe almost all our
knowledge of the contents of the lost epics of early Greece.
In the same century the study of Plato was represented by
Synesius of Cyrene (c. 37o-c. 413) and by the Neoplatonists of
Alexandria and of Athens. The lower limit of the Roman age
of classical studies may be conveniently placed in the year 529.
In that year the monastery of Monte Cassino was founded in
the West, while the school of Athens was closed in the East.
The Roman age thus ends in the West with Boethius, Cassio-
dorus and St Benedict, and in the East with Priscian and
Justinian.

(iii.) The Middle Ages. (a) In the East, commonly called
the Byzantine Age, c. 530-1350. In this age, grammatical
learning was represented by Choeroboscus, and lexicography by
Photius (d. 891), the patriarch of Constantinople, who is also
the author of a Bibliotheca reviewing and criticizing the contents
of 280 MSS., and incidentally preserving important extracts
from the lost Greek historians.

In the time of Photius the poets usually studied at school were
Homer, Hesiod, Pindar; certain select plays of Aeschylus
(Prometheus, Septem and Persae), Sophocles (Ajax, Electra
and Oedipus Tyrannus), and Euripides (Hecuba, Orestes, Phoe-
nissae, and, next to these, Alcestis, Andromache, Hippolytus,
Medea, Rhesus, Troades,) also Aristophanes (beginning with the
Plutus), Theocritus, Lycophron, and Dionysius Periegetes.
The principal prose authors were Thucydides, parts of Plato
and Demosthenes, with Aristotle, Plutarch's Lives, and, above all,
Lucian, who is often imitated in the Byzantine age.

One of the distinguished pupils of Photius, Arethas, bishop of
Caesarea in Cappadocia (c. 007-932), devoted himself with
remarkable energy to collecting and expounding the Greek
classics. Among the important MSS. still extant that were
copied at his expense are the Bodleian Euclid (888) and the
Bodleian Plato (895). To the third quarter of the loth century
we may assign the Greek lexicon of Suidas, a combination of a
lexicon and an encyclopaedia, the best articles being those on
the history of literature.

Meanwhile, during the " dark age " of secular learning at
Constantinople (641-850), the light of Greek learning had spread
eastwards to Syria and Arabia. At Bagdad, in the reign of
Mamun (813-833), the son of Harun al-Rashid, philosophical
works were translated by Syrian Christians from Greek into
Syriac and from Syriac into Arabic. It was in his reign that
Aristotle was first translated into Arabic, and, shortly afterwards,
we have Syriac and Arabic renderings of commentators on
Aristotle, and of portions of Plato, Hippocrates and Galen;
while in the loth century new translations of Aristotle and his
commentators were produced by the Nestorian Christians.

The Arabic translations of Aristotle passed from the East
to the West by being transmitted through the Arab dominions
in northern Africa to Spain, which had been conquered by the
Arabs in the 8th century. In the I2th century Toledo was the
centre of the study of Aristotle in the West, and it was from
Toledo that the knowledge of Aristotle spread to Paris and to
other seats of learning in western Europe.

The 1 2th century in Constantinople is marked by the name
of Tzetzes (c. ino-c. 1180), the author of a mythological,
literary and historical miscellany called the Chiliades, in the
course of which he quotes more than four hundred authors.
The prolegomena to his scholia on Aristophanes supply us with
valuable information on the Alexandrian libraries. The most
memorable name, however, among the scholars of this century
is that of Eustathius, whose philological studies at Constantinople
preceded his tenure of the archbishopric of Thessalonica (1175-
1192). The opening pages of his commentaries on the Iliad and
the Odyssey dwell with enthusiasm on the abiding influence of
Homer on the literature of Greece.

While the Byzantine MSS. of the nth century (such as the
Laurentian MSS. of Aeschylus and Sophocles, and the Ravenna
MS. of Aristophanes) maintain the sound traditions of the
Alexandrian and Roman ages, those of the times of the Palaeologi
give proof of a frequent tampering with the metres of the ancient
poets in order to bring them into conformity with theories
recently invented by Moschopulus and Triclinius. The scholars
of these times are the natural precursors of the earliest repre-
sentatives of the Revival of Learning in the West. Of these
later Byzantines the first in order of date is the monk Planudes
(d. 1330), who devoted his knowledge of Latin to producing
excellent translations of Caesar's Gallic War as well as Ovid's
Metamorphoses and Heroides, and the classic work of Boethius;
he also compiled (in 1302) the only Greek anthology known to
scholars before the recovery in 1607 of the earlier and fuller
anthology of Cephalas (fl. 917).

The scholars of the Byzantine age cannot be compared with
the great Alexandrians, but they served to maintain the con-
tinuity of tradition by which the Greek classics selected by the
critics of Alexandria were transmitted to modern Europe.

(b) In the West (c. 53o-c. 1350). At the portal of the middle
ages stands Gregory the Great (c. 540-604), who had little (if any)
knowledge of Greek and had no sympathy with the secular

CLASSICS

45 1

side of the study of Latin. A decline in grammatical learning
is exemplified in the three Latin historians of the 6th century,
Jordanes, Gildas and Gregory of Tours (d. 594), who begins
his history of the Franks by lamenting the decay of Latin
literature in Gaul. The historian of Tours befriended the Latin
poet, Venantius Fortunatus (d. c. 600), who is still remembered
as the writer of the three well-known hymns beginning Salve
festa dies, Vexilla regis prodeunt, and Pange lingua gloriosi
proelium certaminis. The decadence of Latin early in the yth
century is exemplified by the fantastic grammarian Virgilius
Maro, who also illustrates the transition from Latin to Provencal,
-and from quantitive to accentual forms of verse.

While Latin was declining in Gaul, even Greek was not
unknown in Ireland, and the Irish passion for travel led to the
spread of Greek learning in the west of Europe. The Irish monk
Columban, shortly before his death in 615, founded in the
neighbourhood of Pavia the monastery of Bobbio, to be the
repository of many Latin MSS. which were ultimately dispersed
among the libraries of Rome, Milan and Turin. About the same
date his fellow-traveller, Gallus, founded above the Lake of
Constance the monastery of St Gallen, where Latin MSS. were
preserved until their recovery in the age of the Renaissance.
During the next twenty-five years Isidore of Seville (d. 636)
produced in his Origines an encyclopaedic work which gathered
up for the middle ages much of the learning of the ancient world.

In Italy a decline in the knowledge of Greek in the sth and 6th
centuries led to an estrangement between the Greek and Latin
Churches. The year 690 is regarded as the date of the temporary
extinction of Greek in Italy, but, in the first quarters of the Sth
and the gth centuries, the iconoclastic decrees of the Byzantine
emperors drove many of the Greek monks and their lay adherents
to the south of Italy, and even to Rome itself.

In Ireland we find Greek characters used in the Book of
Armagh (c. 807) ; and, in the same century, a Greek psalter was
copied by an Irish monk of Liege, named Sedulius (fl. 850), who
had a wide knowledge of Latin literature. In England, some
sixty years after the death of Augustine, the Greek archbishop
of Canterbury, Theodore of Tarsus (d. 690) founded a school for
the study of Greek, and with the help of an African monk named
Hadrian made many of the English monasteries schools of Greek
and Latin learning, so that, in the time of Bede (d. 735), some of
the scholars who still survived were "as familiar with Greek and
Latin as with their mother- tongue." Among those who had
learned their Greek at Canterbury was Aldhelm (d. 709), "the
first Englishman who cultivated classical learning with any
success." While Aldhelm is known as "the father of Anglo-
Latin verse," Latin prose was the literary medium used by Bede
in his celebrated Ecclesiastical History of England (731). Nine
years after the death of Bede (735), Boniface, "the apostle of
Germany," sanctioned the founding of Fulda (744), which soon
rivalled St Gallen as a school of learning. Alcuin (d. 804), who
was probably born in the year of Bede's death, tells us of the
wealth of Latin literature preserved in the library at York.
Through the invitation of Charles the Great, he became associated
with the revival of learning which marks the reign of that
monarch, by presiding over the School of the Palace (782-790),
and by exercising a healthy influence as abbot of St Martin's at
Tours (796-804). Among the friends of Alcuin and the advisers
of Charles was Theodulfus, bishop of Orleans and abbot of
Fleury (d. 821), who is memorable as an accomplished Latin
poet, and as the initiator of free education. Einhard (d. 840), in
his classic life of Charles the Great, models his style on that of
Suetonius, and shows his familiarity with Caesar and Livy and
Cicero, while Rabanus Maurus (d. 856), who long presided over
Einhard's school of Fulda, was the first to introduce Priscian into
the schools of Germany. His pupil, Walafrid Strabo, the abbot of
Reichenau (d. 849), had a genuine gift for Latin poetry, a gift
agreeably exemplified in his poem on the plants in the monastic
garden. In the same century an eager interest in the Latin
classics is displayed by Servatus Lupus, who was educated at
Fulda, and was abbot of Ferrieres for the last twenty years of his
life (d. 862). In his literary spirit he is a precursor of the

humanists of the Renaissance. Under Charles the Bald (d. 877)
there was a certain revival of interest in literature, when John
the Scot (Erigena) became, for some thirty years (c. 845-875),
the head of the Palace School. He was familiar with the Greek
Fathers, and was chosen to execute a Latin rendering of the
writings of "Dionysius the Areopagite," the patron saint of
France. In the preface the translator praises the king for
prompting him not to rest satisfied with the literature of the West,
but to have recourse to the "most pure and copious waters of the
Greeks." In the next generation Remi of Auxerre was the first to
open a school in Paris (900). Virgil is the main authority quoted
in Remi's Commentary on Donatus, which remained in use until
the Renaissance. During the two centuries after John the Scot,
the study of Greek declined in France. In England the gth
century closes with Alfred, who, with the aid of the Welsh monk,
Asser, produced a series of free translations from Latin texts,
including Boethiusand Orosius and Bede, and the Cvra Pastoralis
of Gregory the Great.

In the loth century learning flourished at Aachen under Bruno,
brother of Otto I. and archbishop of Cologne (953-965), who had
himself learned Greek from certain Eastern monks at the imperial
court, and who called an Irish bishop from Trier to teach Greek at
the imperial capital. He also encouraged the transcription of
Latin MSS., which became models of style to Widukind of
Corvey, the imitator of Sallust and Livy. In the same century
the monastery of Gandersheim, south of Hanover, was the
retreat of the learned nun Hroswitha, who celebrated the
exploits of Otho in leonine hexameters, and composed in prose
six moral and religious plays in imitation of Terence. _ One of the
most prominent personages of the century was Gerbert of
Aurillac, who, after teaching at Tours and Fleury, became abbot
of Bobbio, archbishop of Reims, and ultimately pope under the
name of Silvester II. (d. 1003). He frequently quotes from the
speeches of Cicero, and it has been surmised that the survival of
those speeches may have been due to the influence of Gcrbert.
The most original hellenist of this age is Luitprand, bishop of
Cremona (d. 972), who acquired some knowledge of Greek during
his repeated missions to Constantinople. About the same time
in England Oswald of York, who had himself been educated at
Fleury, invited Abbo (d. 1004) to Instruct the monks of the abbey
recently founded at Ramsey, near Huntingdon. At Ramsey he
wrote for his pupils a scholarly work dealing with points of
prosody and pronunciation, and exhibiting an accurate know-
ledge of Virgil and Horace. During the same half-century.
^Elfric, the abbot of Eynsham (d. c. 1030), aided Bishop
,/Ethelwold in making Winchester famous as a place of education.
It was there that he began his Latin Grammar, his Glossary (the
earliest Latin-English dictionary in existence), and his Collo-
quium, in which Latin is taught in a conversational manner.

In France, the most notable teacher in the first quarter of the
nth century was Fulbert, bishop of Chartres (d. 1029). In and
after the middle of that century the Norman monastery of Bee
flourished under the rule of Lanfranc and Anselm, both of whom
had begun their career in northern Italy, and closed it at Canter-
bury. Meanwhile, in Germany, the styles of Sallust and Livy
were being happily imitated in the Annals of Lambert of Hersfeld
(d. 1077). In Italy, where the study of Latin literature seems
never to have entirely died out, young nobles and students
preparing for the priesthood were not infrequently learning
Latin together, in private grammar schools under liberal clerics,
such as Anselm of Bisate (fl. 1050), who describes himself as
divided in his allegiance between the saints and the muses.
Learning flourished at Monte Cassino under the rule of the Abbot
Desiderius (afterwards Pope Victor III.). In this century thai
famous monastery had its classical chronicler in Leo Marsicanus,
and its Latin poet in Alfanus, the future archbishop of Salerno.

The Schoolmen devoted most of their attention to Aristotle,
and we may here briefly note the successive stages in their
gradually increasing knowledge of his works. Until 1128 only
the first two of the five parts of the Organon were known, and
those solely in Latin translations from the original. After that
date two more became known; the whole was familiar to John

452

CLASSICS

of Salisbury in 1159; while the Physics and Metaphysics came
into notice about 1200. Plato was mainly represented by the
Latin translation of the Timaeus. Abelard (d. 1142) was
acquainted with no Greek works except in Latin translations,
but he has left his mark on the history of European education.
The wide popularity of his brilliant lectures in the "schools"
of Paris made this city the resort of the many students who
were ultimately organized as a " university " (c. 1170). John of
Salisbury attended Abelard's lectures in 1136, and, after spending
two years in the study of logic in Paris, passed three more in the
scholarly study of Latin literature at Chartres, where a sound
and healthy tradition, originally due to Bernard of Chartres
(fl. 1120), was still perpetuated by his pupils. In that school the
study of " figures of speech " was treated as merely introductory
to that of the classical texts. Stress was laid on the sense as
well as the style of the author studied. Discussions on set
subjects were held, select passages from the classics learned
by heart, while written exercises in prose and verse were founded
on the best ancient models. In the general scheme of education
the authority followed was Quintilian. John of Salisbury
(d. 1180), the ripest product of this school, is the most learned
man of his time. His favourite author is Cicero, and in all the
Latin literature accessible to him he is the best-read scholar of
his age. Among Latin scholars of the next generation we have
Giraldus Cambrensis (d. c. 1222), the author of topographical
and historical writings on Ireland and Wales, and of other works
teeming with quotations from the Latin classics. During the
middle ages Latin prose never dies out. It is the normal language
of literature. In England it is used by many chroniclers and
historians, the best known of whom are William of Malmesbury
(d. 1142) and Matthew Paris (d. 1259). In Italy Latin verse
had been felicitously applied to historic themes by William of
Apulia (fl. noo) and other Latin poets (1088-1247). I D tne
1 2th century England claims at least seven Latin poets, one of
these being her only Latin epic poet, Joseph of Exeter (d. 1210),
whose poem on the Trojan war is still extant. The Latin versifier,
John of Garlandia, an Englishman who lived mainly in France
(fl. 1204-1252), produced several Latin vocabularies which were
still in use in the boyhood of Erasmus. The Latin poets of French
birth include Gautier and Alain de Lille (d. c. 1203), the former
being the author of the Alexandreis, and the latter that of the
Anti-Claudianus, a poem familiar to Chaucer.

During the hundred and thirty years that elapsed between
the early translations of Aristotle executed at Toledo about
1 1 50 and the death in 1281 of William of Moerbeke, the translator
of the Rhetoric and the Politics, the knowledge of Aristotle had
been greatly extended in Europe by means of translations,
first from the Arabic, and, next, from the original Greek. Aris-
totle had been studied in England by Grosseteste (d. 1253),
and expounded abroad by the great Dominican, Albertus
Magnus (d. 1280), and his famous pupil, Thomas Aquinas
(d. 1274). Among the keenest critics of the Schoolmen and of
the recent translations of Aristotle was Roger Bacon (d. 1294),
whose Opus majus has been recognized as the Encyclopedic and
the Organon of the i3th century. His knowledge of Greek, as
shown in his Greek Grammar (first published in 1902), was
clearly derived from the Greeks of his own day. The medieval
dependence on the authority of Aristotle gradually diminished.
This was partly due to the recovery of some of the lost works
of ancient literature, and the transition from the middle ages
to the revival of learning was attended by a general widening
of the range of classical studies and by a renewed interest in
Plato.

The classical learning of the middle ages was largely second-
hand. It was often derived from glossaries, from books of
elegant extracts,or from comprehensive encyclopaedias. Among
the compilers of these last were Isidore and Hrabanus, William
of Conches and Honorius of Autun, Bartholomaeus Anglicus
(fl. 1250), Vincent of Beauvais (d. 1264), and, lastly, Brunetto
Latini (d. 1290), the earlier contemporary of Dante. For
Aristotle, as interpreted by Albertus Magnus and Thomas
Aquinas, Dante has the highest regard. To the Latin transla-

tions of Aristotle and to his interpreters he refers in more than
three hundred passages, while the number of his references to
the Latin translation of the Timaeus of Plato is less than
ten. His five great pagan poets are Homer, Virgil, Horace,
Ovid, Lucan; Statius he regards as a " Christian" converted
by Virgil's Fourth Eclogue. His standard authors in Latin
prose are Cicero, Livy, Pliny, Frontinus and Orosius. His
knowledge of Greek was practically nil. Latin was the language
of his political treatise, De Monarchia, and even that of his
defence of the vulgar tongue,. De Vulgari Eloquio. He is, in a
limited sense, a precursor of the Renaissance, but he is far more
truly to be regarded as the crowning representative of the
spirit of the middle ages.

(iv.) The Modern Age. (a) Our fourth period is ushered
in by the age of the Revival of Learning in Italy (c. 1350-1527).
Petrarch (1304-1374) has been well described as IM
" the first of modern men." In contrast with the
Schoolmen of the middle ages, he has no partiality for Aristotle.
He was interested in Greek, and, a full century before the fall
of Constantinople, he was in possession of MSS. of Homer and
Plato, though his knowledge of the language was limited to the
barest rudiments. For that knowledge, scanty as it was, he was
indebted to Leontius Pilatus, with whose aid Boccaccio (1313-
1375) became " the first of modern men " to study Greek to some
purpose during the three years that Leontius spent as his guest
in Florence (1360-1363). It was also at Florence that Greek
was taught in the next generation by Chrysoloras (in 1396-1400).
Another generation passed, and the scholars of the East and
West met at the council of Florence (1439) One of the envoys
of the Greeks, Gemistus Pletho, then inspired Cosimo dei
Medici with the thought of founding an academy for the study
of Plato. The academy was founded, and, in the age of Lorenao,
Plato and Plotinus were translated into Latin by Marsilio
Ficino (d. 1499). The Apology and Crito, the Phaedo, Phaedrus
and Gorgias of Plato, as well as speeches of Demosthenes and
Aeschines, with the Oeconomics, Ethics and Politics of Aristotle,
had already been translated by Leonardo Bruni (d. 1444); the
Rhetoric by Filelfo (1430), and Plato's Republic by Decembrio
(1439). A comprehensive scheme for translating the principal
Greek prose authors into Latin was carried out at Rome by the
founder of the manuscript collections of the Vatican, Nicholas V.
(1447-1455), who had belonged to the literary circle of Cosimo
at Florence. The translation of Aristotle was entrusted to
three of the learned Greeks who had already arrived in Italy,
Trapezuntius, Gaza and Bessarion, while other authors were
undertaken by Italian scholars such as Guarino, Valla, Decembrio
and Perotti. Among the scholars of Italian birth, probably the
only one in this age who rivalled the Greeks as a public expositor
of their own literature was Politian (1454-1494), who lectured
on Homer and Aristotle in Florence, translated Herodian, and
was specially interested in the Latin authors of the Silver Age
and in the text of the Pandects of Justinian. It will be observed
that the study of Greek had been resumed in Florence half a
century before the fall of Constantinople, and that the principal
writers of Greek prose had been translated into Latin before
that event.

Meanwhile, the quest of MSS. of the Latin classics had been
actively pursued. Petrarch had discovered Cicero's Speech pro
Archia at Liege (1333) and the Letters to Atlicus and Quinlus at
Verona (1345). Boccaccio had discovered Martial and Ausonius,
and had been the first of the human'sts to be familiar with Varro
and Tacitus, while Salutati had recovered Cicero's letters Ad
Familiares (1389). During the council of Constance, Poggio, the
papal secretary, spent in the quest of MSS. the interval between
May 1415 and November 1417, during which he was left at
leisure by the vacancy in the apostolic see.

Thirteen of Cicero's speeches were found by him at Cluny and
Langres, and elsewhere in France or Germany; the commentary
of Asconius, a complete Quintilian, and a large part of Valerius
Flaccus were discovered at St Gallen. A second expedition to
that monastery and to others in the neighbourhood led to the
recovery of Lucretius, Manilius, Silius Italicus and Ammianus

CLASSICS

453

Marcellinus, while the Silvae of Statius were recovered shortly
afterwards. A complete MS. of Cicero, De Oratore, Brutus and
Orator, was found by Bishop Landriani at Lodi (1421). Cornelius
Nepos was discovered by Traversari in Padua (1434). The
Agricola, Gertftania and Dialogue of Tacitus reached Italy from
Germany in 1455, and the early books of the Annals in 1508.
Pliny's Panegyric was discovered by Aurispa at Mainz (1433),
and his correspondence with Trajan by Fra Giocondo in Paris
about 1500.

Greek MSS. were brought from the East by Aurispa, who in
1423 returned with no less than two hundred and thirty-eight,
including the celebrated Laurentian MS. of Aeschylus, Sophocles
and Apollonius P-hodius. A smaller number was brought from
Constantinople by Filelfo (1427), while Quintus Smyrnaeus was
discovered in south Italy by Bessarion, who presented his own
collection of MSS. to the republic of Venice and thus led to the
foundation of the library of St Mark's (1468). As the emissary of
Lorenzo, Janus Lascaris paid two visits to the East, returning
from his second visit in 1492 with two hundred MSS. from
Mount Athos.

The Renaissance theory of a humanistic education is illus-
trated by several treatises still extant. In 1392 Vergerio
addressed to a prince of Padua the first treatise which methodi-
cally maintains the claims of Latin as an essential part of a
liberal education. Eight years later, he was learning Greek from
Chrysoloras. Among the most distinguished pupils of the latter
was Leonardo Bruni, who, about 1405, wrote " the earliest
humanistic tract on education expressly addressed to a lady."
He here urges that the foundation of all true learning is a " sound
and thorough knowledge of Latin," and draws up a course of
reading, in which history is represented by Livy, Sallust, Curtius,
and Caesar; oratory by Cicero; and poetry by Virgil. The same
year saw the birth of Maffeo Vegio, whose early reverence for the
muse of Virgil and whose later devotion to the memory of
Monica have left their mark on the educational treatise which he
wrote a few years before his death in 1458. The authors he
recommends include " Aesop " and Sallust, the tragedies of
Seneca and the epic poets, especially Virgil, whom he interprets in
an allegorical sense. He is in favour of an early simultaneous
study of a wide variety of subjects, to be followed later by the
special study of one or two. Eight years before the death of
Vegio, Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini (Pius II.) had composed a
brief treatise on education in the form of a letter to Ladislaus, the
young king of Bohemia and Hungary. The Latin poets to be
studied include Virgil, Lucan, Statius, Ovid's Metamorphoses, and
(with certain limitations) Horace, Juvenal and Persius, as well as
Plautus, Terence and the tragedies of Seneca; the prose authors
recommended are Cicero, Livy and Sallust. The first great
school of the Renaissance was that established by Vittorino da
Feltre at Mantua, where he resided for the last twenty-two years
of his life (1424-1446). Among the Latin authors studied were
Virgil and Lucan, with selections from Horace, Ovid and Juvenal,
besides Cicero and Quintilian, Sallust and Curtius, Caesar and
Livy. The Greek authors were Homer, Hesiod, Pindar and the
dramatists, with Herodotus, Xenophon and Plato, Isocrates and
Demosthenes, Plutarch and Arrian.

Meanwhile, Guarino had been devoting five years to the training
of the eldest son of the marquis of Ferrara. At Ferrara he spent
the last thirty years of his long life (1370-1460), producing text-
books of Greek and Latin grammar, and translations from
Strabo and Plutarch. His method may be gathered from his
son's treatise, De Ordine Docendi et Studendi. In that treatise
the essential marks of an educated person are, not only ability to
write Latin verse, but also, a point of " at least equal import-
ance," " familiarity with the language and literature of Greece."
" Without a knowledge of Greek, Latin scholarship itself is, in
any real sense, impossible " (1459).

By the fall of Constantinople in 1453, " Italy (in the eloquent
phrase of Carducci) became sole heir and guardian of the ancient
civilization," but its fall was in no way necessary for the revival
of learning, which had begun a century before. Bessarion,
Theodorus Gaza, Georgius Trepezuntius, Argyropulus, Chal-

condyles, all had reached Italy before 1453. A few more Greeks
fled to Italy after that date, and among these were Janus
Lascaris, Musurus and Callierges. All three were of signal service
in devoting their knowledge of Greek to perpetuating and
popularizing the Greek classics with the aid of the newly-
invented art of printing. That art had been introduced into
Italy by the German printers, Sweynheym and Pannartz, who
had worked under Fust at Mainz. At Subiaco and at Rome they
had produced in 1465-1471 the earliest editions of Cicero, De
Oratore and the Letters, and eight other Latin authors.

The printing of Greek began at Milan with the Greek grammar
of Constantine Lascaris (1476). At Florence the earliest editions
of Homer (1488) and Isocrates (1493) had been produced by
Demetrius Chalcondyles, while Janus Lascaris was the first to
edit the Greek anthology, Apollonius Rhodius, and parts of
Euripides, Callimachus and Lucian (1494-1496). In 1494-1515
Aldus Manutius published at Venice no less than twenty-seven
editiones principes of Greek authors and of Greek works of
reference, the authors including Aristotle, Theophrastus,
Theocritus, Aristophanes, Thucydides, Sophocles, Herodotus,
Euripides, Demosthenes (and the minor Attic orators), Pindar,
Plato and Athenaeus. In producing Plato, Athenaeus and
Aristophanes, the scholar-printer was largely aided by Musurus,
who also edited the Aldine Pausanias (1516) and the Elymo-
logicum printed in Venice by another Greek immigrant,
Callierges (1499).

The Revival of Learning in Italy ends with the sack of Rome
(1527). Before 1525 the study of Greek had begun to decline in
Italy, but meanwhile an interest in that language had been
transmitted to the lands beyond the Alps.

In the study of Latin the principal aim of the Italian humanists
was the imitation of the style of their classical models. In the
case of poetry, this imitative spirit is apparent in Petrarch's
Africa, and in the Latin poems of Politian, Pontano, Sannazaro,
Vida and many others. Petrarch was not only the imitator
of Virgil, who had been the leading name in Latin letters through-
out the middle ages; it was the influence of Petrarch that gave
a new prominence to Cicero. The imitation of Cicero was carried
on with varying degrees of success by humanists such as Gas-
parino da Barzizza (d. 1431), who introduced a new style of
epistolary Latin; by Paolo Cortesi, who discovered the impor-
tance of a rhythmical structure in the composition of Ciceronian
prose (1490); and by the accomplished secretaries of Leo X.,
Bembo and Sadoleto. Both of these papal secretaries were
mentioned in complimentary terms by Erasmus in his celebrated
dialogue, the Ciceronianus (1528), in which no less than one
hundred and six Ciceronian scholars of all nations are briefly
and brilliantly reviewed, the slavish imitation of Cicero de-
nounced, and the law laid down that " to speak with propriety
we must adapt ourselves to the age in which we live an age
that differs entirely from that of Cicero." One of the younger
Ciceronians criticized by Erasmus was Longolius, who had
died at Padua in 1522. The cause of the Ciceronians was de-
fended by the elder Scaliger in 1531 and 1536, and by Etienne
Dolet in 1535, and the controversy was continued by other
scholars down to the year 1610. Meanwhile, in Italy, a strict
type of Ciceronianism was represented by Paulus Manutius
(d. 1574), and a freer and more original form of Latinity by
Muretus (d. 1585).

Before touching on the salient points in the subsequent
centuries, in connexion with the leading nations of Europe,
we may briefly note the cosmopolitan position of Erasmus
(1466-1536), who, although he was a native of the Netherlands,
was far more closely connected with France, England, Italy,
Germany and Switzerland, than with the land of his birth.
He was still a school-boy at Deventer when his high promise
was recognized by Rudolf Agricola, " the first (says Erasmus)
who brought from Italy some breath of a better culture." Late
in 1499 Erasmus spent some two months at Oxford, where he
met Colet; it was in London that he met More and Linacre and
Grocyn, who had already ceased to lecture at Oxford. At Paris,
in 1 500, he was fully conscious that " without Greek the amplest

454

CLASSICS

knowledge of Latin was imperfect"; and, during his three
years in Italy (1506-1509), he worked quietly at Greek in Bologna
and 'attended the lectures of Musurus in Padua. In October
1511 he was teaching Greek to a little band of students in Cam-
bridge; at Basel in 1516 he produced his edition of the Greek
Testament, the first that was actually published; and during
the next few years he was helping to organize the college lately
founded at Louvain for the study of Greek and Hebrew, as well
as Latin. Seven years at Basel were followed by five at Freiburg,
and by two more at Basel, where he died. The names of all
these places are suggestive of the wide range of his influence.
By his published works, his Colloquies, his Adages and his
Apophthegms, he was the educator of the nations of Europe.
An educational aim is also apparent in his editions of Terence
and of Seneca, while his Latin translations made his contem-
poraries more familiar with Greek poetry and prose, and his
Paraphrase promoted a better understanding of the Greek
Testament. He was not so much a scientific scholar as a keen
and brilliant man of letters and a widely influential apostle of
humanism.

In France the most effective of the early teachers of Greek
was Janus Lascaris (1495-1503). Among his occasional pupils
France was Budaeus (d. 1540), who prompted Francis I.
to found in 1530 the corporation of the Royal Readers
in Greek, as well as Latin and Hebrew, afterwards famous
under the name of the College de France. In the study of
Greek one of the earliest links between Italy and Germany
Germany was Rudolf Agricola, who had learned Greek under
Gaza at Ferrara. It was in Paris that his younger con-
temporary Reuchlin acquired part of that proficiency in Greek
which attracted the notice of Argyropulus, whose admiration
of Reuchlin is twice recorded by Melanchthon, who soon after-
wards was pre-eminent as the " praeceptor " of Germany.

In the age of the revival the first Englishman who studied
Greek was a Benedictine monk, William of Selling (d. 1494),
England wno P a ^ two vls ^ to Italy. At Canterbury he
inspired with his own love of learning his nephew,
Linacre, who joined him on one of those visits, studied Greek
at Florence under Politian and Chalcondyles, and apparently
stayed in Italy from 1485 to 1499. His translation of a treatise
of Galen was printed at Cambridge in 1521 by Siberch, who,
in the same year and place, was the first to use Greek type in
England. Greek had been first taught to some purpose at
Oxford by Grocyn on his return from Italy in 1491. One of the
younger scholars of the day was William Lilye, who picked up
his Greek at Rhodes on his way to Palestine and became the
first high-master of the school founded by Colet at St Paul's

(1510)-

(6) That part of the Modern Period of classical studies which
succeeds the age of the Revival in Italy may be subdivided
into three periods distinguished by the names of the nations
most prominent in each.

i. The first may be designated the French period. It begins
with the foundation of the Royal Readers by Francis I. in 1530,
and it may perhaps be regarded as extending to 1700.
period*" This period is marked by a many-sided erudition
rather than by any special cult of the form of the
classical languages. It is the period of the great polyhistors of
France. It includes Budaeus and the elder Scaliger (who
settled in France in 1529), with Turnebus and Lambinus, and
the learned printers Robertas and Henricus Stephanus, while
among its foremost names are those of the younger (and greater)
Scaliger, Casaubon and Salmasius. Of these, Casaubon ended
his days in England (1614); Scaliger, by leaving France for the
Netherlands in 1 593, for a time at least transferred the supremacy
in scholarship from the land of his birth to that of his adoption.
The last sixteen years of his life (i 593-1609) were spent at Leiden,
which was also for more than twenty years (1631-1653) the
home of Salmasius, and for thirteen (1579-1592) that of Lipsius
(d.i6o6). In the i7th century the erudition of France is best
represented by "Henricus Valesius," Du Cange and Mabillon.
In the same period Italy was represented by Muretus, who

had left France in 1563, and by her own sons, Nizolius, Victorius,
Robortelli and Sigonius, followed in the I7th century by R.
Fabretti. The Netherlands, in the i6th, claim W. Canter as
well as Lipsius, and, in the i7th, G. J. Vossius, Johannes Meur-
sius, the elder and younger Heinsius, Hugo Grotius, J. F.
Gronovius, J. G. Graevius and J. Perizonius. Scotland, in the
i6th, is represented by George Buchanan; England by Sir John
Cheke, Roger Ascham, and Sir Henry Savile, and, in the I7th,
by Thomas Gataker, Thomas Stanley, Henry Dodwell, and
Joshua Barnes; Germany by Janus Gruter, Ezechiel Spanheim
and Chr. Cellarius, the first two of whom were also connected
with other countries.

We have already seen that a strict imitation of Cicero was
one of the characteristics of the Italian humanists. In and
after the middle of 'the i6th century a correct and
pure Latinity was promoted by the educational
system of the Jesuits; but with the growth of the
vernacular literatures Latin became more and more exclusively
the language of the learned. Among the most conspicuous
Latin writers of the i?th century are G. J. Vossius and the
Heinsii, with Salmasius and his great adversary, Milton. Latin
was also used in works on science and philosophy, such as Sir
Isaac Newton's Principia (1687), and many of the works of
Leibnitz (1646-1705). In botany the custom followed by John
Ray (1627-1705) in his Historia Plantar-urn and in other works
was continued in 1760 by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae.
The last important work in English theology written in Latin
was George Bull's Defensio Fidei Nicenae (1685). The use of
Latin in diplomacy died out towards the end of the I7th century;
but, long after that date negotiations with the German empire
were conducted in Latin, and Latin was the language of the
debates in the Hungarian diet down to 1825.

2. During the i8th century the classical scholarship of the
Netherlands was under the healthy and stimulating influence
of Bentley (1662-1742), who marks the beginning The

of the English and Dutch period, mainly represented English
in Holland by Bentley's younger contemporary and "ndDatch
correspondent, Tiberius Hemsterhuys (1685-1766), periolt
and the latter scholar's great pupil David Ruhnken (1723-1798).
It is the age of historical and literary, as well as verbal, criticism.
Both of these were ably represented in the first half of the
century by Bentley himself, while, in the twenty years between
1782 and 1803, the verbal criticism of the tragic poets of Athens
was the peculiar province of Richard Person (1759-1808), who
was born in the same year as F. A. Wolf. Among other repre-
sentatives of England were Jeremiah Markland and Jonathan
Toup, Thomas Tyrwhitt and Thomas Twining, Samuel Parr
and Sir William Jones; and of the Netherlands, the two Bur-
manns and L. Kiister, Arnold Drakenborch and Wesseling,
Lodewyk Valckenaer and Daniel Wyttenbach (1746-1829).
Germany is represented by Fabricius and J. M. Gesner, J. A.
Ernesti and J. J. Reiske, J. J. Winckelmann and Chr. G. Heyne;
France by B. de Montfaucon and J. B. G. D. Villoison; Alsace
by French subjects of German origin, R. F. P. Brunck and J.
Schweighauser; and Italy by E. Forcellini and Ed. Corsini.

3. The German period begins with F. A. Wolf (1759-1824),
whose Prolegomena to Homer appeared in 1795. He is the
founder of the systematic and encyclopaedic type

of scholarship embodied in the comprehensive term J* e

Allertumswissenschaft, or "a scientific knowledge period.

of the old classical world." The tradition of Wolf

was ably continued by August Bockh (d. 1867), one of the

leaders of the historical and antiquarian school, brilliantly

represented in the previous generation by B. G. Niebuhr (d.

1831).

In contrast with this school we have the critical and gram-
matical school of Gottfried Hermann (d. 1848). During this
period, while Germany remains the most productive of the
nations, scholarship has been more and more international
and cosmopolitan in its character.

igth Century. We must here be content with simply recording
the names of a few of the more prominent representatives of

CLASSICS

455

the iqth century in some of the most obvious departments of
classical learning. Among natives of Germany the leading

scholars have been, in Greek, C. F. W. Jacobs, C. A.
Oemaay. Lobeck) L Dissen> j. Bekker, A. Meineke, C. Lehrs,
W. Dindorf, T. Bergk, F. W. Schneidewin, H. Kochly, A. Nauck,
H. Usener, G. Kaibel, F. Blass and W. Christ; in Latin, C.
Lachmann, F. Ritschl, M. Haupt, C. Halm, M. Hertz, A. Fleck-
eisen, E. Bahrens, L. Muller and O. Ribbeck. Grammar and
kindred subjects have been represented by P. Buttmann, A.
Matthiae. F. W. Thiersch, C. G. Zumpt, G. Bernhardy, C. W.
Kruger, R. Kuhner and H. L. Ahrens; and lexicography by
F. Passow and C. E. Georges. Among editors of Thucydides
we have had E. F. Poppo and J. Classen; among editors of
Demosthenes or other orators, G. H. Schafer, J. T. Vomel, G. E.
Benseler, A. Westermann, G. F. Schomann, H. Sauppe, and C.
Rehdantz (besides Blass, already mentioned). The Plalonisls
include F. Schleiermacher, G. A. F. Ast, G. Stallbaum and the
many-sided C. F. Hermann; the Aristotelians, C. A. Brandis,
A. Trendelenburg, L. Spengel, H. Bonitz, C. Prantl, J. Bernays
and F. Susemihl. The history of Greek philosophy was written
by F. Ueberweg, and, more fully, by E. Zeller. Greek history
was the domain of G. Droysen, Max Duncker, Ernst Curtius,
Arnold Schafer and Adolf Holm; Greek antiquities that of
M. H. Meier and G. F. Schomann and of G. Gilbert; Greek
epigraphy that of J. Franz, A. Kirchhoff, W. von Hartel, U.
Kohler, G. Hirschfeld and W. Dittenberger; Roman history
and constitutional antiquities that of Theodor Mommsen (1817-
1903), who was associated in Latin epigraphy with E. Hiibner
and W. Henzen. Classical art and archaeology were represented
by F. G. Welcker, E. Gerhard, C. O. Muller, F. Wieseler, O.
Jahn, C. L. Urlichs, H. Brunn, C. B. Stark, J. Overbeck, W.
Helbig, O. Benndorf and A. Furtwangler; mythology (with
cognate subjects) by G. F. Creuzer, P. W. Forchhammer, L.
Preller, A. Kuhn, J. W. Mannhardt and E. Rohde; and com-
parative philology by F. Bopp, A. F. Pott, T. Benfey, W. Corssen,
Georg Curtius, A. Schleicher and H. Steinthal. The history of
classical philology in Germany was written by Conrad Bursian
(1830-1883).

In France we have J. F. Boissonade, J. A. Letronne, L. M.
Quicherat, M. P. Littre, B. Saint-Hilaire, J. V. Duruy, B. E.

Miller, fi. Egger, C. V. Daremberg, C. Thurot, L. E.

Benoist, O. Riemann and C. Graux; (in archaeology)
A. C. Quatremere de Quincy, P. le Bas, C. F. M. Texier, the due
de Luynes, the Lenormants (C. and F.), W. H. Waddington

and 0. Rayet; and (in comparative philology) Victor
HoUand. Henry. Greece was ably represented in France by

A. Roraes. In Belgium we have P. Willems and
the Baron De Witte (long resident in France); in Holland,
C. G. Cobet; in Denmark, J. N. Madvig. Among the scholars
p . of Great Britain and Ireland may be mentioned:

P. Elmsley, S. Butler, T. Gaisford, P. P. Dobree,
J. H. Monk, C. J. Blomfield, W. Veitch, T. H. Key, B. H.
Kennedy, W. Ramsay, T. W. Peile, R. Shilleto, W. H.Thompson,
J. W. Donaldson, Robert Scott, H. G. Liddell, C. Badham, G.
Rawlinson, F. A. Paley, B. Jowett, T. S. Evans, E. M. Cope,
H. A. J. Munro, W. G. Clark, Churchill Babington, H. A. Holden,
J. Riddell, J. Conington, W. Y. Sellar, A. Grant, W. D. Geddes,
D.B. Monro, H. Nettleship, A. Palmer, R. C. Jebb, A. S. Wilkins,
W. G. Rutherford and James Adam; among historians and
archaeologists, W. M. Leake, H. Fynes-Clinton, G. Grote and
C. Thirlwall, T. Arnold, G. Long and Charles Merivale, Sir
Henry Maine, Sir Charles Newton and A. S. Murray, Robert
Burn and H. F. Pelham. Among comparative philologists
Max Muller belonged to Germany by birth and to England by
adoption, while, in the United States, his ablest counterpart
was W.D. Whitney. B. L. Gildersleeve, W. W. Goodwin, Henry
Drisler, J. B. Greenough and G. M. Lane were prominent
American classical scholars.

The ipth century in Germany was marked by the organization
of the great series of Greek and Latin inscriptions, and by
the foundation of the Archaeological Institute in Rome (1820),
which was at first international in its character. The Athenian

Institute was founded in 1874. Schools at Athens and Rome
were founded by France in 1846 and 1873, by the United States
of America in 1882 and 1895, and by England in 1883 and 1901;
and periodicals are published by the schools of all these
four nations. An interest in Greek studies (and especially S 6 * 00 '* '

. . , . Rome sad

in art and archaeology) has been maintained in Athens.
England by the Hellenic Society, founded in 1879, with
its organ the Journal of Hellenic Studies. A further interest in
Greek archaeology has been awakened in all civilized lands by
the excavations of Troy, Mycenae, Tiryns, Epidaurus, Sparta,
Olympia, Dodona, Delphi, Delos and of important sites in Crete.
The extensive discoveries of papyri in Egypt have greatly
extended our knowledge of the administration of that country in
the times of the Ptolemies, and have materially added to the
existing remains of Greek literature. Scholars have been
enabled to realize in their own experience some of the enthusiasm
that attended the recovery of lost classics during the Revival of
Learning. They have found themselves living in a new age of
editiones principes, and have eagerly welcomed the first publica-
tion of Aristotle's Constitution of Athens (1891), Herondas (1891)
and Bacchylides (1897), as well as the Persae of Timotheus of
Miletus (1903), with some of the Paeans of Pindar (1907) and
large portions of the plays of Menander (1898-1899 and 1907).
The first four of these were first edited by F. G. Kenyon,
Timotheus by von Wilamowitz-Mollendorff , Menander partly by
J. Nicole and G. Lefebre and partly by B. P. Grenfell and A. S.
Hunt, who have also produced fragments of the Paeans of
Pindar and many other classic texts (including a Greek con-
tinuation of Thucydides and a Latin epitome of part of Livy) in
the successive volumes of the Oxyrhynchus papyri and other
kindred publications.

AUTHORITIES. For a full bibliography of the history of classical
philology, see E. Hiibner, Grundriss zu Vorlesungen iiber die Ceschichte
und Encyklopadie der klassischen Philologie (2nd ed., 1889); and for
a brief outline, C. L. Urlichs in Iwan von Miiller's Handbuch, vol. i.
(and ed., 1891). 33-145; S. Reinach, Manuel de philologie classique
(and ed.. 1883-1884; nouveau tirage 1907), 1-22; and A. Gude-
mann, Grundris (Leipzig, 1907), pp. 224 seq. For the Alexandrian
period, F. Susemihl, Gesch. der griechiscnen Litteratur in der Alexan-
drinerzeit (2 vols., 1891-1892): cf. F. A. Eckstein, Nomenclalor
Philologorum (1871), and W. Pokel, Philologisches Schriftsteller-
Lexikon (1882). For the period ending A.D. 400, see A. Grafenhan,
Gesch. der klass. Philologie (4 vols., 1843-1850) ; for the Byzantine
period, C. Krumbacher in Iwan von Muller, vol. ix. (l) (and ed.,
1897) ; for the Renaissance, G. Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des class.
Alterlums (3rd ed., 1894, with bibliography); L. Geiger, Renais-
sance und Humanismus in Italien und Deutschland (1882, with
bibliography); J. A. Symonds, Revival of Learning (1877, &c.);
R. C. Jebb, in Cambridge Modern History, i. (1902), 532-584; and
J. E. Sandys, Harvard Lectures on the Revival of Learning (1905) ;
also P. de Nolhac, Petrarque et I'humanisme (2nd ed., 1907). On
the history of Greek scholarship in France, E. Egger, L'Histoire
d'hellenisme en France (1869) ; Mark Pattison. Essays, i., and Life
of Casaubon; in Germany, C. Bursian, Gesch. der class. Philologie
in Deutschland (1883); m Holland, L. Muller, Gesch. der class.
Philologie in den Niederlanden (1869); in Belgium, L. C. Roersch in
E. P. van Bemmel's Patria Belgica, vol. iii. (1875), 407-432; and
in England, R. C. Jebb, " Erasmus " (1890) and " Bentley (1882),
and " Porson " (in Diet. Nat. Biog.). On the subject as a whole
see J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship (with chronological
tables, portraits and facsimiles), vol. i. ; From the Sixth Century
B.C. to the end of the Middle Ages (1903, 2nd ed., 1906); vols. ii.
and iii., From the Revival of Learning to the Present Day (1908),
including the history of scholarship in all the countries of Europe
and in the United States of America. See also the separate bio-
graphical articles in this Encyclopaedia.

(B) THE STUDY OF THE CLASSICS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION
After the Revival of Learning the study of the classics owed
much to the influence and example of Vittorino da Feltre,
Budaeus, Erasmus and Melanchthon, who were among the
leading representatives of that revival in Italy, France, England
and Germany.

i. In England, the two great schools of Winchester (1382) and
Eton (1440) had been founded during the life of Vittorino, but
before the revival had reached Britain. The first
school 1 which came into being under the immediate
influence of humanism was that founded at St Paul's by Dean
1 See also the article SCHOOLS.

CLASSICS

Colet (1510), the friend of Erasmus, whose treatise De pueris
institttendis (1529) has its English counterpart in the Governor of
Sir Thomas Elyot (1531). The highmaster of St Paul's was to be
" learned in good and clean Latin, and also in Greek, if such may
be gotten." The master and the second master of Shrewsbury
(founded 1551) were to be " well able to make a Latin verse, and
learned in the Greek tongue." The influence of the revival
extended to many other schools, such as Christ's Hospital (1552),
Westminster (1560), and Merchant Taylors' (1561); Rep ton
(1557), Rugby (1567) and Harrow (1571).

At the grammar school of Stratford-on-Avon, about 1571-
1577, Shakespeare presumably studied Terence, Horace, Ovid
Shake- anc ^ ^ ne ^ uco ^ cs f Baptista Mantuanus (1502). In
spean and the early plays he quotes Ovid and Seneca. Similarly,
the in Titus Andronicus (iv. 2) he says, of Integer vitae:

IZbZoL**" " >Tis a verse in Horace ; J know it well: I read it in
the grammar long ago." In Henry VI. part ii. sc. 7,
when Jack Cade charges Lord Say with having "most
traitorously corrupted the youth of the realm in erecting a
grammar-school," Lord Say replies that " ignorance is the curse
of God, knowledge the wing wherewith we fly to heaven." In
the Taming of the Shre-iv (I. i. 157) a line is quoted as from
Terence (Andria, 74) : " redime te captum quant queas minima."
This is taken verbatim from Lilye's contribution to the Brevis
Institutio, originally composed by Colet, Erasmus and Lilye for
St Paul's School (1527), and ultimately adopted as the

Early text-
books.

Eton Latin Grammar. The Westminster Greek Grammar

Ascham.

of Grant (1575) was succeeded by that of Camden
(1595), founded mainly on a Paduan text-book, and apparently
adopted in 1596 by Sir Henry Savile at Eton, where it long
remained in use as the Eton Greek Grammar, while at West-
minster itself it was superseded by that of Busby (1663). The
text-books to be used at Harrow in 1590 included Hesiod and
some of the Greek orators and historians.

In one of the Paslon Letters (i. 301) , an Eton boy of 1468 quotes
two Latin verses of his own composition. Nearly a century later,
on ^ ew Year's Day, 1 560, forty-four boys of the school
presented Latin verses to Queen Elizabeth. The queen's
former tutor, Roger Ascham, in his Scholemaster (1570), agrees
with his Strassburg friend, J. Sturm, in making the imitation of
the Latin classics the main aim of instruction. He is more
original when he insists on the value of translation and retransla-
tion for acquiring a mastery over Latin prose composition, and
when he protests against compelling boys to converse in Latin
too soon. Ascham's influence is apparent in the Positions of
Mulcaster, who in 1581 insists on instruction in English before
admission to a grammar-school, while he is distinctly in advance
of his age in urging the foundation of a special college for the
training of teachers.

Cleland's Institution of a Young Nobleman ( 1 607) owes much to
the Italian humanists. The author follows Ascham in protesting
against compulsory Latin conversation, and only
slightly modifies his predecessor's method of teaching
Latin prose. When Latin grammar has been mastered, he
bids the teacher lead his pupil " into the sweet fountain and
spring of all Arts and Science," that is, Greek learning which is
" as profitable for the understanding as the Latin tongue for
speaking." In the study of ancient history, " deeds and not
words" are the prime interest. "In Plutarch pleasure is so
mixed and confounded with profit, that I esteem the reading of
him as a paradise for a curious spirit to walk in at all time."
T$a,conmhis Advancement of Learning (160$) notesitas " the first
distemper of learning when men study words and not matter "
(I. iv. 3) ; he also observes that the Jesuits " have much
Bg quickened and strengthened the state of learning "

/mn, (I- vi- X S)- He is on the side of reform in education;
Petty. ' he waves the humanist aside with the words : vetustas
cessit, ratio incit. Milton, in his Tractate on Education
(1644), advances further on Bacon's lines, protesting against the
length of time spent on instruction in language, denouncing
merely verbal knowledge, and recommending the study of a
large number of classical authors for the sake of their subject-

matter, and with a view to their bearing on practical life. His
ideal place of education is an institution combining a school and
a university. Sir William Petty, the economist (1623-1687),
urged the establishment of ergastula literaria for instruction of a
purely practical kind. Locke, who had been educated , .
at Winchester and had lectured on Greek at Oxford
(1660), nevertheless almost completely eliminated Greek from
the scheme which he unfolded in his Thoughts on Education
(1693). With Locke, the moral and practical qualities of virtue
and prudence are of the first consideration. Instruction, he
declares, is but the least part of education; his aim is to train,
not men of letters or men of science, but practical men armed for
the battle of life. Latin was, above all, to be learned through use,
with as little grammar as possible, but with the reading of easy
Latin texts, and with no repetition, no composition. Greek he
absolutely proscribes, reserving a knowledge of that language to
the learned and the lettered, and to professional scholars.

Throughout the i8th century and the early part of the igth,
the old routine went on in England with little variety, and with
no sign of expansion. The range of studies was xroo/rf
widened, however, at Rugby in 1828-1842 by Thomas
Arnold, whose interest in ancient history and geography, as a
necessary part of classical learning, is attested by his edition of
Thucydides; while his influence was still further extended when
those who had been trained in his traditions became head masters
of other schools.

During the rest of the century the leading landmarks are the
three royal commissions known by the names of their chairmen :
(i) Lord Clarendon's on nine public schools, Eton, Winchester,
Westminster, Charterhouse, Harrow, Rugby, Shrewsbury, St
Paul's and Merchant Taylors' (1861-1864), resulting in the
Public Schools Act of 1868; (2) Lord Taunton's on 782 endowed
schools (1864-1867), followed by the act of 1869; and (3) Mr
Bryce's on secondary education (1894-1895).

A certain discontent with the current traditions of classical
training found expression in the Essays on a Liberal Education
(1867). The author of the first essay, C. S. Parker, Coatro-
closed his review of the reforms instituted in Germany versy on
and France by adding that in England there had cl * sslc * 1
been but little change. The same volume included a
critical examination of the "Theory of Classical Education" by
Henry Sidgwick, and an attack on compulsory Greek and Latin
verse composition by F. W. Farrar. The claims of verse com-
position have since been judiciously defended by the Hon.
Edward Lyttelton (1897), while a temperate and effective
restatement of the case for the classics may be found in Sir
Richard Jebb's Romanes Lecture on " Humanism in Education "
(1899).

The question of the position of Greek in secondary education
has from time to time attracted attention in connexion with the
requirement of Greek in Responsions at Oxford, and in the
Previous Examination at Cambridge.

In the Cambridge University Reporter for November 9, 1870, it
was stated that, " in order to provide adequate encouragement
for the study of Modern Languages and Natural
Science," the commissioners for endowed schools had
determined on the establishment of modern schools of
the first grade in which Greek would be excluded. The
commissioners feared that, so long as Greek was a sine qua non
at the universities, these schools would be cut off from direct
connexion with the universities, while the universities would in
some degree lose their control over a portion of the higher
culture of the nation. On the gth of March 1871 a syndicate
recommended that, in the Previous Examination, French and
German (taken together) should be allowed in place of Greek;
on the 27th of April this recommendation (which only affected
candidates for honours or for medical degrees) was rejected by
51 votes to 48.

All the other proposals and votes relating to Greek in the
Previous Examination in 1870-1873, 1878-1880, and 1891-1892
are set forth in the Cambridge University Reporter for November
n, 1904, pp. 202-205. I D November 1903 a syndicate was

CLASSICS

457

appointed to consider the studies and examinations of the uni-
versity, their report of November 1904 on the Previous Examina-
tion was fully discussed, and the speeches published in the
Reporter for December 17, 1904. In the course of the discussion
Sir Richard Jebb drew attention to the statistics collected by the
master of Emmanuel, Mr W. Chawner, showing that, out of 86
head masters belonging to the Head Masters' Conference whose
replies had been published, " about 56 held the opinion that the
exemption from Greek for all candidates for a degree would
endanger or altogether extinguish the study of Greek in the vast
majority of schools, while about 21 head masters held a different
opinion." On the 3rd of March 1905 a proposal for accepting
either French or German as an alternative for either Latin or
Greek in the Previous Examination was rejected by 1559 to 1052
votes, and on the 26th of May 1906 proposals distinguishing
between students in letters and students in science, and (inter
alia) requiring the latter to take either French or German for
either Latin or Greek in the Previous Examination, were rejected
by 746 to 241.

Meanwhile, at Oxford a proposal practically making Greek
optional with all undergraduates was rejected, in November 1902,
by 189 votes to 166; a preliminary proposal permitting students
of mathematics or natural science to offer one or more modern
languages in lieu of Greek was passed by 164 to 162 in February
1904, but on the zgth of November the draft of a statute to this
effect was thrown out by 200 to 164. In the course of the
controversy three presidents of the Royal Society, Lord Kelvin,
Lord Lister and Sir W. Huggins, expressed the opinion that the
proposed exemption was not beneficial to science students.

Incidentally, the question of " compulsory Greek " has
stimulated a desire for greater efficiency in classical teaching. In
The December 1903, a year before the most important of

classical the public discussions at Cambridge, the Classical
Associa- Association was founded in London. The aim of that
association is " to promote the development, and
maintain the well-being, of classical studies, and in particular (a)
to impress upon public opinion the claim of such studies to an
eminent place in the national scheme of education; (b) to
improve the practice of classical teaching by free discussion of its
scope and methods; (c) to encourage investigation and call
attention to new discoveries; (d) to create opportunities of
friendly intercourse and co-operation between all lovers of
classical learning in this country."

The question of the curriculum and the time-table in secondary
education has occupied the attention of the Classical Association,
the British Association and the Education Department
f Scotland. The general effect of the recommenda-
tions already made would be to begin the study of
foreign languages with French, and to postpone the study of
Latin to the age of twelve and that of Greek to the age of thirteen.
At the Head Masters' Conference of December 1907 a proposal to
lower the standard of Greek in the entrance scholarship examina-
tions of public schools was lost by 10 votes to 1 6, and the "British
Association report " was adopted with reservations in 1908.
In the case of secondary schools in receipt of grants of public
money (about 700 in England and 100 in Wales in 1907-1908),
" the curriculum and time-table must be approved by the Board
of Education." The Board has also a certain control over the
curriculum of schools under the Endowed Schools Acts and the
Charitable Trusts Acts, and also over that of schools voluntarily
applying for inspection with a view to being recognized as
efficient.

Further efficiency in classical education has been the aim of the
movement in favour of the reform of Latin pronunciation. In
Reform i&ji this movement resulted in Munro and Palmer's
in Latin Syllabus of Latin Pronunciation. The reform was
a- carr j e d forward at University College, London, by
Professor Key and by Professor Robinson Ellis in 1873,
and was accepted at Shrewsbury, Marlborough, Liverpool
College, Christ's Hospital, Dulwich, and the City of London
school. It was taken up anew -by the Cambridge Philological
Society in 1886, by the Modern Languages Association in 1901, by

the Classical Association in 1904-1905, and the Philological
Societies of Oxford and Cambridge in 1906. The reform was
accepted by the various bodies of head masters and assistant
masters in December 1906- January 1907, and the proposed
scheme was formally approved by the Board of Education in
February 1907.

See W. H. Woodward, Studies in Education during the Age of
the Renaissance (1906), chap, xiii.; Acland and Llewellin Smith,
Studies in Secondary Education, with introduction by James Bryce
(1892); Essays on a Liberal Education, ed. F. W. Farrar (1867);
R. C. Jebb, " Humanism in Education," Romanes Lecture of 1899,
reprinted with other lectures on cognate subjects in Essays and
Addresses (1907); Foster Watson, The Curriculum and Practice
of the English Grammar Schools up to 1660 (1908); "Greek at
Oxford," by a Resident, in The Times (December 27, 1904);
Cambridge University Reporter (November n and December 17,
1904) ; British Association Report on Curricula of Secondary Schools
(with an independent paper by Professor Armstrong on " The
Teaching of Classics "), (December 1907) ; W. H. D. Rouse in The
Year's Work in Classical Studies (1907 and 1908), chap. i. ; J. P.
Postgate, How to pronounce Latin (Appendix B, on " Recent Pro-
gress "), (1907). For further bibliographical details see pp. 875-890
of Dr Karl Breul's " Grossbritannien in Baumeister's Handbuch,
I. ii. 737-892 (Munich, 1897).

2. In France it was mainly with a view to promoting the
study of Greek that the corporation of Royal Readers was
founded by Francis I. in 1530 at the prompting of France.
Budaeus. In the university of Paris, which was
originally opposed to this innovation, the statutes of 1598
prescribed the study of Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, Theocritus,
Plato, Demosthenes and Isocrates (as well as the principal Latin
classics), and required the production of three exercises in Greek
or Latin in each week.

From the middle of the i6th century the elements of Latin
were generally learned from unattractive abridgments of the
grammar of the Flemish scholar, van Pauteren or
Despautere (d. 1520), which, in its original folio
editions of 1537-1538, was an excellent work. The
unhappy lot of those who -were compelled to learn their Latin
from the current abridgments was lamented by a Port-Royalist
in a striking passage describing the gloomy forest of le pays de
Despautere (Guyot, quoted in Sainte-Beuve's Port-Royal, iii. 429).
The first Latin grammar written in French was that of Pere de
Condren of the Oratoire (c. 1642), which was followed by the
Port-Royal Methode latine of Claude Lancelot (1644), and by
the grammar composed by Bossuet for the dauphin, and also
used by Fenelon for the instruction of the due de Bourgogne.
In the second half of the i?th century the rules of grammar
and rhetoric were simplified, and the time withdrawn from the
practice of composition (especially verse composition) trans-
ferred to the explanation and the study of authors.

Richelieu, in 1640, formed a scheme for a college in which
Latin was to have a subordinate place, while room was to be
found for the study of history and science, Greek, and Richelieu.
French and modern languages. Bossuet, in educating Bossuet,
the dauphin, added to the ordinary classical routine F * ael ">
represented by the extensive series of the " Delphin
Classics " the study of history and of science. A greater origin-
ality in the method of teaching the ancient languages was
exemplified by Fenelon, whose views were partially reflected
by the Abbe Fleury, who also desired the simplification of
grammar, the diminution of composition, and even the sup-
pression of Latin verse. Of the ordinary teaching of Greek in
his day, Fleury wittily observed that most boys " learned just
enough of that language to have a pretext for saying for the rest
of their lives that Greek was a subject easily forgotten."

In the 1 8th century Rollin, in his Traite des etudes (1726),
agreed with the Port - Royalists in demanding that Latin
grammars should be written in French, that the rules p ma
should be simplified and explained by a sufficient
number of examples, and that a more important place should
be assigned to translation than to composition. The supremacy
of Latin was the subject of a long series of attacks in the same
century. Even at the close of the previous century the brilliant
achievements of French literature had prompted La Bruyere

4-58

CLASSICS

Part-
Royal.

to declare in Des ouwages de I'esprit (about 1680), " We have at
last thrown off the yoke of Latinism "; and, in the same year,
Jacques Spon claimed in his correspondence the right to use the
French language in discussing points of archaeology.

Meanwhile, in 1563, notwithstanding the opposition of the
university of Paris, the Jesuits had succeeded in founding the
Collegium Claromontanum. After the accession of
jetuits. Henry IV. they were expelled from Paris and other
important towns in 1594, and not allowed to return
until 1609, when they found themselves confronted once more
by their rival, the university of Paris. They opened the doors of
their schools to the Greek and Latin classics, but they represented
the ancient masterpieces dissevered from their original historic
environment, as impersonal models of taste, as isolated standards
of style. They did much, however, for the cultivation of original
composition modelled on Cicero and Virgil. They have been
charged with paying an exaggerated attention to form, and
with neglecting the subject-matter of the classics. This neglect
is attributed to their anxiety to avoid the " pagan " element in
the ancient literature. Intensely conservative in their methods,
they kept up the system of using Latin in their grammars
(and in their oral instruction) long after it had been aban-
doned by others.

The use of French for these purposes was a characteristic of
the " Little Schools " of the Jansenists of Port- Royal (1643-1660).
The text-books prepared for them by Lancelot included
not only the above-mentioned Latin grammar (1644)
but also the M&hode grecque of 1655 and the Jardin
des ratines grecques (1657), which remained in use for two cen-
turies and largely superseded the grammar of Clenardus (1636)
andthe Tirociniumoi PereLabbe(i648). Greek began to decline
in the university about 1650, at the very time when the Port-
Royalists were aiming at its revival. During the brief existence
of their schools their most celebrated pupils were Tillemont
and Racine.

The Jesuits, on the other hand, claimed Corneille and Moliere,
as well as Descartes and Bossuet, Fontenelle, Montesquieu and
Voltaire. Of their Latin poets the best-known were Denis Petau
(d. 1652), Rene Rapin (d. 1687) and N. E. Sanadon (d. 1733).
In 1762 the Jesuits were suppressed, and more than one hundred
schools were thus deprived of their teachers. The university
of Paris, which had prompted their suppression, and the parlia-
ment, which had carried it into effect, made every endeavour
to replace them. The university took possession of the Collegium
Claromontanum, then known as the College Louis-le-Grand,
and transformed it into an Scale normale. Many of the Jesuit
schools were transferred to the congregations of the Oratoire
and the Benedictines, and to the secular clergy. On the eve of
the Revolution, out of a grand total of 562 classical schools,
384 were in the hands of the clergy and 178 in those of the
congregations.

The expulsion of the Jesuits gave a new impulse to the attacks
directed against all schemes of education in which Latin held
a prominent position. At the moment when the
university of Paris was, by the absence of its rivals,
placed in complete control of the education of France,
she found herself driven to defend the principles of
classical education against a crowd of assailants. All kinds of
devices were suggested for expediting the acquisition of Latin;
grammar was to be set aside; Latin was to be learned as a
" living language "; much attention was to be devoted to
acquiring an extensive vocabulary; and, " to save time,"
composition was to be abolished. To facilitate the reading of
Latin texts, the favourite method was the use of interlinear
translations, originally proposed by Locke, first popularized in
France by Dumarsais (1722), and in constant vogue down to the
time of the Revolution.

Early in the i8th century Rollin pleaded for the " utility
of Greek," while he described that language as the heritage of
the university of Paris. In 1753 Berthier feared that in thirty
years no one would be able to read Greek. In 1768 Rolland
declared that the university, which held Greek in high honour,

attacked.

Plnf

nevertheless had reason to lament that her students learnt little
of the language, and he traced this decline to the fact that attend-
ance at lectures had ceased to be compulsory. Greek, however,
was still recognized as part of the examination held for the
appointment of schoolmasters.

During the i8th century, in Greek as well as in Latin, the
general aim was to reach the goal as rapidly as possible, even at
the risk of missing it altogether. On the eve of the
Revolution, France was enjoying the study of the
institutions of Greece in the attractive pages of the
Voyage du jeune Anacharsis (1789), but the study of
Greek was menaced even more than that of Latin. For fifty
years before the Revolution there was a distinct dissatisfaction
with the routine of the schools. To meet that dissatisfaction,
the teachers had accepted new subjects of study, had improved
their methods, and had simplified the learning of the dead
languages. But even this was not enough. In the study of the
classics, as in other spheres, it was revolution rather than
evolution that was loudly demanded.

The Revolution was soon followed by the long-continued
battle of the " Programmes." Under the First Republic the
schemes of Condorcet (April 1792) and J. Lakanal
(February 1795) were superseded by that of P. C. F.
Daunou (October 1795), which divided the pupils of
the " central schools " into three groups, according to age, with
corresponding subjects of study: (i) twelve to fourteen, draw-
ing, natural history, Greek and Latin, and a choice of modern
languages; (2) fourteen to sixteen, mathematics, physics,
chemistry; (3) over sixteen, general grammar, literature,
history and constitutional law.

In July 1 80 1, under the consulate, there were two courses, (i)
nine to twelve, elementary knowledge, including elements of
Latin; (2) above twelve, a higher course, with two co asa j ate
alternatives, " humanistic " studies for the " civil,"
and purely practical studies for the " military " section. The law
of the ist of May 1802 brought the lycees into existence, the
subjects being, in Napoleon's own phrase, " mainly Latin and
mathematics."

At the Restoration (1814) the military discipline of the lycees
was replaced by the ecclesiastical discipline of the " Royal
Colleges." The reaction of 1815-1821 in favour of
classics was followed by the more liberal programme of
Vatimesnil (1829), including, for those who had no
taste for a classical education, certain " special courses " (1830),
which were the germ of the enseignement special and the enseigne-
ment moderne.

Under Louis Philippe (1830-1848), amid all varieties of
administration there was a consistent desire to hold the balance
fairly between all the conflicting subjects of study. After the
revolution of 1848 the difficulties raised by the excessive num-
ber of subjects were solved by H. N. H. Fortoul's expedient of
" bifurcation," the alternatives being letters and science. In
1863, under Napoleon III., Victor Duruy encouraged the study of
history, and also did much for classical learning by founding the
Ecole des Hautes Etudes. In 1872, under the Third Republic,
Jules Simon found time for hygiene, geography and modern
languages by abolishing Latin verse composition and

reducing the number of exercises in Latin prose, while

, . . , - Kepuouc.

he insisted on the importance of studying the inner

meaning of the ancient classics. The same principles were
carried out by Jules Ferry (1880) and Paul Bert (1881-1882). In
the scheme of 1890 the Latin course of six years began with ten
hours a week and ended with four; Greek was begun a year later
with two hours, increasing to six and ending with four.

The commission of 1899, under the able chairmanship of M.
Alexandre Ribot, published an important report, which was
followed in 1902 by the scheme of M. Georges Leygues. The
preamble includes a striking tribute to the advantages that
France had derived from the study of the classics :

. " L'etudede 1'antiquite grecque etlatine a donnfeau gnie francais
une mesure, une clarte et une 61egance incomparables. C'est par
elle que notre philosophic, nos lettres et nos arts ont brillS d'un si

CLASSICS

459

vif eclat; c'est par elle que notre influence morale s'est exercee en
souveraine dans le monde. Les humanites doivent 6tre prot6ges
centre toute atteinte et fortifiees. Elles font partie du patrimoine
national.

" L'esprit classique n'est pas . . . incompatible avec 1'esprit
moderne. II est de tous les temps, parce qu'il est le culte de la raison
claire et libre, la recherche de la beaute harmonieuse et simple dans
toutes les manifestations de la pensee."

By the scheme introduced in these memorable terms the
course of seven years is divided into two cycles, the first cycle (of
four years) having two parallel courses: (i) without Greek or
Latin, and (2) with Latin, and with optional Greek at the
beginning of the third year. In the second cycle (of three years)
those who have been learning both Greek and Latin, and those
who have been learning neither, continue on the same lines as
before; while those who have been learning Latin only may
either (i) discontinue it in favour of modern languages and
science, or (2) continue it with either. As an alternative to the
second cycle, which normally ends in the examination for the
baccalaureat, there is a shorter course, mainly founded on
modern languages or applied science and ending in a public
examination without the baccalaurfat. The baccalaurtot, how-
ever, has been condemned by the next minister, M. Briand, who
prefers to crown the course with the award of a school diploma
(1907).

See H. Lantoine, Histoire de I'enseignement secondaire en France
au XVII* siecle (1874); A. Sicard, Les Etudes classiques avant la
Revolution (1887); Sainte-Beuve, Port-Royal, vpls. i.-v. (1840-
1859), especially iii. 383-588; O. Greard, Education et instruction,
4 vols., especially " Enseignement secondaire," vol. ii. pp. 1-90, with
conspectus of programmes in the appendix (1889); A. Ribot, La
Reforme de I'enseignement secondaire (1900); G. Leygues, Plan
d'etudes, &c. (1902); H. H. Johnson, " Present State of Classical
Studies in France," in Classical Review (December 1907). See also
the English Education Department's Special Reports on Education
in France (1899). The earlier literature is best represented in
England by Matthew Arnold's Schools and Universities in France
(1868; new edition, 1892) and A French Eton (1864).

3. The history of education in Germany since 1500 falls into
three periods: (a) the age of the Revival of Learning and the
Reformation (1500-1650), (b) the age of French in-
nnaay ' fluence (1650-1800), and (c) the igth century.
(a) During the first twenty years of the i6th century the
reform of Latin instruction was carried out by setting aside the
old medieval grammars, by introducing new manuals of classical
literature, and by prescribing the study of classical authors and
the imitation of classical models. In all these points the lead was
first taken by south Germany, and by the towns along the Rhine
down to the Netherlands. The old schools and universities were
being quietly interpenetrated by the new spirit of humanism,
when the sky was suddenly darkened by the clouds of religious
conflict. In 1525-1535 there was a marked depression in the
classical studies of Germany. Erasmus, writing to W. Pirck-
heimer in 1528, exclaims: " Wherever the spirit of Luther
prevails, learning goes to the ground. " Such a fate was, however,
averted by the intervention of Melanchthon (d. 1560), the
praeceptor Germaniae, who was the embodiment of the
spirit of the new Protestant type of education, with its
union of evangelical doctrine and humanistic culture.
Under his influence, new schools rapidly rose into being at
Magdeburg, Eisleben and Nuremberg (1521-1526). During
more than forty years of academic activity he not only provided
manuals of Latin and Greek grammar and many other text-books
that long remained in use, but he also formed for Germany a well-
trained class of learned teachers, who extended his influence
throughout the land. His principal ally as an educator and as a
writer of text-books was Camerarius (d. 1574). Precepts of style,
and models taken from the best Latin authors, were the means
whereby a remarkable skill in the imitation of Cicero was attained
at Strassburg during the forty-four years of the headmastership of
Johannes von Sturm (d. 1589), who had himself been influenced
by the De disciplinis of J. L. Vives (1531), and in all his teaching
aimed at the formation of a sapiens atque eloquens pietas. Latin
continued to be the living language of learning and of literature,
and a correct and elegant Latin style was regarded as the mark of

an educated person. Greek was taught in all the great schools,
but became more and more confined to the study of the Greek
Testament. In 1550 it was proposed in Brunswick to
banish all " profane " authors from the schools, and in '"" Ontk
1589 a competent scholar was instructed to write a ,"*"
sacred epic on the kings of Israel as a substitute for the
works of the "pagan "poets. In i637,whenthedoubtsof Scaliger
and Heinsius as to the purity of the Greek of the New Testament
prompted the rector of Hamburg to introduce the study of
classical authors, any reflection on the style of the Greek Testa-
ment was bitterly resented.

The Society of Jesus was founded in 1540, and by 1600 most
of the teachers in the Catholic schools and universities of
Germany were Jesuits. The society was " dissolved "
in 1773, but survived its dissolution. In accordance
with the Ratio Studiorum of Aquaviva (1599), which
long remained unaltered and was only partially revised by
J. Roothaan (1832), the main subjects of instruction were the
litterae humaniores diver sarum linguarum. The chief place among
these was naturally assigned to Latin, the language of the society
and of the Roman Church. The Latin grammar in use was that
of the Jesuit rector of the school at Lisbon, Alvarez (1572).
As in the Protestant schools, the principal aim was the attainment
of eloquentia. A comparatively subordinate place was assigned
to Greek, especially as the importance attributed to the Vulgate
weakened the motive for studying the original text. It was
recognized, however, that Latin itself (as Vives had said) was
" in no small need of Greek," and that, " unless Greek was
learnt in boyhood, it would hardly ever be learnt at all." The
text-book used was the Instituliones linguae Graecae of the
German Jesuit, Jacob Gretser, of Ingolstadt (c. 1590), and the
reading in the highest class included portions of Demosthenes,
Isocrates, Plato, Thucydides, Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, Gregory
of Nazianzus, Basil and Chrysostom. The Catholic and Pro-
testant schools of the i6th century succeeded, as a rule, in giving
a command over a correct Latin style and a taste for literary
form and for culture. Latin was still the language of the law-
courts and of a large part of general literature. Between
Luther and Lessing there was no great writer of German prose.

(6) In the early part of the period 1650-1800, while Latin
continued to hold the foremost place, it was ceasing to be Latin
of the strictly classical type. Greek fell still further
into the background; and Homer and Demosthenes
gradually gave way to the Greek Testament. Between
1600 and 1775 there was a great gap in the production
of new editions of the principal Greek classics. The spell was
only partially broken by J. A. Ernesti's Homer (1759 f.) and
Chr. G. Heyne's Pindar (1773 f.).

The peace of Westphalia (1648) marks a distinct epoch in
the history of education in Germany. Thenceforth, education
became more modern and more secular. The long
wars of religion in Germany, as in France and England, and
were followed by a certain indifference as to disputed *ecuiar
points of theology. But the modern and secular type educ * tloa -
of education that now supervened was opposed by the pietism
of the second half of the i7th century, represented at the newly-
founded university of Halle (1694) by A. H. Francke, the pro-
fessor of Greek (d. 1727), whose influence was far greater than
that of Chr. Cellarius (d. 1 707) , the founder of the first philological
Seminar (1697). Francke's contemporary, Chr. Thomasius
(d. 1728), was never weary of attacking scholarship of the old
humanistic type and everything that savoured of antiquarian
pedantry, and it was mainly his influence that made German the
language of university lectures and of scientific and learned
literature. A modern education is also the aim of the general
introduction to the nova methodus of Leibnitz, where the study
of Greek is recommended solely for the sake of the Greek
Testament (1666). Meanwhile, Ratichius (d. 1635) had in vain
pretended to teach Hebrew, Greek and Latin in the space of
six months (1612), but he had the merit of maintaining that
the study of a language should begin with the study of an author.
Comenius (d. 1671) had proposed to teach Latin by drilling his

French
Influence.

460

CLASSICS

ism.

Herder.

pupils in a thousand graduated phrases distributed over a
hundred instructive chapters, while the Latin authors were
banished because of their difficulty and their " paganism"
(1631). One of the catchwords of the day was to insist on a
knowledge of things instead of a knowledge of words, on " real-
ism " instead of " verbalism."

Under the influence of France the perfect courtier became
the ideal in the German education of the upper classes of
the 1 7th and i8th centuries. A large number of
akademlea. aristocratic schools (Ritter-Akademien) were founded,
'beginning with the Collegium Illustre of Tubingen
(1589) and ending with the Hohe Karlschule of Stuttgart (1775).
In these schools the subjects of study included mathematics
and natural sciences, geography and history, and modern
languages (especially French), with riding, fencing and dancing;
Latin assumed a subordinate place, and classical composition
in prose or verse was not considered a sufficiently courtly accom-
plishment. The youthful aristocracy were thus withdrawn
from the old Latin schools of Germany, but the aristocratic
schools vanished with the dawn of the ipth century, and the
ordinary public schools were once more frequented by the
young nobility.

(c) The Modern Period. fn the last third of the i8th century
two important movements came into play, the " naturalism "
of Rousseau and the " new humanism." While
^ ousseau sought his ideal in a form of education and
of culture that was in close accord with nature, the
German apostles of the new humanism were convinced
that they had found that ideal completely realized in the old
Greek world. Hence the aim of education was to make young
people thoroughly " Greek," to fill them with the " Greek "
spirit, with courage and keenness in the quest of truth, and
with a devotion to all that was beautiful. The link between the
naturalism of Rousseau and the new humanism is
to be found in J.G. Herder, whose passion for all that
is Greek inspires him with almost a hatred of Latin. The new
humanism was a kind of revival of the Renaissance, which had
been retarded by the Reformation in Germany and by the
Counter-Reformation in Italy, or had at least been degraded
to the dull classicism of the schools. The new humanism
agreed with the Renaissance in its unreserved recognition of
the old classical world as a perfect pattern of culture. But,
while the Renaissance aimed at reproducing the Augustan age
of Rome, the new humanism found its golden age in Athens.
The Latin Renaissance in Italy aimed at recovering and verbally
imitating the ancient literature; the Greek Renaissance in
Germany sought inspiration from the creative originality of
Greek literature with a view to producing an original literature
in the German language. The movement had its effect on the
schools by discouraging the old classical routine of verbal
imitation, and giving a new prominence to Greek and to German.
The new humanism found a home in Gottingen (1783) in the days
of J. M. Gesner and C. G. Heyne. It was represented at Leipzig
by Gesner's successor, Ernesti (d. 1781); and at Halle by F. A.
Wolf, who in 1783 was appointed professor of education by
Zedlitz, the minister of Frederick the Great. In literature, its
leading names were Winckelmann, Lessing and Voss, and Herder,
Goethe and Schiller. The tide of the new movement had
reached its height about 1800. Goethe and Schiller were con-
vinced that the old Greek world was the highest revelation of
humanity; and the universities and schools of Germany were
reorganized in this spirit by F. A. Wolf and his illustrious pupil,
Wilhelm von Humboldt. In 1800-1810 Humboldt was at the
head of the educational section of the Prussian Home

reoi*anyza- Office> and > in the brief interval of a year and a half,
tioa. gave to the general system of education the direction

which it followed (with slight exceptions) throughout
the whole century. In 1810 the examen pro facullale docendi
first made the profession of a schoolmaster independent of that
of a minister of religion. The new scheme drawn up by J. W.
Silvern recognized four principal co-ordinated branches of
learning: Latin, Greek, German, mathematics. All four were

studied throughout the school, Greek being begun in the fourth
of the nine classes, that corresponding to the English " third
form." The old Latin school had only one main subject, the
study of Latin style (combined with a modicum of Greek). The
new gymnasium aimed at a wider education, in which literature
was represented by Latin, Greek and German, by the side of
mathematics and natural science, history and religion. The
uniform employment of the term Gymnasium for the highest type
of a Prussian school dates from 1812. The leaving examination
(Abgangsprufung), instituted in that year, required Greek transla-
tion at sight, with Greek prose composition, and ability to speak
and to write Latin. In 1818-1840 the leading spirit on the
board of education was Johannes Schulze, and a complete and
comprehensive system of education continued to be the ideal
kept in view. Such an education, however, was found in practice
to involve a prolongation of the years spent at school and a
correspondingly later start in life. It was also attacked on the
ground that it led to " overwork." This attack was partially
met by the scheme of 1837. Schulze's period of prominence in
Berlin closely corresponded to that of Herbart at Konigsberg
(1800-1833) and Gottingen (1833-1841), who insisted that for
boys of eight to twelve there was no better text-book than the
Greek Odyssey, and this principle was brought into practice at
HanoVer by his distinguished pupil, Ahrens.

The Prussian policy of the next period, beginning with the
accession of Friedrich Wilhelm IV. in 1840, was to lay a new
stress on religious teaching, and to obviate the risk of overwork
resulting from the simultaneous study of all subjects by the
encouragement of specialization in a few. Ludwig Wiese's
scheme of 1856 insisted on the retention of Latin verse as well as
Latin prose, and showed less favour to natural science, but it
awakened little enthusiasm, while the attempt to revive the old
humanistic Gymnasium led to a demand for schools of a more
modern type, which issued in the recognition of the Real-
gymnasium (1859).

In the age of Bismarck, school policy in Prussia had for its aim
an increasing recognition of modern requirements. In 1875
Wiese was succeeded by Bonitz, the eminent Aristotelian
scholar, who in 1849 had introduced mathematics and natural
science into the schools of Austria, and had substituted the wide
reading of classical authors for the prevalent practice of speaking
and writing Latin. By his scheme of 1882 natural science
recovered its former position in Prussia, and the hours assigned in
each week to Latin were diminished from 86 to 77. But neither
of the two great parties in the educational world was satisfied;
and great expectations were aroused when the question of reform
was taken up by the German emperor, William II., in 1890.
The result of the conference of December 1890 was a compromise
between the conservatism of a majority of its members and the
forward policy of the emperor. The scheme of 1892 reduced the
number of hours assigned to Latin from 77 to 62, and laid
special stress on the German essay; but the modern training
given by the Realgymnasium was still unrecognized as an avenue
to a university education. A conference held in June 1900, in
which the speakers included Mommsen and von Wilamowitz,
Harnack and Diels, was followed by the " Kiel Decree " of the
26th of November. In that decree the emperor urged the equal
recognition of the classical and the modern Gymnasium, and
emphasized the importance of giving more time to Latin and to
English in both. In the teaching of Greek, " useless details "
were to be set aside, and special care devoted to the connexion
between ancient and modern culture, while, in all subjects,
attention was to be paid to the' classic precept: multum, non
multa.

By the scheme of 1901 the pupils of the Realgymnasium, the
Oberrealschule and the Gymnasium were admitted to the uni-
versity on equal terms in virtue of their leaving-certificates, but
Greek and Latin were still required for students of classics or
divinity.

For the Gymnasium the aim of the new scheme is, in Latin,
" to supply boys with a sound basis of grammatical training,
with a view to their understanding the more important classical

CLASSIFICATION

461

writers of Rome, and being thus introduced to the intellectual
life and culture of the ancient world "; and, in Greek, " to give
them a sufficient knowledge of the language with a view to their
obtaining an acquaintance with some of the Greek classical
works which are distinguished both in matter and in style, and
thus gaining an insight into the intellectual life and culture of
Ancient Greece." In consequence of these changes Greek is now
studied by a smaller number of boys, but with better results, and
a new lease of life has been won for the classical Gymnasium.

Lastly, by the side of the classical Gymnasium, we now have
the " German Reform Schools " of two different types, that of
Altona (dating from 1878) and that of Frankfort-on-the-Main
(1892). The leading principle in both is the postponement of the
time for learning Latin. Schools of the Frankfort type take
French as their only foreign language in the first three years of
the course, and aim at achieving in six years as much as has been
achieved by the Gymnasia in nine; and it is maintained that,
in six years, they succeed in mastering a larger amount of Latin
literature than was attempted a generation ago, even in the best
Gymnasia of the old style. It may be added that in all the
German Gymnasia, whether reformed or not, more time is given
to classics than in the corresponding schools in England.

See F. Paulsen, Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts vom Ausgang
des Mittelalters bis auf die Gegenwart mil besonderer Rucksicht auf
den klassischen Unterricht (2 vols., 2nd ed., 1896) ; Das Realgym-
nasium und die humanistische Bildung (1889); Die hoheren Schulen
und das Universitdtsstudium im 20. Jahrhundert (1901); " Das
moderne Bildungswesen " in Die Kulture der Gegenwart, vol. i. (1904) ;
Das deutsche Bildungswesen in seiner geschichtlichen Entwickelung
(1906) (with the literature there quoted, pp. 190-192), translated
by Dr T. Lorenz, German Education, Past and Present (1908) ;
T. Ziegler, Notwendigkeit . . . des Realgymnasiums (Stuttgart,
1894) ; F. A. Eckstein, Lateinischer und griechischer Unterricht
(1887); O. Kohl, " Griechischer Unterricht (Langensalza, 1896)
in W. Rein's Handbuch; A. Baumeister's Handbuch (1895), especi-
ally vol. i. i (History) and i. 2 (Educational Systems) ; P. Stotzner,
Das offentliche Unterrichtswesen Deutschlands in der Gegenwart (1901 );

F. Seller, Geschichte des deutschen Unterrichtswesens (2 vols., 1906) ;
Verhandlungen of June 1900 (2nd ed., 1902) ; Lehrpldne, &c. (1901) ;
Die Reform des hoheren Schulwesens, ed. W. Lexis (1902) ; A.
Harnack's Vortrag and W. Parow's Erwiderung (1905);' H. Miiller,
Das hohere Schulwesen Deutschlands am Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts
(Stuttgart, 1904); O. Steinbart, Durchfuhrung des preussischen
Schulreform in ganz DeutscUand (Duisburg, 1904); J. Schipper,
Alte Bildung und moderne Cultur (Vienna, 1901); Papers by M. E.
Sadler: (i) Problems in Prussian Secondary Education " (Special
Reports of Education Dept., 1899) ; (2) " The Unrest in Secondary
Education in Germany and Elsewhere " (Special Reports of Board
of Education, vol. 9, 1902) ; J. L. Paton, The Teaching of Classics
in Prussian Secondary Schools (on "German Reform Schools")
(1907, Wyman, London); J. E. Russell, German Higher Schools
(New York, 1899); and (among earlier English publications)
Matthew Arnold's Higher Schools and Universities in Germany (1874,
reprinted from Schools and Universities on the Continent, 1865).

(4) In the United States of America the highest degree of
educational development has been subsequent to the Civil War.
The study of Latin begins in the " high schools," the
stares average age of admission being fifteen and the normal
course extending over four years. Among classical
teachers an increasing number would prefer a longer course
extending over six years for Latin, and at least three for Greek,
and some of these would assign to the elementary school the first
two of the proposed six years of Latin study. Others are content
with the late learning of Latin and prefer that it should be
preceded by a thorough study of modern languages (see Prof. B.
I. Wheeler, in Baumeister's Handbuch, 1897, ii. 2, pp. 584-586).

It was mainly owing to a pamphlet issued in 1871 by Prof.

G. M. Lane, of Harvard, that a reformed pronunciation of Latin

was adopted in all the colleges and schools of the
acia- Unite( * States. Some misgivings on this reform found
ton. '' expression in a work on the Teaching of Latin, pub-
lished by Prof. C. E. Bennett of Cornell in 1001, a year
in which it was estimated that this pronunciation was in use by
more than 96% of the Latin pupils in the secondary schools.

Some important statistics as to the number studying Latin
and Greek in the secondary schools were collected in 1000 by a
committee of twelve educational experts representing all parts of
the Union, with a view to a uniform course of instruction being

L '

pursued in all classical schools. They had the advantage of the
co-operation of Dr W. T. Harris, the U.S. commissioner of
education, and they were able to report that, in all the five
groups into which they had divided the states, the number of
pupils pursuing the study of Latin and Greek showed a remark-
able advance, especially in the most progressive states of the
middle west. The number learning Latin had increased from
100,144 in 1800 to 314,856 in 1890-1900, and those learning
Greek from 1 2,869 to 24,869. Thus the number learning Latin at
the later date was three times, and the number learning Greek
twice, as many as those learning Latin or Greek ten years
previously. But the total number in 1900 was 630,048; so that,
notwithstanding this proof of progress, the number learning
Greek in 1900 was only about one twenty-fifth of the total
number, while the number learning Latin was as high as half.

The position of Greek as an " elective " or " optional " subject
(notably at Harvard) , an arrangement regarded with approval by
some eminent educational authorities and with regret by others,
probably has some effect on the high schools in the small number
of those who learn Greek, and in their lower rate of increase, as
compared with those who learn Latin. Some evidence as to the
quality of the study of those languages in the schools is supplied
by English commissioners in the Reports of the Mosely Com-
mission. Thus Mr Papillon considered that, while the teaching of
English literature was admirable, the average standard of Latin
and Greek teaching and attainment in the upper classes was
"below that of an English public school"; he felt, however,
that the secondary schools of the United States had a " greater
variety of the curriculum to suit the practical needs of life," and
that they existed, not " for the select few," but " for the whole
people " (pp. 250 f.).

For full information see the " Two volumes of Monographs
prepared for the United States Educational Exhibit at the Paris
Exposition of 1900," edited by Dr N. Murray Butler; the Annual
Reports of the U.S. commissioner of education (Washington) ;
and the Reports of the Mosely Commission to the United States of
America (London, 1904). Cf. statistics quoted in G. G. Ramsay's
" Address on Efficiency in Education " (Glasgow, 1902, 17-20), from
the Transactions of the Amer. Philol. Association, xxx. (1899),
pp. Ixxvii-cxxii ; also Bennett and Bristol, The Teaching of Latin
and Greek in the Secondary School (New York, 1901). (J. E. S.*)

CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the
root col-, da-, as in Gr. xaXeco, clamor), a logical process, common
to all the special sciences and to knowledge in general, consisting
in the collection under a common name of a number of objects
which are alike in one or more respects. The process consists
in observing the objects and abstracting from their various
qualities that characteristic which they have in common. This
characteristic constitutes the definition of the " class " to which
they are regarded as belonging . It is this process by which we
arrive first at "species" and then at "genus," i.e. at all scientific
generalization. Individual things, regarded as such, constitute
a mere aggregate, unconnected with one another, and so far
unexplained; scientific knowledge consists in systematic classi-
fication. Thus if we observe the heavenly bodies individually
we can state merely that they have been observed to have certain
motions through the sky, that they are luminous, and the like.
If, however, we compare them one with another, we discover
that, whereas all partake in the general movement of the heavens,
some have a movement of their own. Thus we arrive at a system
of classification according to motion, by which fixed stars are
differentiated from planets. A further classification according
to other criteria gives us stars of the first magnitude and stars
of the second magnitude, and so forth. We thus arrive at a
systematic understanding expressed in laws by the application
of whith accurate forecasts of celestial phenomena can be made.
Classification in the strict logical sense consists in discovering
the casual interrelation of natural objects; it thus differs from
what is often called " artificial " classification, which is the
preparation, e.g. of statistics for particular purposes, adminis-
trative and the like.

Of the systems of classification adopted in physical science,
only one requires treatment here, namely, the classification of

462

CLASTIDIUM CLAUDE, J.

the sciences as a whole, a problem which has from the time of
Aristotle attracted considerable attention. Its object is to
delimit the spheres of influence of the positive sciences and show
how they are mutually related. Of such attempts three are
specially noteworthy, those of Francis Bacon, Auguste Comte
and Herbert Spencer.

Bacon's classification is based on the subjective criterion of
the various faculties which are specially concerned. He thus
distinguished History (natural, civil, literary, ecclesiastical) as
the province of memory, Philosophy (including Theology) as
that of reason, and Poetry, Fables and the like, as that of
imagination. This classification was made the basis of the
Encyclopedic. Comte adopted an entirely different system based
on an objective criterion. Having first enunciated the theory
that all science passes through three stages, theological, meta-
physical and positive, he neglects the two first, and divides the
last according to the " things to be classified," in view of their
real affinity and natural connexions, into six, in order of decreas-
ing generality and increasing complexity mathematics, astro-
nomy, physics, chemistry, physiology and biology (including
psychology), and sociology. This he conceives to be not only
the logical, but also the historical, order of development, from
the abstract and purely deductive to the concrete and inductive).
Sociology is thus the highest, most complex, and most positive
of the sciences. Herbert Spencer, condemning this division as
both incomplete and theoretically unsound, adopted a three-fold
division into (i) abstract science (including logic and mathematics)
dealing with the universal forms under which all knowledge of
phenomena is possible, (2) abstract -concrete science (including
mechanics, chemistry, physics), dealing with the elements of
phenomena themselves, i.e. laws of forces as deducible from
the persistence of forces, and (3) concrete science (e.g. astronomy,
biology, sociology), dealing with "phenomena themselves in
their totalities," the universal laws of the continuous redistribu-
tion of Matter and Motion, Evolution and Dissolution.

Beside the above three systems several others deserve brief
mention. In Greece at the dawn of systematic thought the
physical sciences were few in number; none the less philosophers
were not agreed as to their true relation. The Platonic school
adopted a triple 'classification, physics, ethics and dialectics;
Aristotle's system was more complicated, nor do we know
precisely how he subdivided his three main classes, theoretical,
practical and poetical (i.e. technical, having to do with TTOIJJOW,
creative). The second class covered ethics and politics, the
latter of which was often regarded by Aristotle as including
ethics; the third includes the useful and the imitative sciences;
the first includes metaphysics and physics. As regards pure
logic Aristotle sometimes seems to include it with metaphysics
and physics, sometimes to regard it as ancillary to all the sciences.

Thomas Hobbes (Leviathan) drew up an elaborate paradigm
of the sciences, the first stage of which was a dichotomy into
" Naturall Philosophy " (" consequences from the accidents
of bodies naturall ") and " Politiques and Civill Philosophy "
(" consequences from accidents of Politique bodies "). The
former by successive subdivisions is reduced to eighteen special
sciences; the latter is subdivided into the rights and duties of
sovereign powers, and those of the subject.

Jeremy Bentham and A. M. Ampere both drew up elaborate
systems based on the principle of dichotomy, and beginning
from the distinction of mind and body. Bentham invented
an artificial terminology which is rather curious than valuable.
The science of the body was Somatology, that of the mind Pneu-
matology. The former include Posology (science of quantity,
mathematics) and Poiology (science of quality); Posology
includes Morphoscopic(geometry)and Alegomorphic(arithmetic).
See further Bentham's Chrestomathia and works quoted under
BENTHAM, JEREMY.

Carl Wundt criticized most of these systems as taking too little
account of the real facts, and preferred a classification based on
the standpoint of the various sciences towards their subject-
matter. His system may, therefore, be described as conceptional.
It distinguishes philosophy, which deals with facts in their widest

universal relations, from the special sciences, which consider
facts in the light of a particular relation or set of relations.

All these systems have a certain value, and are interesting
as throwing light on the views of those who invented them. It
will be seen, however, that none can lay claim to unique validity.
The fundamenla divisionis, though in themselves more or less-
logical, are quite arbitrarily chosen, generally as being germane
to a preconceived philosophical or scientific theory.

CLASTIDIUM (mod. Casteggio), a village of the Anamares,.
in Gallia Cispadana, on the Via Postumia, 5 m. E. of Iria
(mod. Voghera) and 31 m. W. of Placentia. Here in 222 B.C.
M. Claudius Marcellus defeated the Gauls and won the spolia
opima; in 218 Hannibal took it and its stores of corn by
treachery. It never had an independent government, and not
later than 190 B.C. was made part of the colony of Placentia
(founded 219). In the Augustan division of Italy, however,
Placentia belonged to the 8th region, Aemilia, whereas Iria
certainly, and Clastidium possibly, belonged to the gth.Liguria
(see Th. Mommsen in Corp. Inscrip. Lot. vol. v. Berlin, 1877,
p. 828). The remains visible at Clastidium are scanty; there
is a fountain (the Fontana d'Annibale), and a Roman bridge,
which seems .to have been constructed of tiles, not of stone,,
was discovered in 1857, but destroyed.

See C. Giulietti, Casteggio, notizie storiche IT. Avanzi di antichitd.
(Voghera, 1893).

CLAUBERG, JOHANN (1622-1665), German philosopher,
was born at Solingen, in Westphalia, on the 24th of February
1622. After travelling in France and England, he studied the
Cartesian philosophy under John Raey at Leiden. He became
(1649) professor of philosophy and theology at Herborn, but
subsequently (1651), in consequence of the jealousy of his
colleagues, accepted an invitation to a similar post at Duisburg,
where he died on the 3ist of January 1665. Clauberg was one
of the earliest teachers of the new doctrines in Germany and an
exact and methodical commentator on his master's writings.
His theory of the connexion between the soul and the body is
in some respects analogous to that of Malebranche; but he is
not therefore to be regarded as a true forerunner of Occasionalism,
as he uses " Occasion " for the stimulus which directly produces
a mental phenomenon, without postulating the intervention
of God (H. Miiller, /. Clauberg und seine Stellung im Cartesia-
nismus). His view of the relation of God to his creatures is held
to foreshadow the pantheism of Spinoza. All creatures exist
only through the continuous creative energy of the Divine
Being, and are no more independent of his will than are our
thoughts independent of us, or rather less, for there are thoughts
which force themselves upon us whether we will or not. For
metaphysics Clauberg suggested the names ontosophy or ontology,
the latter being afterwards adopted by Wolff. He also devoted
considerable attention to the German languages, and his re-
searches in this direction attracted the favourable notice of
Leibnitz. His chief works are: De conjunctione animae et
corporis humani; Exercitationes centum de cognitione Dei et
nostri; Logica vetus et nova; Initiatio philosophi, sen Dubitatio
Cartesiana; a commentary on Descartes' Meditations; and
Ars etymologica Teutonum.

A collected edition of his philosophical works was published at
Amsterdam (1691), with life by H. C. Hennin; see also E. Zeller,
Geschichte der deutschen Philosophic seit Leibnitz (1873).

CLAUDE, JEAN (1619-1687), French Protestant divine, was
born at La Sauvetat-du-Dropt near Agen. After studying at
Montauban, he entered the ministry in 1645. He was for eight
years professor of theology in the Protestant college of Nimes;
but in 1661, having successfully opposed a scheme for re-uniting
Catholics and Protestants, he was forbidden to preach in Lower
Languedoc. In 1662 he obtained a post at Montauban similar
to that which he had lost; but after four years he was removed
from this also. He next became pastor at Charenton near Paris,
where he engaged in controversies with Pierre Nicole (Reponse
aux deux traites intitules la perpeluitS de la foi, 1665), Antoine
Arnauld (Reponse au livre de M. Arnauld, 1670), and J. B.
Bossuet (Reponse au livre de M. I'eveque de Meaux, 1683).

CLAUDE OF LORRAINE CLAUDIANUS

463

On the revocation of the edict of Nantes he fled to Holland, and
received a pension from William of Orange, who commissioned
him to write an account of the persecuted Huguenots (Plaintes
des proteslants cruellement opprimes dans le royaume de France,
1686). The book was translated into English, but by order of
James II. both the translation and the original were publicly
burnt by the common hangman on the $th of May 1686, as
containing " expressions scandalous to His Majesty the king of
France." Other works by him were Reponse au lime de P, Nouet
sur I' eucharistie (1668); CEuvres posthumes (Amsterdam, 1688),
containing the Traile de la composition d'un sermon, translated
into English in 1778.

See biographies by J. P. Niceron and Abel Rotholf de la Devize;
E. Haag, La France protestanle, vol. iv. (1884, new edition).

CLAUDE OF LORRAINE, or CLAUDE GELEE (1600-1682),
French landscape-painter, was born of very poor parents at the
village of Chamagne in Lorraine. When it was discovered that
he made no progress at school, he was apprenticed, it is commonly
said, to a pastry-cook, but this is extremely dubious. At the
age of twelve, being left an orphan, he went to live at Freiburg
on the Rhine with an elder brother, Jean Gelee, a wood-carver
of moderate merit, and under him he designed arabesques and
foliage. He afterwards rambled to Rome to seek a livelihood;
but from his clownishness and ignorance of the language, he
failed to obtain permanent employment. He next went to
Naples, to study landscape painting under Godfrey Waals, a
painter of much repute. With him he remained two years;
then he returned to Rome, and was domesticated until April
1625 with another landscape-painter, Augustin Tassi, who hired
him to grind his colours and to do all the household drudgery.

His master, hoping to make Claude serviceable in some of his
greatest works, advanced him in the rules of perspective and the
elements of design. Under his tuition the mind of Claude began
to expand, and he devoted himself to artistic study with great
eagerness. He exerted his utmost industry to explore the true
principles of painting by an incessant examination of nature;
and for this purpose he made his studies in the open fields, where
he very frequently remained from sunrise till sunset, watching
the effect of the shifting light upon the landscape. He generally
sketched whatever he thought beautiful or striking, marking
every tinge of light with a similar colour; from these sketches
he perfected his landscapes. Leaving Tassi, he made a tour in
Italy, France and a part of Germany, including his native
Lorraine, suffering numerous misadventures by the way. Karl
Dervent, painter to the duke of Lorraine, kept him as assistant
for a year; and he painted at Nancy the architectural subjects
on the ceiling of the Carmelite church. He did not, however,
relish this employment, and in 1627 returned to Rome. Here,
painting two landscapes for Cardinal Bentivoglio, he earned
the protection of Pope Urban VIII. and from about 1637 he
rapidly rose into celebrity. Claude was acquainted not only
with the facts, but also with the laws of nature; and the German
painter Joachim von Sandrart relates that he used to explain,
as they walked together through the fields, the causes of the
different appearances of the same landscape at different hours of
the day, from the reflections or refractions of light, or from the
morning and evening dews or vapours, with all the precision of
a natural philosopher. He elaborated his pictures with great
care; and if any performance fell short of his ideal, he .altered,
erased and repainted it several times over.

His skies are aerial and full of lustre, and every object har-
moniously illumined. His distances and colouring are delicate,
and his tints have a sweetness and variety till then unexampled.
He frequently gave an uncommon tenderness to his finished trees
by glazing. His figures, however, are very indifferent; but he
was so conscious of his deficiency in this respect, that he usually
engaged other artists to paint them for him, among whom were
Courtois and Filippo Lauri. Indeed, he was wont to say that he
sold his landscapes and gave away his figures. In order to avoid
a repetition of the same subject, and also to detect the very
numerous spurious copies of his works, he made tinted outline
drawings (in six paper books prepared for this purpose) of all

those pictures which were transmitted to different countries;
and on the back of each drawing he wrote the name of the
purchaser. These books he named Libri di verita. This valuable
work(now belonging to the duke of Devonshire) has been engraved
and published, and has always been highly esteemed by students
of the art of landscape. Claude, who had suffered much from
gout, died in Rome at the age of eighty-two, on the 2ist (or
perhaps the 23rd) of November 1682, leaving his wealth, which
was considerable, between his only surviving relatives, a nephew
and an adopted daughter (? niece).

Many choice specimens of his genius may be seen in the
National Gallery and in the Louvre; the landscapes in the
Altieri and Colonna palaces in Rome are also of especial celebrity.
A list has been printed showing no less than 92 examples in the
various public galleries of Europe. He himself regarded a land-
scape which he painted in the Villa Madama, being a cento of
various views with great abundance and variety of leafage, and
a composition of Esther and Ahasuerus, as his finest works; the
former he refused to sell, although Clement IX. offered to cover
its surface with gold pieces. He etched a series of twenty-eight
landscapes, fine impressions of which are greatly prized. Full
of amenity, and deeply sensitive to the graces of nature, Claude
was long deemed the prince of landscape painters, and he must
always be accounted a prime leader in that form of art, and
in his day a great enlarger and refiner of its province.

Claude was a man of amiable and simple character, very kind
to his pupils, a patient and unwearied worker; in his own sphere
of study, his mind was stored (as we have seen) with observation
and knowledge, but he continued an unlettered, man till his
death. Famous and highly patronized though he was in all his
later years, he seems to have been very little known to his brother
artists, with the single exception of Sandrart. This painter is
the chief direct authority for the facts of Claude's life (Academia
Artis Pictoriae, 1683); Baldinucci, who obtained information
from some of Claude's immediate survivors, relates various
incidents to a different effect (Notizie dei professori del disegno) .

See also Victor Cousin, Sur Claude Gelte (1853) ; M. F. Sweetser,
Claude Lorrain (1878); Lady Dilke, Claude Lorrain (1884).

(W. M. R.)

CLAUDET, ANTOINE FRANCOIS JEAN (1797-1867), French
photographer, was born at Lyons on the I2th of August 1797.
Having acquired a share in L. J. M. Daguerre's invention, he was
one of the first to practise daguerreotype portraiture in England,
and he improved the sensitizing process by using chlorine in
addition to iodine, thus gaining greater rapidity of action. In
1848 he produced the photographometer, an instrument designed
to measure the intensity of photogenic rays; and in 1849 he
brought out the focimeter, for securing a perfect focus in photo-
graphic portraiture. He was elected a fellow of the Royal
Society in 1853, and in 1858 he produced the stereomonoscope,
in reply to a challenge from Sir David Brewster. He died in
London on the 27th of December 1867.

CLAUDIANUS, CLAUDIUS, Latin epic poet and panegyrist,
flourished during the reign of Arcadius and Honorius. He was
an Egyptian by birth, probably an Alexandrian, but it may be
conjectured from his name and his mastery of Latin that he was
of Roman extraction. His own authority has been assumed for
the assertion that his first poetical compositions were in Greek,
and that he had written nothing in Latin before A.D. 395; but
this seems improbable, and the passage (Carm. Min. xli. 13)
which is taken to prove it does not necessarily bear this meaning.
In that year he appears to have come to Rome, and made his
debut as a Latin poet by a panegyric on the consulship of Olybrius
and Probinus, the first brothers not belonging to the imperial
family who had ever simultaneously filled the office of consul.
This piece proved the precursor of the series of panegyrical poems
which compose the bulk of his writings. In Birt's edition a
complete chronological list of Claudian's poems is given, and
also in J. B. Bury's edition of Gibbon (iii. app. i. p. 485), where
the dates given differ slightly from those in the present article.

In 396 appeared the encomium on the third consulship of the
emperor Honorius, and the epic on the downfall of Rufinus, the

464

CLAUDIUS

unworthy minister of Arcadius at Constantinople. This revolu-
tion was principally effected by the contrivance of Stilicho, the
great general and minister of Honorius. Claudian's poem appears
to have obtained his patronage, or rather perhaps that of his wife
Serena, by whose interposition the poet was within a year or two
enabled to contract a wealthy marriage in Africa (Episl. 2).
Previously to this event he had produced (398) his panegyric on
the fourth consulship of Honorius, his epithalamium on the
marriage of Honorius to Stilicho's daughter, Maria, and his poem
on the Gildonic war, celebrating the repression of a revolt in
Africa. To these succeeded his piece on the consulship of
Manlius Theodorus (399), the unfinished or mutilated invective
against the Byzantine prime minister Eutropius in the same year,
the epics on Stilicho's first consulship and on his repulse of Alaric
(400 and 403), and the panegyric on the sixth consulship of
Honorius (404). From this time all trace of Claudian is lost, and
he is generally supposed to have perished with his patron Stilicho
in 408. It may be conjectured that he must have died in 404, as
he could hardly otherwise have omitted to celebrate the greatest
of Stilicho's achievements, the destruction of the barbarian host
led by Radagaisus in the following year. On the other hand, he
may have survived Stilicho, as in the dedication to the second
book of his epic on the Rape of Proserpine (which Birt, however,
assigns to 395-397), he speaks of his disuse of poetry in terms
hardly reconcilable with the fertility which he displayed during
his patron's lifetime. From the manner in which Augustine
alludes to him in his De civitate Dei, it may be inferred that he
was no longer living at the date of the composition of that work,
between 4-15 and 428.

Besides Claudian's chief poems, his lively Fescennines on the
emperor's marriage, his panegyric on Serena, and the Giganto-
machia, a fragment of an unfinished Greek epic, may also be
mentioned. Several poems expressing Christian sentiments are
undoubtedly spurious. Claudian's paganism, however, neither
prevented his celebrating Christian rulers and magistrates nor his
enjoying the distinction of a court laureate. It is probable that he
was nominally a Christian, like his patron Stilicho and Ausonius,
although at heart attached to the old religion. The very decided
statements of Orosius and Augustine as to his heathenism may be
explained by the pagan style of Claudian's political poems. We
have his own authority for his having been honoured by a bronze
statue in the forum, and Pomponius Laetus discovered in the
iSth century an inscription (C.I.L. vi. 1710) on the pedestal,
which, formerly considered spurious, is now generally regarded as
genuine.

The position of Claudian the last of the Roman poets is
unique in literature. It is sufficiently remarkable that, after
nearly three centuries of torpor, the Latin muse should have
experienced any revival in the age of Honorius, nothing less than
amazing that this revival should have been the work of a foreigner,
most surprising of all that a just and enduring celebrity should
have been gained by official panegyrics on the generally un-
interesting transactions of an inglorious epoch. The first of these
particulars bespeaks Claudian's taste, rising superior to the
prevailing barbarism, the second his command of language, the
third his rhetorical skill. As remarked by Gibbon, " he was
endowed with the rare and precious talent of raising the meanest,
of adorning the most barren, and of diversifying the most
similar topics." This gift is especially displayed in his poem on
the downfall of Rufinus, where the punishment of a public male-
factor is exalted to the dignity of an epical subject by the
magnificence of diction and the ostentation of supernatural
machinery. The noble exordium, in which the fate of Rufinus is
propounded as the vindication of divine justice, places the subject
at once on a dignified level; and the council of the infernal
powers has afforded a hint to Tasso, and through him to Milton.
The inevitable monotony of the panegyrics on Honorius is
relieved by just and brilliant expatiation on the duties of a
sovereign. In his celebration of Stilicho's victories Claudian
found a subject more worthy of his powers, and some passages,
such as the description of the flight of Alaric, and of Stilicho's
arrival at Rome, and the felicitous parallel between his triumphs

and those of Marius, rank among the brightest ornaments of
Latin poetry. Claudian's panegyric, however lavish and
regardless of veracity, is in general far less offensive than usual in
his age, a circumstance attributable partly to his more refined
taste and partly to the genuine merit of his patron Stilicho.
He is a valuable authority for the history of his times, and is
rarely to be convicted of serious inaccuracy in his facts, whatever
may be thought of the colouring he chooses to impart to them.
He was animated by true patriotic feeling, in the shape of a
reverence for Rome as the source and symbol of law, order and
civilization. Outside the sphere of actual life he is less successful ;
his Rape of Proserpine, though the beauties of detail are as
great as usual, betrays his deficiency in the creative power
requisite for dealing with a purely ideal subject. This denotes
the rhetorician rather than the poet, and in general it may be said
that his especial gifts of vivid natural description, and of copious
illustration, derived from extensive but not cumbrous erudition,
are fully as appropriate to eloquence as to poetry. In the
general cast of his mind and character of his writings, and
especially, in his faculty for bestowing enduring interest upon
occasional themes, we may fitly compare him with Dryden,
remembering that while Dryden exulted in the energy of a
vigorous and fast-developing language, Claudian was cramped
by an artificial diction, confined to the literary class.

The editio princeps of Claudian was printed at Vicenza in 1482;
the editions of J. M. Gesner (1759) and P. Burmann (1760) are still
valuable for their notes. The first critical edition was that of L.
Jeep (1876-1879), now superseded by the exhaustive work of T.
Birt, with bibliography, in Monumenta Germaniae Htstorica (x.,
1892 ; smaller ed. founded on this by J. Koch, Teubner series, 1893).
There is a separate edition with commentary and verse translation of
II Ratio di Prosperpina, by L. Garces de Diez (1889); the satire In
Eutropium is discussed by T. Birt in Zwei politische Satiren des a'ten
Rom (1888). There is a complete English verse translation of little
merit by A. Hawkins (1817). See the articles by Ramsay in Smith's
Classical Dictionary and Vollmer in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclo-
padie der clasnschen Altertumswissenschaft, iii. 2 (1899); also
J. H. E. Crees, Claudian as an Historian (1908), the " Cambridge
Historical Essay" for 1906 (No. 17) ; T. Hodgkin, Claudian, the last
of the Roman Poets (1875).

CLAUDIUS [TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS DRUSUS NERO GERMANICUS],
Roman emperor A.D. 41-54, son of Drusus and Antonia, nephew
of the emperor Tiberius, and grandson of Livia, the wife of
Augustus, was born at Lugdunum (Lyons) on the ist of August
10 B.C. During his boyhood he was treated with contempt,
owing to his weak and timid character and his natural infirmities;
the fact that he was regarded as little better than an imbecile
saved him from death at the hands of Caligula. He chiefly devoted
himself to literature, especially history, and until his accession
he took no real part in public affairs, though Caligula honoured
him with the dignity of consul. He was four times married:
to Plautia Urgulanilla, whom he divorced because he suspected
her of designs against his life; to Aelia Petina, also divorced;
to the infamous Valeria Messallina (?..); and to his niece
Agrippina.

In A.D. 41, on the murder of Caligula, Claudius was seized
by the praetorians, and declared emperor. The senate, which
had entertained the idea of restoring the republic, was obliged
to acquiesce. One of Claudius's first acts was to proclaim an
amnesty for all except Cassius Chaerea, the assassin of his pre-
decessor, and one or two others. After the discovery of a
conspiracy against his life in 42, he fell completely under the
influence of Messallina and his favourite freedmen Pallas and
Narcissus, who must be held responsible for acts of cruelty
which have brought undeserved odium upon the emperor.
There is no doubt that Claudius was a liberal-minded man of
kindly nature, anxious for the welfare of his people. Humane
regulations were made in regard to freedmen, slaves, widows
and orphans; the police system was admirably organized;
commerce was put on a sound footing; the provinces were
governed in a spirit of liberality; the rights of citizens and
admission to the senate were extended to communities outside
Italy. The speech of Claudius delivered (in the year 48) in the
senate in support of the petition of the Aeduans that their
senators should have the jus petendorum honorum (claim of

CLAUDIUS

465

admission to the senate and magistracies) at Rome has been
partly preserved on the fragment of a bronze tablet found at
Lyons in 1524; an imperial edict concerning the citizenship of
the Anaunians (isth of March 46) was found in the southern
Tirol in 1869 (C.I.L. v. 5050). Claudius was especially fond
of building. He completed thfc great aqueduct (Aqua Claudia)
begun by Caligula, drained the Lacus Fucinus, and built the
harbour of Ostia. Nor were his military operations unsuccessful.
Mauretania was made a Roman province; the conquest of
Britain was begun; his distinguished general Domitius Corbulo
(q.v.) gained considerable successes in Germany and the East.
The intrigues of Narcissus caused Messallina to be put to death
by order of Claudius, who took as his fourth wife his niece
Agrippina, a woman as criminal as any of her predecessors.
She prevailed upon him to set aside his own son Britannicus in
favour of Nero, her son by a former marriage; and in 54, to
make Nero's position secure, she put the emperor to death by
poison . The apotheosis of Claudius was the subject of a lampoon
by Seneca called apokolokyntosis, the " pumpkinification " of
Claudius.

Claudius was a prolific writer, chiefly on history, but his
works are lost. He wrote (in Greek ) a history of Carthage and
a history of Etruria: (in Latin) a history of Rome from the
death of Caesar, an autobiography, and an essay in defence of
Cicero against the attacks of Asinius Gallus. He also introduced
three new letters into the Latin alphabet: J for the consonantal
V, J for BS and PS, h for the intermediate sound between I
andU.

AUTHORITIES. Ancient : the Annals of Tacitus, Suetonius and
Dio Cassius. Modern: H. Lehmann, Claudius und seine Zeit, with
introductory chapter on the ancient authorities (1858); Lucien
Double, L'Empereur Claude (1876); A. Ziegler, Die politische Seite
der Regierung des Kaisers Claudius (1885) ; H. F. Pelham in Quarterly
Review (April 1905), where certain administrative and political
changes introduced by Claudius, for which he was attacked by his
contemporaries, are discussed and defended ; Merivale, Hist, of
the Romans under the Empire, chs. 49, 50; H. Schiller, Geschichte
der romischen Kaiserzeit, i., pt. I ; H. Furneaux's ed. of the Annals
of Tacitus (introduction).

CLAUDIUS, the name of a famous Roman gens. The by-form
Clodius, in its origin a mere orthographical variant, was regularly
used for certain Claudii in late republican times, but otherwise
the two forms were used indifferently. The gens contained a
patrician and a plebeian family; the chief representatives of
the former were the Pulchri, of the latter the Marcelli (see
MARCELLUS). The following members of the gens deserve
particular mention.

1. APPIUS SABINUS INREGILLENSIS, or REGILLENSIS, CLAUDIUS,
so called from Regillum (or Regilli) in Sabine territory, founder
of the Claudian gens. His original name was Attus or Attius
Clausus. About 504 B.C. he settled in Rome, where he and his
followers formed a tribe. In 495 he was consul, and his cruel
enforcement of the laws of debtor and creditor, in opposition to
his milder colleague, P. Servilius Priscus, was one of the chief
causes of the " secession " of the plebs to the Sacred Mount. On
several occasions he displayed his hatred of the people, although
it is stated that he subsequently played the part of mediator.

Suetonius, Tiberius, i. ; Livy ii. 16-29; Dion. Halic. v. 40, vi.
23- 24-

2. CLAUDIUS, APPIUS, surnamed CRASSUS, a Roman patrician,
consul in 471 and 451 B.C., and in the same and following year
one of the decemvirs. At first he was conspicuous for his
aristocratic pride and bitter hatred of the plebeians. Twice
they refused to fight under him, and fled before their enemies.
He retaliated by decimating the army. He was banished, but
soon returned, and again became consul. In the same year
(451) he was made one of the decemviri who had been appointed
to draw up a code of written laws. When it was decided to elect
decemvirs for another year, he who had formerly been looked
upon as the champion of the aristocracy, suddenly came forward
as the friend of the people, and was himself re-elected together
with several plebeians. But no sooner was the new body in
office, than it treated both patricians and plebeians with equal
violence, and refused to resign at the end of the year. Matters

were brought to a crisis by the affair of Virginia. Enamoured
of the beautiful daughter of the plebeian centurion Virginius,
Claudius attempted to seize her by an abuse of justice. One
of his clients, Marcus Claudius, swore that she was the child of
a slave belonging to him, and had been stolen by the childless
wife of the centurion. Virginius was summoned from the army,
and on the day of trial was present to expose the conspiracy.
Nevertheless, judgment was given according to the evidence
of Marcus, and Claudius commanded Virginia to be given up to
him. In despair, her father seized a knife from a neighbouring
stall and plunged it in her side. A general insurrection was the
result; and the people seceded to the Sacred Mount. The
decemvirs were finally compelled to resign and Appius Claudius
died in prison, either by his own hand or by that of the execu-
tioner. For a discussion of the character of Appius Claudius,
see Mommsen's appendix to vol. i. of his History of Rome. He
holds that Claudius was never the leader of the patrician party,
but a patrician demagogue who ended by becoming a tyrant
to patricians as well as plebeians. The decemvirate, one of
the triumphs of the plebs, could hardly have been abolished by
that body, but would naturally have been overthrown by the
patricians. The revolution which ruined Claudius was a return to
the rule of the patricjans represented by the Horatii and Valerii.
Livy iii. 32-58 ; Dion. Halic, x. 59, xi. 3.

3. CLAUDIUS, APPIUS, surnamed CAECUS, Roman patrician and
author. In 31 2 B.C. he was elected censor without having passed
through the office of consul. His censorship which he retained
for five years, in spite of the lex Aemilia which limited the
tenure of that office to eighteen months was remarkable for the
actual or attempted achievement of several great constitutional
changes. He filled vacancies in the senate with men of low birth,
in some cases even the sons of freedmen (Diod. Sic. xx. 36;
Livy ix. 30; Suetonius, Claudius, 24). His most important
political innovation was the abolition of the old free birth,
freehold basis of suffrage. He enrolled the freedmen and
landless citizens both in the centuries and in the tribes,
and, instead of assigning them to the four urban tribes,
he distributed them through all the tribes and thus gave
them practical control of the elections. In 304, however,
Q. Fabius Rullianus limited the landless and poorer freedmen to
the four urban tribes, thus annulling the effect of Claudius's
arrangement. Appius Claudius transferred the charge of the
public worship of Hercules in the Forum Boarium from the
Potitian gens to a number of public slaves. He further invaded
the exclusive rights of the patricians by directing his secretary
Gnaeus Flavius (whom, though a freedman, he made a senator)
to publish the legis acliones (methods of legal practice) and the
list of dies fasti (or days on which legal business could be trans-
acted). Lastly, he gained enduring fame by the construction of a
road and an aqueduct, which a thing unheard of before he
called by his own name (Livy ix. 29; Frontinus, De Aquis,
115; Diod. Sic. xx. 36). In 307 he was elected consul for the
first time. In 298 he was interrex; in 296, as consul, he led the
army in Samnium, and although, with his colleague, he gained a
victory over the Etruscans and Samnites, he does not seem to
have specially distinguished himself as a soldier (Livy x. 19).
Next year he was praetor, and he was once dictator. His
character, like his namesake the decemvir's is not easy to define.
In spite of his political reforms, he opposed the admission of the
plebeians to the consulship and priestly offices; and, although
these reforms might appear to be democratic in character and
calculated to give preponderance to the lowest class of the people,
his probable aim was to strengthen the power of the magistrates
(and lessen that of the senate) by founding it on the popular will,
which would find its expression in the urban inhabitants and
could be most easily influenced by the magistrate. He was
already blind and too feeble to walk, when Cineas, the minister of
Pyrrhus, visited him, but so vigorously did he oppose every
concession that all the eloquence of Cineas was in vain, and the
Romans forgot past misfortunes in the inspiration of Claudius's
patriotism (Livy x. 13; Justin xviii. 2; Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 19).
The story of his blindness, however, may be merely a method of

4 66

CLAUDIUS, M. A. CLAUSEL

accounting for his cognomen. Tradition regarded it as the
punishment of his transference of the cult of Hercules from the
Potitii.

Appius Claudius Caecus is also remarkable as the first writer
mentioned in Roman literature. His speech against peace with
Pyrrhus was the first that was transmitted to writing, and thereby
laid the foundation of prose composition . He was the author of a
collection of aphorisms in verse mentioned by Cicero (of which a
few fragments remain), and of a legal work entitled De Usurpa-
tionibus. It is very likely also that he was concerned in the
drawing up of the Legis Actiones published by Flavius. The
famous dictum " Every man is the architect of his own fortune "
is attributed to him. He also interested himself in grammatical
questions, distinguished the two sounds R and S in writing, and
did away with the letter Z.

See Mommsen's appendix to his Roman History (vol. i.) ; treatises
by W. Siebert (1863) and F. D. Gerlach (1872), dealing especially
with the censorship of Claudius.

4. CLAUDIUS, PUBLIUS, surnamed PULCHER, son of (3). He
was the first of the gens who bore this surname. In 249 he was
consul and appointed to the command of the fleet in the first
Punic War. Instead of continuing the siege of Lilybaeum, he
decided to attack the Carthaginians in the harbour of Drepanum,
and was completely defeated. The disaster was commonly
attributed to Claudius's treatment of the sacred chickens, which
refused to eat before the battle. " Let them drink then," said
the consul, and ordered them to be thrown into the sea. Having
been recalled and ordered to appoint a dictator, he gave another
instance of his high-handedness by nominating a subordinate
official, M. Claudius Glicia, but the nomination was at once over-
ruled. Claudius himself was accused of high treason and heavily
fined. He must have died before 246, in which year his sister
Claudia was fined for publicly expressing a wish that her brother
Publius could rise from the grave to lose a second fleet and
thereby diminish the number of the people. It is supposed that
he committed suicide.

Livy, Epit., 19; Polybius i. 49; Cicero, De Divinatione, i. 1 6,
ii. 8; Valerius Maximus i. 4, viii. I.

5. CLAUDIUS, APPIUS, surnamed PULCHER, Roman statesman
and author. He served under his brother-in-law Lucullus in Asia
(72 B.C.) and was commissioned to deliver the ultimatum to
Tigranes, which gave him the choice of war with Rome or the
surrender of Mithradates. In 57 he was praetor, in 56 pro-
praetor in Sardinia, and in 54 consul with L. Domitius Aheno-
barbus. Through the intervention of Pompey, he became
reconciled to Cicero, who had been greatly offended because
Claudius had indirectly opposed his return from exile. In this
and certain other transactions Claudius seems to have acted from
avaricious motives, a result of his early poverty. In 53 he
entered upon the governorship of Cilicia, in which capacity
he seems to have been rapacious and tyrannical. During this
period he carried on a correspondence with Cicero, whose letters
to him form the third book of the Epistolae ad Familiares.
Claudius resented the appointment of Cicero as his successor,
avoided meeting him, and even issued orders after his arrival
in the province. On his return to Rome Claudius was impeached
by P. Cornelius Dolabella on the ground of having violated the
sovereign rights of the people. This led him to make advances to
Cicero, since it was necessary to obtain witnesses in his favour
from his old province. He was acquitted, and a charge of
bribery against him also proved unsuccessful. In 50 he was
censor, and expelled many of the members of the senate, amongst
them the historian Sallust on the ground of immorality. His
connexion with Pompey brought upon him the enmity of Caesar,
at whose march on Rome he fled from Italy. Having been
appointed by Pompey to the command in Greece, in obedience to
an ambiguous oracle he crossed over to Euboea, where he died
about 48, before the battle of Pharsalus. Claudius was of a
distinctly religious turn of mind, as is shown by the interest he
took in sacred buildings (the temple at Eleusis, the sanctuary of
Amphiaraus at Oropus). He wrote a work on augury, the first
book of which he dedicated to Cicero. He was also extremely

superstitious, and believed in invocations of the dead. Cicero had
a high opinion of his intellectual powers, and considered him a
great orator (see Orelli, Onomasticon Tuttianum).

A full account of all the Claudii will be found in Pauly-Wissowa's

Realencyclopadie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, iii. 2 (1899).

CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, surnamed GOTHICUS,
Roman emperor A.D. 268-270, belonged to an obscure Illyrian
family. On account of his military ability he was placed in
command of an army by Decius; and Valerian appointed him
general on the Illyrian frontier, and ruler of the provinces of the
lower Danube. During the reign of Gallienus, he was called to
Italy in order to crush Aureolus; and on the death of the
emperor (268) he was chosen as his successor, in accordance,
it was said, with his express desire. Shortly after his accession
he routed the Alamanni on the Lacus Benacus (some doubt is
thrown upon this); in 269 a great victory over the Goths at
Naissus in Moesia gained him the title of Gothicus. In the
following year he died of the plague at Sirmium, in his fifty-
sixth year. He enjoyed great popularity, and appears to have
been a man of ability and character.

His life was written by Trebellius Pollio, one of the Scriptores
Historiae Auguslae; see also Zosinius i. 40-43, the histories of Th.
Bernhardt and H. Schiller, and special dissertations by A. Duncker
on the life of Claudius ( 1 868) and the defeat of the Alamanni (A nnalen
des Vereins fur nassauische Altertumskunde, 1879); Homo, De
Claudia Gotnico (1900) ; Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie, ii.
2458 ff. (Henze).

CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS (1740-1815), German poet, other-
wise known by the nom de plume of ASMUS, was born on the isth
of August 1740 at Reinfeld, near Liibeck, and studied at Jena.
He spent the greater part of his life in the little town of Wands-
beck, near Hamburg, where he earned his first literary reputation
by editing from 1771 to 1775, a newspaper called the Wandsbecker
Bate (Wandsbeck Messenger), in which he published a large
number of prose essays and poems. They were written in pure
and simple German, and appealed to the popular taste; in many
there was a vein of extravagant humour or even burlesque,
while others were full of quiet meditation and solemn sentiment.
In his later days, perhaps through the influence of Klopstock,
with whom he had formed an intimate acquaintance, Claudius
became strongly pietistic, and the graver side of his nature
showed' itself. In 1814 he removed to Hamburg, to the house
of his son-in-law, the publisher Friedrich Christoph Perthes,
where he died on the 2ist of January 1815.

Claudius's collected works were published under the title of
Asmus omnia sua secum portans, oder Sdmtliche Werke des Wands-
becker Boten (8 vols., 1775-1812; I3th edition, by C. Redich, 2 vols.,
1902). His biography has been written by Wilhelm Herbst (4th ed.,
1878). See also M. Schneidereit, M. Claudius, seine Weltanscltauung
und Lebensweisheit (1898).

CLAUSEL (more correctly CLAUZEL), BERTRAND, COUNT
(1772-1842), marshal of France, was born at Mirepoix (Ariege)
on the izth of December 1772, and served in the first campaign
of the French Revolutionary Wars as one of the volunteers of
1791. In June 1795, having distinguished himself repeatedly
in the war on the northern frontier (1792-1793) and the fighting
in the eastern Pyrenees (1793-1794), Clausel was made a general
of brigade. In this rank he served in Italy in 1798 and 1799,
and in the disastrous campaign of the latter year he won great
distinction at the battles of the Trebbia and of Novi. In 1802
he served in the expedition to S. Domingo. He became a general
of division in December 1802, and after his return to France he
was in almost continuous military employment there until in
1806 he was sent to the army of Naples. Soon after this Napoleon
made him a grand officer of the Legion of Honour. In 1808-1809
he was with Marmont in Dalmatia, and at the close of 1809 he
was appointed to a command in the army of Portugal under
Massena.

Clausel took part in the Peninsular campaigns of 1810 and 181 1 ,
including the Torres Vedras campaign, and under Marmont he
did excellent service in re-establishing the discipline, efficiency
and mobility of the army, which had suffered severely in the
retreat from Torres Vedras. In the Salamanca campaign (1812)
the result of Clausel's work was shown in the marching powers

CLAUSEN CLAUSEWITZ

467

of the French, and at the battle of Salamanca, Clausel, who had
succeeded to the command on Marmont being wounded, and had
himself received a severe wound, drew off his army with the
greatest skill, the retreat on Burgos being conducted by him in
such a way that the pursuers failed to make the slightest impres-
sion, and had themselves in the end to retire from the siege of
Burgos (1812). Early in 1813 Clausel was made commander
of the Army of the North in Spain, but he was unable to avert
the great disaster of Vittoria. Under the supreme command of
Soult he served through the rest of the Peninsular War with
unvarying distinction. On the first restoration in 1814 he
submitted unwillingly to the Bourbons, and when Napoleon
returned to France, he hastened to join him. During the
Hundred Days he was in command of an army defending the
Pyrenean frontier. Even after Waterloo he long refused to
recognize the restored government, and he escaped to America,
being condemned to death in absence. He took the first oppor-
tunity of returning to aid the Liberals in France (1820), sat in
the chamber of deputies from 1827 to 1830, and after the revolu-
tion of 1830 was at once given a military command. At the head
of the army of Algiers, Clausel made a successful campaign,
but he was soon recalled by the home government, which desired
to avoid complications in Algeria. At the same time he was
made a marshal of France (February 1831). For some four
years thereafter he urged his Algerian policy upon the chamber
of deputies, and finally in 1835 was reappointed commander-in-
chief. But after several victories, including the taking of
Mascara in 1835, the marshal met with a severe repulse at
Constantine in 1836. A change of government in France was
primarily responsible for the failure, but public opinion attributed
it to Clausel, who was recalled in February 1837. He thereupon
retired from active service, and, after vigorously defending his
conduct before the deputies, he ceased to take part in public
affairs. He lived in complete retirement up to his death at
Secourrieu (Garonne) on the 2ist of April 1842.

CLAUSEN, GEORGE (1852- ), English painter, was born
in London, the son of a decorative artist. He attended the design
classes at the South Kensington schools from 1867-1873 with
great success. He then worked in the studio of Edwin Long,
R.A., and subsequently in Paris under Bouguereau and Robert-
Fleury. He became one of the foremost modern painters of
landscape and of peasant life, influenced to a certain extent
by the impressionists with whom he shared the view that light
is the real subject of landscape art. His pictures excel in render-
ing the appearance of things under flecking outdoor sunlight,
or in the shady shelter of a barn or stable. His " Girl at the
Gate " was acquired for the nation by the Chantrey Trustees and
is now at the National Gallery of British Art (Tate Gallery).
He was elected associate of the Royal Academy in 1895, and as
professor of painting gave a memorable series of lectures to the
students of the schools, published as Six Lectures on Painting
(1904) and Aims and Ideals in Art (1906).

CLAUSEWITZ, KARL VON (1780-1831), Prussian general and
military writer, was born at Burg, near Magdeburg, on the ist of
June 1 780. His family, originally Polish, had settled in Germany
at the end of the previous century. Entering the army in 1792,
he first saw service in the Rhine campaigns of 1793-1794,
receiving his commission at the siege of Mainz. On his return to
garrison duty he set to work so zealously to remedy the defects
in his education caused by his father's poverty, that in 1801 he
was admitted to the Berlin Academy for young officers, then
directed by Scharnhorst. Scharnhorst, attracted by his pupil's
industry and force of character, paid special attention to his
training, and profoundly influenced the development of his mind.
In 1803, on Scharnhorst's recommendation, Clausewitz was made
" adjutant " (aide-de-camp) to Prince August, and he served in
this capacity in the campaign of Jena (1806), being captured
along with the prince by the French at Prenzlau. A prisoner in
France and Switzerland for the next two years, he returned
to Prussia in 1809; and for the next three years, as a depart-
mental chief in the ministry of war, as a teacher in the
military school, and as military instructor to the crown prince,

he assisted Scharnhorst in the famous reorganization of the
Prussian army. In 1810 he married the countess Marie von
Bruhl.

On the outbreak of the Russian war in 1812, Clausewitz, like
many other Prussian officers, took service with his country's
nominal enemy. This step he justified in a memorial, published
for the first time in the Leben Gneisenaus by Pertz (Berlin, 1869).
At first adjutant to General Phull, who had himself been a
Prussian officer, he served later under Pahlen at Witepsk and
Smolensk, and from the final Russian position at Kaluga he
was sent to the army of Wittgenstein. It was Clausewitz who
negotiated the convention of Tauroggen, which separated the
cause of Yorck's Prussians from that of the French, and began
the War of Liberation (see YORCK VON WARTENBURG; also
Blumenthal's Die Konvenlion wn Tauroggen, Berlin, 1901). As a
Russian officer he superintended the formation of the Landwehrof
east Prussia (see STEIN, BARON VOM), and in the campaign of
1813 served as chief of staff to Count Wallmoden. He conducted
the fight at Gohrde, and after the armistice, with Gneisenau's
permission, published an account of the campaign (Der Feldzug wn
1813 bis zum Wa/enslillstand, Leipzig, 1813). This work was
long attributed to Gneisenau himself. After the peace of 1814
Clausewitz re-entered the Prussian service, and in the Waterloo
campaign was present at Ligny and Wavre as General Thielmann's.
chief of staff. This post he retained till 1818, when he was pro-
moted major-general and appointed director of the Allgemeine
Kriegsschule. Here he remained till in 1830 he was made chief of
the 3rd Artillery Inspection at Breslau. Next year he became
chief of staff to Field-marshal Gneisenau, who commanded an
army of observation on the Polish frontier. After the dissolution
of this army Clausewitz returned to his artillery duties; but on
the i8th of November 1831 he died at Breslau of cholera, which
had proved fatal to his chief also, and a little previously, to his
old Russian commander Diebitsch on the other side of the
frontier.

His collected works were edited and published by his widow,
who was aided by some officers, personal friends of the general, in
her task. Of the ten volumes of Hinterlassene Werke ilber Krieg
und Kriegfuhrung (Berlin, 1832-1837, later edition called
Clausewitz's Gesammte Werke, Berlin, 1874) the first three
contain Clausewitz's masterpiece, Vom Kriege, an exposition
of the philosophy of war which is absolutely unrivalled. He
produced no " system " of strategy, and his critics styled his
work " negative " and asked " Qu'a-t-U fonde ? " What he had
" founded " was that modern strategy which, by its hold on the
Prussian mind, carried the Prussian arms to victory in 1866 and
1870 over the " systematic " strategists Krismanic and Bazaine,
and his philosophy of war became, not only in Germany but in
many other countries, the essential basis of all serious study of
the art of war. The English and French translations (Graham,
On War, London, 1873; Neuens, La Guerre, Paris, 1840-1852; or
Vatry, Theorie de la grande guerre, Paris, 1899), with the German
original, place the work at the disposal of students of most
nationalities. The remaining volumes deal with military
history: vol. 4, the Italian campaign of 1796-97; vols. 5 and 6,
the campaign of 1799 in Switzerland and Italy; vol. 7, the wars
of 1812, 1813 to the armistice, and 1814; vol. 8, the Waterloo-
Campaign; vols. 9 and 10, papers on the campaigns of Gustavus
Adolphus, Turenne, Luxemburg, Mtinnich, John Sobieski,
Frederick the Great, Ferdinand of Brunswick, &c. He also wrote
Uber das Leben und den Charakter von Scharnhorst (printed in
Ranke's Historisch-politischer Zeitschrift, 1832). A manuscript
on the catastrophe of 1806 long remained unpublished. It was
used by v. Hopfner in his history of that war, and eventually
published by the Great General Staff in 1888 (French translation,
1903). Letters from Clausewitz to his wife were published in
Zeitschrift fiir preussische Landcskunde (1876). His name is borne
by the 28th Field Artillery regiment of the German army.

See Schwartz, Leben des General von Clausewitz und der Frau
Marie von Clausewitz (2 vols., Berlin, 1877); von Meerheimb, Karl
von Clausewitz (Berlin, 1875), also Memoir in Allgemeine deutsche
Biographic; Bernhardi, Leben des Generals von Clausewitz (loth
Supplement, Militar. Wochenblatl, 1878).

4 68

CLAUSIUS CLAVICYTHERIUM

CLAUSIUS, RUDOLF JULIUS EMMANUEL (1822-1888),
German physicist, was born on the 2nd of January 1822 at
Koslin, in Pomerania. After attending the Gymnasium at
Stettin, he studied at Berlin University from 1840 to 1844. In
1848 he took his degree at Halle, and in 1850 was appointed
professor of physics in the royal artillery and engineering school at
Berlin. Late in the same year he delivered his inaugural lecture
as Privatdocent in the university. In 1855 he became an ordinary
professor at Zurich Polytechnic, accepting at the same time
a professorship in the university of Zurich. In 1867 he moved
to Wurzburg as professor of physics, and two years later was
appointed to the same chair at Bonn, where he died on the 24th of
August 1888. During the Franco-German War he was at the
head of an ambulance corps composed of Bonn students, and
received the Iron Cross for the services he rendered at Vionville
and Gravelotte. The work of Clausius, who was a mathematical
rather than an experimental physicist, was concerned with many
of the most abstruse problems of molecular physics. By his
restatement of Carnot's principle he put .the theory of heat on a
truer and sounder basis, and he deserves the credit of having
made thermodynamics a science; he enunciated the second law,
in a paper contributed to the Berlin Academy in 1850, in the well-
known form, " Heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a hotter
body." His results he applied to an exhaustive development of
the theory of the steam-engine, laying stress in particular on the
conception of entropy. The kinetic theory of gases owes much to
his labours, Clerk Maxwell calling him its principal founder. It
was he who raised it, on the basis of the dynamical theory of heat,
to the level of a theory, and he carried out many numerical
determinations in connextion with it, e.g. of the mean free path of
a molecule. To Clausius also was due an important advance in
the theory of electrolysis, and he put forward the idea that
molecules in electrolytes are continually interchanging atoms, the
electric force not causing, but merely directing, the interchange.
This view found little favour until 1887, when it was taken up by
S. A. Arrhenius, who made it the basis of the theory of electrolytic
dissociation. In addition to many scientific papers he wrote
Die Polentialfunktion und das Potential, 1864, and Abhandlungen
iiber die mechanische Wiirmetheorie, 1864-1867.

CLAUSTHAL, or KLAUSTHAL, a town of Germany, in the
Prussian Harz, lying on a bleak plateau, 1860 ft. above sea-level,
50 m. by rail W.S.W. of Halberstadt. Pop. (1905) 8565.
Clausthal is the chief mining town of the Upper Harz Mountains,
and practically forms one town with Zellerfeld, which is separated
from it by a small stream, the Zellbach. The streets are broad,
opportunity for improvement having been given by fires in 1844
and 1854; the houses are mostly of wood. There are an
Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and a gymnasium.
Clausthal has a famous mining college with a mineralogical
museum, and a disused mint. Its chief mines are silver and lead,
but it also smelts copper and a little gold. Four or five sanatoria
are in the neighbourhood. The museum of the Upper Harz is at
Zellerfeld.

Clausthal was founded about the middle of the i2th century
in consequence probably of the erection of a Benedictine monas-
tery (closed in 1431), remains of which still exist in Zellerfeld.
At the beginning of the i6th century the dukes of Brunswick
made a new settlement here, and under their directions the
mining, which had been begun by the monks, was carried on
more energetically. The first church was built at Clausthal in
1570. In 1864 the control of the mines passed into the hands of
the state.

CLAVECIN, the French for clavisymbal or harpsichord
(Ger. Clavicymbel or Dockenklavier) , an abbreviation of the
Flemish clavisinbal and Ital. davicimbalo, a keyboard musical
instrument in which the strings were plucked by means of a
plectrum consisting of a quill mounted upon a jack.

See PIANOFORTE; HARPSICHORD.

CLAVICEMBALO, or GRAVICEMBALO (from Lat. clavis, key,
aid cymbalum, cymbal; Eng. clavicymbal, clavisymbal; Flemish,
clavisinbal; Span, clavisinbanos) , a keyboard musical instru-
ment with strings plucked by means of small quill or leather

plectra. " Cymbal " (Gr. /cirtSaAw, from *6\i&i\, a hollow
vessel) was the old European term for the dulcimer, and hence
its place in the formation of the word.

See PIANOFORTE; SPINET; VIRGINAL.

CLAVICHORD, or CLARICHOED (Fr. manicorde; Ger. Clavi-
chord; Ital. manicordo; Span, manicordio 1 ) , a medieval stringed
keyboard instrument, a forerunner of the pianoforte (q.v.), its
strings being set in vibration by a blow from a brass tangent
instead of a hammer as in the modern instrument. The clavi-
chord, derived from the dulcimer by the addition of a keyboard,
consisted of a rectangular case, with or without legs, often very
elaborately ornamented with paintings and gilding. The earliest
instruments were small and portable, being placed upon a table
or stand. The strings, of finely drawn brass, steel or iron wire,
were stretched almost parallel with the keyboard over the
narrow belly or soundboard resting on the soundboard bridges,
often three in number, and wound as in the piano round wrest
or tuning pins set in a block at the right-hand side of the sound-
board and attached at the other end to hitch pins. The bridges
served to direct the course of the strings and to conduct the
sound waves to the soundboard. The scaling, or division of
the strings determining their vibrating length, was effected by the
position of the tangents. These tangents, small wedge-shaped
blades of brass, beaten out at the top, were inserted in the end
of the arm of the keys. As the latter were depressed by the
fingers the tangents rose to strike the strings and stop them
at the proper length from the belly-bridge. Thus the string was
set in vibration between the point of impact and the belly-bridge
just as long as the key was pressed down. The key being
released, the vibrations were instantly stopped by a list of cloth
acting as damper and interwoven among the strings behind the
line of the tangents.

There were two kinds of clavichords the fretted or gebunden
and the fret-free or bund-frei. The term " fretted " was applied
to those clavichords which, instead of being provided with a
string or set of strings in unison for each note, had one set of
strings acting for three or four notes, the arms of the keys being
twisted in order to bring the contact of the tangent into the
acoustically correct position under the string. The " fret-free "
were chromatically-scaled instruments. The first bund-frei
clavichord is attributed to Daniel Faber of Crailsheim in Saxony
about 1720. This important change in construction increased
the size of the instrument, each pair of unison strings requiring
a key and tangent of its own, and led to the introduction of the
system of tuning by equal temperament upheld by J. S. Bach.
Clavichords were made with pedals. 2

The tone of the clavichord, extremely sweet and delicate,
was characterized by a tremulous hesitancy, which formed its
great charm while rendering it suitable only for the private
music room or study. Between 1883 and 1893 renewed attention
was drawn to the instrument by A. J. Hipkins's lectures and
recitals on keyboard instruments in London, Oxford and Cam-
bridge; and Arnold Dolmetsch reintroduced the art of making
clavichords in 1894. (K. S.)

CLAVICYTHERIUM, a name usually applied to an upright
spinet (q.v.), the soundboard and strings of which were vertical
instead of horizontal, being thus perpendicular to the keyboard;
but it would seem that the clavicytherium proper is distinct
from the upright spinet in that its strings are placed horizontally.
In the early clavicytherium there was, as in the spinet, only one
string (of gut) to each key, set in vibration by means of a small
quill or leather plectrum mounted on a jack which acted as in
the spinet and harpsichord (q.v.). The clavicytherium or keyed

1 The words clavicorde, clavicordo and clavicordio, respectively
French, Italian and Spanish, were applied to a different type of
instrument, the spinet (q.v.).

2 See Sebastian Virdung, Musica getutscht und auszgezogen (Basel,
1511) (facsimile reprint Berlin, 1882, edited by R. Eitner); J.
Verschuere Reynvaan, Musijkaal Kunst-Woordenboek (Amsterdam,
1795) ( a very scarce book, of which the British Museum does not
possess a copy) ; Jacob Adlune, Musica Mechanica Organoedi
(Berlin, 1768), vol. ii. pp. 158-9; A. J. Hipkins, The History of the
Pianoforte (London, 1896), pp. 61 and 62.

CLAVIE CLAVIJO, R. G. DE

469

cythcra or cetra, names which in the i4th and isth centuries
had been applied somewhat indiscriminately to instruments
having strings stretched over a soundboard and plucked by
fingers or plectrum, was probably of Italian * or possibly of south
German origin. Sebastian Virdung, 2 writing early in the :6th
century, describes the clavicy therium as a new invention, having
gut strings, and gives an illustration of it. (See PIANOFORTE.) A
certain amount of uncertainty exists as to its exact construction,
due to the extreme rarity of unrestored specimens extant, and to
the almost total absence of trustworthy practical information.

In a unique specimen with two keyboards dating from the i6th
or 1 7th century, which is in the collection of Baron Alexandre
Kraus, 3 what appear to be vibrating strings stretched over a
soundboard perpendicular to the keyboard are in reality the
wires forming part of the mechanism of the action. The arrange-
ment of this mechanism is the distinctive feature of the clavi-
cytherium, for the wires, unlike the strings of the upright spinet,
increase in length from left to right, so that the upright harp-
shaped back has its higher side over the treble of the keyboard
instead of over the bass. The vibrating strings of the clavi-
cytherium in the Kraus Museum are stretched horizontally over
two kinds of psalteries fixed one over the other. The first,
serving for the lower register, is of the well-known trapezoid
shape and lies over the keyboards; it has 30 wire strings in
pairs of unisons corresponding to the 15 lowest keys. The
second psaltery resembles the kanoun of the Arabs, and has
36 strings in courses of 3 unisons corresponding to the next 12
keys, and 88 very thin strings in courses of 4, completing the
49 keys; the compass thus has a range of four octaves from
C to C. The quills of the jacks belonging to the two keyboards
are of different length and thickness. The jacks, which work
as in the spinet, are attached to the perpendicular wires, disposed
in two parallel rows, one for each keyboard.

There is a very fine specimen of the so-called clavicytherium
(upright spinet) in the Donaldson museum of the Royal College
of Music, London, acquired from the Correr collection at Venice
in 1885.' The instrument is undated, but A. J. Hipkins 6 placed
it early in the i6th or even at the end of the i sth century. There
is German writing on the inside of the back, referring to some
agreement at Ulm. The case is of pine-wood, and the natural
keys of box-wood. The jacks have the early steel springs, and in
1885 traces were found in the instrument of original brass
plectra, all of which point to a very early date.

A learned Italian, Nicolo Vicentino, 6 living in the i6th century,
describes an archicembalo of his own invention, at which the per-
former had to stand, having four rows of keys designed to obtain
a complete mesotonic pure third tuning. This was an attempt to
reintroduce the ancient Greek musical system. This instrument
was probably an upright harpsichord or clavicembalo.

For the history of the clavicytherium considered as a forerunner
of the pianoforte see PIANOFORTE. (K. S.)

CLAVIE, BURNING THE, an ancient Scottish custom still
observed at Burghead, a fishing village on the Moray Firth,
near Forres. The " clavie " is a bonfire of casks split in two,
lighted on the iath of January, corresponding to the New Year
of the old calendar. One of these casks is joined together again
by a huge nail (Lat. clavus; hence the term). It is then filled
with tar, lighted and carried flaming round the village and
finally up to a headland upon which stands the ruins of a Roman
altar, locally called " the Douro." It here forms the nucleus
of the bonfire, which is built up of split casks. When the burning
tar-barrel falls in pieces, the people scramble to get a lighted

1 Mersenne, Harmonic universelle (Paris, 1636), p. 113, calls the
clavicytherium "une nouvelle forme d'epinette dont on use en
Italic," and states that the action of the jacks and levers is parallel
from back to front.

1 Musica getutscht und auszgezogen (Basel, 1511).

* See " Une Pice unique du Muse Kraus de Florence " in
Annales de V alliance scientifiaue universelle (Paris, 1907).

4 See illustration by William Gibb in A. J. Hipkins's Musical
Instruments, Historic, Rare and Unique (1888).

* History of the Pianoforte, Novello s Music Primers, No. 52 (1896),
P- 75-

* L'Antica Musica ridotta moderna prattica (Rome, 1555).

piece with which to kindle the New Year's fire on their cottage
hearth. The charcoal of the clavie is collected and is put in
pieces up the cottage chimneys, to keep spirits and witches from
coming down.

CLAVIERE, ETIENNE (1735-1793), French financier and poli-
tician, was a native of Geneva. As one of the democratic leaders
there he was obliged in 1782 to take refuge in England, upon
the armed interference of France, Sardinia and Berne in favour
of the aristocratic party. There he met other Swiss, among
them Marat and Etienne Dumont, but their schemes for a new
Geneva in Ireland which the government favoured were
given up when Necker came to power in France, and Claviere,
with most of his comrades, went to Paris. There in 1789 he and
Dumont allied themselves with Mirabeau, secretly collaborating
for him on the Courrier de Provence and also in preparing
the speeches which Mirabeau delivered as his own. It was
mainly by his use of Claviere that Mirabeau sustained his
reputation as a financier. But Claviere also published some
pamphlets under his own name, and through these and his
friendship with J. P. Brissot, whom he had met in London, he
became minister of finance in the Girondist ministry, from
March to the I2th of June 1792. After the loth of August he
was again given charge of the finances in the provisional executive
council, though with but indifferent success. He shared in the
fall of the Girondists, was arrested on the 2nd of June 1793,
but somehow was left in prison until the Sth of December, when,
on receiving notice that he was to appear on the next day before
the Revolutionary Tribunal, he committed suicide.

CLAVIJO, RUY GONZALEZ DE (d. 1412), Spanish traveller
of the 1 5th century, whose narrative is the first important one
of its kind contributed to Spanish literature, was a native of
Madrid, and belonged to a family of some antiquity and position.
On the return of the ambassadors Pelayo de Sotomayor and
Hernan Sanchez de Palazuelos from the court of Timur, Henry
III. of Castille determined to send another embassy to the new
lord of Western Asia, and for this purpose he selected Clavijo,
Gomez de Salazar (who died on the outward journey), and a
master of theology named Fray Alonzo Paez de Santa Maria.
They sailed from St Mary Port near Cadiz on the 22nd of May
1403, touched at the Balearic Isles, Gaeta and Rhodes, spent
some time at Constantinople, sailed along the southern coast of
the Black Sea to Trebizond, and proceeded inland by Erzerum,
the Ararat region, Tabriz, Sultanieh, Teheran and Meshed,
to Samarkand, where they were well received by the conqueror.
Their return was at last accomplished, in part after Timur's
death, and with countless difficulties and dangers, and they
landed in Spain on the ist of March 1406. Clavijo proceeded,
at once to the court, at that time in Alcala de Henares, and
served as chamberlain till the king's death (in the spring of
1406-1407); he then returned to Madrid, and lived there in
opulence till his own death on the 2nd of April 1412. He was
buried in the chapel of the monastery of St Francis, which he
had rebuilt at great expense.

There are two leading MSS. of Clavijo's narrative (a) London,
British Museum, Additional MSS., 16,613 fols. I. n.-ias, v. ; (b)
Madrid, National Library, 9218 ; and two old editions of the original
Spanish (i) by Gon^alo Argote de Molina (Seville, 1582), (2) by
Antonio de Sancha (Madrid, 1 782) , both having the misleading titles,
apparently invented by Molina, of Historia del gran Tamorlan, and
Vtda y hazanas del gran Tamorlan (the latter at the beginning of the
text itself) ; a better sub-title is added, viz. Itinerario y enarracion
del viage y relation de la embaxada que Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo
le hizo. Both editors, and especially Sancha, supply general ex-
planatory dissertations. The Spanish text has also been published,
with a Russian translation, in vol. xxviii. (pp. 1-455) of the Publi-
cations of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences (Section of
Russian Language, &c.), edited by I. I. Sreznevsld (1881). An
English version, by Sir Clements Markham, was issued by the Hakluyt
Society in 1859 (Narrative of the Embassy of R . . . G . . . de Clavijo
to the Court of Timour). The identification of a great number of
the places mentioned by Clavijo is a matter of considerable difficulty,
and has given rise to some discussion (see Khanikof's list in Geo-
graphical Magazine (1874), and Sreznevski's Annotated Index in
the Russian edition of 1881). A short account of Clavijo's life is
riven by Alvarez y Baena in the Hijos de Madrid, vol. ix. See also
C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 332-56.

CLAVIJO Y FAJARDO CLAY, HENRY

470

CLAVIJO Y FAJARDO, JOSt (1730-1806), Spanish publicist,
was born at Lanzarote (Canary Islands) in 1730. He settled
in Madrid, became editor of El Pensador, and by his campaign
against the public performance of autos sacramenlales secured
their prohibition in 1765. In 1770 he was appointed director
of the royal theatres, a post which he resigned in order to take
up the editorship of the Mercurio histirico y politico de Madrid:
at the time of his death in 1806 he was secretary to the Cabinet
of Natural History. He had in abundance the courage, per-
severance and gift of pungent expression which form the equip-
ment of the aggressive journalist, but his work would long since
have been forgotten were it not that it put an end to a peculiarly
national form of dramatic exposition, and that his love affair
with one of Beaumarchais' sisters suggested the theme of Goethe's
first publication, Clavigo.

CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903), American poli-
tician, was born in Madison county, Kentucky, on the ipth of
October 1810. He was the son of Green Clay (1757-1826), a
Kentucky soldier of the war of 1812 and a relative of Henry
Clay. He was educated at Centre College, Danville, Kentucky,
and at Yale, where he graduated in 1832. Influenced to some
extent by William Lloyd Garrison, he became an advocate of the
abolition of slavery, and on his return to his native state, at the
risk of social and political ostracism, he gave utterance to his
belief. He studied law, but instead of practising devoted
himself to a political career. In 1835, 1837 and 1840 he was
elected as a Whig to the Kentucky legislature, where he advocated
a system of gradual emancipation, and secured the establishment
of a public school system, and a much-needed reform in the jury
system. In 1841 he was defeated on account of his abolition
views. In 1844 he delivered campaign speeches for Henry Clay
throughout the North. In 1845 he established, at Lexington,
Kentucky, an anti-slavery publication known as The True
American, but in the same year his office and press were wrecked
by a mob, and he removed the publication office to Cincinnati,
Ohio. During this and the earlier period of his career his zeal and
hot temper involved him in numerous personal encounters and
several duels, in all of which he bore himself with a reckless
bravery. In the Mexican War he served as a captain of a
Kentucky company of militia, and was taken prisoner, while
reconnoitring, during General Scott's advance on the City of
Mexico. He left the Whig party in 1850, and as an anti-slavery
candidate for governor of Kentucky polled 5000 votes. In 1856
he joined the Republican party, and wielded considerable
influence as a Southern representative in its councils. In 1860
he was a leading candidate for the vice-presidential nomination.
In 1 86 1 he was sent by President Lincoln as minister to Russia;
in 1862 he returned to America to accept a commission as major-
general of volunteers, but in March 1863 was reappointed to his
former post at St Petersburg, where he remained until 1869.
Disapproving of the Republican policy of reconstruction, he left
the party, and in 1872 was one of the organizers of the Liberal-
Republican revolt, and was largely instrumental in securing the
nomination of Horace Greeley for the presidency. In the
political campaigns of 1876 and 1880 he supported the Democratic
candidate, but rejoined the Republican party in the campaign of
1884. He died at Whitehall, Kentucky, on the 22nd of July
1903.

See his autobiography, The'Life, Memoirs, Writings, and Speeches
of Cassius Marcellus Clay (Cincinnati, 1896) ; and The Writings of
Cassius Marcellus Clay (edited with a " Memoir " by Horace Greeley.
New York, 1848).

CLAY, CHARLES (1801-1893), English surgeon, was born at
Bredbury, near Stockport, on the 27th of December 1801. He
began his medical education as a pupil of Kinder Wood in
Manchester (where he used to attend John Dalton's lectures on
chemistry), and in 1821 went to Edinburgh to continue his
studies there. Qualifying in 1823, he began a general practice in
Ashton-under-Lyne, but in 1839 removed to Manchester to
practise as an operative and consulting surgeon. It was there
that, in 1842, he first performed the operation of ovariotomy
with which his name is associated. On this occasion it was

perfectly successful, and when in 1865 he published an analysis
of in cases he was able to show a mortality only slightly above
30%. Although his merits in this matter have sometimes been
denied, his claim to the title " Father of Ovariotomy " is now
generally conceded, and it is admittted that he deserves the
credit not only of having shown how that operation could be
made a success, but also of having played an important part in
the advance of abdominal surgery for which the igth century was
conspicuous. In spite of the claims of a heavy practice, Clay
found time for the pursuit of geology and archaeology. Among
the books of which he was the author were a volume of Geological
Sketches of Manchester (1839) and a History of the Currency of the
Isle of Man (1849), and his collections included over a thousand
editions of the Old and New Testaments and a remarkably
complete series of the silver and copper coins of the United
States. He died at Poulton-le-Fylde, near Preston, on the igth
of September 1893.

CLAY, FREDERIC (1838-1889), English musical composer,
the son of James Clay, M.P., who was celebrated as a player of
whist and a writer on that subject, was born in Paris on the 3rd of
August 1838. He studied music under W. B. Molique in Paris
and Moritz Hauptmann at Leipzig. With the exception of a few
songs and two cantatas, The Knights of the Cross (1866) and
Lalla Rookh (1877), the latter of which contained his well-
known song " I'll sing thee songs of Araby," his compositions
were all written for the stage. Clay's first public appearance was
made with an opera entitled Court and Cottage, the libretto of
which was written by Tom Taylor. This was produced at
Covent Garden in 1862, and was followed by Constance (1865),
Ages Ago (1869), and Princess Tola (1875), to name only three of
many works which have long since been forgotten. The last two,
which were written to libretti by W. S. Gilbert, are among Clay's
most tuneful and most attractive works. He wrote part of the
music for Babil and Bijou (1872) and The Black Crook (1873),
both of which were produced at the Alhambra. He also furnished
incidental music for a revival of Twelfth Night and for the
production of James Albery's Oriana. His last works, The
Merry Duchess (1883) and The Golden Ring (1883), the latter
written for the reopening of the Alhambra, which had been burned
to the ground the year before, showed an advance upon his
previous work, and rendered all the more regrettable the stroke of
paralysis which crippled his physical and mental energies during
the last few years of his life. He died at Great Marlow on the
24th of November 1889.

CLAY, HENRY (1777-1852), American statesman and orator,.
was born in Hanover county, Virginia, on the izth of April 1777,
and died in Washington on the 29th of June 1852. Few public
characters in the United States have been the subject of more
heated controversy. His enemies denounced him as a pretender,
a selfish intriguer, and an abandoned profligate; his supporters
placed him among the sages and sometimes even among the
saints. He was an arranger of measures and leader of political
forces, not an originator of ideas and systems. His public life
covered nearly half a century, and his name and fame rest
entirely upon his own merits. He achieved his success despite
serious obstacles. He was tail, rawboned and awkward; his
early instruction was scant; but he " read books," talked well,
and so, after his admission to the bar at Richmond, Virginia,
in 1797, and his removal next year to Lexington, Kentucky, he
quickly acquired a reputation and a lucrative income from his
law practice.

Thereafter, until the end of life, and in a field where he met,
as either friend or foe, John Quincy Adams, Gallatin, Madison,
Monroe, Webster, Jackson, Calhoun, Randolph and Benton,
his political activity was wellnigh ceaseless. At the age of
twenty- two (1799), he was elected to a constitutional convention
in Kentucky; at twenty-six, to the Kentucky legislature;
at twenty-nine, while yet under the age limit of the United
States constitution, he was appointed to an unexpired term
(1806-1807) in the United States Senate, where, contrary to
custom, he at once plunged into business, as though he had been
there all his life. He again served in the Kentucky legislature

CLAY, HENRY

(1808-1809), was chosen speakerof its lower house, and achieved
distinction by preventing an intense and widespread anti-British
feeling from excluding the common law from the Kentucky code.
A year later he was elected to another unexpired term in the
United States Senate, serving in 1810-1811. At thirty-four
(1811) he was elected to the United States House of Representa-
tives and chosen speaker on the first day of the session. One of
the chief sources of his popularity was his activity in Congress
in promoting the war with Great Britain in 1812, while as one
of the peace commissioners he reluctantly signed the treaty of
Ghent on the 24th of December 1814. During the fourteen years
following his first election, he was re-elected five times to the
House and to the speakership; retiring for one term (1821-1823)
to resume his law practice and retrieve his fortunes. He thus
served as speaker in 1811-1814, in 1815-1820 and in 1823-1825.
Once he was unanimously elected by his constituents, and once
nearly defeated for having at the previous session voted to increase
congressional salaries. He was a warm friend of the Spanish-
American revolutionists (1818) and of the Greek insurgents
(1824). From 1825 to 1829 he served as secretary of state in
President John Quincy Adams's cabinet, and in 1831 he was
elected to the United States Senate, where he served until 1842,
and again from 1849 until his death.

From the beginning of his career he was in favour of internal
improvements as a means of opening up the fertile but inaccess-
ible West, and was opposed to the abuse of official patronage
known as " the spoils system." The most important of the
national questions with which Clay was associated, however,
were the various phases of slavery politics and protection to
home industries. The most prominent characteristics of his
public life were his predisposition to " compromises " and
" pacifications " which generally failed of their object, and his
passionate patriotic devotion to the Union.

His earliest championship of protection was a resolution
introduced by him in the Kentucky legislature (1808) which
favoured the wearing by its members of home-made
as S a C pn^ F clothes; and one in the United States Senate (April
tectioaist. 1810), on behalf of home-grown and home-made
supplies for the United States navy, but only to the
point of making the nation independent of foreign supply. In
1816 he advocated the Dallas tariff, in which the duties ranged
up to 35% on articles of home production, the supply of which
could satisfy the home demand; the avowed purpose being to
build up certain industries for safety in time of war. In 1824
he advocated high duties to relieve the prevailing distress, which
he pictured' in a brilliant and effective speech. Although the
distress was caused by the reactionary effect of a disordered
currency and the inflated prices of the war of 1812, he ascribed
it to the country's dependence on foreign supply and foreign
markets. Great Britain, he said, was a shining example of the
wisdom of a high tariff. No nation ever flourished without one.
He closed his principal speech on the subject in the House of
Representatives with a glowing appeal in behalf of what he
called " The American System." In spite of the opposition of
Webster and other prominent statesmen, Clay succeeded in
enacting a tariff which the people of the Southern states de-
nounced as a " tariff of abominations." As it overswelled the
revenue, in 1832 he vigorously favoured reducing tariff rates
on all articles not competing with American products. His speech
in behalf of the measure was for years a protection text-book;
but the measure itself reduced the revenue so little and provoked
such serious threats of nullification and secession in South
Carolina, that, to prevent bloodshed and to forestall a free trade
measure from the next Congress, Clay brought forward in 1833
a compromise gradually reducing the tariff rates to an average
of 20%. To the Protectionists this was " like a crash of thunder
in winter "; but it was received with such favour by the country
generally, that its author was hailed as " The Great Pacificator,"
as he had been thirteen years before at the time of the Missouri
Compromise (see below). As, however, the discontent with
the tariff in the South was only a symptom of the real
trouble there the sensitiveness of the slave-power, Clay

subsequently confessed his serious doubts of the policy of his
interference.

He was only twenty-two, when, as an opponent of slavery,
he vainly urged an emancipation clause for the new constitution
of Kentucky, and he never ceased regretting that its failure put
his state, in improvements and progress, behind its free neigh-
bours. In 1820 he congratulated the new South American
republics on having abolished slavery, but the same year the
threats of the Southern states to destroy the Union led him to
advocate the " Missouri Compromise," which, while keeping
slavery out of all the rest of the territory acquired by the
" Louisiana Purchase " north of Missouri's southern boundary
line, permitted it in that state. Then, greeted with the title
of " The Great Pacificator " as a reward for his success, he
retired temporarily to private life, with a larger stock of popu-
larity than he had ever had before. Although at various times
he had helped to strengthen the law for the recovery of fugitive
slaves, declining as secretary of state to aid Great Britain in the
further suppression of the slave trade, and demanding the
return of fugitives from Canada, yet he heartily supported
the colonizing of the slaves in Africa, because slavery was the
" deepest stain upon the character of the country," opposition
to which could not be repressed except by " blowing out the moral
lights around," and " eradicating from the human soul the light
of reason and the law of liberty." When the slave power
became more aggressive, in and after the year 1831, Clay defended
the right of petition for the abolition of slavery in the District of
Columbia, and opposed Calhoun's bill forbidding the use of the
mails to " abolition " newspapers and documents. He was luke-
warm toward recognizing the independence of Texas, lest it should
aid the increase of slave territory, and generally favoured the
freedom of speech and press as regards the question of slavery;
yet his various concessions and compromises resulted, as he him-
self declared, in the abolitionists denouncing him as a slave-
holder, and the slaveholders as an abolitionist. In 1839, only
twelve months after opposing the pro-slavery demands, he pre-
pared an elaborate speech, in order " to set himself right with the
South," which, before its delivery, received pro-slavery approval.
While affirming that he was " no friend of slavery " he held
abolition and the abolitionists responsible for the hatred, strife,
disruption and carnage that menaced the nation. In response,
Calhoun extended to him a most hearty welcome, and assigned
him to a place on the bench of the penitents. Being a candidate
for the presidency Clay had to take the insult without wincing.
It was in reference to this speech that he made the oft-quoted
remark that he " would rather be right than be president."
While a candidate for president in 1844, he opposed in the
" Raleigh letter " the annexation of Texas on many grounds
except that of its increasing the slave power, thus displeasing
both the men of anti-slavery and those of pro-slavery sentiments.
In 1847, after the conquest of Mexico, he made a speech against
the annexation of that country or the acquiring of any foreign
territory for the spread of slavery. Although in 1849 h e again
vainly proposed emancipation in Kentucky, he was unanimously
elected to the United States Senate, where in 1850 he temporarily
pacified both sections of the country by successfully offering,
for the sake of the " peace, concord and harmony of these
states," a measure or series of measures that became known as
the "Compromise of 1850." ItadmittedCaliforniaasafree state,
organized Utah and New Mexico as Territories without reference
to slavery, and enacted a more efficient fugitive slave law. In
spite of great physical weakness he made several earnest speeches
in behalf of these measures to save the Union.

Another conspicuous feature of Clay's public career was his
absorbing and rightful, but constantly ungratified, ambition to
be president of the United States. His name in connexion
therewith was mentioned comparatively early, and in 1824,
with W. H. Crawford, Andrew Jackson, and John Quincy
Adams, he was a candidate for that office. There being no choice
by the people, and the House of Representatives having elected
Adams, Clay was accused by Jackson and his friends of making
a corrupt bargain whereby, in payment of his vote and influence

472

CLAY

for Adams, he was appointed secretary of state. This made
Jackson Clay's lifelong enemy, and ever after kept Clay busy
explaining and denying the allegation. In 1832 Clay was unani-
mouslyjiominated for the presidency by the National Republicans;
Jackson, by the Democrats. The main issue was the policy
of continuing the United States Bank, which in 1811 Clay had
opposed, but in 1816 and always subsequently warmly favoured.
A majority of the voters approved of Jackson's fight against
what Clay had once denounced as a dangerous and unconstitu-
tional monopoly. Clay made the mistake of supposing that he
could arouse popular enthusiasm for a moneyed corporation in
its contest with the great military " hero of New Orleans."
In 1839 he was a candidate for the Whig nomination, but by a
secret ballot his enemies defeated him in the party convention,
held in December of that year, and nominated William Henry
Harrison. The result threw Clay into paroxysms of rage, and
he violently complained that his friends always used him as
their candidate when he was sure to be defeated, and betrayed
him when he or any one could have been elected. In 1844 he
was nominated by the Whigs against James K. Polk, the Demo-
cratic candidate. By an audacious fraud that represented him
as an enemy, and Polk as a friend of protection, Clay lost the
vote of Pennsylvania; and he lost the vote of New York by
his own letter abating the force of his previous opposition to
the annexation of Texas. Even his enemies felt that his defeat
by Polk was almost a national calamity. In 1848, Zachary
Taylor, a Mexican War hero, and hardly even a convert to the
Whig party, defeated Clay for the nomination, Kentucky
herself deserting her " favourite son."

Clay's quick intelligence and sympathy, and his irreproachable
conduct in youth, explain his precocious prominence in public
affairs. In his persuasiveness as an orator and his charming
personality lay the secret of his power. He had early trained
himself in the art of speech-making, in the forest, the field and
even the barn, with horse and ox for audience. By contempor-
aries his voice was declared to be the finest musical instrument
that they ever heard. His eloquence was in turn majestic,
fierce, playful, insinuating; his gesticulation natural, vivid,
large, powerful. In public he was of magnificent bearing,
possessing the true oratorical temperament, the nervous exalta-
tion that makes the orator feel and appear a superior being,
transfusing his thought, passion and will into the mind and
heart of the listener; but his imagination frequently ran away
with his understanding, while his imperious temper and ardent
combativeness hurried him and his party into disadvantageous
positions. The ease, too, with which he outshone men of vastly
greater learning lured him from the task of intense and arduous
study. His speeches were characterized by skill of statement,
ingenious grouping of facts, fervent diction, and ardent patriot-
ism; sometimes by biting sarcasm, but also by superficial
research, half-knowledge and an unwillingness to reason a
proposition to its logical results. In private, his never-failing
courtesy, his agreeable manners and a noble and generous
heart for all who needed protection against the powerful or the
lawless, endeared him. to hosts of friends. His popularity was
as great and as inexhaustible among his neighbours as among
his fellow-citizens generally. He pronounced upon himself a
just judgment when he wrote: " If any one desires to know the
leading and paramount object of my public life, the preservation
of this Union will furnish him the key."

See Calvin Colton, The Works of Henry Clay (6 vols., New York,
1857; new ed., 7 vols., New York, 1898), the first three volumes
of which are an account of Clay's " Life and Times"; Carl Schurz,
Henry Clay (2 vols., Boston, 1887), in the " American Statesmen "
series; and the life by T. Hart Clay (1910). (C. S.)

CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms
to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Kiel), commonly denned as a
fine-grained, almost impalpable substance, very soft, more or
less coherent when dry, plastic and retentive of water when wet;
it has an " earthy " odour when breathed upon or moistened,
and consists essentially of hydrous aluminium silicate with
various impurities. Of clay are formed a great number of rocks,
which collectively are known as " clay-rocks " or " pelitic rocks "

(from Gr. injX6s, clay), e.g. mudstone, shale, slate: these exhibit
in greater or less perfection the properties above described
according to their freedom from impurities. In nature, clays are
rarely free from foreign ingredients, many of which can be
detected with the unaided eye, while others may be observed
by means of the microscope. The commonest impurities are:
(i) organic matter, humus, &c. (exemplified by clay-soils with
an admixture of peat, oil shales, carbonaceous shales); (2)
fossils (such as plants in the shales of the Lias and Coal Measures,
shells in clays of all geological periods and in fresh water marls) ;
(3) carbonate of lime (rarely altogether absent, but abundant
in marls, cement-stones and argillaceous limestones); (4)
sulphide of iron, as pyrite or marcasite (when finely diffused,
giving the clay a dark grey-blue colour, which weathers to
brown e.g. London Clay; also as nodules and concretions,
e.g. Gault) ; (5) oxides of iron (staining the clay bright red when
ferric oxide, red ochre; yellow when hydrous, e.g. yellow
ochre); (6) sand or detrital silica (forming loams, arenaceous
clays, argillaceous sandstones, &c.). Less frequently present
are the following: rock salt (Triassic clays, and marls of
Cheshire, &c.); gypsum (London Clay, Triassic clays) ; dolomite,
phosphate of lime, vivianite (phosphate of iron), oxides of
manganese, copper ores (e.g. Kupferschiefer), wavellite and
amber. As the impurities increase in amount the clay rocks
pass gradually into argillaceous sands and sandstones, argil-
laceous limestones and dolomites, shaly coals and clay
ironstones.

Natural clays, even when most pure, show a considerable
range of composition, and hence cannot be regarded as consisting
of a single mineral; clay is a rock, and has that variability which
characterizes all rocks. Of the essential properties of clay some
are merely physical, and depend on the minute size of the
particles. If any rock be taken (even a piece of pure quartz) and
crushed to a very fine powder, it will show some of the peculi-
arities of clays; for example, it will be plastic, retentive of
moisture, impermeable to water, and will shrink to some extent if
the moist mass be kneaded, and then allowed to dry. It happens,
however, that many rocks are not disintegrated to this extreme
degree by natural processes, and weathering invariably accom-
panies disintegration. Quartz, for example, has little or no
cleavage, and is not attacked by the atmosphere. It breaks up
into fragments, which become rounded by attrition, but after
they reach a certain minuteness are borne along by currents of
water or air in a state of suspension, and are not further reduced
in size. Hence sands are more coarse grained than clays. A
great number of rock-forming minerals, however, possess a good
cleavage, so that when bruised they split into thin fragments;
many of these minerals decompose somewhat readily, yielding
secondary minerals, which are comparatively soft and have a
scaly character, with eminently perfect cleavages, which facilitate
splitting into exceedingly thin plates. The principal substances
of this description are kaolin, muscovite and chlorite. Kaolin
and muscovite are formed principally after felspar (and the
felspars are the commonest minerals of all crystalline rocks);
also from nepheline, leucite, scapolite and a variety of other
rock-forming minerals. Chlorite arises from biotite, augite and
hornblende. Serpentine, which may be fibrous or scaly, is a
secondary product of olivine and certain pyroxenes. Clays
consist essentially of the above ingredients (although serpentine
is not known to take part in them to any extent, it is closely
allied to chlorite). At the same time other substances are
produced as decomposition goes on. They are principally finely
divided quartz, epidote, zoisite, rutile, limonite, calcite, pyrites,
and very small particles of these are rarely absent from
natural clays. These fine-grained materials are at first mixed
with broken and more or less weathered rock fragments
and coarser mineral particles in the soil and subsoil, but by
the action of wind and rain they are swept away and deposited
in distant situations. " Loess " is a fine calcareous clay,
which has been wind-borne, and subsequently laid down on the
margins of dry steppes and deserts. Most clays are water-
borne, having been carried from the surface of the land by

CLAY

473

rain and transported by the brooks and rivers into lakes or
the sea. In this state the fine particles are known as " mud."
They are deposited where the currents are checked and the water
becomes very still. If temporarily laid down in other situations
they are ultimately lifted again and removed. A little clay,
stirred up with water in a glass vessel, takes hours to settle, and
even after two or three days some remains in suspension; in fact,
it has been suggested that in such cases the clay forms a sort of
"colloidal solution" in the water. Traces of dissolved salts,
such as common salt, gypsum or alum, greatly accelerate
deposition. For these reasons the principal gathering places of
fine pure clays are deep, still lakes, and the sea bottom at con-
siderable distances from the shore. The coarser materials settle
nearer the land, and the shallower portions of the sea floor are
strewn with gravel and sand, except in occasional depressions
and near the mouths of rivers where mud may gather. Farther
out the great mud deposits begin, extending from 50 to 200 m.
from the land, according to the amount of sediment brought in,
and the rate at which the water (Jeepens. A girdle of mud
accumulations encircles all the continents. These sediments are
fine and tenacious; their principal components, in addition to
day, being small grains of quartz, zircon, tourmaline, hornblende,
felspar and iron compounds. Their typical colour is blackish-
blue, owing to the abundance of sulphuretted hydrogen; when
fresh they have a sulphurous odour, when weathered they are
brown, as their iron is present as hydrous oxides (limonite, &c.).
These deposits are tenanted by numerous forms of marine life,
and the sulphur they contain is derived from decomposing
organic matter. Occasionally water-logged plant debris is
mingled with the mud. In a few places a red colour prevails, the
iron being mostly oxidized; elsewhere the muds are green
owing to abundant glauconite. Traced landwards the muds
become more sandy, while on their outer margins they grade into
the abysmal deposits, such as the globigerina ooze (see OCEAN
AND OCEANOGRAPHY). Near volcanoes they contain many
volcanic minerals, and around coral islands they are often in
large part calcareous.

Microscopic sections of some of the more coherent clays and
shales may be prepared by saturating them with Canada balsam
by long boiling, and slicing the resultant mass in the same
manner as one of the harder rocks. They show that clay rocks
contain abundant very small grains of quartz (about o-oi to
0-05 mm. in diameter), with often felspar, tourmaline, zircon,
epidote, rutile and more or less calcite. These may form more
than one-third of an ordinary shale; the greater part, however,
consists of still smaller scales of other minerals (o-oi mm. in
diameter and less than this). Some of these are recognizable as
pale yellowish and white mica; others seem to be chlorite, the
remainder is perhaps kaolin, but, owing to the minute size of the
flakes, they yield very indistinct reactions to polarized light.
They are also often stained with iron oxide and organic substances,
and in consequence their true nature is almost impossible to
determine. It is certain, however, that the finer-grained rocks are
richest in alumina, and in combined water; hence the inference
is clear that kaolin or some other hydrous aluminium silicate is
the dominating constituent. These results are confirmed by the
mechanical analysis of clays. This process consists in finely
pulverizing the soil or rock, and levigating it in vessels of water.
A series of powders is obtained progressively finer according to the
time required to settle to the bottom of the vessel. The clay is
held to include those particles which have less than 0-005 mm -
diameter, and contains a higher percentage of alumina than any
of the other ingredients.

As might be inferred from the differences they exhibit in other
respects, clay rocks vary greatly in their chemical composition.
Some of them contain much iron (yellow, blue and red clays);
others contain abundant calcium carbonate (calcareous clays
and marls). Pure clays, however, may be found almost quite
free from these substances. Their silica ranges from about 60 to
45%, varying in accordance with the amount of quartz and
alkali-felspar present. It is almost always more than would be
the case if the rock consisted of kaolin mixed with muscovite.

Alumina is high in the finer clays (18 to 30%), and they are the
most aluminous of all sediments, except bauxite. Magnesia is
never absent, though its amount may be less than i %; it is
usually contained in minerals of the chlorite group, but partly
also in dolomite. The alkalis are very interesting; often they
form 5 or 10% of the whole rock; they indicate abundance of
white micas or of undecomposed particles of felspar. Some clays,
however, such as fireclays, contain very little potash or soda,
while they are rich in alumina; and it is a fair inference that
hydrated aluminous silicates, such as kaolin, are well represented
in these rocks. There are, in fact, a few clays which contain
about 45 % of alumina, that is to say, more than in pure kaolin.
It is probable that these are related to bauxite and certain kinds
of laterite.

A few of the most important clay rocks, such as china-clay,
brick-clay, red-clay and shale, may be briefly described here.

China-clay is white, friable and earthy. It occurs in regions
of granite, porphyry and syenite, and usually occupies funnel-
shaped cavities of no great superficial area, but of considerable
depth. It consists of very fine scaly kaolin, larger, shining plates
of white mica, grains of quartz and particles of semi-decomposed
felspar, tourmaline, zircon and other minerals, which originally
formed part of the granite. These clays are produced by the
decomposition of the granite by acid vapours, which are dis-
charged after the igneous rock has solidified ("fumarole or
pneumatolytic action"). Fluorine and its compounds are often
supposed to have been among the agencies which produce this
change, but more probably carbonic acid played the principal
r61e. The felspar decomposes into kaolin and. quartz; its
alkalis are for the most part set free and removed in solution,
but are partly retained in the white mica which is constantly
found in crude china-clays. Semi-decomposed varieties of the
granite are known as china-stone. The kaolin may be washed
away from its original site, and deposited in hollows or lakes to
form beds of white clay, such as pipe-clay; in this case it is
always more or less impure. Yellow and pinkish varieties of
china-clay and pipe-clay contain a small quantity of oxide of
iron. The best known localities for china-clay are Cornwall,
Limoges (France), Saxony, Bohemia and China; it is found also
in Pennsylvania, N. Carolina and elsewhere in the United States.

Fire-clays include all those varieties of clay which are very
refractory to heat. They must contain little alkalis, lime,
magnesia and iron, but some of them are comparatively rich
in silica. Many of the clays which pass under this designation
belong to the Carboniferous period, and are found underlying
seams of coal. Either by rapid growth of vegetation, or by
subsequent percolation of organic solutions, most of the alkalis
and the lime have been carried away.

Any argillaceous material, which can be used for the manu-
facture of bricks, may be called a brick-clay. In England,
Kimmeridge Clay, Lias clays, London Clay and pulverized
shale and slate are all employed for this purpose. Each variety
needs special treatment according to its properties. The true
brick-clays, however, are superficial deposits of Pleistocene or
Quaternary age, and occur in hollows, filled-up lakes and
deserted stream channels. Many of them are derived from the
glacial boulder-clays, or from the washing away of the finer
materials contained in older clay formations. They are always
very impure.

The red-clay is an abysmal formation, occurring in 'the sea
bottom in the deepest part of the oceans. It is estimated to
cover over fifty millions of square miles, and is probably the most
extensive deposit which is in course of accumulation at the
present day. In addition to the reddish or brownish argillaceous
matrix it contains fresh or decomposed crystals of volcanic
minerals, such as felspar, augite, hornblende, olivine and
pumiceous or palagonitic rocks. These must either have been
ejected by submarine volcanoes or drifted by the wind from
active vents, as the fine ash discharged by Krakatoa was wafted
over the whole globe. Larger rounded lumps of pumice, found
in the clay, have probably floated to their present situations,
and sank when decomposed, all their cavities becoming filled

474

CLAY CROSS CLAYTON

with sea water. Crystals of zeolites (phillipsite) form in the
red-clay as radiate, nodular groups. Lumps of manganese oxide,
with a black, shining outer surface, are also characteristic of
this deposit, and frequently encrust pieces of pumice or animal
remains. The only fossils of the clay are radiolaria, sharks'
teeth and the ear-bones of whales, precisely those parts of the
skeleton of marine creatures which are hardest and can longest
survive exposure to sea-water. Their comparative abundance
shows how slowly the clay gathers. Small rounded spherules
of iron, believed by some to be meteoric dust, have also been
obtained in some numbers. Among the rocks of the continents
nothing exactly the same as this remarkable deposit is known
to occur, though fine dark clays, with manganese nodules, are
found in many localities, accompanied by other rocks which
indicate deep-water conditions of deposit.

Another type of red-clay is found in caves, and is known as
cave-earth or red-earth (terra rossa). It is fine, tenacious and
bright red, and represents the insoluble and thoroughly weathered
impurities which are left behind when the calcareous matter is
removed in solution by carbonated waters. Similar residual
clays sometimes occur on the surface of areas of limestone in
hollows and fissures formed by weathering.

Boulder-clay is a coarse unstratified deposit of fine clay, with
more or less sand, and boulders of various sizes, the latter usually
marked with glacial striations.

Some clay rocks which have been laid down by water are
very uniform through their whole thickness, and are called
mud-stones. Others split readily into fine leaflets or laminae
parallel to their bedding, and this structure is accentuated by
the presence of films of other materials, such as sand or vegetable
debris. Laminated clays of this sort are generally known as
shales; they occur in many formations but are very common
in the Carboniferous. Some of them contain much organic
debris, and when distilled yield paraffin oil, wax, compounds
of ammonia, &c. In these oil-shales there are clear, globular,
yellow bodies which seem to be resinous. It has been suggested
that the admixture of large quantities of decomposed fresh-
water algae among the original mud is the origin of the paraffins.
In New South Wales, Scotland and several parts of America
such oil-shales are worked on a commercial scale. Many shales
contain great numbers of ovoid or rounded septarian nodules
of clay ironstone. Others are rich in pyrites, which, on oxidation,
produces sulphuric acid; this attacks the aluminous silicates
of the clay and forms aluminium sulphate (alum shales). The
lias shales of Whitby contain blocks of semi-mineralized wood,
or jet, which is black with a resinous lustre, and a fibrous
structure. The laminated structure of shales, though partly
due to successive very thin sheets of deposit, is certainly de-
pendent also on the vertical pressure exerted by masses of super-
incumbent rock; it indicates a transition to the fissile character
of clay slates. (J. S. F.)

CLAY CROSS, an urban district in the Chesterfield parlia-
mentary division of Derbyshire, England, near the river Amber,
on the Midland railway, 5 m. S. of Chesterfield. Pop. (1901)
8358. The Clay Cross Colliery and Ironworks Company, whose
mines were for a time leased by George Stephenson, employ a
great number of hands.

CLAYMORE (from the Gaelic claidheamh mdr, " great sword "),
the old two-edged broadsword with cross hilt, of which the
guards were usually turned down, used by the Highlanders of
Scotland. The name is also wrongly applied to the single-edged
basket-hilled sword adopted in the i6th century and still worn
as the full-dress sword in the Highland regiments of the British
army.

CLAYS, PAUL JEAN (1810-1900), Belgian artist, was born
at Bruges in 1819, and died at Brussels in 1900. He was one of
the most esteemed marine painters of his time, and early in his
career he substituted a sincere study of nature for the extravagant
and artificial conventionality of most of his predecessors. When
he began to paint, the sea was considered by continental artists
as worth representing only under its most tempestuous aspects.
Artists cared only for the stirring drama of storm and wreck,

and they clung still to the old-world tradition of the romantic
school. Clays was the first to appreciate the beauty of calm
waters reflecting the slow procession of clouds, the glories of
sunset illuminating the sails of ships or gilding the tarred sides
of heavy fishing-boats. He painted the peaceful life of rivers,
the poetry of wide estuaries, the regulated stir of roadsteads and
ports. And while he thus broke away from old traditions he
also threw off the trammels imposed on him by his master,
the marine painter Theodore Gudin (1802-1880). Endeavouring
only to give truthful expression to the nature that delighted his
eyes, he sought to render the limpid salt atmosphere, the weight
of waters, the transparence of moist horizons, the gem-like
sparkle of the sky. A Fleming in his feeling for colour, he set his
palette with clean strong hues, and their powerful harmonies
were in striking contrast with the rusty, smoky tones then in
favour. If he was not a " luminist " in the modem use of the
word, he deserves at any rate to be classed with the founders of
the modern naturalistic school. This conscientious and healthy
interpretation, to which the artist remained faithful, without any
important change, to the end of an unusually long and laborious
career, attracted those minds which aspired to be bold, and won
over those which were moderate. Clays soon took his place
among the most famous Belgian painters of his generation, and
his pictures, sold at high prices, are to be seen in most public and
private galleries. We may mention, among others, " The Beach
at Ault," " Boats in a Dutch Port," and " Dutch Boats in the
Flushing Roads," the last in the National Gallery, London.
In the Brussels gallery are " The Port of Antwerp," " Coast near
Ostend," and a " Calm on the Scheldt "; in the Antwerp
museum, " The Meuse at Dordrecht "; in the Pinakothek at
Munich, " The Open North Sea "; in the Metropolitan Museum
of Fine Arts, New York, " The Festival of the Freedom of the
Scheldt at Antwerp in 1863 "; in the palace of the king of the
Belgians, " Arrival of Queen Victoria at Ostend in 1857 "; in
the Bruges academy, " Port of Feirugudo, Portugal." Clays
was a member of several Academies, Belgian and foreign, and
of the Order of Leopold, the Legion of Honour, &c.

See Camille Lemonnier, Hisloire des Beaux-Arts (Brussels, 1887).

(O. M.*)

CLAYTON, JOHN HIDDLETON (1796-1856), American
politician, was born in Dagsborough, Sussex county, Delaware, on
the 24th of July 1796. He came of an old Quaker family long
prominent in the political history of Delaware. He graduated
at Yale in 1815, and in 1819 began to practise law at Dover,
Delaware, where for a time he was associated with his cousin,
.Thomas Clayton (1778-1854), subsequently a United States
senator and chief-justice of the state. He soon gained a large
practice. He became a member of the state House of Repre-
sentatives in 1824, and from December 1826 to October 1828 was
secretary of state of Delaware. In 1829, by a combination of
anti-Jackson forces in the state legislature, he was elected to the
United States Senate. Here his great oratorical gifts gave him
a high place as one of the ablest and most eloquent opponents
of the administration. In 1831 he wasamemberof theDelaware
constitutional convention, and in 1835 he was returned to the
Senate as a Whig, but resigned in the following year. In 1837-
1839 he was chief justice of Delaware. In 1845 he again entered
the Senate, where he opposed the annexation of Texas and the
Mexican War, but advocated the active prosecution of the latter
once it was begun. In March 1849 he became secretary of state
in the cabinet of President Zachary Taylor, to whose nomination
and election his influence had contributed. His brief tenure
of the state portfolio, which terminated on the 22nd of July
1850, soon after Taylor's death, was notable chiefly for the
negotiation with the British minister, Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer,
of the Clay ton-Bulwer Treaty (q.v.). He was once more a member
of the Senate from March 1853 until his death at Dover, Delaware,
on the 9th of November 1856. By his contemporaries Clayton
was considered one of the ablest debaters and orators in the
Senate.

See the memoir by Joseph P. Comegys in the Papers of the His-
torical Society of Delaware, No. 4 (Wilmington, 1882).

CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY CLAY-WITH-FLINTS 475

CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY, a famous treaty between the
United States and Great Britain, negotiated in 1850 by John M.
Clayton and Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer (Lord Dalling), in con-
sequence of the situation created by the project of an iuter-
oceanic canal across Nicaragua, each signatory being jealous of
the activities of the other in Central America. Great Britain
had large and indefinite territorial claims in three regions
Belize or British Honduras, the Mosquito Coast and the Bay
Islands. 1 On the other hand, the United States, without terri-
torial claims, held in reserve, ready for ratification, treaties with
Nicaragua and Honduras, which gave her a certain diplomatic
vantage with which to balance the de facto dominion of Great
Britain. Agreement on these points being impossible and
agreement on the canal question possible, the latter was put in
the foreground. The resulting treaty had four essential points.
It bound both parties not to " obtain or maintain " any ex-
clusive control of the proposed canal, or unequal advantage in
its use. It guaranteed the neutralization of such canal. It
declared that, the intention of the signatories being not only the
accomplishment of " a particular object " i.e. that the canal,
then supposedly near realization, should be neutral and equally
free to the two contracting powers " but also to establish a
general principle," they agreed " to extend their protection by
treaty stipulation to any other practicable communications,
whether by canal or railway, across the isthmus which connects
North and South America." Finally, it stipulated that neither
signatory would ever " occupy, or fortify, or colonize, or assume
or exercise any dominion over Nicaragua, Costa Rica, the Mos-
quito Coast or any part of Central America," nor make use of
any protectorate or alliance, present or future, to such ends.

The treaty was signed on the igth of April, and was ratified
by both governments; but before the exchange of ratifications
Lord Palmerston, on the 8th of June, directed Sir H. Bulwer
to make a " declaration " that the British government did not
understand the treaty " as applying to Her Majesty's settlement
at Honduras, or its dependencies." Mr Clayton made a counter-
declaration, which recited that the United States did not regard
the treaty as applying to " the British settlement in Honduras
commonly called British-Honduras . . . nor the small islands
in the neighbourhood of that settlement which may be known
as its dependencies"; that the treaty's engagements did apply
to all the Central American states, " with their just limits and
proper dependencies "; and that these declarations, not being
submitted to the United States Senate, could of course not affect
the legal import of the treaty. The interpretation of the declara-
tions soon became a matter of contention. The phraseology
reflects the effort made by the United States to render impossible
a physical control of the canal by Great Britain through the
territory held by her at its mouth the United States losing
the above-mentioned treaty advantages, just as the explicit
abnegations of the treaty rendered impossible such control
politically by either power. But great Britain claimed that the
excepted " settlement " at Honduras was the " Belize " covered
by the extreme British claim; that the Bay Islands were a
dependency of Belize; and that, as for the Mosquito Coast, the
abnegatory clauses being wholly prospective in intent, she was
not required to abandon her protectorate. The United States
contended that the Bay Islands were not the " dependencies "
of Belize, these being the small neighbouring islands mentioned
in the same treaties; that the excepted " settlement " was the
British-Honduras of definite extent and narrow purpose recog-
nized in British treaties with Spain; that she had not con-
firmed by recognition the large, indefinite and offensive claims
whose dangers the treat}' was primarily designed to lessen ; and
that, as to the Mosquito Coast, the treaty was retrospective, and
mutual in the rigour of its requirements, and as the United States
had no de facto possessions, while Great Britain had, the clause

1 The claims to a part of the first two were very old in origin, but
all were heavily clouded by interruptions of possession, contested
interpretations of Spanish-British treaties, and active controversy
with the Central American States. The claim to some of the terri-
tory was new and still more contestable. See particularly on these
claims Travis's book cited below.

binding both not to " occupy " any part of Central America
or the Mosquito Coast necessitated the abandonment of such
territory as Great Britain was already actually occupying or
exercising dominion over; and the United States demanded the
complete abandonment of the British protectorate over the
Mosquito Indians. It seems to be a just conclusion that when
in 1852 the Bay Islands were erected into a British " colony "
this was a flagrant infraction of the treaty; that as regards
Belize the American arguments were decidedly stronger, and
more correct historically; and that as regards the Mosquito
question, inasmuch as a protectorate seems certainly to have
been recognized by the treaty, to demand its absolute abandon-
ment was unwarranted, although to satisfy the treaty Great
Britain was bound materially to weaken it.

In 1850-1860, by British treaties with Central American
states, the Bay Islands and Mosquito questions were settled
nearly iu accord with the American contentions.* But by the
same treaties Belize was accorded limits much greater than
those contended for by the United States. This settlement
the latter power accepted without cavil for many years.

Until 1866 the policy of the United States was consistently
for inter-oceanic canals open equally to all nations, and un-
equivocally neutralized; indeed, until 1880 there was practically
no official divergence from this policy. But in 1880-1884 a
variety of reasons were advanced why the United States might
justly repudiate at will the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty.* The new
policy was based on national self-interest. The arguments
advanced on its behalf were quite indefensible in law and history,
and although the position of the United States .in 1850-1860
was in general the stronger in history, law and political ethics,
that of Great Britain was even more conspicuously the stronger
in the years 1880-1884. In 1885 the former government re-
verted to its traditional policy, and the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty
of 1902, which replaced the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, adopted
the rule of neutralization for the Panama Canal.

See the collected diplomatic correspondence in I. D. Travis,
History of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1899) ;
J. H. Latane, Diplomatic Relations of the United States and Spanish
America (Baltimore, 1900); T. J. Lawrence, Disputed Questions
of Modern International Law (2nd ed., Cambridge, England, 1885) ;
Sir E. L. Bulwer in 99 Quarterly Rev. 235-286, and Sir H. Bulwer in
104 Edinburgh Rev. 280-298.

CLAY-WITH-FLINTS, in geology, the name given by W-
Whitaker in 1861 to a peculiar deposit of stiff red, brown or
yellow clay containing unworn whole flints as well as angular
shattered fragments, also with a variable admixture of rounded
flint, quartz, quartzite and other pebbles. It occurs " in sheets or
patches of various sizes over a large area in the south of England,
from Hertfordshire on the north to Sussex on the south, and
from Kent on the east to Devon on the west. It almost always
lies on the surface of the Upper Chalk, but in Dorset it passes
on to the Middle and Lower Chalk, and in Devon it is found on
the Chert-Beds of the Selbornian group " (A. J. Jukes-Browne,
" The Clay-with-Flints, its Origin and Distribution," Q.J.G.S.,
vol. Ixii., 1906, p. 132). Many geologists have supposed, and
some still hold, that the Clay-with-Flints is the residue left by
the slow solution and disintegration of the Chalk by the processes
of weathering; on the other hand, it has long been known that
the deposit very frequently contains materials foreign to the
Chalk, derived either from the Tertiary rocks or from overlying
drift. In the paper quoted above, Jukes-Browne ably summarizes

2 The islands were ceded to Honduras. The Mosquito Coast was
recognized as under Nicaraguan rule limited by an attenuated
British protectorate over the Indians, who were given a reservation
and certain peculiar rights. They were left free to accept full
Nicaraguan rule at will. This they did in 1894.

3 It was argued, e.g., that the " general principle " of that engage-
ment was contingent on the prior realization of its " particular
object," which had failed, and the treaty had determined as a special
contract; moreover, none of the additional treaties to embody the
" general principle " had been negotiated, and Great Britain had
not even offered co-operation in the protection and neutrality-
guarantee of the Panama railway built in 1850-1855, so that her
rights had lapsed; certain engagements of the treaty she had vio-
lated, and therefore the whole treaty was voidable, &c.

476

CLAZOMENAE CLEARING-HOUSE

the evidence against the view that the deposit is mainly a
Chalk residue, and brings forward a good deal of evidence to
show that many patches of the Clay-with-Flints lie upon the
same plane and may be directly associated with Reading Beds.
He concludes "that the material of the Clay-with-Flints has been
chiefly and almost entirely derived from Eocene clay, with
addition of some flints from the Chalk; that its presence is an
indication of the previous existence of Lower Eocene Beds on
the same site and nearly at the same relative level, and, conse-
quently, that comparatively little Chalk has been removed
from beneath it. Finally, I think that the tracts of Clay-with-
Flints have been much more extensive than they are now "
(loc. cil. p. 159).

It is noteworthy that the Clay-with-Flints is developed over
an area which is just beyond the limits of the ice sheets of the
Glacial epoch, and the peculiar conditions of late Pliocene and
Pleistocene times, involving heavy rains, snow and frost, may
have had much to do with the mingling of the Tertiary and
Chalky material. Besides the occurrence in surface patches,
Clay-with-Flints is very commonly to be observed descending
in "pipes" often to a considerable depth into the Chalk; here,
if anywhere, the residual chalk portion of the deposit should
be found, and it is surmised that a thin layer of very dark clay
with darkly stained flints, which appears in contact with
the sides and bottom of the pipe, may represent all there is of
insoluble residue.

A somewhat similar deposit, a " conglomerat de silex " or
" argile a silex," occurs at the base of the Eocene on the southern
and western borders of the Paris basin, in the neighbourhood
of Chartres, Thimerais and Sancerrois. (J. A. H.)

CLAZOMENAE (mod. Kelisman), an ancient town of Ionia
and a member of the Ionian Dodecapolis (Confederation of
Twelve Cities), on the Gulf of Smyrna, about 20 m. W. of that
city. Though not in existence before the arrival of the lonians
in Asia, its original founders were largely settlers from Phlius
and Cleonae. It stood originally on the isthmus connecting
the mainland with the peninsula on which Erythrae stood;
but the inhabitants, alarmed by the encroachments of the
Persians, removed to one of the small islands of the bay, and
there established their city. This island was connected with
the mainland by Alexander the Great by means of a pier, the
remains of which are still visible. During the 5th century it
was for some time subject to the Athenians, but about the
middle of the Peloponnesian war (412 B.C.) it revolted. After
a brief resistance, however, it again acknowledged the Athenian
supremacy, and repelled a Lacedaemonian attack. Under the
Romans Clazomenae was included hi the province of Asia, and
enjoyed an immunity from taxation. The site can still be made
out, in the neighbourhood of Vourla, but nearly every portion
of its ruins has been removed. It was the birthplace of the
philosopher Anaxagoras. It is famous for its painted terra-cotta
sarcophagi, which are the finest monuments of Ionian painting
in the 6th century B.C. (E. GR.)

CLEANTHES (c. 301-232 or 252 B.C.), Stoic philosopher,
born at Assos in the Troad, was originally a boxer. With but
four drachmae in his possession he came to Athens, where he
listened first to the lectures of Crates the Cynic, and then to
those of Zeno, the Stoic, supporting himself meanwhile by
working all night as water-carrier to a gardener (hence his
nickname $pta.vT\i\s). His power of patient endurance, or
perhaps his slowness, earned him the title of " the Ass "; but
such was the esteem awakened by his high moral qualities that,
on the death of Zeno in 263, he became the leader of the school.
He continued, however, to support himself by the labour of his
own hands. Among his pupils were his successor, Chrysippus,
and Antigonus, king of Macedon, from whom he accepted
2000 minae. The manner of his death was characteristic. A
dangerous ulcer had compelled him to fast for a time. Subse-
quently he continued his abstinence, saying that, as he was
already half-way on the road to death, he would not trouble
to retrace his steps.

Cleanthes produced very little that was original, though he

wrote some fifty works, of which fragments have come down
to us. The principal is the large portion of the Hymn to Zeus
which has been preserved in Stobaeus. He regarded the sun
as the abode of God, the intelligent providence, or (in accordance
with Stoical materialism) the vivifying fire or aether of the
universe. Virtue, he taught, is life according to nature; but
pleasure is not according to nature. He originated a new theory
as to the individual existence of the human soul; he held that
the degree of its vitality after death depends upon the degree
of its vitality in this life. The principal fragments of Cleanthes's
works are contained in Diogenes Laertius and Stobaeus; some
may be found in Cicero and Seneca.

See G. C. Mohinke, Kleanthes der Striker (Greifswald, 1814); C.
Wachsmuth, Commentationes de Zenone Gitiensi et Cleanthe Assio
(Gottingen, 1874-1875); A. C. Pearson, Fragments of Zeno and
Cleanthes (Camb., 1891); article by E. Wellmann in Ersch and
Gruber's Allgemeine Encyklopadie; R. Hirzel, Unlersuchungen zu
Ciceros philosophischen Schriften, ii. (1882), containing a vindication
of the originality of Cleanthes; A. B. Krische, Forschungen auf
dem Gebiete der alien Philosophie (1840) ; also works quoted under
STOICS.

CLEARCHUS, the son of Rhamphias, a Spartan general and
condottiere. Born about the middle of the 5th century B.C.,
Clearchus was sent with a fleet to the Hellespont in 411 and
became governor (apfjoarrp) of Byzantium, of which town he was
proxenus. His severity, however, made him unpopular, and in
his absence the gates were opened to the Athenian besieging army
under Alcibiades (409). Subsequently appointed by the ephors
to settle the political dissensions then rife at Byzantium and to
protect the city and the neighbouring Greek colonies from
Thracian attacks, he made himself tyrantof Byzantium, and,
when declared an outlaw and driven thence by a Spartan force,
he fled to Cyrus. In the " expedition of the ten thousand "
undertaken by Cyrus to dethrone his brother Artaxerxes
Mnemon, Clearchus led the Peloponnesians, who formed the
right wing of Cyrus's army at the battle of Cunaxa (401). On
Cyrus's death Clearchus assumed the chief command and
conducted the retreat, until, being treacherously seized with his
fellow-generals by Tissaphernes, he was handed over to Artaxerxes
and executed (Thuc. viii. 8. 39, 80; Xen. Hellenica, i. 3. 15-19;
Anabasis, i. ii.; Diodorus xiv. 12. 19-26). In character he was a
typical product of the Spartan educational system. He was a
warrior to the finger-tips (xoXejuucds KOI 4>iXo7r6X/ios tcrxaTux.
Xen. Anab. ii. 6. i), and his tireless energy, unfaltering courage
and strategic ability made him an officer of no mean order. But
he seems to have had no redeeming touch of refinement or
humanity.

CLEARFIELD, a borough and the county-seat of Clearfield
county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the W. branch of the Susque-
hanna river, in the W. central part of the state. Pop. (1890)
2248; (1900) 5081 (310 foreign-born); (1910)6851. It is served
by the New York Central & Hudson River, the Pennsylvania,
and the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg railways. The borough is
about 1 105 ft. above sea-level, in a rather limited space between
the hills, which command picturesque views of the narrow valley.
The river runs through the borough. Coal and fireclay abound in
the vicinity, and these, with leather, iron, timber and the pro-
ducts of the fertile soil, are the bases of its leading industries.
Before the arrival of the whites the place had been cleared of
timber (whence its name), and in 1805 it was chosen as a site for
the county-seat of the newly erected county and laid out as a
town; in 1840 it was incorporated as a borough.

CLEARING-HOUSE, the general term for a central institution
employed in connexion with large and interrelated businesses for
the purpose of facilitating the settlement of accounts.

Banking. The London Clearing-House was established
between 1750 and 1770 as a place where the clerks of the bankers
of the city of London could assemble daily to exchange with one
another the cheques drawn upon and bills payable at their
respective houses. Before the clearing-house existed, each
banker had to send a clerk to the places of business of all
the other bankers in London to collect the sums payable by
them in respect of cheques and bills; and it is obvious that much

CLEARING-HOUSE

477

time was consumed by this process, which involved the use of an
unnecessary quantity of money and corresponding risks of safe
carriage. In 1775 a room in Change Alley was settled upon as a
common centre of exchange; this was afterwards removed to
Post Office Court, Lombard Street. This clearing centre was at
first confined to the bankers at that time and long afterwards
exclusively private bankers doing business within the city, and
the bankers in the west end of the metropolis used some one or
other of the city banks as their agent in clearing. When the
joint-stock banks were first established, the jealousy of the
existing banks was powerful enough to exclude them altogether
from the use of the Clearing-House; and it was not until 1854
that this feeling was removed so as to allow them to be admitted.

At first the Clearing-House was simply a place of meeting, but
it came to be perceived that the sorting and distribution of
cheques, bills, &c., could be more expeditiously conducted by the
appointment of two or three common clerks to whom each
banker's clerk could give all the instruments of exchange he
wished to collect, and from whom he could receive all those
payable at his own house. The payment of the balance settled
the transaction, but the arrangements were afterwards so
perfected that the balance is now settled by means of transfers
made at the Bank of England between the Clearing-House
account and those of the various banks, the Clearing-House, as
well as each banker using it, having an account at the Bank of
England. The use of the Clearing-House was still further
extended in 1858, so as to include the settlement of exchanges
between the country bankers of England. Before that time each
country banker receiving cheques on other country bankers sent
them to those other bankers by post (supposing they were not
carrying on business in the same place), and requested that the
amount should be paid by the London agent of the banker on
whom the cheques were drawn to the London agent of the banker
remitting them. Cheques were thus collected by correspondence,
and each remittance involved a separate payment in London.
Since 1858, accordingly, a country banker sends cheques on other
country banks to his London correspondent, who exchanges them
at the Clearing-House with the correspondents of the bankers on
whom they are drawn.

The Clearing-House consists of one long room, lighted from the
roof. Around the walls and down the centre are placed desks,
allotted to the various banks, according to the amount of their
business. The desks are arranged alphabetically, so that the
clerks may lose no time in passing round the room and delivering
their " charges " or batches of cheques to the representatives of
the various banks. There are three clearings in London each day.
The first is at 10.30 A.M., the second at noon, and the third at
2.30 P.M. It is the busiest of all, and continues until five minutes
past four, when the last delivery must be made. The three
clearings were, in 1907, divided into town, metropolitan and
country clearings, each with a definite area. AH the clearing
banks have their cheques marked with the letters " T," " M " and
" C," according to the district in which the issuing bank is
situated. Every cheque issued by the clearing banks, even
though drawn in the head office of a bank, goes through the
Clearing-House.

The amount of business transacted at the Clearing-House
varies very much with the seasons of the year, the busiest time
being when dividends are paid and stock exchange settlements
are made, but the volume of transactions averages roughly from
200 to 300 millions sterling a week, and the yearly clearances
amount to something like 12 ,000,000,000. There are provincial
clearing-houses at Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, New-
castle-on-Tyne, Leeds, Sheffield, Leicester and Bristol. There are
also clearing-houses in most of the large towns of Scotland and
Ireland. In New York and the other large cities of the United
States there are clearing-houses providing accommodation for
the various banking institutions (see BANKS AND BANKING).

The progress of banking on the continent of Europe has been
slow in comparison with that of the United Kingdom, and the
use of cheques is not so general, consequently the need for
clearing-houses is not so great. In France, too, the greater

proportion of the banking business is carried on through three
banks only, the Banque de France, the 800616 G6n6rale and the
Credit Lyonnais, and a great part of their transactions are settled
at their own head offices. But at the same time large sums
pass through the Paris Chambrc de Compensation (the clearing-
house), established in 1872.

There are clearing-houses also in Berlin, Hamburg and many
other European cities.

Railways. The British Railway Clearing-House was estab-
lished in 1842, its purpose, as defined by the Railway Clearing-
House Act of 1850, being " to settle and adjust the receipts
arising from railway traffic within, or partly within, the United
Kingdom, and passing over more than one railway within the
United Kingdom, booked or invoiced at throughout rates or
fares." It is an independent body, governed by a committee
which is composed of delegates (usually the chairman or one of
the directors) from each of the railways that belong to it. Any
railway company may be admitted a party to the clearing-system
with the assent of the committee, may cease to be a member at a
month's notice, and may be expelled if such expulsion be voted
for by two-thirds of the delegates present at a specially convened
meeting. The cost of _ maintaining it is defrayed by contributions
from the companies proportional to the volume of business passed
through it by each. It has two main functions, (i) When
passengers or goods are booked through between stations
belonging to different railway companies at an inclusive charge
for the whole journey, it distributes the money received in due
proportions between the companies concerned in rendering the
service. To this end it receives, in the case of passenger traffic, a
monthly return of the tickets issued at each station to stations on
other lines, and, in the case of goods traffic, it is supplied by both
the sending and receiving stations (when these are on different
companies' systems) with abstracts showing the character, weight,
&c., of the goods that have travelled between them. By the aid
of these particulars it allocates the proper share of the receipts
to each company, having due regard to the distance over which
the traffic has been carried on each line, to the terminal services
rendered by each company, to any incidental expenses to which
it may have been put, and to the existence of any special agree-
ments for the division of traffic. (2) To avoid the inconvenience
of a change of train at points where the lines of different com-
panies meet, passengers are often, and goods and minerals
generally, carried in through vehicles from their starting-point
to their destination. In consequence, vehicles belonging to one
company are constantly forming part of trains that belong to,
and run over the lines of, other companies, which thus have the
temporary use of rolling stock that does not belong to them.
By the aid of a large staff of " number takers " who are stationed
at junctions all over the country, and whose business is to
record particulars of the vehicles which pass through those
junctions, the Clearing-House follows the movements of vehicles
which have left their owners' line, ascertains how far they have
run on the lines of other companies, and debits each of the latter
with the amount it has to pay for their use. This charge is
known as " mileage "; another charge which is also determined
by the Clearing-House is " demurrage," that is, the amount
exacted from the detaining company if a vehicle is not returned
to its owners within a prescribed time. By the exercise of these
functions the Clearing-House accumulates a long series of credits
to, and debits against, each company; these are periodically
added up and set against each other, with the result that the
accounts between it and the companies are finally settled by the
transfer of comparatively small balances. It also distributes the
money paid by the post-office to the railways on account of the
conveyance of parcel-post traffic, and through its lost luggage
department many thousands of articles left in railway carriages
are every year returned to their owners. Its situation in London
further renders it a convenient meeting-place for several " Clear-
ing-House Conferences " of railway officials, as of the general
managers, the goods managers, and the superintendents of the
line, held four times a year for the consideration of questions
in which all the companies are interested. The Irish Railway

478

CLEAT CLEFT PALATE

Clearing-House, established in 1848, has its headquarters in
Dublin, and was incorporated by act of parliament in 1860.

General. The principle of clearing adopted by banks and
railways has been applied with considerable success in other
businesses.

In 1874 the London Stock Exchange Clearing-House was
established for the purpose of settling transactions in stock, the
clearing being effected by balance-sheets and tickets; the balance
of stock to be received or delivered is shown on a balance-sheet
sent in by each member, and the items are then cancelled against
one another and tickets issued for the balances outstanding.
The New York Stock Exchange Clearing-House was established in
1892. The settlements on the Paris Bourse are cleared within the
Bourse itself, through the Compagnie des Agents de Change de
Paris.

In 1888 a society was formed in London called the Beetroot
Sugar Association for clearing bargains in beetroot sugar. For
every 500 bags of sugar of a definite weight which a broker sells,
he issues a. filiere (a form something like a dock-warrant), giving
particulars as to the ship, the warehouse, trade-marks, &c. The
filiere contains also a series of transfer forms which are filled up
and signed by each successive holder, so transferring the property
to a new purchaser. The new purchaser also fills up a coupon
attached to the transfer, quoting the date and hour of sale. This
coupon is detached by the seller and retained by him as evidence
to determine any liability through subsequent delay in the
delivery of the sugar. Any purchaser requiring delivery of the
sugar forwards the filiere to the clearing-house, and the officials
then send on his name to the first seller who tenders him the
warrant direct. These filieres pass from hand to hand within a
limit of six days, a stamp being affixed on each transfer as a
clearing-house fee. The difference between each of the successive
transactions is adjusted by the clearing-house to the profit or loss
of the seller.

The London Produce Clearing-House was established in 1888
for regulating and adjusting bargains in foreign and colonial
produce. The object of the association is to guarantee both to
the buyer and the seller the fulfilment of bargains for future
delivery. The transactions on either side are allowed to accumu-
late during a month and an adjustment made at the end by a
settlement of the final balance owing. On the same lines are the
Caisse de Liquidation at Havre and the Waaren Liquidations
Casse at Hamburg. The Cotton Association also has a clearing-
house at Liverpool for clearing the transactions which arise from
dealings in cotton.

AUTHORITIES. W. Howarth, Our Clearing System and Clearing
Houses (1897), The Banks in the Clearing House (1905) ; J. G. Cannon,
Clearing-houses, their History, Methods and Administration (1901);
H. T. Easton, Money, Exchange and Banking (1905) ; and the various
volumes of the Journal of the Institute of Bankers. (T. A. I.)

CLEAT (a word common in various forms to many Teutonic
languages, in the sense of a wedge or lump, cf. " clod " and
" clot "), a wedge-shaped piece of wood fastened to ships'
masts and elsewhere to prevent a rope, collar or the like from
slipping, or to act as a step; more particularly a piece of wood
or metal with double or single horns used for belaying ropes.
A " cleat " is also a wedge fastened to a ship's side to catch the
shores in a launching cradle or dry dock. " Cleat " is also used
in mining for the vertical cleavage-planes of coal.

CLEATOR MOOR, an urban district in the Egremont parlia-
mentary division of Cumberland, England, 4 m. S.E. of White-
haven, served by the Furness, London & North-Western and
Cleator & Workington Junction railways. Pop. (1901) 8120.
The town lies between the valleys of the Ehen and its tributary
the Dub Beck, in a district rich in coal and iron ore. The mining
of these, together with blast furnaces and engineering works,
occupies the large industrial population.

CLEAVERS, or GOOSE-GRASS, Galium Aparine (natural order
Rubiaceae), a common plant in hedges and waste places, with
a long, weak, straggling, four-sided, green stem, bearing whorls
of 6 to 8 narrow leaves, to 2 in. long, and, like the angles of the
stem, rough from the presence of short, stiff , downwardly-pointing,

hooked hairs. The small, white, regular flowers are borne, a few
together, in axillary clusters, and are followed by the large, hispid,
two-celled fruit, which, like the rest of the plant, readily clings
to a rough surface, whence the common name. The plant has a
wide distribution throughout the north temperate zone, and is also
found in temperate South America.

CLEBURNE, a town and the county-seat of Johnson county,
Texas, U.S.A., 25 m. S. of Fort Worth. Pop. (1800) 3278;

(1900) 7493, including 61 1 negroes; (1910)10,364. Itisservedby
the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas,
and the Trinity & Brazos Valley railways. It is the centre of a
prosperous farming, fruit and stock-raising region, has large
railway repair shops, flour-mills, cotton gins and foundries, a
canning factory and machine shops. It has a Carnegie library,
and St Joseph's Academy (Roman Catholic; for girls). The
town was named in honour of Patrick Ronayne Cleburne (1828-
1864), a major-general of the Confederate army, who was of
Irish birth, practised law in Helena, Arkansas, served at Shiloh,
Perryville, Stone River, Chickamauga, Missionary Ridge, Ring-
gold Gap, Jonesboro and Franklin, and was killed in the last-
named battle; he was called the " Stonewall of the West."

CLECKHEATON, an urban district in the Spen Valley parlia-
mentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England,
Sj m. S. by E. of Bradford, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire,
Great Northern and London & North-Western railways. Pop.

(1901) 12,524. A chamber of commerce has held meetings here
since 1878. The industries comprise the manufacture of woollens,
blankets, flannel, wire-card and machinery.

CLEETHORPES, a watering-place of Lincolnshire, England;
within the parliamentary borough of Great Grimsby, 3 m. S.E.
of that town by a branch of the Great Central railway. Pop.
of urban district of Cleethorpe with Thrunscoe (1901) 12,578.
Cleethorpes faces eastward to the North Sea, but its shore of
fine sand, affording good bathing, actually belongs to the estuary
of the Humber. There is a pier, and the sea-wall extends for
about a mile, forming a pleasant promenade. The suburb of
New Clee connects Cleethorpes with Grimsby. The church of
the Holy Trinity and St Mary is principally Norman of various
dates, but work of a date apparently previous to the Conquest
appears in the tower. Cleethorpes is greatly favoured by
visitors from the midland counties, Lancashire and Yorkshire.

CLEFT PALATE and HARE-LIP, in surgery. Cleft Palate
is a congenital cleavage, or incomplete development in the roof
of the mouth, and is frequently associated with hare-lip. The
infant is prevented from sucking, and an operation is necessary.
Cleft-palate is often a hereditary defect. The most favourable
time for operating is between the age of two weeks and three
months, and if the cleft is closed at this early date, not only are
the nutrition and general development of the child greatly
improved, but the voice is probably saved from much of the
unpleasant tone which is usually associated with a defective
roof to the mouth and is apt to persist even if a cleft has been
successfully operated on later in childhood. The greatest advance
which has been made in the operative treatment of cleft palate
is due to the teaching of Dr Truman W. Brophy, who adopted
the ingenious plan of thrusting together to the middle line of
the mouth the halves of the palate which nature had unfortun-
ately left apart. But, as noted above, this operation must, to
give the best results, be undertaken in the earliest months of
infancy. After the cleft in the palate has been effectually dealt
with, the hare-lip can be repaired with ease and success.

Hare-lip. In the hare the splitting of the lip is in the middle
line, but in the human subject it is on one side, or on both sides
of the middle line. This is accounted for on developmental
grounds: a cleft in the exact middle line is of extremely rare
occurrence. Hare-lip is often associated with cleft palate.
Though we are at present unable to explain why development
should so frequently miss the mark in connexion with the forma-
tion of the lip and palate, it is unlikely that maternal impressions
have anything to do with it. As a rule, the supposed " fright "
comes long after the lips are developed. They are completely
formed by the ninth week. Heredity has a powerful influence

CLEISTHENES

479

in many cases. The best time for operating on a hare-lip depends
upon various circumstances. Thus, if it is associated with cleft
palate, the palatine cleft has first to be closed, in which case the
child will probably be several months old before the lip is operated
on. If the infant is in so poor a state of nutrition that it appears
unsuitable for surgical treatment, the operation must be post-
poned until his condition is sufficiently improved. But, assuming
that the infant is in fair health, that he is taking his food well and
thriving on it, that he is not troubled by vomiting or diarrhoea,
and that the hare-lip is not associated with a defective palate,
the sooner it is operated on the better. It may be successfully
done even within a few hours of birth. When a hare-lip is
unassociated with cleft palate, the infant may possibly be enabled
to take the breast within a short time of the gap being closed.
In such a case the operation may be advisably undertaken
within the first few days of birth. The case being suitable, the
operation may be conveniently undertaken at any time after
the tenth day. (E. O.*)

CLEISTHENES, the name of two Greek statesmen, (i) of
Athens, (2) of Sicyon, of whom the first is far the more important,
i. CLEISTHENES, the Athenian statesman, was the son of
Megacles and Agariste, daughter of Cleisthenes of Sicyon. He
thus belonged, through his father, to the noble family of the
Alcmaeonidae (q.v.), who bore upon them the curse of the Cylon-
ian massacre, and had been in exile during the rule of the Peisi-
stratids. In the hope of washing out the stigma, which damaged
their prestige, they spent the latter part of their exile in carrying
out with great splendour the contract given out by the Amphic-
tyons for the rebuilding of the temple at Delphi (destroyed
by fire in 548 B.C.). By building the pronaos of Parian marble
instead of limestone as specified in the contract, they acquired
a high reputation for piety; the curse was consigned to oblivion,
and their reinstatement was imposed by the oracle itself upon
the Spartan king, Cleomenes (q.v.). Cleisthenes, to whom this
far-seeing atonement must probably be attributed, had also on
his side (i) the malcontents in Athens who were disgusted with
the growing severity of Hippias, and (2) the oligarchs of Sparta,
partly on religious grounds, and partly owing to their hatred
of tyranny. Aristotle's Constitution of Athens, however, treats
the alliance of the Peisistratids with Argos, the rival of Sparta
in the Peloponnese, as the chief ground for the action of Sparta
(c. 19). In c. 513 B.C. Cleisthenes invaded Attica, but was
defeated by the tyrant's mercenaries at Leipsydrium (S. of Mt.
Parnes). Sparta then, in tardy obedience to the oracle, threw
off her alliance with the Peisistratids, and, after one failure,
expelled Hippias in 511-510 B.C., leaving Athens once again at
the mercy of the powerful families.

Cleisthenes, on his return, was in a difficulty; he realized
that Athens would not tolerate a new tyranny, nor were the
other nobles willing to accept him as leader of a
constitutional oligarchy. It was left for him to " take
policy. the people into partnership " as Peisistratus had in a
different way done before him. Solon's reforms had
failed, primarily because they left unimpaired the power of the
great landed nobles, who, in their several districts, doubled the
r61es of landlord, priest and patriarch. This evil of local influence
Peisistratus had concealed by satisfying the nominally sovereign
people that in him they had a sufficient representative. It was
left to Cleisthenes to adopt the remaining remedy of giving
substance to the form of the Solonian constitution. His first
attempts roused the aristocrats to a last effort; Isagoras
appealed to the Spartans (who, though they disliked tyranny,
had no love for democracy) to come to his aid. Cleisthenes
retired on the arrival of a herald from Cleomenes, reviving the
old question of the curse; Isagoras thus became all-powerful 1
and expelled seven hundred families. The democrats, however,

1 The archonship of Isagoras in 508 is important as showing that
Cleisthenes, three years after his return, had so far failed to secure
the support of a majority in Athens. There is no sufficient reason
for supposing that the election of Isagoras was procured by Cleo-
menes; all the evidence points to its having been brought about in
the ordinary way. Probably, therefore, Cleisthenes did not take the
people thoroughly into partnership till after the spring of 508.

rose, and after besieging Cleomenes and Isagoras in the Acropolis,
let them go under a safe-conduct, and brought back the exiles.

Apart from the reforms which Cleisthenes was now able to
establish, the period of his ascendancy is a blank, nor are we
told when and how it came to an end. It is dear, however
and it is impossible in connexion with the Pan-hellenic patriotism
to which Athens laid claim, to overrate the importance of the
fact that Cleisthenes, hard pressed in the war with Boeotia,
Euboea and Sparta (Herod, v. 73 and foil.), sent ambassadors
to ask the help of Persia. The story, as told by Herodotus, that
the ambassadors of their own accord agreed to give " earth and
water " (i.e. submission) in return for Persian assistance, and
that the Ecclesia subsequently disavowed their action as un-
authorized, is scarcely credible. Cleisthenes (i) was in full
control and must have instructed the ambassadors; (2) he
knew that any help from Persia meant submission. It is practi-
cally certain, therefore, that he (cf. the Alcmaeonids and the
story of the shield at Marathon) was the first to " medize "
(see Curtius, History of Greece). Probably he had hoped to
persuade the Ecclesia that the agreement was a mere form.
Aelian says that he himself was a victim to his own device of
ostracism (q.v.); this, though apparently inconsistent with the
Constitution of Athens (c. 22), may perhaps indicate that his
political career ended in disgrace, a hypothesis which is explicable
on the ground of this act of treachery in respect of the attempted
Persian alliance. Whether to Cleisthenes are due the final
success over Boeotia and Euboea, the planting of the 4000
cleruchs on the Lelantine Plain, and the policy of the Aeginetan
War (see AEGINA), in which Athens borrowed ships from Corinth,
it is impossible to determine. The eclipse of Cleisthenes in all
records is one of the most curious facts in Greek history. It is
also curious that we do not know in what official capacity
Cleisthenes carried his reforms. Perhaps he was given extra-
ordinary ad hoc powers for a specified time; conceivably he
used the ordinary mechanism. It seems clear that he had fully
considered his scheme in advance, that he broached it before
the last attack of Isagoras, and that it was only after the final
expulsion of Isagoras and his Spartan allies that it became
possible for him to put it into execution.

Cleisthenes aimed at being the leader of a self-governing
people; in other words he aimed at making the democracy
actual. He realized that the dead-weight which
held the democracy down was the influence on politics
of the local religious unit. Therefore his prime object reforms.
was to dissociate the clans and the phratries from
politics, and to give the democracy a totally new electoral basis
in which old associations and vested interests would be split
up and become ineffective. It was necessary that no man
should govern a pocket-constituency merely by virtue of his
religious, financial or ancestral prestige, and that there should
be created a new local unit with administrative powers of a
democratic character which would galvanize the lethargic voters
into a new sense of responsibility and independence. His first
step was to abolish the four Solonian tribes and create ten new
ones. 2 Each of the new tribes was subdivided into " demes "
(roughly " townships ") ; this organization did not,
except politically, supersede the system of clans and
phratries whose old religious signification remained
untouched. The new tribes, however, though geographically
arranged, did not represent local interests. Further, the tribe
names were taken from legendary heroes (Cecropis, Pandionis,
Aegeis recalled the storied kings of Attica), and, therefore,
contributed to the idea of a national unity; even Ajax, the
eponym of the tribe Aeantis, though not Attic, was famous
as an ally (Herod, v. 66) and ranked as a national hero. Each
tribe had its shrine and its particular hero-cult, which, however,
was free from local association and the dominance of particular

! The explanation given for this step by Herodotus (v. 67) is
an amusing example of his incapacity as a critical historian. To
compare Cleisthenes of Sicyon (see below), bent on humiliating the
Dorians of Sicyon by giving opprobrious names to the Dorian tnbes,
with his grandson, whose endeavour was to elevate the very persons
whose tribal organization he replaced, is clearly absurd.

Analysis

The tea
tribes.

480

CLEISTHENES

families. This national idea Cleisthenes further emphasized by
setting up in the market-place at Athens a statue of each tribal
hero.

The next step was the organization of the deme. Within
each tribe he grouped ten demes (see below), each of which had

Deme*. ^ * ts nero and its cna P e '> an< * ( 2 ) its census-list kept
by the demarch. The demarch (local governor), who
was elected popularly and held office for one year, presided over
meetings affecting local administration and the provision of
crews for the state-navy, and was probably under a system of
scrutiny like the dokimasia of the state-magistrates. According
to the Aristotelian Constitution of Athens, Cleisthenes further
divided Attica into three districts, Urban and Suburban, Inland
(Mesogaios), and Maritime (Par alia), each of which was sub-
divided into ten trittyes; each tribe had three trittyes in each
of these districts. The problem of establishing this decimal
system in connexion with the demes and trittyes is insoluble.
Herodotus says that there were ten 1 demes to each tribe (8/ca
efe rds <t>v\6.s); but each tribe was composed of three trittyes,
one in each of the three districts. Since the deme was, as will
be seen, the electoral unit, it is clear that in tribal voting the
object of ending the old threefold schism of the Plain, the Hill
and the Shore was attained, but the relation of deme and trittys
is obviously of an unsymmetrical kind. The Constitution of
Athens says nothing of the ten-deme-to-each-tribe arrangement,
and there is no sufficient reason for supposing that the demes
originally were exactly a hundred in number. We know the
names of 168 demes, and Polemon (3rd century B.C.) enumerated
173. It has been suggested that the demes did originally number
exactly a hundred, and that new demes were added as the popu-
lation increased. This theory, however, presupposes that the
demes were originally equal in numbers. In the 5th and 4th
centuries this was certainly not the case; the number of demes-
men in some cases was only one hundred or two hundred,
whereas the deme Acharnae is referred to as a " great part " of
the whole state, and is known to have furnished three thousand
hoplites. The theory is fundamentally at fault, inasmuch as
it regards the deme as consisting of all those resident within
its borders. In point of fact membership was hereditary, not
residential; Demosthenes "of the Paeanian deme" might live
where he would without severing his deme connexion. Thus
the increase of population could be no reason for creating new
demes. This distinction in a deme between demesmen and
residents belonging to another deme (the tyK&t-rrintvoi) , who
paid a deme-tax for their privilege, is an important one. It
should further be noted that the demes belonging to a particular
tribe do not, as a fact, appear always in three separate groups;
the tribe Aeantis consisted of Phalerum and eleven demes in
the district of Marathon; other tribes had demes in five or six
groups. It must, therefore, be admitted that the problem is
insoluble for want of data. Nor are we better equipped to settle
the relation between the Cleisthenean division into Urban,
Maritime and Inland, and the old divisions of the Plain, the
Shore and the Upland or Hill. The " Maritime " of Cleisthenes
and the old " Shore " are certainly not coincident, nor is the
" Inland " identical with the " Upland."

Lastly, it has been asked whether we are to believe that
Cleisthenes invented the demes. To this the answer is in the
negative. The demes were undoubtedly primitive divisions of
Attica; Herodotus (ix. 73) speaks of the Dioscuri as ravaging
the demes of Decelea (see R. W. Macan ad loc.) and we hear of
opposition between the city and the demes. The most logical
conclusion perhaps is that Cleisthenes, while he did create the
demes which Athens itself comprised, did not create the country
demes, but merely gave them definition as political divisions.
Thus the city itself had six demes in five different tribes, and the
other five tribes were represented in the suburbs and the Peiraeus.
It is clear that in the Cleisthenean system there was one great
source of danger, namely that the residents in and about Athens
must always have had more weight in elections than those in

1 Wilamowitz-Moellendorff (Arist. undAihen, pp. 149-150) suggests
5ax<4, " in ten batches," instead of Skua.

distant demes. There can be little doubt that the preponderat-
ing influence of the city was responsible for the unwisdom of
the later imperial policy and the Peloponnesian war.

A second problem is the franchise reform of Cleisthenes.
Aristotle in the Politics (iii. 2. 3 = 1275 b) says that Cleisthenes
created new citizens by enrolling in the tribes " many resident
aliens and emancipated slaves." 2 But the Aristotelian Con-
stitution of Athens asserts that he gave " citizenship to the
masses." These two statements are not compatible. It is
perfectly clear that Cleisthenes is to be regarded as a
democrat, and it would have been no bribe to t
people merely to confer a boon on aliens and slaves.
Moreover, a revision of the citizen-roll (diapsephismus) had
recently taken place (after the end of the tyranny) and a
great many citizens had been struck off the roll as being of
impure descent (01 T<$ ykvtt. ^ noJdapoi). This class had existed
from the time of Solon, and, through fear of political extinction
by the oligarchs, had been favourable to Peisistratus. Cleis-
thenes may have enfranchised aliens and slaves, but it seems
certain that he must have dealt with these free Athenians who
had lost their rights. Now Isagoras presumably did not carry
out this revision of the roll (diapsephismus); as " the friend of
the tyrants " (so Ath. Pol. 20; by Meyer, Busolt and others
contest this) he would not have struck a blow at a class which
favoured his own views. A reasonable hypothesis is that
Cleisthenes was the originator of the measure of expulsion, and
that he now changed his policy, and strengthened his hold on
the democracy by reinstating the disfranchised in much larger
numbers. The new citizens, whoever they were, must, of course,
have been enrolled also in the (hitherto exclusive) phratry lists
and the deme-rolls.

The Boule (q.v.) was reorganized to suit the new tribal arrange-
ment, and was known henceforward as the Council of the Five
Hundred, fifty from each tribe. Its exact constitution The
is unknown, but it was certainly more democratic council
than the Solonian Four Hundred. Further, the "'""" >aras
system of ten tribes led in course of time to the con- *
struction of boards of ten to deal with military and civil affairs,
e.g. the Strategi (see STRATEGUS), the Apodectae, and others.
Of these the former cannot be attributed to Cleisthenes, but on
the evidence of Androtion it is certain that it was Cleisthenes
who replaced the Colacretae 3 by the Apodectae ("receivers"),
who were controllers and auditors of the finance department,
and, before the council in the council-chamber, received the
revenues. The Colacretae, who had done this work before,
remained in authority over the internal expenses of the Pry-
taneum. A further change which followed from the new tribal
system was the reconstitution of the army; this, however,
probably took place about 501 B.C., and cannot be attributed
directly to Cleisthenes. It has been said that the deme became
the local political unit, replacing the naucrary (<?..). But the
naucraries still supplied the fleet, and were increased in number
from forty-eight to fifty; if each naucrary still supplied a ship
and two mounted soldiers as before, it is interesting to learn
that, only seventy years before the Peloponnesian War, Athens
had but fifty ships and a hundred horse. 4

The device of ostracism is the final stone in the Cleisthenean
structure. An admirable scheme in theory, and, at first, in
practice, it deteriorated in the sth century into a mere party

! It should be observed that there are other translations of the
difficult phrase flrovs xal 6o6Xous Atcrofcovs.

3 Colacretae were very ancient Athenian magistrates; either
(i) those who " cut up the joints " in the Prytaneum (oXa, ndpu),
or (2) those who " collected the joints" (icaJXa, iytlfxa) which were
left over from public sacrifices, and consumed in the Prytaneum.
These officials were again important in the time of Aristophanes
(Wasps, 693, 724; Birds, 1541), and they presided over the payment
of the dicasts instituted by Pericles. They are not mentioned,
though they may have existed, after 403 B.C. At Sicyon also
magistrates of this name are found.

4 It is, however, more probable that the right reading of the
passage is ia ijrTrels instead of 660, which would give a cavalry force
in early Athens of 480, a reasonable number in proportion to the
total fighting strength.

CLEITARCHUS CLEMATIS

481

Summary.

weapon, and in the case of Hyperbolus (417) became an
absurdity.

In conclusion it should be noticed that Cleisthenes was
the founder of the Athens which we know. To him was due
the spirit of nationality, the principle of liberty duly
apportioned and controlled by centralized and de-
centralized administration, which prepared the ground for the
rich developments of the Golden Age with its triumphs of art
and literature, politics and philosophy. It was Cleisthenes who
organized the structure which, for a long time, bore the heavy
burden of the Empire against impossible odds, the structure
which the very different genius of Pericles was able to beautify.
He was the first to appreciate the unique power in politics,
literature and society of an organized public opinion.

AUTHORITIES. Ancient: Aristotle, Constitution of Athens (ed.
J. E. Sandys), cc. 20-22, 41 ; Herodotus v. 63-73, vi. 131 ; Aristotle,
Politics, iii. 2, 3 ( = 1275 b, for franchise reforms). Modern: Histories
of Greece in general, especially those of Grote and Curtius (which,
of course, lack the information contained in the Constitution of
Athens), and I. B. Bury. See also E. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums
(vol. ii.); G. Busolt, Griech. Gesch. (2nd ed., 1893 foil.); Milchhofer,
" tJber die Demenordnung des Kleisthenes " in appendix to Abhand-
lung d. Berl. Akad. (1892); R. Loeper in Athen. Mitteil. (1892),
pp. 319-433; A. H. I. Greenidge, Handbook of Greek Constitutional
History (1896); Gilbert, Greek Constitutional Antiquities (Eng.
trans., 1895) ; R. W. Macan, Herodotus iv.-vi., vol. ii. (1895), PP- I2 7-
148; U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Arist. und Athen. See also
BOULE; ECCLESIA; OSTRACISM; NAUCRARY; SOLON.

2. CLEISTHENES or SICYON (c. 600-570), grandfather of the
above, became tyrant of Sicyon as the representative of the
conquered Ionian section of the inhabitants. He emphasized
the destruction of Dorian predominance by giving ridiculous
epithets to their tribal units, which from Hylleis, Dymanes and
Pamphyli become Hyatae ("Swine-men"), Choireatae ("Pig-
men ") and Oneatae (" Ass-men "). He also attacked Dorian
Argos, and suppressed the Homeric " rhapsodists " who sang
the exploits of Dorian heroes. He championed the cause of the
Delphic oracle against the town of Crisa (Cirrha) in the Sacred
War (c. 590) . Crisa was destroyed, and Delphi became one of the
meeting-places of the old amphictyony of Anthela, henceforward
often called the Delphic amphictyony. The Pythian games,
largely on the initiative of Cleisthenes, were re-established with
new magnificence, and Cleisthenes won the first chariot race in
582. He founded Pythian games at Sicyon, and possibly built
a new Sicyonian treasury at Delphi. His power was so great
that when he offered his daughter Agariste in marriage, some
of the most prominent Greeks sought the honour, which fell upon
Megacles, the Alcmaeonid. The story of the rival wooers with
the famous retort, " Hippocleides don't care," is told in Herod,
vi. 125; see also Herod, v. 67 and Thuc. i. 18.

CLEISTHENES is also the name of an Athenian, pilloried by Aristo-
phanes (Clouds, 354; Thesm. 574) asafopand a profligate. (J. M. M.)

CLEITARCHUS, one of the historians of Alexander the Great,
son of Deinon, also an historian, was possibly a native of Egypt,
or at least spent a considerable time at the court of Ptolemy
Lagus. Quintilian (Instil, x. i. 74) credits him with more
ability than trustworthiness; and Cicero (Brutus, n) accuses
him of giving a fictitious account of the death of Themistocles.
But there is no doubt that his history was very popular, and
much used by Diodorus Siculus, Quintus Curtius, Justin and
Plutarch, and the authors of the Alexander romances. His
unnatural and exaggerated style became proverbial.

The fragments, some thirty in number, chiefly preserved in Aelian
and Strabo, will be found in C. Miiller's Scriptores Rerum Alexandri
Magni (in the Didot Arrian, 1846); monographs by C. Raun, De
Clitarcho Diodori, Curtii, Justini auctore (1868), and F. Reuss,
" Hellenistische Beitrage " in Rhein. Mus. Ixiii. (1908), pp. 58-78.

CLEITHRAL (Gr. K\tWpov, an enclosed or shut-up place),
an architectural term applied to a covered Greek temple, in
contradistinction to hypaethral, which designates one that is
uncovered; the roof of a cleithral temple completely covers it.

CLEITOR, or CLITOR, a town of ancient Greece, in that part of

Arcadia which corresponds to the modern eparchy of Kalavryta

in the nomos of Elis and Achaea. It stood in a fertile plain to

the south of Mt Chelmos, the highest peak of the Aroanian

vi. 16

Mountains, and not far from a stream of its own name, which
joined the Aroanius, or Katzana. In the neighbourhood was
a fountain, the waters of which were said to deprive those who
drank them of the taste for wine. The town was a place of con-
siderable importance in Arcadia, and its inhabitants were noted
for their love of liberty. It extended its territory over several
neighbouring towns, and in the Theban war fought against
Orchomenus. It joined the other Arcadian cities in the founda-
tion of Megalopolis. As a member of the Achaean league it
was besieged by the Aetolians in 220 B.C., and was on several
occasions the seat of the federal assemblies. It coined money
up to the time of Septimius Severus. The ruins, which bear
the common name of Paleopoli, or Old City, are still to be seen
about 3 m. from a village that preserves the ancient designation.
The greater part of the walls which enclose an area of about a
mile and several of the semi-circular towers with which they
were strengthened can be clearly made out; and there are also
remains of three Doric temples and a small theatre.

CLELAND, WILLIAM (i66i?-i68 9 ), Scottish poet and
soldier, son of Thomas Cleland, gamekeeper to the marquis of
Douglas, was born about 1661. He was probably brought up
on the marquess of Douglas's estate in Lanarkshire, and was
educated at St Andrews University. Immediately on leaving
college he joined the army of the Covenanters, and was present
at Drumclog, where, says Robert Wodrow, some attributed to
Cleland the manoeuvre which led to the victory. He also fought
at Bothwell Bridge. He and his brother James were described
in a royal proclamation of the i6th of June 1679 among the
leaders of the insurgents. He escaped to Holland, but in 1685
was again in Scotland in connexion with the abortive invasion
of the earl of Argyll. He escaped once more, to return in 1688
as agent for William of Orange. He was appointed lieutenant-
colonel of the Cameronian regiment raised from the minority
of the western Covenanters who consented to serve under William
III. The Cameronians were entrusted with the defence of Dun-
keld, which they held against the fierce assault of the Highlanders
on the 26th of August. The repulse of the Highlanders before
Dunkeld ended the Jacobite rising, but Cleland fell in the struggle.
He wrote A Collection of several Poems and Verses composed
upon various occasions (published posthumously, 1697). Of
"Hullo, my fancie, whither wilt thou go?" only the last nine
stanzas are by Cleland. His poems have small literary merit,
and are written, not in pure Lowland Scots, but in English with
a large admixture of Scottish words. The longest and most
important of them are the " mock poems " " On the Expedition
of the Highland Host who came to destroy the western shires
in winter 1678 " and " On the clergie when they met to consult
about taking the Test in the year 1681."

An Exact Narrative of the Conflict of Dunkeld . . . collected from
several officers of the regiment . . . appeared in 1689.

CLEMATIS, in botany, a genus of the natural order Ranun-
culaceae, containing nearly two hundred species, and widely
distributed. It is represented in England by Clematis Vitalba,
" old man's beard " or " traveller's joy," a common plant on
chalky or light soil. The plants are shrubby climbers with gener-
ally compound opposite leaves, the stalk of which is sensitive
to contact like a tendril, becoming twisted round suitable objects
and thereby giving support to the plant. The flowers are arranged
in axillary or terminal clusters; they have no petals, but white
or coloured, often very large sepals, and an indefinite number
of stamens and carpels. They contain no honey, and are visited
by insects for the sake of the pollen, which is plentiful. The fruit
is a head of achenes, each bearing the long-bearded persistent
style, suggesting the popular name. This feathery style is an
important agent in the distribution of the seed by means of the
wind. Several of the species, especially the large-flowered ones,
are favourite garden plants, well adapted for covering trellises
or walls, or trailing over the ground. Many garden forms have
been produced by hybridization; among the best known is
C. Jackmanni, due to Mr George Jackman of Woking.

Further information may be obtained from The Clematis as a
Garden Flower, by Thos. Moore and George Jackman. See also
G. Nicholson, Dictionary of Gardening, i. (1885) and Supplements.

482

CLEMENCEAU CLEMENT

CLEMENCEAU, GEORGES (1841- ), French statesman,
was born at Mouilleron-en-Pareds, Vend6e, on the 28th of
September 1841. Having adopted medicine as his profession,
he settled in 1869 in Montmartre; and after the revolution of
1870 he had become sufficiently well known to be nominated
mayor of the i8th arrondissement of Paris (Montmartre) an
unruly district over which it was a difficult task to preside.
On the 8th of February 1871 he was elected as a Radical to the
National Assembly for the department of the Seine, and voted
against the peace preliminaries. The execution, or rather
murder, of Generals Lecomte and Clement Thomas by the
communists on i8th March, which he vainly tried to prevent,
brought him into collision with the central committee sitting
at the h6tel de ville, and they ordered his arrest, but he escaped;
he was accused, however, by various witnesses, at the subsequent
trial of the murderers (November agth), of not having intervened
when he might have done, and though he was cleared of this
charge it led to a duel, for his share in which he was prosecuted
and sentenced to a fine and a fortnight's imprisonment.

Meanwhile, on the zoth of March 1871, he had introduced
in the National Assembly at Versailles, on behalf of his Radical
colleagues, the bill establishing a Paris municipal council of
eighty members; but he was not returned himself at the elections
of the z6th of March. He tried with the other Paris mayors to
mediate between Versailles and the h&tel de ville, but failed,
and accordingly resigned his mayoralty and his seat in the
Assembly, and temporarily gave up politics; but he was elected
to the Paris municipal council on the 23rd of July 1871 for the
Clignancourt quartier, and retained his seat till 1876, passing
through the offices of secretary and vice-president, and becoming
president in 1875. In 1876 he stood again for the Chamber of
Deputies, and was elected for the i8th arrondissement. He joined
the Extreme Left, and his energy and mordant eloquence
speedily made him the leader of the Radical section. In 1877,
after the Seize Mai (see FRANCE: History), he was one of the
republican majority who denounced the Broglie ministry, and
he took a leading part in resisting the anti-republican policy
of which the Seize Mai incident was a symptom, his demand
in 1879 for the indictment of the Broglie ministry bringing him
into particular prominence. In 1880 he started his newspaper,
La Justice, which became the principal organ of Parisian Radical-
ism; and from this time onwards throughout M. Grevy's
presidency his reputation as a political critic, and as a destroyer
of ministries who yet would not take office himself, rapidly grew.
He led the Extreme Left in the Chamber. He was an active
opponent of M. Jules Ferry's colonial policy and of the Oppor-
tunist party, and in 1885 it was his use of the Tongking disaster
which principally determined the fall of the Ferry cabinet.
At the elections of 1885 he advocated a strong Radical pro-
gramme, and was returned both for his old seat in Paris and for
the Var, selecting the latter. Refusing to form a ministry to
replace the one he had overthrown, he supported the Right in
keeping M. Freycinet in power in 1886, and was responsible
for the inclusion of General Boulanger in the Freycinet cabinet
as war minister. When Boulanger (q.v.) showed himself as an
ambitious pretender, Clemenceau withdrew his support and
became a vigorous combatant against the Boulangist movement,
though the Radical press and a section of the party continued
to patronize the general.

By his exposure of the Wilson scandal, and by his personal
plain speaking, M. Clemenceau contributed largely to M. Grevy's
resignation of the presidency in 1887, having himself declined
Gr6vy's request to form a cabinet on the downfall of that of
M. Rouvier; and he was primarily responsible, by advising
his followers to vote neither for Floquet, Ferry nor Freycinet,
for the election of an "outsider" as president in M. Carnot.
He had arrived, however, at the height of his influence, and
several factors now contributed to his decline. The split in the
Radical party over Boulangism weakened his hands, and its
collapse made his help unnecessary to the moderate republicans.
A further misfortune occurred in the Panama affair, Clemenceau's
relations with Cornelius Herz leading to his being involved

in the general suspicion; and, though he remained the leading
spokesman of French Radicalism, his hostility to the Russian
alliance so increased his unpopularity that in the election for
1893 he was defeated for the Chamber, after having sat in it
continuously since 1876. After his defeat for the Chamber,
M. Clemenceau confined his political activities to journalism,
his career being further overclouded so far as any immediate
possibility of regaining his old ascendancy was concerned by
the long-drawn-out Dreyfus case, in which he took an active
and honourable part as a supporter of M. Zola and an opponent
of the anti-Semitic and Nationalist campaign. In 1900 he
withdrew from La Justice to found a weekly review, Le Bloc,
which lasted until March 1902. On the 6th of April 1902 he
was elected senator for the Var, although he had previously
continually demanded the suppression of the Senate. He sat
with the Socialist Radicals, and vigorously supported the
Combes ministry. In June 1903 he undertook the direction of
the journal L'Aurore, which he had founded. In it he led the
campaign for the revision of the Dreyfus affair, and for the
separation of Church and State.

In March 1906 the fall of the Rouvier ministry, owing to the
riots provoked by the inventories of church property, at last
brought Clemenceau to power as minister of the interior in the
Sarrien cabinet. The strike of miners in the Pas de Calais
after the disaster at Courrieres, leading to the threat of disorder
on the ist of May 1906, obliged him to employ the military;
and his attitude in the matter alienated the Socialist party,
from which he definitely broke in his notable reply in the Chamber
to Jean Jaures in June 1906. This speech marked him out as
the strong man of the day in French politics; and when the
Sarrien ministry resigned in October, he became premier. During
1907 and 1908 his premiership was notable for the way in which
the new entente with England was cemented, and for the successful
part which France played in European politics, in spite of diffi-
culties with Germany and attacks by the Socialist party in
connexion with Morocco (see FRANCE: History). But on July
20th, 1909, he was defeated in a discussion in the Chamber on
the state of the navy, in which bitter words were exchanged
between him and Delcass6; and he at once resigned, being
succeeded as premier by M. Briand, with a reconstructed
cabinet.

CLEMENCiN, DIEGO (1765-1834), Spanish scholar and
politician, was born on the 27th of September 1765, at Murcia,
and was educated there at the Colegio de San Fulgencio.
Abandoning his intention of taking orders, he found employment
at Madrid in 1788 as tutor to the sons of the countess-duchess
de Benavente, and devoted himself to the study of archaeology.
In 1807 he became editor of the Gaceta de Madrid, and in the
following year was condemned to death by Murat for publishing
a patriotic article; he fled to Cadiz, and under the Junta Central
held various posts from which he was dismissed by the reac-
tionary government of 1814. During the liberal regime of
1820-1823 Clemencin took office as colonial minister, was exiled
till 1827, and in 1833 published the first volume of his edition
(1833-1839) of Don Quixote. Its merits were recognized by his
appointment as royal librarian, but he did not long enjoy his
triumph: he died on the 3oth of July 1834. His commentary
on Don Quixote owes something to John Bowie, and is disfigured
by a patronizing, carping spirit; nevertheless it is the most
valuable work of its kind, and is still unsuperseded. Clemencin
is also the author of an interesting Elogio de la reina Isabel la
Catolica, published as the sixth volume of the Memorias of the
Spanish Academy of History, to which body he was elected
on the 1 2th of September 1800.

CLEMENT (Lat. Clemens, i.e. merciful; Gr. KXifciip), the
name of fourteen popes and two anti-popes.

CLEMENT I., generally known as Clement of Rome, or CLEMENS
ROMANUS (flor. c. A.D. 96), was one of the "Apostolic Fathers,"
and in the lists of bishops of Rome is given the third or fourth
place Peter, Linus, (Anencletus), Clement. There is no ground
for identifying him with the Clement of Phil. iv. 3. He may
have been a freedman of T. Flavius Clemens, who was consul

CLEMENT (POPES)

483

with his cousin, the Emperor Domitian, in A.D. 95. A gth-
century tradition says he was martyred in the Crimea in 102;
earlier authorities say he died a natural death; he is com-
memorated on the 23rd of November.

In The Shepherd of Hermas (q.v.) (Vis. n. iv. 3) mention is
made of one Clement whose office it is to communicate with other
churches, and this function agrees well with what we find in
the letter to the church at Corinth by which Clement is best
known. Whilst being on our guard against reading later ideas
into the title " bishop " as applied to Clement, there is no reason
to doubt that he was one of the chief personalities in the Christian
community at Rome, where since the time of Paul the separate
house congregations (Rom. xvi.) had been united into one
church officered by presbyters and deacons (Clem. 40-42).
The letter in question was occasioned by a dispute in the church
of Corinth, which had led to the ejection of several presbyters
from their office. It does not contain Clement's name, but is
addressed by " the Church of God which sojourneth in Rome to
the Church of God which sojourneth in Corinth." But there is
no reason for doubting the universal tradition which ascribes
it to Clement, or the generally accepted date, c. A.D. 96. No
claim is made by the Roman Church to interfere on any ground
of superior rank; yet it is noteworthy that in the earliest
document outside the canon which we can securely date, the
church in the imperial city comes forward as a peacemaker to
compose the troubles of a church in Greece. Nothing is known
of the cause of the discontent; no moral offence is charged
against the presbyters, and their dismissal is regarded by
Clement as high-handed and unjustifiable, and as a revolt of
the younger members of the community against the elder.
After a laudatory account of the past conduct of the Corinthian
Church, he enters upon a denunciation of vices and a praise of
virtues, and illustrates his various topics by copious citations
from the Old Testament scriptures. Thus he paves the way
for his tardy rebuke of present disorders, which he reserves until
two-thirds of his epistle is completed. Clement is exceedingly
discursive, and his letter reaches twice the length of the Epistle
to the Hebrews. Many of his general exhortations are but very
indirectly connected with the practical issue to which the epistle
is directed, and it is very probable that he was drawing largely
upon the homiletical material with which he was accustomed to
edify his fellow-Christians at Rome.

This view receives some support from the long liturgical
prayer at the close, which 'almost certainly represents the
intercession used in the Roman eucharists. But we must not
allow such a theory to blind us to the true wisdom with which
the writer defers his censure. He knows that the roots of the
quarrel lie in a wrong condition of the church's life. His general
exhortations, courteously expressed in the first person plural,
are directed towards a wide reformation of manners. If the
wrong spirit can be exorcised, there is hope that the quarrel will
end in a general desire for reconciliation. The most permanent
interest of the epistle lies in the conception of the grounds on
which the Christian ministry rests according to the view of a
prominent teacher before the ist century has closed. The
orderliness of nature is appealed to as expressing the mind of its
Creator. The orderliness of Old Testament worship bears a like
witness; everything is duly fixed by God; high priests, priests
and Levites, and the people in the people's place. Similarly
in the Christian dispensation all is in order due. " The apostles
preached the gospel to us from the Lord Jesus Christ; Jesus
Christ was sent from God. Christ then is from God, and the
apostles from Christ. . . . They appointed their first-fruits,
having tested them by the Spirit, as bishops and deacons of those
who should believe. . . . Our apostles knew, through our Lord
Jesus Christ that there would be strife about the name of the
bishop's office. For this cause therefore, having received
perfect foreknowledge, they appointed the aforesaid, and after-
wards gave a further injunction (tnvonriv has now the further
evidence of the Latin legem) that, if these should fall asleep,
other approved men should succeed to their ministry. . . .
It will be no small sin in us if we eject from the bishop's

office those who have offered the gifts blamelessly and holily "
(cc. xlii. xliv.).

Clement's familiarity with the Old Testament points to his
being a Christian of long standing rather than a recent convert.
We learn from his letter (i. 7) that the church at Rome, though
suffering persecution, was firmly held together by faith and love,
and was exhibiting its unity in an orderly worship. The epistle
was publicly read from time to time at Corinth, and by the 4th
century this usage had spread to other churches. We even find
it attached to the famous Alexandrian MS. (Codex A) of the New
Testament, but this does not imply that it ever reached canonical
rank. For the mass of early Christian literature that was gradu-
ally attached to his name see CLEMENTINE LITERATURE.

The epistle was published in 1633 by Patrick Young from Cod.
Alexandrinus, in which a leaf near the end was missing, so that
the great prayer (cc. Iv.-lxiv.) remained unknown. In 1875 (six
years after J. B. Lightfoot's first edition) Bryennius (?.f.) published
a complete text from the MS. in Constantinople (dated 1055), from
which in 1883 he gave us the Didache. In 1876 R. L. Bensly found a
complete Syriac text in a MS. recently obtained by the University
library at Cambridge. Lightfoot made use of these new materials
in an Appendix (1877); his second edition, on which he had been
at work at the time of his death, came out in 1890. This must
remain the standard edition, notwithstanding Dom Morin's most
interesting discovery of a Latin version (1894), which was prob-
ably made in the 3rd century, and is a valuable addition to the
authorities for the text. Its evidence is used in a small edition of
the epistle by R. Knopf (Leipzig, 1899). See also W. Wrede, Unter-
suchungen zum ersten ClemensbriefdSgi), and the other literature cited
in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopddie, vol. iv. (A. J. G. ; J. A. R.)

CLEMENT II. (Suidger) became pope on the 2$th of December
.1046. He belonged to a noble Saxon family, was bishop of Bam-
berg, and chancellor to the emperor Henry III., to whom he was
indebted for his elevation to the papacy upon the abdication
of Gregory VI. He was the first pope placed on the throne by
the power of the German emperors, but his short pontificate was
only signalized by the convocation of a council in which decrees
were enacted against simony. He died on the 9th of October
1047, and was buried at Bamberg. (L. D.*)

CLEMENT III. (Paolo Scolari), pope from 1187 to 1191, a
Roman, was made cardinal bishop of Palestrina by Alexander III.
in 1180 or 1181. On the igth of December 1187 he was chosen
at Pisa to succeed Gregory VIII. On the 3ist of May 1188 he
concluded a treaty with the Romans which removed difficulties
of long standing, and in April 1 1 89 he made peace with the emperor
Frederick I. Barbarossa. He settled a controversy with William
of Scotland concerning the choice of the archbishop of St Andrews,
and on the I3th of March 1188 removed the Scottish church from
under the legatine jurisdiction of the archbishop of York, thus
making it independent of all save Rome. In spite of his con-
ciliatory policy, Clement angered Henry VI. of Germany by
bestowing Sicily on Tancred. The crisis was acute when the
pope died, probably in the latter part of March 1191.

See " Epistolae et Privilegia," in J. P. Migne, Patrologiae cursus
completus, torn. 204 (Paris, 1853), 1253 ff. ; additional material in
Neues Archiv fur die dltere deutsche Geschichtskunde, 2. 219; 6. 293;
14. 178-182; P. Jaffe, Regesta Pontificum Romanorum, torn. 2
(2nd edition, Leipzig, 1888), 535 ff. (W. W. R.*)

CLEMENT IV. (Gui Foulques), pope from 1265 to 1268, son of
a successful lawyer and judge, was born at St Gilles-sur-Rh&ne.
He studied law, and became a valued adviser of Louis IX. of
France. He married, and was the father of two daughters, but
after the death of his wife took orders. In 1257 he became
bishop of Le Puy; in 1259 he was elected archbishop of Nar-
bonne; and on the 24th of December 1261 Urban IV. created
him cardinal bishop of Sabina. He was appointed legate in
England on the 22nd of November 1263, and before his return
was elected pope at Perugia on the sth of February 1265. On
the 26th of February he invested Charles of Anjou with the
kingdom of Sicily; but subsequently he came into conflict with
Charles, especially after the death of Manfred in February 1266.
To the cruelty and avarice of Charles he opposed a generous
humanity. When Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen,
appeared in Italy the pope excommunicated him and his sup-
porters, but it is improbable that he was in the remotest degree

4 8 4

CLEMENT (POPES)

responsible for his execution. At Viterbo, where he spent most
of his pontificate, Clement died on the zgth of November 1268,
leaving a name unsullied by nepotism. As the benefactor and
protector of Roger Bacon he has a special title to the gratitude

of posterity.

See A Potthast, Regesta Pontificum Romanorum, vol. ii. (Berlin,
1875) 1542 ff-; E. Jordan, Les Registres de Clement IV (Paris, 1893
ff ) Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie (3rd ed., vol. iv., Leipzig, 1898),
144' f.; J. Heidemann, Papst Clemens IV., I. Teil: Das Vorleben
des Papstes und sein Legationsregister = Kirchengeschichttiche Studien,
herausgegeben von Knopfler, &c., 6. Band, 4. Heft (Miinster, 1903),
reprints Processus legationis in Angliam. (W. W. R.*)

CLEMENT V. (Bertrand de Gouth), pope from 1305 to 1314, was
born of a noble Gascon family about 1264. After studying the
arts at Toulouse and law at Orleans and Bologna, he became
a canon at Bordeaux and then vicar-general to his brother the
archbishop of Lyons, who in 1294 was created cardinal bishop
of Albano. Bertrand was made a chaplain to Boniface VIII.,
who in 1 295 nominated him bishop of Cominges (Haute Garonne) ,
and in 1299 translated him to the archbishopric of Bordeaux.
Because he attended the synod at Rome in 1302 in the con-
troversy between France and the Pope, he was considered a
supporter of Boniface VIII., yet was by no means unfavourably
regarded at the French court. At Perugia on the 5th of June
1305 he was chosen to succeed Benedict XI.; the cardinals
by a vote of ten to five electing one neither an Italian nor a
cardinal, in order to end a conclave which had lasted eleven
months. The chronicler Villani relates that Bertrand owed his
election to a secret agreement with Philip IV., made at St Jean
d'Angdly in Saintonge; this may be dismissed as gossip, but
it is probable that the future pope had to accept certain con-
ditions laid down by the cardinals. At Bordeaux Bertrand was
formally notified of his election and urged to come to Italy;
but he caused his coronation to take place at Lyons on the I4th
of November 1305. From the beginning Clement V. was sub-
servient to French interests. Among his first acts was the
creation of nine French cardinals. Early in 1306 he modified
or explained away those features of the bulls Clericis Laicos
and Unam sanctam which were particularly offensive to the
king. Most of the year 1306 he spent at Bordeaux because of
ill-health; subsequently he resided at Poitiers and elsewhere,
and in March 1309 the entire papal court settled at Avignon,
an imperial fief held by the king of Sicily. Thus began the
seventy years " Babylonian captivity of the Church." On the
i3th of October 1307 came the arrest of all the Knights Templar
in France, the breaking of a storm conjured up by royal jealousy
and greed. From the very day of Clement's coronation the
king had charged the Templars with heresy, immorality and
abuses, and the scruples of the weak pope were at length over-
come by apprehension lest the State should not wait for the
Church, but should proceed independently against the alleged
heretics, as well as by the royal threats of pressing the accusation
of heresy against the late Boniface VIII. In pursuance of the
king's wishes Clement summoned the council of Vienne (see
VIENNE, COUNCIL OF), which was 'unable to conclude that the
Templars were guilty of heresy. The pope abolished the order,
however, as it seemed to be in bad repute and had outlived its
usefulness. Its French estates were granted to the Hospitallers,
but actually Philip IV. held them until his death.

In his relations to the Empire Clement was an opportunist.
He refused to use his full influence hi favour of the candidacy
of Charles of Valois, brother of Philip IV., lest France became
' too powerful; and recognized Henry of Luxemburg, whom
his representatives crowned emperor at the Lateran in 1312.
When Henry, however, came into conflict with Robert of Naples,
Clement supported Robert and threatened the emperor with
ban and interdict. But the crisis passed with the unexpected
death of Henry, soon followed by that of the pope on the 2Oth
of April 1314 at Roquemaure-sur-Rh6ne. Though the sale of
offices and oppressive taxation which disgraced his pontificate
may in part be explained by the desperate condition of the papal
finances and by his saving up gold for a crusade, nevertheless
he indulged in unbecoming pomp. Showing favouritism toward

lis family and his nation, he brought untold disaster on the
Church.

BIBLIOGRAPHY See " dementis V. ... et aliorum epistolae,"
n S. Baluzius, Vitae Paparum Avenionensium, torn. ii. (Paris, 1693),
J5 ff. ; " Tractatus cum Henrico VII. imp. Germ, anno 1309, ' in
Pertz, Monumenta Germaniae historica, legum ii. I. 492-496; J. F.
Rabanis, Clement V et Philippe le Bel. Suivie du journal de la visile
bastorale de Bertrand de Got dans la province ecclesiastiyue de Bordeaux
'.n 1304 et 1305 (Paris, 1858) ; " dementis Papae V. Constitutiones,"
n Corpus luris Canonici, ed. Aemilius Friedberg, vol. ii. (Leipzig,
1881), 1125-1200; P. B. Gams, Series Episcoporum Ecclesiae
Catholicae (Regensburg, 1873); Wetzer und Welte, Kirchenlexikon,
vol. iii. (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1884), 462-473; Regeslum Clementis
Papae V. ex Vaticanis archetypis cura et studio monachorum ord. Ben.
(Rome, 1885-1892), 9 vols. and appendix; J. Gmelin, Schuld oder
Unschuld des Templerordens (Stuttgart, 1893) ; Gachon, Pieces relatifs
au debat du pape Clement V avec I'emptreur Henri VII (Montpellier,
1 894) ; Lacoste, Nouvelles Etudes sur Clement V( 1 896) ; Herzog-Hauck,
Realencyklopadie, vol. iv. (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1898), 144 f.; J. Loserth,
Geschichte des spdteren Mittelalters (Munich, 1903) ; and A. Eitel, Der
Kirchenstaat unter Klemens V. (Berlin, 1907). (W. W. R.*)

CLEMENT VI. (Pierre Roger), pope from the 7th of May 1342
to the 6th of December 1352, was born at Maumont in Limousin
in 1291, the son of the wealthy lord of Rosieres, entered the
Benedictine order as a boy, studied at Paris, and became suc-
cessively prior of St Baudil, abbot of F6camp, bishop of Arras,
chancellor of France, archbishop of Sens and archbishop of
Rouen. He was made cardinal-priest of Sti Nereo ed Achilleo
and administrator of the bishopric of Avignon by Benedict XII.
in 1338, and four years later succeeded him as pope. He con-
tinued to reside at Avignon despite the arguments of envoys
and the verses of Petrarch, but threw a sop to the Romans by
reducing the Jubilee term from one hundred years to fifty. He
appointed Cola di Rienzo to a civil position at Rome, and,
although at first approving the establishment of the tribunate,
he later sent a legate who excommunicated Rienzo and, with
the help of the aristocratic faction, drove him from the city
(December 1347). Clement continued the struggle of his pre-
decessors with the emperor Louis the Bavarian, excommunicating
him after protracted negotiations on the i3th of April 1346,
and directing the election of Charles of Moravia, who received
general recognition after the death of Louis in October 1347,
and put an end to the schism which had long divided Germany.
Clement proclaimed a crusade in 1343, but nothing was accom-
plished beyond a naval attack on Smyrna (2Qth of October 1344).
He also carried on fruitless negotiations for church unity with
the Armenians and with the Greek emperor, John Cantacuzenus.
He tried to end the Hundred Years' War between England and
France, but secured only a temporary truce. He excommuni-
cated Casimir of Poland for marital infidelity and forced him to
do penance. He successfully resisted encroachments on ecclesi-
astical jurisdiction by the kings of England, Castile and Aragon.
He made Prague an archbishopric hi 1344, and three years later
founded the university there. During the disastrous plague of
1347-1348 Clement did all he could to alleviate the distress,
and condemned the Flagellants and Jew-baiters. He tried
Queen Joanna of Naples for the murder of her husband and
acquitted her. He secured full ownership of the county of
Avignon through purchase from Queen Joanna (gth of June 1348)
and renunciation of feudal claims by Charles IV. of France, and
considerably enlarged the papal palace in that city. To supply
money for his many undertakings Clement revived the practice
of selling reservations and expectancies, which had been abolished
by his predecessor. Oppressive taxation and unblushing
nepotism were Clement's great faults. On the other hand, he
was famed for his engaging manners, eloquence and theological
learning. He died on the 6th of December 1352, and was buried
in the Benedictine abbey at Auvergne, but his tomb was destroyed
by Calvinists in 1562. His successor was Innocent VI.

The chief sources for the life of Clement VI. are in Baluzius, Vitae
Pap. Avenion., vol. i. (Paris, 1693); E. Werunsky, Excerpta ex
registris dementis VI. et Innocentii VI. (Innsbruck, 1885); and
F. Cerasoli, Clemente VI. e Giovanni I. di NapoliDocumenti
inedite dell' Archivio Vaticano (1896, &c.).

See L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. i., trans, by F. I. Antrobus
(London, 1899); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. vi.
trans, by MrsG. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902) ; J. B. Christophe,

CLEMENT (POPES)

485

Histoire de la papauti pendant le XIV' silcle, vol. ii. (Paris, 1853) : a lso
article by L. Kiipper in the Kirchenlexikon (2nd ed.). (C. H. HA.)

CLEMENT VII. (Robert of Geneva), (d. 1394), antipope, brother
of Peter, count of Genevois, was connected by blood or marriage
with most of the sovereigns of Europe. After occupying the
episcopal sees of Th6rouanne and Cambrai, he attained to the
cardinalate at an early age. In 1377, as legate of Pope Gregory
XI. in the Romagna, he directed, or rather assisted in, the
savage suppression of the revolt of the inhabitants of Cesena
against the papal authority. In the following year he took part
in the election of Pope Urban VI. at Rome, and was perhaps
the first to express doubts as to the validity of that tumultuous
election. After withdrawing to Fondi to reconsider the election,
the cardinals finally resolved to regard Urban as an intruder
and the Holy See as still vacant, and an almost unanimous vote
was given in favour of Robert of Geneva (aoth of September
1378), who took the name of Clement VII. Thus originated the
Great Schism of the West.

To his high connexions and his adroitness, as well as to the
gross mistakes of his rival, Clement owed the immediate support
of Queen Joanna of Naples and of several of the Italian barons;
and the king of France, Charles V., who seems to have been
sounded beforehand on the choice of the Roman pontiff, soon
became his warmest protector. Clement eventually succeeded
in winning to his cause Scotland, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, a
great part of the Latin East, and Flanders. He had adherents,
besides, scattered through Germany, while Portugal on two
occasions acknowledged him, but afterwards forsook him.
From Avignon, however, where he had immediately fixed his
residence, his eyes were always turned towards Italy, his purpose
being to wrest Rome from his rival. To attain this end he
lavished his gold or rather the gold provided by the clergy in
his obedience without stint, and conceived a succession of the
most adventurous projects, of which one at least was to leave a
lasting mark on history.

By the bait of a kingdom to be carved expressly out of the
States of the Church and to be called the kingdom of Adria,
coupled with the expectation of succeeding to Queen Joanna,
Clement incited Louis, duke of Anjou, the eldest of the brothers
of Charles V., to take arms in his favour. These tempting offers
gave rise to a series of expeditions into Italy carried out almost
exclusively at Clement's expense, in the first of which Louis
lost his life. These enterprises on several occasions planted
Angevin domination in the south of the Italian peninsula, and
their most decisive result was the assuring of Provence to the
dukes of Anjou and afterwards to the kings of France. After
the death of Louis, Clement hoped to find. equally brave and
interested champions in Louis' son and namesake; in Louis of
Orleans, the brother of Charles VI.; in Charles VI. himself;
and in John III., count of Armagnac. The prospect of his
briliant progress to Rome was ever before his eyes; and in his
thoughts force of arms, of French arms, was to be the instrument
of his glorious triumph over his competitor.

There came a time, however, when Clement and more particu-
larly his following had to acknowledge the vanity of these
illusive dreams; and before his death, which took place on the
i6th of September 1394, he realized the impossibility of over-
coming by brute force an opposition which was founded on the
convictions of the greater part of Catholic Europe, and discerned
among his adherents the germs of disaffection. By his vast
expenditure, ascribable not only to his wars in Italy, his incessant
embassies, and the necessity of defending himself in the Comtat
Venaissin against the incursions of the adventurous Raymond
of Turenne, but also to his luxurious tastes and princely habits,
as well as by his persistent refusal to refer the question of the
schism to a council, he incurred genera 1 reproach. Unity was
the crying need; and men began to fasten upon him the responsi-
bility of the hateful schism, not on the score of insincerity
which would have been very unjust, but by reason of his
obstinate persistence in the course he had chosen.

See N. Valois, La France et le grand schisme d'occident (Paris,
1896). (N. V.)

CLEMENT VII. (Giulio de' Medici), pope from 1523 to 1334,
was the son of Giuliano de' Medici, assassinated in the conspiracy
of the Pazzi at Florence, and of a certain Fioretta, daughter of
Antonia. Being left an orphan he was taken into his own house
by Lorenzo the Magnificent and educated with his sons. In 1494
Giulio went with them into exile; but, on Giovanni's restora-
tion to power, returned to Florence, of which he was made
archbishop by his cousin Pope Leo X., a special dispensation
being granted on account of his illegitimate birth, followed by
a formal declaration of the fact that his parents had been secretly
married and that he was therefore legitimate. On the 23rd of
September 1513 the pope conferred on him the title of cardinal
and made him legate at Bologna. During the reign of the
pleasure-loving Leo, Cardinal Giulio had practically the whole
papal government in his hands and displayed all the qualities
of a good administrator; and when, on the death of Adrian VI.
whose election he had done most to secure he was chosen
pope (Nov. 18, 1523), his accession was hailed as the dawn of a
happier era. It soon became clear, however, that the qualities
which had made Clement an excellent second in command were
not equal to the exigencies of supreme power at a time of peculiar
peril and difficulty.

Though free from the grosser vices of his predecessors, a
man of taste, and economical without being avaricious, Clement
VII. was essentially a man of narrow outlook and interests.
He failed to understand the great spiritual movement which
was convulsing the Church; and instead of bending his mind
to the problem of the Reformation, he from the first subordinated
the cause of Catholicism and of the world to his' interests as an
Italian prince and a Medici. Even in these purely secular affairs,
moreover, his timidity and indecision prevented him from
pursuing a consistent policy; and his ill fortune, or his lack of
judgment, placed him, as long as he had the power of choice,
ever on the losing side.

Clement's accession at once brought about a political change
in favour of France; yet he was unable to take a strong line,
and wavered between the emperor and Francis I., concluding
a treaty of alliance with the French king, and then, when the
crushing defeat of Pavia had shown him his mistake, making
his peace with Charles (April I, 1525), only to break it again
by countenancing Girolamo Morone's League of Freedom, of
which the aim was to assert the independence of Italy from
foreign powers. On the betrayal of this conspiracy Clement
made a fresh submission to the emperor, only to follow this, a
year later, by the Holy League of Cognac with Francis I. (May
22, 1526). Then followed the imperial invasion of Italy and
Bourbon's sack of Rome (May 1527) which ended the Augustan
age of the papal city in a horror of fire and blood. The pope
himself was besieged in the castle of St Angelo, compelled on the
6th of June to ransom himself with a payment of 400,000 scudi,
and kept in confinement until, on the 26th of November, he
accepted the emperor's terms, which besides money payments
included the promise to convene a general council to deal with
Lutheranism. On the 6th of December Clement escaped, before
the day fixed for his liberation, to Orvieto, and at once set to
work to establish peace. After the signature of the treaty of
Cambrai on the 3rd of August 1529 Charles met Clement at
Bologna and received from him the imperial crown and the iron
crown of Lombardy. The pope was now restored to the greater
part of his temporal power; but for some years it was exercised
in subservience to the emperor. During this period Clement was
mainly occupied in urging Charles to arrest the progress of the
Reformation in Germany and in efforts to elude the emperor's
demand for a general council, which Clement feared lest the
question of the mode of his election and his legitimacy should
be raised. It was due to his dependence on Charles V., rather
than to any conscientious scruples, that Clement evaded Henry
VIII.'s demand for the nullification of his marriage with Catherine
of Aragon, and so brought about the breach between England
and Rome. Some time before his death, however, the dynastic
interests of his family led him once more to a rapprochement
with France. On the gth of June 1531 an agreement was

CLEMENT (POPES)

signed for the marriage of Henry of Orleans with Catherine
de' Medici; but it was not till October 1533 that Clement met
Francis at Marseilles, the wedding being celebrated on the 27th.
Before, however, the new political alliance, thus cemented, could
take effect, Clement died, on the 25th of September 1534.

See E. Casanova, Lettere di Carlo V. a Clemente VII. (Florence,
1893); Hugo Lammer, Monumenta Vaticana, &c. (Freiburg, 1861);
P. Balan, Monumenta saeculi XVI. hist, illustr. (Innsbruck, 1885);
ib. Man. Reform. Luther (Regensburg, 1884); Stefan Ehses, Rom.
Dokum. z. Gesch. der Ehescheidung Heinrichs VIII. (Paderborn,
1893); Calendar of State Papers (London, 1869, &c.); J. J. I. von
DSllinger, Beitrdge zur polittschen, kirchlichen und Kulturgeschichte
(3 vols., yienna, 1882); F. Guicciardini, Istoria d' Italia; L. von
Ranke, Die romischen Pdpste in den letzten vier Jahrhunderten,
and Deutsche Gesch. im Zeitalter der Reformation ; W. Hellwig, Die
politischen Bezlehungen Clement's VII. zu Karl V., 1526 (Leipzig,
1889); H. Baurr.garten, Gesch. Karls V. (Stuttgart, 1888); F.
Gregorovius, Geschtchte der Stadt Rom, vol. viii. p. 414 (and ed.,
1874) ; P. Balan, Clemente VII. e I' Italia de' suoi tempi (Milan, 1887) ;
E. Armstrong, Charles the Fifth (2 vols., London, 1902); M.
Creighton, Hist, of the Papacy during the Period of the Reformation
(London, 1882); and H. M. Vaughan, The Medici Popes (1008).
Further references will be found in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie,
*. Clemens VII. Ses also Cambridge Modern History, vol. ii. chap. i.
and bibliography. (W. A. P.)

CLEMENT VIII. (Aegidius Muftoz), antipope from 1425 to the
26th of July 1429, was a canon at Barcelona until elected at
Peniscola by three cardinals whom the stubborn antipope
Benedict XIII. had named on his death-bed. Clement was
immediately recognized by Alphonso V. of Aragon, who was
hostile to Pope Martin V. on account of the latter's opposition to
his claims to the kingdom of Naples, but abdicated as soon as an
agreement was reached between Alphonso and Martin through
the exertions of Cardinal Pierre de Foix, an able diplomat and
relation of the king's. Clement spent his last years as bishop of
Majorca, and died on the 28th of December 1446.

See L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. i. trans, by F. I. Antrobus
(London, 1899) ; M. Creighton, History of the Papacy, vol. ii. (London,
1899) ; and consult bibliography on MARTIN V. (C. H. HA.)

CLEMENT VIII. (Ippolito Aldobrandini), pope from 1592 to
1605, was born at Fano, in 1535. He became a jurist and filled
several important offices. In 1585 he was made a cardinal, and
subsequently discharged a delicate mission to Poland with skill.
His moderation and experience commended him to his fellow
cardinals, and on the 3oth of January 1 592 he was elected pope, to
succeed Innocent IX. While not hostile to Philip II., Clement
desired to emancipate the papacy from undue Spanish influence,
and to that end cultivated closer relations with France. In 1595
he granted absolution to Henry IV., and so removed the last
objection to the acknowledgment of his legitimacy. The peace of
Vervins (1598), which marked the end of Philip's opposition to
Henry, was mainly the work of the pope. Clement also enter-
tained hopes of recovering England. He corresponded with
James I. and with his queen, Anne of Denmark, a convert to
Catholicism. But James was only half in earnest, and, besides,
dared not risk a breach with his subjects. Upon the failure of
the line of Este, Clement claimed the reversion of Ferrara and
reincorporated it into the States of the Church (1598). He
remonstrated against the exclusion of the Jesuits from France,
and obtained their readmission. But in their doctrinal contro-
versy with the Dominicans (see MOLINA, Luis) he refrained from
a decision, being unwilling to offend either party. Under Clement
the publication of the revised edition of the Vulgate, begun by
Sixtus V., was finished; the Breviary, Missal and Pontifical
received certain corrections; the Index was expanded; the
Vatican library enlarged; and the Collegium Clementinum
founded. Clement was an unblushing nepotist; three of his
nephews he made cardinals, and to one of them gradually
surrendered the control of affairs. But on the other hand among
those whom he promoted to the cardinalate were such men
as Baronius, Bellarmine and Toledo. During this pontificate
occurred the burning of Giordano Bruno for heresy; and the
tragedy of the Cenci (see the respective articles). Clement died
on the sth of March 1605, and was succeeded by Leo XI.

See the contemporary life by Ciaconius, Vitae et res gestae sum-
morum Pontiff. Rom. (Rome, 1601-1602); Francolini, Ippolito

Aldobrandini, che fu Clemente VIII. (Perugia, 1867); Ranke's,
excellent sketch, Popes (Eng. trans. Austin), ii. 234 seq. ; v. Reumont,
Gesch. der Stadt Rom, lii. 2, 599 seq.; Brosch, Gesch. des Kirchen-
staates (1880), i. 301 seq. (T. F. C.)

CLEMENT IX. (Giulio Rospigliosi) was bom in 1600, became
successively auditor of the Rota, archbishop of Tarsus in partibus,
and cardinal, and was elected pope on the 2oth of June 1667.
He effected a temporary adjustment of the Jansenist contro-
versy; was instrumental in concluding the peace of Aix-la-
Chapelle (1668); healed a long-standing breach between the
Holy See and Portugal; aided Venice against the Turks, and
laboured unceasingly for the relief of Crete, the fall of which
hastened his death on the 9th of October 1669.

See Oldoin, continuator of Ciaconius, Vitae et res gestae sum-
morum Pontiff. Rom.; Palazzi, Gesta Pontiff. Rom. (Venice, 1687-
1688), iv. 621 seq. (both contemporary); Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans.
Austin), iii. 59 seq.; and v. Reumont, Gesch. der Stadt Rom, iii. 2,
634 seq. (T. F. C.)

CLEMENT X. (Emilio Altieri) was born in Rome, on the i3th of
July 1590. Before becoming pope, on the 2gth of April 1670 he
had been auditor in Poland, governor of Ancona, and nuncio in
Naples. His advanced age induced him to resign the control of
affairs to his adopted nephew, Cardinal Paluzzi, who embroiled
the papacy in disputes with the resident ambassadors, and
incurred the enmity of Louis XIV., thus provoking the long
controversy over the regalia (see INNOCENT XI.). Clement died
on the 22nd of July 1676.

See Guarnacci, Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom. (Rome, 1751),
(contin. of Ciaconius), i. i seq. ; Palazzi, Gesta Pontiff. Rom. (Venice,
1687-1688), iv. 655 seq.; and Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans. Austin),
iii. 172 seq. (T. F. C.)

CLEMENT XI. (Giovanni Francesco Albani), pope from 1700 to
1721, was born in Urbino, on the 22nd of July 1649, received
an extraordinary education in letters, theology and law, filled
various important offices in the Curia, and finally, on the 23rd of
November 1700, succeeded Innocent XII. as pope. His private
life and his administration were blameless, but it was his mis-
fortune to reign in troublous times. In the war of the Spanish
Succession he would willingly have remained neutral, but found
himself between two fires, forced first to recognize Philip V., then
driven by the emperor to recognize the Archduke Charles. In
the peace of Utrecht he was ignored; Sardinia and Sicily, Parma
and Piacenza, were disposed of without regard to papal claims.
When he quarrelled with the duke of Savoy, and revoked his
investiture rights in Sicily (1715), his interdict was treated with
contempt. The prestige of the papacy had hardly been lower
within two centuries. About 1702 the Jansenist controversy
broke out afresh. Clement reaffirmed the infallibility of the pope,
in matters of fact (1705), and, in 1713, issued the bull Unigenitus,
condemning 101 Jansenistic propositions extracted from the
Moral Reflections of Pasquier Quesnel. The rejection of this bull
by certain bishops led to a new party division and a further
prolonging of the controversy (see JANSENISM and QUESNEL,
PASQUIER). Clement also forbade the practice of the Jesuit
missionaries in China of " accommodating " their teachings to
pagan notions or customs, in order to win converts. Clement was
a polished writer, and a generous patron of art and letters. He
died on the igth of March 1721.

For contemporary lives see Elci, The Present State of the Court oj
Rome, trans, from the Ital. (London, 1706); Polidoro, De Vita et
Reb. Gesl. Clem. XI. (Urbino, 1727); Reboulet, Hist, de Clem. XI.
Pape (Avignon, 1752) ; Guarnacci, Vitae et res gest. Pontiff. Rom.
(Rome, 1751); Sandini, Vitae Pontiff. Rom. (Padua, 1739); Buder,
Leben u. Thaten dementis XI. (Frankfort, 1720-1721). See also
dementis XI. Opera Omnia (Frankfort, 1729); the detailed
" Studii sul pontificate di Clem. XL," by Pometti in the Archivio
della R. Soc. romana di storia patria, vols. 21, 22, 23 (1898-1900),
and the extended bibliography in Hergenrother, Allg. Kirchengesch.
(1880), iii. 506. (T. F. C.)

CLEMENT XII. (Lorenzo Corsini), pope from 1730 to 1740,
succeeded Benedict XIII. on the I2th of July 1730, at the age of
seventy-eight. The rascally Cardinal Coscia, who had deluded
Benedict, was at once brought to justice and forced to disgorge
his dishonest gains. Politically the papacy had sunk to the
level of pitiful helplessness, unable to resist the aggressions of
the Powers, who ignored or coerced it at will. Yet Clement

CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA

487

entertained high hopes for Catholicism; he laboured for a union
with the Greek Church, and was ready to facilitate the return of
the Protestants of Saxony. He deserves well of posterity for his
services to learning and art; the restoration of the Arch of
Constantine; the enrichment of the Capitoline museum with
antique marbles and inscriptions, and of the Vatican library with
oriental manuscripts (see ASSEMANI) ; and the embellishment of
the city with many buildings. He died on the 6th of February
1740, and was succeeded by Benedict XIV.

See Guarnacci, Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom. (Rome, 1751);
Sandini, Vitae Pontiff. Rom. (Padua, 1739); Fabroni, De Vita
et Reb. Gest. dementis XII. (Rome, 1760); Ranke, Popes (Eng.
trans. Austin), iii. 191 seq.; v. Reumont, Cesch. der Stadt Rom, iii.
2, 653 seq. (T. F. C.)

CLEMENT XIII. (Carlo della Torre Rezzonico), pope from
1758 to 1769, was born in Venice, on the 7th of March 1693,
filled various important posts in the Curia, became cardinal in
1737, bishop of Padua in 1743, and succeeded Benedict XIV.
as pope on the 6th of July 1758. He was a man of upright,
moderate and pacific intentions, but his pontificate of eleven
years was anything but tranquil. The Jesuits had fallen upon
evil days; in 1758 Pombal expelled them from Portugal; his
example was followed by the Bourbon countries France, Spain,
the Two Sicilies and Parma (1764-1768). The order turned
to the pope as its natural protector; but his protests (cf. the
bull Apostolicum pascendi munus, 7th of January 1765) were
unheeded (see JESUITS). A clash with Parma occurred to aggra-
vate his troubles. The Bourbon kings espoused their relative's
quarrel, seized Avignon, Benevento and Ponte Corvo, and
united in a peremptory demand for the suppression of the
Jesuits (January 1769). Driven to extremities, Clement con-
sented to call a Consistory to consider the step, but on the very
eve of the day set for its meeting he died (2nd of February 1769),
not without suspicion of poison, of which, however, there appears
to be no conclusive evidence.

A contemporary account of Clement was written by Augustin de
Andres y Sobinas, . . . el nacimiento, estudios y empleos de . . . Clem.
XIII. (Madrid, 1759). Ravignan's Clement XIII. e Clement XIV.
(Paris, 1854) is partisan but free from rancour; and appends many
interesting documents. See also the bibliographical note under
Clement XIV. infra.; and the extended bibliography in Hergen-
rother, AUg. Kirchengesch. (1880), iii. 509. (T. F. C.)

CLEMENT XIV. (Lorenzo Ganganelli), pope from 1769 to 1774,
son of a physician of St Arcangelo, near Rimini, was born on
the 3ist of October 1705, entered the Franciscan order at the
age of seventeen, and became a teacher of theology and philo-
sophy. As regent of the college of S. Bonaventura, Rome, he
came under the notice of Benedict XIV., who conceived a
high opinion of his talents and made him consulter of the Inquisi-
tion. Upon the recommendation of Ricci, general of the Jesuits,
Clement XIII. made him a cardinal; but, owing to his dis-
approval of the pope's policy, he found himself out of favour
and without influence. The conclave following the death of
Clement XIII. was the most momentous of at least two centuries.
The fate of the Jesuits hung in the balance; and the Bourbon
princes were determined to have a pope subservient to their
hostile designs. The struggle was prolonged three months.
At length, on the I9th of May 1769, Ganganelli was chosen, not
as a declared enemy of the Jesuits, but as being least objection-
able to each of the contending factions. The charge of simony
was inspired by Jesuit hatred; there is absolutely no evidence
that Ganganelli pledged himself to suppress the order.

The outlook for the papacy was dark; Portugal was talking
of a patriarchate; France held Avignon; Naples held Ponte
Corvo and Benevento; Spain was ill-affected; Parma, defiant;
Venice, aggressive; Poland meditating a restriction of the
rights of the nuncio. Clement realized the imperative necessity
of conciliating the powers. He suspended the public reading
of the bull In Coena Domini, so obnoxious to civil authority;
resumed relations with Portugal; revoked the monitorium of
his predecessor against Parma. But the powers were bent upon
the destruction of the Jesuits, and they had the pope at their
mercy. Clement looked abroad for help, but found none. Even
Maria Theresa, his last hope, suppressed the order in Austria.

Temporizing and partial concessions were of no avail. At last,
convinced that the peace of the Church demanded the sacrifice,
Clement signed the brief Dominus ac Redemptor, dissolving the
order, on the zist of July 1773. The powers at once gave
substantial proof of their satisfaction; Benevento, Ponte Corvo,
Avignon and the Venaissin were restored to the Holy See.
But it would be unfair to accept this as evidence of a bargain.
Clement had formerly indignantly rejected the suggestion of
such an exchange of favours.

There is no question of the legality of the pope's act; whether
he was morally culpable, however, continues to be a matter of
bitter controversy. On the one hand, the suppression is de-
nounced as a base surrender to the forces of tyranny and irreligion,
an act of treason to conscience, which reaped its just punishment
of remorse; on the other hand, it is as ardently maintained
that Clement acted in full accord with his conscience, and that
the order merited its fate by its own mischievous activities
which made it an offence to religion and authority alike. But
whatever the guilt or innocence of the Jesuits, and whether their
suppression were ill-advised or not, there appears to be no
ground for impeaching the motives of Clement, or of doubting
that he had the approval of his conscience. The stories of his
having swooned after signing the brief, and of having lost hope
and even reason, are too absurd to be entertained. The decline
in health, which set in shortly after the suppression, and his
death (on the 22nd of September 1774) proceeded from wholly
natural causes. The testimony of his physician and of his
confessor ought to be sufficient to discredit the oft-repeated
story of slow poisoning (see Duhr, Jesuilen Pabeln, 4th ed.,
1904, pp. 69 seq.).

The suppression of the Jesuits bulks so large in the pontificate
of Clement that he has scarcely been given due credit for his
praiseworthy attempt to reduce the burdens of taxation and to
reform the financial administration, nor for his liberal encourage-
ment of art and learning, of which the museum Pio-Clementino
is a lasting monument.

No pope has been the subject of more diverse judgments than
Clement XIV. Zealous defenders credit him with all virtues,
and bless him as the instrument divinely ordained to restore the
peace of tBe Church; virulent detractors charge him with in-
gratitude, cowardice and double-dealing. The truth is at neither
extreme. Clement's was a deeply religious and poetical nature,
animated by a lofty and refined spirit. Gentleness, equanimity
and benevolence were native to him. He cherished high purposes
and obeyed a lively conscience. But he instinctively shrank
from conflict; he lacked the resoluteness and the sterner sort
of courage that grapples with a crisis.

Caraccioli's Vie de Clement XIV (Paris, 1775) (freq. translated),
is incomplete, uncritical and too laudatory. The middle of the
I9th century saw quite a spirited controversy over Clement XIV.;
St Priest, in his Hist, de la chute des Jesuites (Paris, 1846), represented
Clement as lamentably, almost culpably, weak; Cretineau- Joly,
in his Hist. . . . de la Camp, de Jesus (Paris, 1844-1845, and his
Clement XIV et les Jesuites (Paris, 1847), was outspoken and bitter
in his condemnation; this provoked Theiner's Gesch. des Pontificals
Clemens' XIV. (Leipzig and Paris, 1852), a vigorous defence based
upon original documents to which, as custodian of the Vatican
archives, the author had freest access; Cretineau- Joly replied with
Le Pape Clement XIV; Lettres au P. Theiner (Pans, 1852). Ravi-
gnan's Clem. XIII. e Clem. XIV. (Paris, 1854) is a weak, half-
hearted apology for Clement XIV. See also v. Reumont, Ganganelli,
Papst Clemens XIV. (Berlin, 1847); and Reinerding, Clemens XIV.
u. d. Aufhebung der Gesellschaft Jesu (Augsburg, 1854). The letters
of Clement have frequently been printed; the genuineness of
Caraccioli's collection (Paris, 1776; freq. translated) has been
questioned, but most of the letters are now generally accepted
as genuine; see also Clementit XIV. Epp. ac Brevia, ed. Theiner
(Paris, 1852). An extended bibliography is to be found in Hergen-
rother, AUg. Kirchengesch. (1880), iii. 510 seq. (T. F. C.)

CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA (Clemens Alexandrinus) , Greek
Father of the Church. The little we know of him is mainly
derived from his own works. He was probably born about A.D.
150 of heathen parents in Athens. The earliest writer after
himself who gives us any information with regard to him is
Eusebius. The only points on which his works now extant
inform us are his date and his instructors. In the Stromateis,

488

CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA

while attempting to show that the Jewish Scriptures were older
than any writings of the Greeks, he invariably brings down his
dates to the death of Commodus, a circumstance which at once
suggests that he wrote in the reign of the emperor Severus, from
193 to 211 A.D. (see Strom, lib. i. cap. xxi. 140, p. 403, Potter's
edition). The passage in regard to his teachers is corrupt, and
the sense is therefore doubtful (Strom, lib. i. cap. i. u, p. 322, P.).
" This treatise," he says, speaking of the Stromateis, " has not
been contrived for mere display, but memoranda are treasured up
in it for my old age to be a remedy for fprgetf ulness, an image, truly,
and an outline of those clear and living discourses, and those men
truly blessed and noteworthy I was privileged to hear. One of these
was in Greece, the Ionian, the other was in Magna Graecia ; the one
of them was from Coele Syria, the other from Egypt ; but there were
others in the East, one of whom belonged to the Assyrians, but
the other was in Palestine, originally a Jew. The last of those
whom I met was first in power. On falling in with him I found
rest, having tracked him while he lay concealed in Egypt. He
was in truth the Sicilian bee, and, plucking the flowers of the
prophetic and apostolic meadow, he produced a wonderfully pure
knowledge in the souls of the listeners."

Some have supposed that in this passage seven teachers are
named, others that there are only five, and various conjectures
have been hazarded as to what persons were meant. The only
one about whom conjecture has any basis for speculating is the
last, for Eusebius states (H.E. v. n) that Clement made mention
of Pantaenus as his teacher in the Hypotyposes. The reference
in this passage is plainly to one whom he might well designate as
his teacher.

To the information which Clement here supplies subsequent
writers add little. By Eusebius and Photius he is called Titus
Flavius Clemens, and " the Alexandrian " is added to his name.
Epiphanius tells us that some said Clement was an Alexandrian,
others that he was an Athenian (Haer. xxxii. 6), and a modern
writer imagined that he reconciled this discordance by the
supposition that he was born at Athens, but lived at Alexandria.
We know nothing of his conversion except that he passed from
heathenism to Christianity. This is expressly stated by Eusebius
(Praep. Evangel, lib. ii. cap. 2), though it is likely that Eusebius
had no other authority than the works of Clement. These works,
however, warrant the inference. They show a singularly minute
acquaintance with the ceremonies of pagan religion, and there
are indications that Clement himself had been initiated in some
of the mysteries (Protrept. cap. ii. sec. 14, p. 13, P.). There is
no means of determining the date of his conversion. He attained
the position of presbyter in the church of Alexandria (Eus.
H.E. vi. n, and Jerome, De Vir. III. 38), and became perhaps
the assistant, and certainly the successor of Pantaenus in the
catechetical school of that place. Among his pupils were Origen
(Eus. H.E. vi. 7) and Alexander, bishop of Jerusalem (Eus. H.E.
vi. 14.). How long he continued in Alexandria, and when and
where he died, are all matters of pure conjecture. The only
further notice of Clement that we have in history is in a letter
written in 211 by Alexander, bishop of Jerusalem, to the
Antiqchians, and preserved by Eusebius (H.E. vi. ii). The
words are as follows: "This letter I sent through Clement
the blessed presbyter, a man virtuous and tried, whom ye know
and will come to know completely, who being here by the
providence and guidance of the Ruler of all strengthened and
increased the church of the Lord." A statement of Eusebius in
regard to the persecution of Severus in 202 (H.E. vi. 3) would
render it likely that Clement left Alexandria on that occasion.
It is conjectured that he went to his old pupil Alexander, who was
at that time bishop of Flaviada in Cappadocia, and that when his
pupil was raised to the see of Jerusalem Clement followed him
there. The letter implies that he was known to the Antiochians,
and that it was likely he would be still better known. Some
have conjectured that he returned to Alexandria, but there is not
the shadow of evidence for such conjecture. Alexander, writing
to Origen (c. 216), mentions Clement as dead (Eus. H.E. vi. 14, 9).

Eusebius and Jerome give us lists of the works which Clement
left behind him. Photius has also described some of them. They
are as follows: (i) Tlp&s "EXXj;i>aj XA-yos 6 5rporpeirruc6j, A Hortatory
Address to the Greeks. (2) '0 UatSayaybs, The Tutor, in three books.
(3) Srpwjjams, or Patch-work, in eight books. ' (4) Tts &

irXo6<rioi; Who is the Rich Man that is Saved ? (5) Eight books of

, Adumbrations or Outlines. (6) On the Passover. (7) Dis-
courses on Pasting. (8) On Slander. (9) Exhortation to Patience, or
to the Newly Baptized. (10) The Kcu-uu/ iucXiiatcurrticfe, the Rule oj
the Church, or to those who Judaize, a work dedicated to Alexander,
bishop of Jerusalem.

Of these, the first four have come down to us complete, or nearly
complete. _ The first three form together a progressive introduction
to Christianity corresponding to the stages through which the
tiiiaTip passed at Eleusis purification, initiation, revelation. The
Hortatory Address to the Greeks is an appeal to them to give up the
worship of their gods, and to devote themselves to the worship of the
one living and true God. Clement exhibits the absurdity and immor-
ality of the stories told with regard to the pagan deities, the cruelties
perpetrated in their worship, and the utter uselessness of bowing
down before images made by hands. He at the same time shows
the Greeks that their own greatest philosophers and poets recognized
the unity of the divine Being, and had caught glimpses of the true
nature of God, but that fuller light had been thrown on this subject
by the Hebrew prophets. He replies to the objection that it was
not right to abandon the customs of their forefathers, and points
them to Christ as their only safe guide to God.

The Paedagogue is divided into three books. In the first Clement
discusses the necessity for and the true nature of the Paedagogus,
and shows how Christ as the Logos acted as Paedagogus, and still
acts. In the second and third books Clement enters into particulars,
and explains how the Christian following the Logos or Reason ought
to behave in the various circumstances of life in eating, drinking,
furnishing a house, in dress, in the relations of social life, in the care
of the body, and similar concerns, and concludes with a general
description of the life of a Christian. Appended to the Paedagogue
are two hymns, which are, in all probability, the production of
Clement, though s_ome have conjectured that they were portions
of the church service of that time. arpu/iorIj were bags in which
bedclothes (o-Tpi/iara) were kept. The phrase was used as a book-
title by Origen and others, and is equivalent to our " miscellanies."
It is difficult to give a brief account of the varied contents of the
book. Sometimes Clement discusses chronology, sometimes philo-
sophy, sometimes poetry, entering into the most minute critical
and chronological details; but one object runs through all, and
this is to show what the true Christian Gnostic is, and what is his
relation to philosophy. The work was in eight books. The first
seven are complete. The eighth now extant is really an incomplete
treatise on logic. Some critics have rejected this book as spurious,
since its matter is so different from that of the rest. Others, however,
have held to its genuineness, because in a Patch-work or Book of
Miscellanies the difference of subject is no sound objection, and
because Photius seems to have regarded our present eighth book as
genuine (Phot. cod. iii. p. 8gb, Bekker).

The treatise Who is the Rich Man that is Saved ? is an admirable
exposition of the narrative contained in St Mark's Gospel x. 17-31.
Here Clement argues that wealth, if rightly used, is not unchristian.

The Hypotyposes 1 in eight books, have not come down to us.
Cassipdorus translated them into Latin, freely altering to suit his
own ideas of orthodoxy. Both Eusebius and Photius describe the
work. It was a short commentary on all the books of Scripture,
including some of the apocryphal works, such as the Epistle of
Barnabas and the Revelation of Peter. Photius speaks in strong
language of the impiety of some opinions in the book (Bibl. cod. 109,
p. 89 a Bekker), but his statements are such as to prove conclusively
that he must have had a corrupt copy, or read very carelessly, or
grossly misunderstood Clement. Notes in Latin on the first epistle
of Peter, the epistle of Jude, and the first two of John have come
down to us; but whether they are the translation of Cassiodorus,
or indeed a translation of Clement's work at all, is a matter of
dispute.

The treatise on the Passover was occasioned by a work of Melito
on the same subject. Two fragments of this treatise were given by
Petavius, and are contained in the modern editions.

We know nothing of the work called The Ecclesiastical Canon
from any external testimony. Clement himself often mentions the
KicXi7<ra<micds KO.V&V, and defines it as the agreement and harmony
of the law and the prophets with the covenant delivered at the
appearance of Christ (Strom, vi. cap. xv. 125, p. 803, P.). No doubt
this was the subject of the treatise. Jerome and Photius call the
work Ecclesiastical Canons, but this seems to be a mistake.

Of the other treatises mentioned by Eusebius and Jerome nothing
is known. A fragment of Clement, quoted by Antonius Melissa, is
most probably taken from the treatise on slander.

Besides the treatises mentioned by Eusebius, fragments of treatises
on Providence and the Soul have been preserved. Mention is also
made of a work by Clement on the Prophet Amos, and another on
Definitions.

In addition to these Clement often speaks of his intention to
write on certain subjects, but it may well be doubted whether in
most cases, if not all, he intended to devote separate treatises to

1 Zahn thinks we have part of them in the Adumbrationes Clem.
Alex, in epistolas canonicas (Codex Lindum, 96, sec. ix.). They were
perhaps intended as a completion of the preceding course.

CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA

489

them. Some have found an allusion to the treatise on the Soul
already mentioned. The other subjects are Marriage (yaiuicfa \6yos),
Continence, the Duties of Bishops. Presbyters, Deacons and Widows,
Prophecy, the Soul, the Transmigration of the Soul and the Devil,
Angels, the Origin of the World, First Principles and the Divinity of
the Logos, Allegorical Interpretations of Statements made with
regard to God's anger and similar affections, the Unity of the Church,
and the Resurrection.

Two works are -incorporated in the editions of Clement which
are not mentioned by himself or any ancient writer. They are
'En T>V QtoSdrov Kal TTJS dparoXtinj: KttXou/itnjs <5i<5a<7xaXias KCLTO. roiis
OiiaXtmtmv xp6ous ixiTo/iai, and 'Ex rdv iepo<t>riTutuv ixXoyal. The
first, if it is the work of Clement, must be a book merely of
excerpts, for it contains many opinions which Clement opposed.
Mention is made of Pantaenus in the second, and some have thought
it more worthy of him than the first. Others have regarded it as
a work similar to the first, and derived from Theodorus.

Clement occupies a profoundly interesting position in the
history of Christianity. He is the first to bring all the culture
of the Greeks and all the speculations of the Christian heretics
to bear on the exposition of Christian truth. He does not attain
to a systematic exhibition of Christian doctrine, but he paves the
way for it, and lays the first stones of the foundation. In some
respects Justin anticipated him. He also was well acquainted
with Greek philosophy, and took a genial view of it; but he was
not nearly so widely read as Clement. The list of Greek authors
whom Clement has quoted occupies upwards of fourteen of the
quarto pages in Fabricius's Bibliotheca Graeca. He is at home
alike in the epic and the lyric, the tragic and the comic poets, and
his knowledge of the prose writers is very extensive. Some,
however, of the classic poets he appears to have known only
from anthologies; hence he was misled into quoting as from
Euripides and others verses which were written by Jewish
forgers. He made a special study of the philosophers. Equally
minute is his knowledge of the systems of the Christian heretics.
And in all cases it is plain that he not merely read but thought
deeply on the questions which the civilization of the Greeks and
the various writings of poets, philosophers and heretics raised.
But it was in the Scriptures that he found his greatest delight.
He believed them to contain the revelation of God's wisdom to
men. He quotes all the books of the Old Testament except
Ruth and the Song of Solomon, and amongst the sacred writings
of the Old Testament he evidently included the book of Tobit,
the Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclesiasticus. He is equally full
in his quotations from the New Testament, for he quotes from all
the books except the epistle to Philemon, the second epistle
of St Peter, and the epistle of St James, and he quotes from
The Shepherd of Hermas, and the epistles of Clemens Romanus
and of Barnabas, as inspired. He appeals also to many of the
lost gospels, such as those of the Hebrews, of the Egyptians and
of Matthias.

Notwithstanding this adequate knowledge of Scripture, the
modern theologian is disappointed to find very little of what he
deems characteristically Christian. In fact Clement regarded
Christianity as a philosophy. The ancient philosophers sought
through their philosophy to attain to a nobler and holier life,
and this also was the aim of Christianity. The difference between
the two, in Clement's judgment, was that the Greek philosophers
had only glimpses of the truth, that they attained only to
fragments of the truth, while Christianity revealed in Christ
the absolute and perfect truth. All the stages of the world's
history were therefore preparations leading up to this full
revelation, and God's care was not confined to the Hebrews
alone. The worship of the heavenly bodies, for instance, was
given to man at an early stage that he might rise from a con-
templation of these sublime objects to the worship of the Creator.
Greek philosophy in particular was the preparation of the Greeks
for Christ. It was the schoolmaster or paedagogue to lead them
to Christ. Plato was Moses atticizing. Clement varies in his
statement how Plato got his wisdom or his fragments of the
Reason. Sometimes he thinks that they came direct from God,
like all good things, but he is also fond of maintaining that many
of Plato's best thoughts were borrowed from the Hebrew
prophets; and he makes the same statement in regard to the
wisdom of the other philosophers. But however this may be,

Christ was the end to which all that was true in philosophies
pointed. Christ himself was the Logos, the Reason. God the
Father was ineffable. The Son alone can manifest Him fully.
He is the Reason that prevades the universe, that brings out all
goodness, that guides all good men. It was through possessing
somewhat of this Reason that the philosophers attained to any
truth and goodness; but in Christians he dwells more fully and
guides them through all the perplexities of life. Photius, prob-
ably on a careless reading of Clement, argued that he could not
have believed in a real incarnation. But the words of Clement
are quite precise and their meaning indisputable. The real
difficulty attaches not to the Second Person, but to the First.
The Father in Clement's mind becomes the Absolute of the
philosophers, that is to say, not the Father at all, but the Monad,
a mere point devoid of all attributes. He believed in a personal
Son of God who was the Reason and Wisdom of God; and he
believed that this Son of God really became incarnate though he
speaks of him almost invariably as the Word, and attaches
little value to his human nature. The object of his incarnation
and death was to free man from his sins, to lead him into the path
of wisdom, and thus in the end elevate him to the position of a
god. But man's salvation was to be gradual. It began with
faith, passed from that to love, and ended in full and complete
knowledge. There could be no faith without knowledge. But
the knowledge is imperfect, and the Christian was to do many
things in simple obedience without knowing the reason. But
he has to move upwards continually until he at length does
nothing that is evil, and he knows fully the reason and object
of what he does. He thus becomes the true Gnostic, but he can
become the true Gnostic only by contemplation and by the
practice of what is right. He has to free himself from the power
of passion. He has to give up all thoughts of pleasure. He must
prefer goodness in the midst of torture to evil with unlimited
pleasure. He has to resist the temptations of the body, keeping
it under strict control, and with the eye of the soul undimmed by
corporeal wants and impulses, contemplate God the supreme
good, and live a life according to reason. In other words, he
must strive after likeness to God as he reveals himself in his
Reason or in Christ. Clement thus looks entirely at the en-
lightened moral elevation to which Christianity raises man. He
believed that Christ instructed men before he came into the
world, and he therefore viewed heathenism with kindly eye.
He was also favourable to the pursuit of all kinds of knowledge.
AlTenlightenment tended to lead up to the truths of Christianity,
and hence knowledge of every kind not evil was its handmaid.
Clement had at the same time a strong belief in evolution or
development. The world went through various stages in prepara-
tion for Christianity. The man goes through various stages
before he can reach Christian perfection. And Clement conceived
that this development took place not merely in this life, but in
the future through successive grades. The Jew and the heathen
had the gospel preached to them in the world below by Christ
and his apostles, and Christians will have to pass through pro-
cesses of purification and trial after death before they reach
knowledge and perfect bliss.

The beliefs of Clement have caused considerable difference
of opinion among modern scholars. He sought the truth from
whatever quarter he could get it, believing that all that is good
comes from God, wherever it be found. He belongs therefore
to no school of philosophers. He calls himself an Eclectic.
He was in the main a Neoplatonist, drawing from that school
his doctrines of the Monad and his strong tendency towards
mysticism. For his moral doctrine he borrowed freely from
Stoicism. Aristotelian features may be found but are quite
subordinate. But Clement always regards the articles of the
Christian creed as the axioms of a new philosophy. Daehne
had tried to show that he was Neoplatonic, and Reinkens has
maintained that he was essentially Aristotelian. His mode of
viewing Christianity does not fit into any classification. It
is the result of the period in which he lived, of his wide culture
and the simplicity and noble purity of his character.

It is needless to say that his books well deserve study; but

490

CLEMENT, F. CLEMENTINE LITERATURE

the study is not smoothed by simplicity of style. Clement
professed to despite rhetoric, but was himself a rhetorician, and
his style is turgid, involved and difficult. He is singularly
simple in his character. In discussing marriage he refuses to
use any but the plainest language. A euphemism is with him
a falsehood. But he is temperate in his opinions; and the
practical advices in the second and third books of the Paedagogue
are remarkably sound and moderate. He is not always very
critical, and he is passionately fond of allegorical interpretations,
but these were the faults of his age.

All early writers speak of Clement in the highest terms of
laudation, and he certainly ought to have been a saint in any
Church that reveres saints. But Clement is not a saint in the
Roman Church. He was a saint up till the time of Benedict
XIV., who read Photius on Clement, believed him, and struck
the Alexandrian's name out of the calendar. But many Roman
Catholic writers, though they yield a practical obedience to the
papal decision, have adduced good reason why it should be
reversed (Cognat, p, 451).

EDITIONS. The standard edition of the collected works will be
that of O. Stahlin (first vol. containing Protreplicus and Paedagogus,
Leipzig, 1905). Separate editions of Strom, vii., Hort and Major
(1902); Q.D.S., Barnard in Texts and Studies, v. 2 (1897); W.
Dindorf's edition in 4 vols. (Oxford, 1869) is little more than a
reprint of the text of Bishop Potter, 1715. For the Fragments
see Zahn, Farschungen zur Gesch. des neut. Kanons, part iii., or
Harnack and Preuscnen, Gesch. der altch. Litt., vol. i.

LITERATURE. A copious bibliography will be found in Harnack,
Chronologie, vol. ii., or in Bardenhewer, Gesch. der altk. Lit. Either
of these will supply the names of works upon Clement's biblical text,
his use of Stoic writers, his quotations from heathen writers, and his
relation to heathen philosophy. A valuable book is de Faye, Clem.
d'Alex. (1898). For his theological position see Harnack, Dogmen-
geschichte; Hort, Six Lectures on the Ante-Nicene Fathers; Westcott,
"' Clem, of Alex." in Diet. Christ. Biog.; Bigg, Christian Platonists
of Alex. (1886). A book on Clement's relation to Mysticism is
wanted. (C. Bi. ; J. D.)

CLEMENT, FRANCOIS (1714-1793), French historian, was
born at Beze, near Dijon, and was educated at the Jesuit College
at Dijon. At the age of seventeen he entered the society of the
Benedictines of Saint Maur, and worked with such intense
application that at the age of twenty-five he was obliged to take
a protracted rest. He now resided in Paris, where he wrote the
nth and i2th vols. of the Histoire litteraire de la France, and
edited (with Dom Brial) the iath and I3th vols. of the Recueil
des hisloriens des Gauls et de la France. The king appointed
him on the committee which was engaged in publishing charters,
diplomas and other documents connected with French history (see
Xavier Charmes, Le Comite des travaux historiques et scientifiques,
vol. i., 1886, passim); and the Academy of Inscriptions chose
him as a member (1785). Dom Clement also revised the Art de
verifier les dates, edited in 1750 by Dom Clemencet. Three
volumes with the Indexes appeared from 1783 to 1792. He
was engaged in preparing another volume including the period
before the Christian era, when he died suddenly of apoplexy, at
the age of sixty-nine. The work was afterwards brought down
from 1770 to 1827 by Julien de Courcelles and Fortia d'Urban.

CLEMENT, JACQUES (1567-1589), murderer of the French
king Henry III., was born at Sorbon in the Ardennes, and
became a Dominican friar. Civil war was raging in France,
and Clement became an ardent partisan of the League; his
mind appears to have become unhinged by religious fanaticism,
and he talked of exterminating the heretics, and formed a plan
to kill Henry III. His project was encouraged by some of the
heads of the League; he was assured of temporal rewards if he
succeeded, and of eternal bliss if he failed. Having obtained
letters for the king, he left Paris on the 3ist of July 1589, and
reached St Cloud, the headquarters of Henry, who was besieging
Paris. On the following day he was admitted to the royal
presence, and presenting his letters he told the king that he had
an important and confidential message to deliver. The attend-
ants then withdrew, and while Henry was reading the letters
Clement mortally wounded him with a dagger which had been
concealed beneath his cloak. The assassin was at once killed
by the attendants who rushed in, and Henry died early on the

following day. Clement's body was afterwards quartered and
burned. This deed, however, was viewed with far different
feelings in Paris and by the partisans of the League, the murderer
being regarded as a martyr and extolled by Pope Sixtus V.,
while even his canonization was discussed.

See E. Lavisse, Histoire de France, tome vi. (Paris, 1904).

CLEMENT1, MUZIO (c. 1751-1832), Italian pianist and com-
poser, was born at Rome between 1750 and 1752. His father,
a jeweller, encouraged his son's early musical talent. Buroni
and Cordicelli were his first masters, and at the age of nine
dementi's theoretical and practical studies had advanced to
such a degree that he was able to win the position of organist
at a church. He continued his studies under Santarelli and
Carpani, and at the age of fourteen wrote a mass which was
performed in public. About 1766 Beckford, the author of
Vathek, persuaded dementi to follow him to England, where
the young composer lived in retirement at one of the country
seats of his protector in Dorsetshire until 1770. In that year
he first appeared in London, where his success both as composer
and pianist was rapid and brilliant. In 1777 he was for some
time employed as conductor of the Italian opera, but he soon
afterwards left London for Paris. Here also his concerts were
crowded by enthusiastic audiences, and the same success accom-
panied Clementi on a tour about the year 1780 to southern
Germany and Austria. At Vienna, which he visited between
1781 and 1782, he was received with high honour by the emperor
Joseph II., in whose presence he met Mozart, and fought a kind
of musical duel with him. His technical skill proved to be
equal if not superior to that of his rival, who on the other hand
infinitely surpassed him by the passionate beauty of his inter-
pretation. It is worth noting that one of the finest of dementi's
sonatas, that in B flat, shows an exactly identical opening theme
with Mozart's overture to the Flauto Magico.

In May 1782 Clementi returned to London, where for the next
twelve years he continued his lucrative occupations of fashionable
teacher and performer at the concerts of the aristocracy. He
took shares in the pianoforte business of a firm which went
bankrupt in 1800. He then established a pianoforte and music
business of his own, under the name of Clementi & Co. Other
members were added to the firm, including Collard and Davis,
and the firm was ultimately taken over by Messrs Collard
alone. Amongst his pupils on the pianoforte during this period
may be mentioned John Field, the composer of the celebrated
Nocturnes. In his company Clementi paid, in 1804, a visit to
Paris, Vienna, St Petersburg, Berlin and other cities. While
he was in Berlin, Meyerbeer became one of his pupils. He also
revisited his own country after an absence of more than thirty
years. In 1810 Clementi returned to London, but refused to
play again in public, devoting the remainder of his life to com-
position. Several symphonies belong to this time, and were
played with much success at contemporary concerts, but none
of them seem to have been published. His intellectual and
musical faculties remained unimpaired until his death, on the
9th of March 1832, at Evesham, Worcester.

Of dementi's playing in his youth, Moscheles wrote that it
was " marked by a most beautiful legato, a supple touch in lively
passages, and a most unfailing technique." Mozart may be said
to have closed the old and Clementi to have founded the newer
school of technique on the piano. Amongst dementi's composi-
tions the most remarkable are sixty sonatas for pianoforte, and
the great collection of Etudes called Gradus ad Parnassum.

CLEMENTINE LITERATURE, the name generally given to the
writings which at one time or another were fathered upon Pope
Clement I. (q.v.), commonly called Clemens Romanus, who was
early regarded as a disciple of St Peter. Thus they are for the
most part a species of the larger pseudo-Petrine genus, Chief
among them are: (i) The so-called Second Epistle; (2) two
Epistles on Virginity; (3) the Homilies and Recognitions; (4)
the Apostolical Constitutions (q.v.); and (5) five epistles forming
part of the Forged Decretals (see DECRETALS). The present
article deals mainly with the third group, to which the title
" Clementine literature " is usually confined, owing to the stress

CLEMENTINE LITERATURE

491

laid upon it in the famous Tubingen reconstruction of primitive
Christianity, in which it played a leading part; but later criti-
cism has lowered its importance as its true date and historical
relations have been progressively ascertained, (i) and (2)
became " Clementine " only by chance, but (3) was so originally
by literary device or fiction, the cause at work also in (4) and (5).
But while in all cases the suggestion of Clement's authorship
came ultimately from his prestige as writer of the genuine
Epistle of Clement (see CLEMENT I.), both (3) and (4) were due to
this idea as operative on Syrian soil; (5) is a secondary formation
based on (3) as known to the West.

(1) The " Second Epistle of Clement," This is really the
earliest extant Christian homily (see APOSTOLIC FATHERS). Its
theme is the duty of Christian repentance, with a view to
obedience to Christ's precepts as the true confession and homage
which He requires. Its special charge is " Preserve the flesh pure
and the seal (i.e. baptism) unstained " (viii. 6) . But the peculiar
way in which it enforces its morals in terms of the Platonic
contrast between the spiritual and sensuous worlds, as archetype
and temporal manifestation, suggests a special local type of
theology which must be taken into account in fixing its provenance.
This theology, the fact that the preacher seems to quote the
Gospel according to the Egyptians (in ch. xii. and possibly else-
where) as if familiar to his hearers, and indeed its literary
affinities generally, all point to Alexandria as the original home of
the homily, at a date about 1 20-140 (see Zeit.f. N. T. Wissenschaft,
vii. 1 23 ff ) . Neither Corinth (as Lightfoot) nor Rome (as Harnack,
who assigns it to Bishop Soter, c. 166-174) satisfies all the internal
conditions, while the Eastern nature of the external evidence and
the homily's quasi-canonical status in the Codex-Alexandrinus
strongly favour an Alexandrine origin.

(2) The Two Epistles to Virgins, i.e. to Christian celibates of
both sexes. These are known in their entirety only in Syriac,
and were first published by Wetstein (1752), who held them
genuine. This view is now generally discredited, even by Roman
Catholics like Funk, their best recent editor (Patres Apost., vol.
ii.). External evidence begins with Epiphanius (Haer. xxx. 15)
and Jerome (Ad Jovin. i. 12); and the silence of Eusebius tells
heavily against their existence before the 4th century, at any
rate as writings of Clement. The Monophysite Timothy of
Alexandria (A.D. 457) cites one of them as Clement's, while
Antiochus of St Saba (c. A.D. 620) makes copious but unacknow-
ledged extracts from both in the original Greek. There is no
trace of their use in the West. Thus their Syrian origin is
manifest, the more so that in the Syriac MS. they are appended to
the New Testament, like the better-known epistles of Clement in
the Codex Alexandrinus. Indeed, judging from another Syriac
MS. of earlier date, which includes the latter writings in its
canon, it seems that the Epistles on Virginity gradually replaced
the earlier pair in certain Syrian churches even should Lightfoot
be right in doubting if this had really occurred by Epiphanius's
day (5. Clement of Rome, i. 412).

Probably these epistles did not originally bear Clement's name
at all, but formed a single epistle addressed to ascetics among an
actual circle of churches. In that case they, or rather it, may
date from the 3rd century in spite of Eusebius's silence, and
are not pseudo-Clementine in any real sense. It matters little
whether or not the false ascription was made before the division
into two implied already by Epiphanius (c. A.D. 375). Special
occasion for such a hortatory letter may be discerned in its
polemic against intimate relations between ascetics of opposite
sex, implied to exist among its readers, in contrast to usage in
the writer's own locality. Now we know that spiritual unions,
prompted originally by highstrung Christian idealism as to a
religious fellowship transcending the law of nature in relation to
sex, did exist between persons living under vows of celibacy
during the 3rd century in particular, and not least in Syria (cf.
the case of Paul of Samosata, c. 265, and the Synod of Ancyra
in Galatia, c. 314). It is natural, then, to see in the original
epistle a protest against the dangers of such spiritual bold-
ness (cf. " Subintroductae " in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklo-
padie), prior perhaps to the famous case at Antioch just noted.

Possibly it is the feeling of south Syria or Palestine that here
expresses itself in remonstrance against usages prevalent in north
Syria. Such a view finds support also in the New Testament
canon implied in these epistles.

(3) [a] The Epistle of Clement to James (the Lord's brother).
This was originally part of (3) [b], in connexion with which its
origin and date are discussed. But as known to the West through
Rufinus's Latin version, it was quoted as genuine by the synod of
Vaison (A.D. 442) and throughout the middle ages. It becam*
" the starting point of the most momentous and gigantic of
medieval forgeries, the Isidorian Decretals," " where it stands at
the head of the pontifical letters, extended to more than twice its
original length." This extension perhaps occurred during the sth
century. At any rate the letter in this form, along with a
" second epistle to James " (on the Eucharist, church furniture,
&c.), dating from the early 6th century, had separate currency
long before the Qth century, when they were incorporated in the
Decretals by the forger who raised the Clementine epistles to five
(see Lightfoot, Clement, i. 414 ff.).

(3) [b] The " Homilies " and " Recognitions."" The two
chief extant Clementine writings, differing considerably in some
respects in doctrine, are both evidently the outcome of a peculiar
speculative type of Judaistic Christianity, for which the most
characteristic name of Christ was ' the true Prophet.' The frame-
work of both is a narrative purporting to be written by Clement
(of Rome) to St James, the Lord's brother, describing at the
beginning his own conversion and the circumstances of his first
acquaintance with St Peter, and then a long succession of
incidents accompanying St Peter's discourses arid disputations,
leading up to a romantic recognition of Clement's father, mother
and two brothers, from whom he had been separated since child-
hood. The problems discussed under this fictitious guise are
with rare exceptions fundamental problems for every age; and,
whatever may be thought of the positions maintained, the
discussions are hardly ever feeble or trivial. Regarded simply as
mirroring the past, few, if any, remains of Christian antiquity
present us with so vivid a picture of the working of men's minds
under the influence of the new leaven which had entered into the
world " (Hort, Clem. Recog., p. xiv.).

The indispensable preliminary to a really historic view of these
writings is some solution of the problem of their mutual relations.
The older criticism assumed a dependence of one upon the other,
and assigned one or both to the latter part of the 2nd century.
Recent criticism, however, builds on the principle, which emerges
alike from the external and internal evidence (see Salmon in
the Diet, of Christian Biography), that both used a common
basis. Our main task, then, is to define the nature, origin and
date of the parent document, and if possible its own literary
antecedents. Towards the solution of this problem two contri-
butions of prime importance have recently been made. The
earlier of these is by F. J. A. Hort, and was delivered in the form
of lectures as far back as 1884, though issued posthumously only
in 1901; the other is the elaborate monograph of Dr Hans
Waitz (1904).

Criticism. (i.) External Evidence as to the Clementine Romance.
The evidence of ancient writers really begins, not with Origen, 1
but with Eusebius of Caesarea, who in his Eccl. Hist. iii. 38,
writes as follows: " Certain men have quite lately brought
forward as written by him (Clement) other verbose and lengthy
writings, containing dialogues of Peter, forsooth, and Apion,
whereof not the slightest mention is to be found among the
ancients, for they do not even preserve in purity the stamp of
the Apostolic orthodoxy." Apion, the Alexandrine grammarian

1 Dr Armitage Robinson, in his edition of the PhilocaJia (extracts
made c. 358 by Basil and Gregory from Origen's writings), proved
that the passage cited below is simply introduced as a parallel to an
extract of Origen's; while Dom Chapman, in the Journal of ThtoL
Studies, iii. 436 ff., made it probable that the passages in Origen's
Comm. on Matthew akin to those in the Opus Imperf. in tlatth. are
insertions in the former, which is extant only in a Latin version.
Subsequently he suggested (Zeitsch. f. N. T. Wissenschaft, ix. 33 f.)
that the passage in the Philocalia is due not to its authors but to an
early editor, since it is the only citation not referred to Origen.

492

CLEMENTINE LITERATURE

and foe of Judaism, whose criticism was answered by Josephus,
appears in this character both in Homilies and Recognitions,
though mainly in the former (iv. 6-vii. 5)- Thus Eusebius
implies (i) a spurious Clementine work containing matter found
also in our Homilies at any rate; and (2) its quite recent origin.
Next we note that an extract in the Philocalia is introduced
as follows: " Yea, and Clement the Roman, a disciple of Peter
the Apostle, after using words in harmony with these on the
present problem, in conversation with his father at Laodicea
in the Circuits, speaks a very necessary word for the end of
arguments touching this matter, viz. those things which seem
to have proceeded from genesis ( = astrological destiny), in the
fourteenth book." The extract answers to Recognitions, x. 10-13,
but it is absent from our Homilies. Here we observe that (i) the
extract agrees this time with Recognitions, not with Homilies;
(2) its framework is that of the Clementine romance found in
both; (3) the tenth and last book of Recognitions is here parallel
to book xiv. of a work called Circuits (Periodoi).

This last point leads on naturally to the witness of Epiphanius
(c- 37S)> w h> speaking of Ebionites or Judaizing Christians of
various sorts, and particularly the Essene type, says (Haer.
xxx. 15) that " they use certain other books likewise, to wit,
the so-called Circuits of Peter, which were written by the hand
of Clement, falsifying their contents, though leaving a few
genuine things." Here Ephiphanius simply assumes that the
Ebionite Circuits of Peter was based on a genuine work of the
same scope, and goes on to say that the spurious elements are
proved such by contrast with the tenor of Clement's " encyclic
epistles " (i.e. those to virgins, (2) above) ; for these enjoin
virginity (celibacy), and praise Elijah, David, Samson, and all
the prophets, whereas the Ebionite Circuits favour marriage
(even in Apostles) and depreciate the prophets between Moses
and Christ, " the true Prophet." " In the Circuits, then, they
adapted the whole to their own views, representing Peter falsely
in many ways, as that he was daily baptized for the sake of
purification, as these also do; and they say that he likewise
abstained from animal food and meat, as they themselves also
do." Now all the points here noted in the Circuits can be traced
in our Homilies and Recognitions, though toned down in different
degrees.

The witness of the Arianizing Opus Imperfectum in Matthaeum
(c. 400) is in general similar. Its usual form of citation is " Peter
in Clement " (apud Clementem). This points to " Clement "
as a brief title for the Clementine Periodoi, a title actually found
in a Syriac MS. of A.D. 411 which contains large parts of Recogni-
tions and Homilies, and twice used by Rufinus, e.g. when he
proposes to inscribe his version of the Recognitions " Rufinus
Clemens." Rufinus in his preface to this work in which for
the first time we meet the title Recognition^) observes that
there are two editions to which the name applies, two collections
of books differing in some points but in many respects containing
the same narrative. This he remarks in explanation of the order
of his version in some places, which he feels may strike his friend
Gaudentius as unusual, the inference being that the other
edition was the better-known one, although it lacked " the
transformation of Simon " (i.e. of Clement's father into Simon's
likeness), which is common to the close both of our Recognitions
and Homilies, and so probably belonged to the Circuits. We
may assume, too (e.g. on the basis of our Syriac MS.), that the
Greek edition of the Recognition^) actually used by Rufinus
was much nearer the text of the Periodoi of which we have found
traces than we should imagine from its Latin form.

So far we have no sure trace of our Homilies at all, apart from
the Syriac version. Even four centuries later, Photius, in refer-
ring to a collection of books called both Acts of Peter and the
Recognition of Clement, does not make clear whether he means
Homilies or Recognitions or either. " In all the copies which
we have seen (and they are not a few) after those different
epistles (viz. ' Peter to James ' and ' Clement to James,' prefixed,
the one in some MSS. the other in others) and titles, we found
without variation the same treatise, beginning, I, Clement, &c."
But it is not clear that he had read more than the opening of

these MSS. The fact that different epistles are prefixed to the
same work leads him to conjecture " that there were two editions
made of the Acts of Peter (his usual title for the collection), but
in course of time the one perished and that of Clement prevailed."
This is interesting as anticipating a result of modern criticism,
as will appear below. The earliest probable reference to our
Homilies occurs in a work of doubtful date, the pseudo-
Athanasian Synopsis, which mentions " Clementines, whence
came by selection and rewriting the true and inspired form."
Here too we have the first sure trace of an expurgated recension,
made with the idea of recovering the genuine form assumed, as
earlier by Epiphanius, to lie behind an unorthodox recension
of Clement's narrative. As, moreover, the extant Epitome is
based on our Homilies, it is natural to suppose it was also the
basis of earlier orthodox recensions, one or more of which
may be used in certain Florilegia of the 7th century and later.
Nowhere do we find the title Homilies given to any form of
the Clementine collection in antiquity.

(ii.) The Genesis of the Clementine Literature. It has been need-
ful to cite so much of the evidence proving that our Homilies and
Recognitions are both recensions of a common basis, at first known
as the Circuits of Peter and later by titles connecting it rather
with Clement, its ostensible author, because it affords data also
for the historical problems touching (a) the contents and origin
of the primary Clementine work, and (b) the conditions under
which our extant recensions of it arose.

(a) The Circuits of Peter, as defined .on the one hand by the
epistle of Clement to James originally prefixed to it and by
patristic evidence, and on the other by the common element in
our Homilies and Recognitions, may be conceived as follows.
It contained accounts of Peter's teachings and discussions at
various points on a route beginning at Caesarea, and extending
northwards along the coast-lands of Syria as far as Antioch.
During this tour he meets with persons of typically erroneous
views, which it was presumably the aim of the work to refute
in the interests of true Christianity, conceived as the final form
of divine revelation a revelation given through true prophecy
embodied in a succession of persons, the chief of whom were
Moses and the prophet whom Moses foretold, Jesus the Christ.
The prime exponent of the spurious religion is Simon Magus.
A second protagonist of error, this time of. Gentile philosophic
criticism directed against fundamental Judaism, is Apion, the
notorious anti-Jewish Alexandrine grammarian of Peter's day;
while the r61e of upholder of astrological fatalism (Genesis) is
played by Faustus, father of Clement, with whom Peter and
Clement debate at Laodicea. Finally, all thisisalready embedded
in a setting determined by the romance of Clement and his lost
relatives, " recognition " of whom forms the denouement of
the story.

There is no reason to doubt that such, roughly speaking, were
the contents of the Clementine work to which Eusebius alludes
slightingly, in connexion with that section of it which had to his
eye least verisimilitude, viz. the dialogues between Peter and
Apion. Now Eusebius believed the work to have been of quite
recent and suspicious origin. This points to a date about the
last quarter of the 3rd century; and the prevailing doctrinal
tone of the contents, as known to us, leads to the same result.
The standpoint is that of the peculiar Judaizing or Ebonite
Christianity due to persistence among Christians of the tendencies
known among pre-Christian Jews as Essene. The Essenes,
while clinging to what they held to be original Mosaism, yet
conceived and practised their ancestral faith in ways which
showed distinct traces of syncretism, or the operation of influences
foreign to Judaism proper. They thus occupied an ambiguous
position on the borders of Judaism. Similarly Christian Essen-
ism was syncretist in spirit, as we see from its best-known
representatives, the Elchasaites, of whom we first hear about
220, when a certain Alcibiades of Apamea in Syria (some 60 m.
south of Antioch) brought to Rome the Book of Helxai the
manifesto of their distinctive message (Hippol., Philos. ix. 13)
and again some twenty years later, when Origen refers to one of
their leaders as having lately arrived at Caesarea (Euseb. vi. 38).

CLEMENTINE LITERATURE

493

The first half of the 3rd century was marked, especially in Syria,
by a strong tendency to syncretism, which may well have
stirred certain Christian Essenes to fresh propaganda. Other
writings than the Book of Helxai, representing also other species
of the same genus, would take shape. Such may have been some
of the pseudo-apostolic Acts to which Epiphanius alludes as in
use among the Ebionites of his own day: and such was probably
the nucleus of our Clementine writings, the Periodoi of Peter.

Harnack (Chronologic, ii. 522 f.), indeed, while admitting
that much (e.g. in Homilies, viii. 5-7) points the other way,
prefers the view that even the Circuits were of Catholic origin
(Chapman, as above, says Arian, soon after 325), regarding
the syncretistic Jewish-Christian features in it as due either to
its earlier basis or to an instinct to preserve continuity of manner
(e.g. absence of explicit reference to Paul). Hort, on the con-
trary, assumes as author " an ingenious Helxaite . . . perhaps
stimulated by the example of the many Encratite Periodoi "
(p. 131), and writing about A.D. 200.

Only it must not be thought of as properly Elchasaite, since
it knew no baptism distinct from the ordinary Christian one.
It seems rather to represent a later and modified Essene Chris-
tianity, already half-Catholic, such as would suit a date after
250, in keeping with Eusebius's evidence. Confirmation of such
a date is afforded by the silence of the Syrian Didascalia, itself
perhaps dating from about 250, as to any visit of Simon Magus
to Caesarea, in contrast to the reference in its later form, the
Apostolical Constitutions (c. 350-400), which is plainly coloured
(vi. 9) by the Clementine story. On the other hand, the Didas-
calia seems to have been evoked partly by Judaizing propaganda
in north Syria. If, then, it helps to date the Periodoi as after
250, it may also suggest .as place of origin one of the large cities
lying south of Antioch, say Laodicea (itself on the coast about
30 m. from Apamea), where the Clementine story reaches its
climax. The intimacy of local knowledge touching this region
implied in the narrative common to Homilies and Recognitions
is notable, and tells against an origin for the Periodoi outside
Syria (e.g. in Rome, as Waitz and Harnack hold, but Lightfoot
disproves, Clem. i. 55 f., 64,100, cf. Hort, p. 131). Further,
though the curtain even in it fell on Peter at Antioch itself (our
one complete MS. of the Homilies is proved by the Epitome,
based on the Homilies, to be here abridged), the interest of the
story culminates at Laodicea.

If we assume, then, that the common source of our extant
Clementines arose in Syria, perhaps c. 265,' had it also a written
source or sources which we can trace? Though Hort doubts it,
most recent scholars (e.g. Waitz, Harnack) infer the existence
of at least one source, " Preachings (Kerygmata) of Peter,"
containing no reference at all to Clement. Such a work seems
implied by the epistle of Peter to James and its appended
adjuration, prefixed in our MSS. to the Homilies along with the
epistle of Clement to James. Thus the later work aimed at
superseding the earlier, much as Photius suggests (see above).
It was, then, to these " Preachings of Peter " that the most
Ebionite features, and especially the anti-Pauline allusions
under the guise of Simon still inhering in the Periodoi (as implied
by Homilies in particular), originally belonged. The fact,
however, that these were not more completely suppressed in
the later work, proves that it, too, arose in circles of kindred,
though largely modified, Judaeo-Christian sentiment (cf.
Homilies, vii., e.g. ch. 8). The differences of standpoint may be
due not only to lapse of time, and the emergence of new problems
on the horizon of Syrian Christianity generally, but also to change
in locality and in the degree of Greek culture represented by the
two works. A probable date for the " Preachings " used in the
Periodoi is c. 2oo. 2

1 While Hort and Waitz say c. 200, Harnack says c. 260. The
reign of Gallienus (260-268) would suit the tone of its references to
the Roman emperor (Waitz, p. 74), and also any_ polemic against
the Neoplatonic philosophy of revelation by visions and dreams
which it may contain.

1 Even Waitz agrees to this, though he argues back to a yet earlier
anti-Pauline (rather than anti-Marcionite) form, composed in
Caesarea, c. 135.

If the home of the Periodoi was the region of the Syrian
Laodicea, we can readily explain most of its characteristics.
Photius refers to the " excellences of its language and its learn-
ing "; while Waitz describes the aim and spirit of its contents
as those of an apology for Christianity against heresy and
paganism, in the widest sense of the word, written in order to
win over both Jews (cf. Recognitions, i. 53-70) and pagans, but
mainly the latter. In particular it had in view persons of
culture, as most apt to be swayed by the philosophical tendencies
in the sphere of religion prevalent in that age, the age of neo-
Platonism. It was in fact designed for propaganda among
religious seekers in a time of singular religious restlessness and
varied inquiry, and, above all, for use by catechumens (cf. Ep.
Clem. 2, 13) in the earlier stages of their preparation for Christian
baptism. To such its romantic setting would be specially
adapted, as falling in with the literary habits and tastes of the
period; while its doctrinal peculiarities would least give offence
in a work of the aim and character just described.

As regards the sources of the narrative part of the Periodoi,
it is possible that the " recognition " motif -mas a literary common-
place. The account of Peter's journeyings was no doubt based
largely on local Syrian tradition, perhaps as already embodied
in written Acts of Peter (so Waitz and Harnack), but differing
from the Western type, e.g. in bringing Peter to Rome long
before Nero's reign. As for the allusions, more or less indirect,
to St Paul behind the figure of Simon, as the arch-enemy of the
truth allusions which first directed attention to the Clementines
in the last century there can be no doubt as to their presence,
but only as to their origin and the degree to which they are so
meant in Homilies and Recognitions. There is' certainly " an
application to Simon of words used by or of St Paul, or of claims
made by or in behalf of St Paul " (Hort), especially in Homilies
(ii. 17 f., xi. 35, xvii. 19), where a consciousness also of the
double reference must still be present, though this does not seem
to be the case in Recognitions (in Rufinus's Latin.) Such covert
reference to Paul must designedly have formed part of the
Periodoi, yet as adopted from its more bitterly anti-Pauline
basis, the " Preachings of Peter " (cf. Homilies, ii. 17 f. with Ep.
Pet. ad Jac. 2), which probably shared most of the features of
Ebionite Essenism as described by Epiphanius xxx. 15 f. (in-
cluding the qualified dualism of the two kingdoms the present
one of the devil, and the future one of the angelic Christ which
appears also in the Periodoi, cf. Ep. Clem, ad Jac. i fin.).

(b) That the Periodoi was a longer work than either our
Homilies or Recognitions is practically certain; and its mere
bulk may well, as Hort suggests (p. 88), have been a chief cause
of the changes of form. Yet Homilies and Recognitions are
abridgments made on different principles and convey rather
different impressions to their readers. " The Homilies care most
for doctrine," especially philosophical doctrine, " and seem to
transpose very freely for doctrinal purposes " (e.g. matter in
xvi.-xix. is placed at the end for effect, while xx. i-io gives
additional emphasis to the Homilies' theory of evil, perhaps over
against Manichaeism). " The Recognitions care most for the
story," as a means of religious edification, " and have preserved
the general framework much more nearly." They arose in
different circles: indeed, save the compiler of the text repre-
sented by the Syriac MS. of 411 A.D., "not a single ancient
writer shows a knowledge of both books in any form." But Hort
is hardly right in suggesting that, while Homilies arose in Syria,
Recognitions took shape in Rome. Both probably arose in
Syria (so Lightfoot), but in circles varying a good deal in religious
standpoint.* Homilies was a sort of second edition, made largely
in the spirit of its original and perhaps in much the same locality,
with a view to maintaining and propagating the doctrines of a
semi- Judaic Christianity (cf. bk. vii.), as it existed a generation
or two after the Periodoi appeared. The Recognitions, in both
recensions, as is shown by the fact that it was read in the original
with general admiration not only by Rufinus but also by others
in the West, was more Catholic in tone and aimed chiefly at

1 Dom Chapman maintains that the Recognitions (c. 370-390.) even
attack the doctrine of God in the Homilies or their archetype.

494

CLEOBULUS CLEON

commending the Christian religion over against all non-Christian
rivals or gnostic perversions. That is, more than one effort of
this sort had been made to adapt the story of Clement's Recogni-
tions to general Christian use. Later the Homilies underwent
further adaptation to Catholic feeling even before the Epitome,
in its two extant forms, was made by more drastic methods of
expurgation. One kind of adaptation at least is proved to have
existed before the end of the 4th century, namely a selection of
certain discourses from the Homilies under special headings,
following on Recognitions, i.-iii., as seen in a Syriac MS. of A.D. 411.
As this MS. contains transcriptional errors, and as its archetype
had perhaps a Greek basis, the Recognitions may be dated
c. 350-375' (its Christology suggested to Rufinus an Arianism
like that of Eunomius of Cyzicus, c. 362), and the Homilies prior
even to 350. But the different circles represented by the two
make relative dating precarious.

Summary. The Clementine literature throws light upon a
very obscure phase of Christian development, that of Judaeo-
Christianity, and proves that it embraced more intermediate
types, between Ebionism proper and Catholicism, than has
generally been realized. Incidentally, too, its successive forms
illustrate many matters of belief and usage among Syrian
Christians generally in the 3rd and 4th centuries, notably their
apologetic and catechetical needs and methods. Further, it
discusses, as Hort observes, certain indestructible problems which
much early Christian theology passes by or deals with rather
perfunctorily; and it does so with a freshness and reality which,
as we compare the original 3rd-century basis with the conven-
tional manner of the Epitome, we see to be not unconnected with
origin in an age as yet free from the trammels of formal ortho-
doxy. Again it is a notable specimen of early Christian pseudepi-
graphy, and one which had manifold and far-reaching results.
Finally the romance to which it owed much of its popular appeal,
became, through the medium of Rufinus's Latin, the parent
of the late medieval legend of Faust, and so the ancestor of a
famous type in modern literature.

LITERATURE. For a full list of this down to 1904 see Hans Waitz,
" Die Pseudoklementinen " (Texte . Untersuchungen zur Gesch.
der altchr. Literatur, neue Folge, Bd. x. Heft 4), and A. Harnack,
Chronologic der altchr. Litteratur (1904), ii. 518 f. In English, besides
Hort's work, there are articles by G. Salmon, in Diet, of Christ. Biog.,
C. Biee, Stadia Biblica, ii., A. C. Headlam, Journal of Theol.
Studies, Hi. (]. V. B.)

CLEOBULUS, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, a native and
tyrant of Lindus in Rhodes. He was distinguished for his strength
and his handsome person, for the wisdom of his sayings, the
acuteness of his riddles and the beauty of his lyric poetry.
Diogenes Laertius quotes a letter in which Cleobulus invites
Solon to take refuge with him against Peisistratus; and this
would imply that he was alive in 560 B.C. He is said to have held
advanced views as to female education, and he was the father
of the wise Cleobuline, whose riddles were not less famous than
his own (Diogenes Laertius i. 89-93).

See F. G. Mullach, Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum, i.

CLEOMENES (KXeoMtmjs), the name of three Spartan kings
of the Agiad line.

CLEOMENES I. was the son of Anaxandridas, whom he suc-
ceeded about 520 B.C. His chief exploit was his crushing victory
near Tiryns over the Argives, some 6000 of whom he burned
to death in a sacred grove to which they had fled for refuge
(Herodotus vi. 76-82). This secured for Sparta the undisputed
hegemony of the Peloponnese. Cleomenes' interposition in
the politics of central Greece was less successful. In 510 he
marched to Athens with a Spartan force to aid in expelling the
Peisistratidae, and subsequently returned to support the oligar-
chical party, led by Isagoras, against Cleisthenes (q.v.). He
expelled seven hundred families and transferred the govern-
ment from the council to three hundred of the oligarchs, but being
blockaded in the Acropolis he was forced to capitulate. On his
return home he collected a large force with the intention of

1 Dom Chapman (ut supra, p. 158) says during the Neoplatonist
reaction under Julian 361-363, to which period he also assigns the
Homilies.

making Isagoras despot of Athens, but the opposition of the
Corinthian allies and of his colleague Demaratus caused the
expedition to break up after reaching Eleusis (Herod, v. 64-76;
Aristotle, Ath. Pol. 19, 20). In 491 he went to Aegina to punish
the island for its submission to Darius, but the intrigues of his
colleague once again rendered his mission abortive. In revenge
Cleomenes accused Demaratus of illegitimacy and secured his
deposition in favour of Leotychides (Herod, vi. 50-73). But when
it was discovered that he had bribed the Delphian priestess to
substantiate his charge he was himself obliged to flee; he went
first to Thessaly and then to Arcadia, where he attempted to
foment an anti-Spartan rising. About 488 B.C. he was recalled,
but shortly afterwards, in a fit of madness, he committed suicide
(Herod, vi. 74, 75). Cleomenes seems to have received scant
justice at the hands of Herodotus or his informants, and Pausanias
(iii. 3, 4) does little more than condense Herodotus's narrative.
In spite of some failures, largely due to Demaratus's jealousy,
Cleomenes strengthened Sparta in the position, won during his
father's reign, of champion and leader of the Hellenic race; it
was to him, for example, that the Ionian cities of Asia Minor first
applied for aid in their revolt against Persia (Herod, v. 49-51).

For the chronology see J. Wells, Journal of Hellenic Studies (1905),
p. 193 ff., who assigns the Argive expedition to the outset of the
reign, whereas nearly all historians have dated it in or about 495 B.C.

CLEOMENES II. was the son of Cleombrotus I., brother and
successor of Agesipolis II. Nothing is recorded of his reign save
the fact that it lasted for nearly sixty-one years (370-309 B.C.).

CLEOMENES III., the son and successor of Leonidas II., reigned
about 235-219 B.C. He made a determined attempt to reform
the social condition of Sparta along the lines laid down by Agis
IV., whose widow Agiatis he married} at the same time he
aimed at restoring Sparta's hegemony in the Peloponnese.
After twice defeating the forces of the Achaean League in Arcadia,
near Mount Lycaeum and at Leuctra, he strengthened his position
by assassinating four of the ephors, abolishing the ephorate,
which had usurped the supreme power, and banishing some
eighty of the leading oligarchs. The authority of the council
was also curtailed, and a new board of magistrates, the patronomi,
became the chief officers of state. He appointed his own brother
Eucleidas as his colleague in succession to the Eurypontid
Archidamus, who had been murdered. His social reforms
included a redistribution of land, the remission of debts, the
restoration of the old systemof training (070)717) and theadmission
of picked perioeci into the citizen body. As a general Cleomenes
did much to revive Sparta's old prestige. He defeated the
Achaeans at Dyme, made himself master of Argos, and was
eventually joined by Corinth, Phlius, Epidaurus and other
cities. But Aratus, whose jealousy could not brook to see a
Spartan at the head of the Achaean league called in Antigonus
Doson of Macedonia, and Cleomenes, after conducting successful
expeditions to Megalopolis and Argos, was finally defeated at
Sellasia, to the north of Sparta, in 222 or 221 B.C. He took
refuge at Alexandria with Ptolemy Euergetes, but was arrested
by his successor, Ptolemy Philopator, on a charge of conspiracy.
Escaping from prison he tried to raise a revolt, but the attempt
failed and to avoid capture he put an end to his life. Both as
general and as politician Cleomenes was one of Sparta's greatest
men, and with him perished her last hope of recovering her
ancient supermacy in Greece.

See Polybius ii. 45-70, v. 35-39, viii. i; Plutarch, Cleomenes;
Aratus, 35-46; Philopoemen, 5, 6; Pausanias ii. 9; Gehlert, De
Cleomene (Leipzig, 1883); Holm, History of Greece, iv. cc. 10, 15.

(M. N. T.)

CLEON (d. 422 B.C.), Athenian politician during the Pelopon-
nesian War, was the son of Cleaenetus, from whom he inherited a
lucrative tannery business. He was the first prominent repre-
sentative of the commercial class in Athenian politics. He came
into notice first as an opponent of Pericles, to whom his advanced
ideas were naturally unacceptable, and in his opposition
somewhat curiously found himself acting in concert with the
aristocrats, who equally hated and feared Pericles. During the
dark days of 430, after the unsuccessful expedition of Pericles to

CLEOPATRA CLEPSYDRA

495

Peloponnesus, and when the city was devastated by the plague,
Cleon headed the opposition to the Periclean regime. Pericles
was accused by Cleon of maladministration of public money, with
the result that he was actually found guilty (see Crete's Hist, of
Greece, abridged ed., 1907, p. 406, note i). A revulsion of feeling,
however, soon took place. Pericles was reinstated, and Cleon now
for a time fell into the background. The death of Pericles (429)
left the field clear for him. Hitherto he had only been a vigorous
opposition speaker, a trenchant critic and accuser of state
officials. He now came forward as the professed champion and
leader of the democracy, and, owing to the moderate abilities of
his rivals and opponents, he was for some years undoubtedly the
foremost man in Athens. Although rough and unpolished, he was
gifted with natural eloquence and a powerful voice, and knew
exactly how to work upon the feelings of the people. He
strengthened his hold on the poorer classes by his measure for
trebling the pay of the jurymen, which provided the poorer
Athenians with an easy means of livelihood. The notorious
fondness of the Athenians for litigation increased his power; and
the practice of " sycophancy " (raking up material for false
charges; see SYCOPHANT), enabled him to remove those who were
likely to endanger his ascendancy. Having no further use for his
former aristocratic associates, he broke off all connexion with
them, and thus felt at liberty to attack the secret combinations
for political purposes, the oligarchical clubs to which they mostly
belonged. Whether he also introduced a property-tax for
military purposes, and even held a high position in connexion
with the treasury, is uncertain. His ruling principles were an
inveterate hatred of the nobility, and an equal hatred of Sparta.
It was mainly through him that the opportunity of concluding an
honourable peace (in 425) was lost, and in his determination to see
Sparta humbled he misled the people as to the extent of the
resources of the state, and dazzled them by promises of future
benefits.

In 427 Cleon gained an evil notoriety by his proposal to put to
death indiscriminately all the inhabitants of Mytilene, which had
put itself at the head of a revolt. His proposal, though accepted,
was, fortunately for the credit of Athens, rescinded, although, as it
was, the chief leaders and prominent men, numbering about 1000,
fell victims. In 425, he reached the summit of his fame by
capturing and transporting to Athens the Spartans who had been
blockaded in Sphacteria (see PYLOS). Much of the credit was
probably due to the military skill of his colleague Demosthenes;
but it must be admitted that it was due to Cleon 's determination
that the Ecclesia sent out the additional force which was needed.
It was almost certainly due to Cleon that the tribute of the
" allies " was doubled in 425 (see DELIAN LEAGUE). In 422 he
was sent to recapture Amphipolis, but was outgeneralled by
Brasidas and killed. His death removed the chief obstacle to an
arrangement with Sparta, and in 421 the peace of Nicias was
concluded (see PELOPONNESIAN WAR).

The character of Cleon is represented by Aristophanes and
Thucydides in an extremely unfavourable light. But neither can
be considered an unprejudiced witness. The poet had a grudge
against Cleon, who had accused him before the senate of having
ridiculed (in his Babylonians) the policy and institutions of his
country in the presence of foreigners and at the time of a great
national war. Thucydides, a man of strong oligarchical pre-
judices, had also been prosecuted for military incapacity and
exiled by a decree proposed by Cleon. It is therefore likely that
Cleon has had less than justice done to him in the portraits
handed down by these two writers.

AUTHORITIES. For the literature on Cleon see C. F. Hermann,
Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitaten, i. pt. 2 (6th ed. by V. Thumser,
1892), p. 709, and G. Busolt, Griechische Geschichte, iii. pt. 2 (1904),
p. 988, note 3. The following are the chief authorities: (a)
Favourable to Clean. C. F. Ranke, Commentatio de Vita Aristo-
phanis (Leipzig, 1845); J. G. Droysen, Aristophanes, ii., introd. to
the Knights (Berlin, 1837); G. Grote, Hist, of Greece, chs. 50, 54;
W. Oncken, A then und Hellas, ii. p. 204 (Leipzig, 1866); H. Muller-
Striibing, Aristophanes und die historische Kritik (Leipzig, 1873);
J. B. Bury, Hist, of Greece, i. (1902). (6) Unfavourable. J. F. Kortiim,
Geschichtliche Forschungen (L -ipzig, 1863), and Zur Geschichte
hellenischen Staatsverfassitngen (Heidelberg, 1821); F. Passow,

Vermischte Schriften (Leipzig, 1843); C. Thirlwall, Hist, of Greece,
ch. 21 ; E. Curtius, Hist, of Greece (Eng. tr. iii. p. 112; I. Schvarcz,
Die Demokratie (Leipzig, 1882); H. Delbriick, Die Strategic des
Penkles (Berlin, 1890); E. Meyer, Forschungen zur alien Geschichte,
ii. p- 333 (Halle, 1899). The balance between the two extreme views
is fairly held by I. Beloch, Die attische Politik seit Periklr.s (Leipzig,
1884), and Gnechische Geschichte, i. p. 537; and by A. Holm, Hist,
of Greece, ii. (Eng. tr.), ch. 23, with the notes.

CLEOPATRA, the regular name of the queens of Egypt in the
Ptolemaic dynasty after Cleopatra, daughter of the Seleucid
Antiochus the Great, wife of Ptolemy V., Epiphanes. The best
known was the daughter of Ptolemy XIII. Auletes, born 69 (or
68) B.C. At the age of seventeen she became queen of Egypt
jointly with her younger brother Ptolemy Dionysus, whose wife,
in accordance with Egyptian custom, she was to become. A few
years afterwards, deprived of all royal authority, she withdrew
into Syria, and made preparation to recover her rights by force of
arms. At this juncture Julius Caesar followed Pompey into
Egypt. The personal fascinations of Cleopatra induced him to
undertake a war on her behalf, in which Ptolemy lost his life, and
she was replaced on the throne in conjunction with a younger
brother, of whom, however, she soon rid herself by poison. In
Rome she lived openly with Caesar as his mistress until his
assassination, when, aware of her unpopularity, she returned at
once to Egypt. Subsequently she became the ally and mistress of
Mark Antony (see ANTONIUS). Their connexion was highly
unpopular at Rome, and Octavian (see AUGUSTUS) declared war
upon them and defeated them at Actium (31 B.C.). Cleopatra
took to flight, and escaped to Alexandria, where Antony joined
her. Having no prospect of ultimate success, she accepted the
proposal of Octavian that she should assassinate Antony, and
enticed him to join her in a mausoleum which she had built in
order that " they might die together." Antony committed
suicide, in the mistaken belief that she had already done so, but
Octavian refused to yield to the charms of Cleopatra who put an
end to her life, by applying an asp to her bosom, according to the
common tradition, in the thirty-ninth year of her age (zgth of
August, 30 B.C.). With her ended the dynasty of the Ptolemies,
and Egypt was made a Roman province. Cleopatra had three
children by Antony, and by Julius Caesar, as some say, a son,
called Caesarion, who was put to death by Octavian. In her the
type of queen characteristic of the Macedonian dynasties stands
in the most brilliant light. Imperious will, masculine boldness,
relentless ambition like hers had been exhibited by queens of her
race since the old Macedonian days before Philip and Alexander.
But the last Cleopatra had perhaps some special intellectual
endowment. She surprised her generation by being able to
speak the many tongues of her subjects. There may have been
an individual quality in her luxurious profligacy, but then her
predecessors had not had the Roman lords of the world for
wooers.

For the history of Cleopatra see ANTONIUS, MARCUS; CAESAR,
GAIUS JULIUS; PTOLEMIES. The life of Antony by Plutarch is our
main authority; it is upon this that Shakespeare's Antony and
Cleopatra is based. Her life is the subject of monographs by Stahr
(1879, an apologia), and Houssaye, Aspasie, Cleop&tre, &c. (1879).

CLEPSYDRA (from Gr. Kteirreiv, to steal, and C5wp, water),
the chronometer of the Greeks and Romans, which measured time
by the flow of water. In its simplest form it was a short-necked
earthenware globe of known capacity, pierced at the bottom with
several small holes, through which the water escaped or " stole
away," The instrument was employed to set a limit to the
speeches in courts of justice, hence the phrases aquam dare, to give
the advocate speaking time, and aquam perdere, to waste time.
Smaller clepsydrae of glass were very early used in place of the
sun-dial, to mark the hours. But as the length of the hour varied
according to the season of the year, various arrangements, of
which we have no clear account, were necessary to obviate this
and other defects. For instance, the flow of water varied with the
temperature and pressure of the air, and secondly, the rate of flow
became less as the vessel emptied itself. The latter defect was
remedied by keeping the level of the water in the clepsydra
uniform, the volume of that discharged being noted. Plato is
said to have invented a complicated clepsydra to indicate the

49 6

CLERESTORY CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

hours of the night as well as of the day. In the clepsydra or
hydraulic clock of Ctesibius of Alexandria, made about 135 B.C.,
the movement of water-wheels caused the gradual rise of a little
figure, which pointed out the hours with a little stick on an index
attached to the machine. The clepsydra is said to have been
known to the Egyptians. There was one in the Tower of the
Winds at Athens; and the turret on the south side of the tower is
supposed to have contained the cistern which supplied the water.
See Marquardt, Das Privatleben der Romer, i. (and ed. ( 1886),
p. 792; G. Bilfinger, Die Zeitmesser der antiken Volker (1886), and
Die antiken Stundenangaben (1888).

CLERESTORY, or CLEARSTORY (Ital. chiaro piano, Fr. claire-
voie, claire ttage, Ger. Lichtgaden), in architecture, the upper
storey of the nave of a church, the walls of which rise above the
aisles and are pierced with windows (" clere " being simply
" clear," in the sense of " lighted "). Sometimes these win-
dows are very small, being mere quatrefoils or spherical triangles.
In large buildings, however, they are important objects, both
for beauty and utility. The windows of the clerestories
of Norman work, even in large churches, are of less import-
ance than in the later styles. In Early English they became
larger; and in the Decorated they are more important still,
being lengthened as the triforium diminishes. In Perpendicu-
lar work the latter often disappears altogether, and in many
later churches, as at Taunton, and many churches in Norfolk
and Suffolk, the clerestories are close ranges of windows. The
term is equally applicable to the Egyptian temples, where
the lighting of the hall of columns was obtained over the stone
roofs of the adjoining aisles, through slits pierced in vertical
slabs of stone. The Romans also in their baths and palaces
employed the same method, and probably derived it from the
Greeks; in the palaces at Crete, however, light-wells would
seem to have been employed.

CLERFAYT (or CLAIRFAYT), FRANCOIS SEBASTIEN CHARLES
JOSEPH DE CROIX, COUNT or (1733-1798), Austrian field
marshal, entered the Austrian army in 1753. In the Seven
Years' War he greatly distinguished himself, earning rapid
promotion, and receiving the decoration of the order of Maria
Theresa. At the conclusion of the peace, though still under
thirty, he was already a colonel. During the outbreak of the
Netherlands in 1787, he was, as a Walloon by birth, subjected
to great pressure to induce him to abandon Joseph II., but he
resisted all overtures, and in the following year went to the
Turkish war in the rank of lieutenant field marshal. In an
independent command Clerfayt achieved great success, defeating
the Turks at Mehadia and Calafat. In 1792, as one of the most
distinguished of the emperor's generals, he received the command
of the Austrian contingent in the duke of Brunswick's army,
and at Croix-sous-Bois his corps inflicted a reverse on the troops
of the French revolution. In the Netherlands, to which quarter
he was transferred after Jemappes, he opened the campaign
of 1793 with the victory of Aldenhoven and the relief of Maes-
tricht, and on March i8th mainly brought about the complete
defeat of Dumouriez at Neerwinden. Later in the year, however,
his victorious career was checked by the reverse at Wattignies,
and in 1794 he was unsuccessful in West Flanders against
Pichegru. In the course of the campaign Clerfayt succeeded
the duke of Saxe-Coburg in the supreme command, but was
quite unable to make head against the French, and had to recross
the Rhine. In 1795, now field marshal, he commanded on the
middle Rhine against Jourdan, and this time the fortune of war
changed. Jourdan was beaten at Hochst and Mainz brilliantly
relieved. But the field marshal's action in concluding an
armistice with the French not being approved by Thugut, he
resigned the command, and became a member of the Aulic
Council in Vienna. He died in 1798. A brave and skilful
soldier, Clerfayt perhaps achieved more than any other Austrian
commander (except the archduke Charles) in the hopeless
struggle of small dynastic armies against a " nation in arms."

See von Vivenot, Thugut, Clerfayt, und Wurmser (Vienna, 1869).

CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form
clericia [Skeat], by assimilation with 0. Fr. clergie, Fr. clergS,

from Low Lat. clericaius), a collective term signifying in English
strictly the body of " clerks," i.e. men in holy orders (see CLERK).
The word has, however, undergone sundry modifications of
meaning. Its M.E. senses of " clerkship " and " learning "
have long since fallen obsolete. On the other hand, in modern
times there has been an increasing tendency to depart from its
strict application to technical " clerks," and to widen it out so as
to embrace all varieties of ordained Christian ministers. While,
however, it is now not unusual to speak of " the Nonconformist
clergy," the word " clergyman " is still, at least in the United
Kingdom, used of the clergy of the Established Church in con-
tradistinction to " minister." As applied to the Roman Catholic
Church the word embraces the whole hierarchy, whether its
clerici be in holy orders or merely in minor orders. The term
has also been sometimes loosely used to include the members of
the regular orders; but this use is improper, since monks and
friars, as such, have at no time been clerici. The use of the word
" clergy " as a plural, though the New English Dictionary quotes
the high authority of Cardinal Newman for it, is less rare than
wrong; in the case cited " Some hundred Clergy " should have
been " Some hundred of the Clergy."

In distinction to the " clergy " we find the " laity " (Gr. Xios,
people), the great body of " faithful people " which, in nearly
every various conception of the Christian Church, stands in
relation to the clergy as a flock of sheep to its pastor. This
distinction was of early growth, and developed, with the increas-
ing power of the hierarchy, during the middle ages into a very
lively opposition (see ORDER, HOLY; CHURCH HISTORY;
PAPACY; INVESTITURES). The extreme claim of the great
medieval popes, that the priest, as " ruler over spiritual things,"
was as much superior to temporal rulers as the soul is to the
body (see INNOCENT III.), led logically to the vast privileges
and immunities enjoyed by the clergy during the middle ages.
In those countries where the Reformation triumphed, this
triumph represented the victory of the civil over the clerical
powers in the long contest. The victory was, however, by no
means complete. The Presbyterian model was, for instance,
as sacerdotal in its essence as the Catholic; Milton complained
with justice that " new presbyter is but old priest writ large,"
and declared that " the Title of Clergy St Peter gave to all God's
people," its later restriction being a papal and prelatical usurpa-
tion (i.e. i Peter v. 3, for K\fjpos and K\fipuv).

Clerical immunities, of course, differed largely at different
times and in different countries, the extent of them having been
gradually curtailed from a period a little earlier than the close
of the middle ages. They consisted mainly in exemption from
public burdens, both as regarded person and pocket, and in
immunity from lay jurisdiction. This last enormous privilege,
which became one of the main and most efficient instruments
of the subjection of Europe to clerical tyranny, extended to
matters both civil and criminal; though, as Bingham shows,
it did not (always and everywhere) prevail in cases of heinous
crime (Origines Eccles. bk. v.).

This diversity of jurisdiction, and subjection of the clergy
only to the sentences of judges bribed by their esprit de corps
to judge leniently, led to the adoption of a scale of punishments
for the offences of clerks avowedly much lighter than that which
was inflicted for the same crimes on laymen; and this in turn
led to the survival in England, long after the Reformation, of
the curious legal fiction of benefit of clergy (see below), used to
mitigate the extreme harshness of the criminal law.

CLERGY, BENEFIT OF, an obsolete but once very important
feature in English criminal law. Benefit of clergy began with
the claim on the part of the ecclesiastical authorities in the
1 2th century that every clericus should be exempt from the
jurisdiction of the temporal courts and be subject to the spiritual
courts alone. The issue of the conflict was that the common
law courts abandoned the extreme punishment of death assigned
to some offences when the person convicted was a clericus, and
tRe church was obliged to accept the compromise and let a
secondary punishment be inflic ed. The term " clerk " or
clericus always included a large number of persons in what

CLERGY RESERVES CLERKENWELL

497

were called minor orders, and in 1350 the privilege was extended
to secular as well as to religious clerks; and, finally, the test
of being a clerk was the ability to read the opening words of
verse i of Psalm li., hence generally known as the " neck-verse."
Even this requirement was abolished in 1705. In 1487 it
was enacted that every layman, when convicted of a clergyable
felony, should be branded on the thumb, and disabled from
claiming the benefit a second time. The privilege was extended
to peers, even if they could not read, in 1547, and to women,
partially in 1622 and fully in 1692. The partial exemption
claimed by the Church did not apply to the more atrocious
crimes, and hence offences came to be divided into clergyable
and unclergyable. According to the common practice in England
of working out modern improvements through antiquated
forms, this exemption was made the means of modifying the
severity of the criminal law. It became the practice to claim
and be allowed the benefit of clergy; and when it was the
intention by statute to make a crime really punishable with
death, it was awarded " without benefit of clergy." The benefit
of clergy was abolished by a statute of 1827, but as this statute
did not repeal that of 1547, under which peers were given the
privilege, a further statute was passed in 1841 putting peers on
the same footing as commons and clergy.

For a full account of benefit of clergy see Pollock and Maitland,
History of English Law, vol. i. 424-440; also Stephen, History of the
Criminal Law of England, vol. i. ; E. Friedberg, Corpus juris canonici
(Leipzig, 1879-1881).

CLERGY RESERVES, in Canada. By the act of 1791,
establishing the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, the
British government set apart one-eighth of all the crown lands
for the support of " a Protestant clergy." These reservations,
after being for many years a stumbling-block to the economic
development of the province, and the cause of much bitter
political and ecclesiastical controversy, were secularized by the
Canadian parliament in 1854, and the proceeds applied to other
purposes, chiefly educational. Owing to the wording of the
imperial act, the amount set apart is often stated as one-seventh,
and was sometimes claimed as such by the clergy.

CLERK l (from A.S. cleric or 'clerc, which, with the similar
Fr. form, comes direct from the Lat. dericus), in its original
sense, as used in the civil law, one who had taken religious
orders of whatever rank, whether " holy " or " minor." The
word dericus is derived from the Greek (C\7jpoc6s, " of or pertain-
ing to an inheritance," from K\fjpos, "lot," "allotment," "estate,"
" inheritance "; but the authorities are by no means agreed
in which sense the root is connected with the sense of the deriva-
tive, some conceiving that the original idea was that the clergy
received the service of God as their lot or portion; others that
they were the portion of the Lord; while others again, with
more reason as Bingham (Orig. Eccl. lib. i. cap. 5, sec. 9) seems
to think, maintain that the word has reference to the choosing
by lot, as in early ages was the case of those to whom public
offices were to be entrusted.

In the primitive times of the church the term canon was
used as synonymous with clerk, from the names of all the persons
in the service of any church having been inscribed on a roll, or
laivuiv, whence they were termed car.onici, a fact which shows
that the practice of the Roman Catholic Church of including
all persons of all ranks in the service of the church, ordained
or unordained, in the term clerks, or clergy, is at least in con-
formity with the practice of antiquity. Thus, too, in English
ecclesiastical law, a clerk was any one who had been admitted
to the ecclesiastical state, and had taken the tonsure. The
application of the word in this sense gradually underwent a
change, and " clerk " became more especially the term applied
to those in minor orders, while those in " major " or " holy "
orders were designated in full " clerks in holy orders," which in
English law still remains the designation of clergymen of the
Established Church. After the Reformation the word " clerk "

1 The accepted English pronunciation, " dark," is found in
southern English as early as the isth century; but northern dialects
still preserve the e sound (" clurk "), which is the common pro-
nunciation in America.

was still further extended to include laymen who performed
duties in cathedrals, churches, &c., e.g. the choirmen, who were
designated " lay clerks." Of these lay clerks or choirmen
there was always one whose duty it was to be constantly present
at every service, to sing or say the responses as the leader or
representative of the laity. His duties were gradually enlarged
to include the care of the church and precincts, assisting at
baptisms, marriages, &c., and he thus became the precursor of
the later parish clerk. In a somewhat similar sense we find
bible derk, singing clerk, &c. The use of the word " clerk "
to denote a person ordained to the ministry is now mainly
legal or formal.

The word also developed in a different sense. In medieval
times the pursuit of letters and general learning was confined
to the clergy, and as they were practically the only persons who
could read and write all notarial and secretarial work was
discharged by them, so that in time the word was used with
special reference to secretaries, notaries, accountants or even
mere penmen. This special meaning developed into what is
now one of the ordinary senses of the word. We find, accordingly,
the term applied to those officers of courts, corporations, &c.,
whose duty consists in keeping records, correspondence, and
generally managing business, as clerk of the market, clerk of the
petty bag, clerk of the peace, town clerk, &c. Similarly, a clerk
also means any one who in a subordinate position is engaged
in writing, making entries, ordinary correspondence, or similar
" clerkly " work. In the United States the word means also
an assistant in a commercial house, a retail salesman.

CLERKE, AGNES MARY (1842-1907), English astronomer
and scientific writer, was born on the loth of February 1842,
and died in London on the 2oth of January 1907. She wrote
extensively on various scientific subjects, but devoted herself
more especially to astronomy. Though not a practical astro-
nomer in the ordinary sense, she possessed remarkable skill in
collating, interpreting and summarizing the results of astronomi-
cal research, and as a historian her work has an important
place in scientific literature. Her chief works were A Popular
History of Astronomy during the igth Century, first edition 1885,
fourth 1002; The System of the Stars, first edition 1890, second
1905; and Problems in Astrophysics, 1903. In addition she
wrote Familiar Studies in Homer (1892), The Herschels and
Modern Astronomy (1895), Modern Cosmogonies (1906), and
many valuable articles, such as her contributions to the En-
cyclopaedia Britannica. In 1903 she was elected an honorary
member of the Royal Astronomical Society.

CLERKENWELL, a district on the north side of the city of
London, England, within the metropolitan borough of Finsbury
(q.v.). It is so called from one of several wells or springs in this
district, near which miracle plays were performed by the parish
clerks of London. This well existed until the middle of the igth
century. Here was situated a priory, founded in noo, which
grew to great wealth and fame as the principal institution in
England of the Knights Hospitallers of the Order of St John of
Jerusalem. Its gateway, erected in 1504, and remaining in St
John's Square, served various purposes after the suppression of
the monasteries, being, for example, the birthplace of the
Gentleman's Magazine in 1731, and the scene of Dr Johnson's
work in connexion with that journal. In modern times the
gatehouse again became associated with the Order, and is the
headquarters of the St John's Ambulance Association. An Early
English crypt remains beneath the neighbouring parish church of
St John, where the notorious deception of the " Cock Lane
Ghost," in which Johnson took great interest, was exposed.
Adjoining the priory was St Mary's Benedictine nunnery, St
James's church (1792) marking the site, and preserving in its
vaults some of the ancient monuments. In the i7th century
Clerkenwell became a fashionable place of residence. A prison
erected here at this period gave place later to the House of
Detention, notorious as the scene of a Fenian outrage in 1867,
when it was sought to release certain prisoners by blowing up part
of the building. Clerkenwell is a centre of the watch-making and
jeweller's industries, long established here; and the Northampton

49 8

CLERMONT-EN-BEAUVAISIS CLERMONT-GANNEAU

Polytechnic Institute, Northampton Square, a branch of the City
Polytechnic, has a department devoted to instruction in these
trades.

CLERMONT-EN-BEAUVAISIS, or CLERMONT-DE-L'OISE, a
town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in the
department of Oise, on the right bank of the Breche, 41 m. N. of
Paris on the Northern railway to Amiens. Pop. (1906) 4014.
The hill on which the town is built is surmounted by a keep of the
I4th century, the relic of a fortress the site of which is partly
occupied by a large penitentiary for women. The church dates
from the I4th to the i6th centuries. The h6tel-de-ville, built by
King Charles IV., who was born at Clerrriont in 1 294, is the oldest
in the north of France. The most attractive feature of the town is
the Promenade du Chatellier on the site of the old ramparts.
Clermont is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first
instance, a communal college and a large lunatic asylum. It
manufactures felt and corsets, and carries on a trade in horses,
cattle and grain.

The town was probably founded during the time of the Norman
invasions, and was an important military post during the middle
ages. It was several times taken and retaken by the contend-
ing parties during the Hundred Years' War, and the Wars of
Religion, and in 1615 Henry II., prince of Conde, was besieged
and captured there by the marshal d'Ancre.

COUNTS or CLERMONT. Clermont was at one time the seat of a
countship, the lords of which were already powerful in the nth
century. Raoul de Clermont, constable of France, died at Acre
in 1 1 9 1 ,leaving a daughter who brought Clermont to her husband,
Louis, count of Blois and Chartres. Theobald, count of Blois and
Clermont, died in 1218 without issue, and King Philip Augustus,
having received the countship of Clermont from the collateral
heirs of this lord, gave it to his son Philip Hurepel,whose daughter
Jeanne, and his widow, Mahaut, countess of Dammartin, next
held the countship. It was united by Saint Louis to the crown,
and afterwards given by him (i 269) to his son Robert, from whom
sprang the house of Bourbon. In 1524 the countship of Clermont
was confiscated from the constable de Bourbon, and later (1540)
given to the duke of Orleans, to Catherine de' Medici (1562), to
Eric, duke of Brunswick (1569), from whom it passed to his
brother-in-law Charlespf Lorraine (i 596), and finally to Henry II.,
prince of Conde (1611). In 1641 it was again confiscated from
Louis de Bourbon, count of Soissons, then in 1696 sold to Louis
Thomas Amadeus of Savoy, count of Soissons,in 1702 to Francoise
de Brancas, princesse d'Harcourt, and in 1719 to Louis-Henry,
prince of Cond6. From a branch of the old lords of Clermont
were descended the lords of Nesle and Chantilly.

CLERMONT-FERRAND, a city of central France, capital of
the department of Puy-de-D6me, 113 m. W. of Lyons on the
Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) town, 44,113; commune,
58,363. Clermont-Ferrand is situated on an eminence on the
western border of the fertile plain of Limagne. On the north, west
and south it is surrounded by hills, with a background of
mountains amongst which the Puy-de-D6me stands out
prominently. A small river, the Tiretaine, borders the town on
the north. Since 1731 it has been composed of the two towns of
Clermont and Montferrand, now connected by a fine avenue of
walnut trees and willows, 2 m. in length, bordered on one side by
barracks. The watering-place of Royat lies a little more than
a mile to the west. Clermont has several handsome squares
ornamented with fountains, the chief of which is a graceful
structure erected by Bishop Jacques d'Amboise in 1515. The
streets of the older and busier quarter of Clermont in the
neighbourhood of the cathedral and the Place de Jaude, the
principal square, are for the most part narrow, sombre and
bordered by old nouses built of lava; boulevards divide this part
from more modern and spacious quarters, which adjoin it. To
the south lies the fine promenade known as the Jardin Lecoq.

The principal building is the cathedral, a Gothic edifice begun
in the i3th century. It was not completed, however, till the
igth century, when the west portal and towers and two bays
of the nave were added, according to the plans of Viollet-
le-Duc. The fine stained glass of the windows dates from the

I3th to the isth centuries. A monument of the Crusades with a
statue of Pope Urban II. stands in the Cathedral square. The
church of Notre-Dame du Port is a typical example of the
Romanesque style of Auvergne, dating chiefly from the nth and
1 2th centuries. The exterior of the choir, with its four radiating
chapels, its jutting cornices supported by modillions and columns
with carved capitals, and its mosaic decoration of black and white
stones, is the most interesting part of the exterior The rest of
the church comprises a nartbex surmounted by a tower, three
naves and a transept, over which rises another tower. There are
several churches of minor importance in the town. Among the
old houses one, dating from the i6th century, was the birthplace
of Blaise Pascal, whose statue stands in a neighbouring square.
There is a statue of General Louis Charles Desaix de Veygoux in
the Place de Jaude. Montferrand has several interesting houses
of the isth and i6th centuries, and a church of the I3th,i4th and
iSth centuries.

Clermont-Ferrand is the seat of a bishopric and a prefecture
and headquarters of the XIII. army corps; it has tribunals
of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators,
a chamber of commerce, an exchange and a branch of the Bank
of France. The town is the centre of an educational division
(academic), and has faculties of science and of literature. It also
has Iyc6es and training colleges for both sexes, ecclesiastical
seminaries, a preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy,
schools of architecture, music, commerce and industry, museums
of art and antiquities and natural history and a library. A
great variety of industries is carried on, the chief being the
manufacture of semolina and other farinaceous foods, con-
fectionery, preserved fruit and jams, chemicals and rubber goods.
Liqueurs, chicory, chocolate, candles, hats, boots and shoes,
and woollen and linen goods are also made, and tanning is
practised. Clermont is the chief market for the grain and other
agricultural produce of Auvergne and Velay. Its waters are in
local repute. On the bank of the Tiretaine there is a remarkable
calcareous spring, the fountain of St Allyre, the copious deposits
of which have formed a curious natural bridge over the stream.

Clermont is identified with the ancient Augustonemetum, the
chief town of the Arverni, and'it still preserves some remains of
the Roman period. The present name, derived from Clams
Mons and originally applied only to the citadel, was used of the
town as early as the gth century. During the disintegration of
the Roman empire Clermont suffered as much perhaps from
capture and pillage as any city in the country; its history during
the middle ages chiefly records the struggles between its bishops
and the counts of Auvergne, and between the citizens and their
overlord the bishop. It was the seat of seven ecclesiastical
councils, held in the years 535, 549, 587, 1095, mo, 1124 and
1130; and of these the council of 1095 is for ever memorable as
that in which Pope Urban II. proclaimed the first crusade.
In the wars against the English in the I4th and isth centuries
and the religious wars of the i6th century the town had its
full participation; and in 1665 it acquired a terrible notoriety
by the trial and execution of many members of the nobility
of Auvergne who had tyrannized over the neighbouring districts.
The proceedings lasted six months, and the episode is known
as les Grands Jours de Clermont. Before the Revolution the
town possessed several monastic establishments, of which the
most important were the abbey of Saint Allyre, founded, it is
said, in the 3rd century by St Austremonius (St Stremoine), the
apostle of Auvergne and first bishop of Clermont, and the abbey
of St Andre, where the counts of Clermont were interred.

CLERMONT-GANNEAU, CHARLES SIMON (1846- ),
French Orientalist, the son of a sculptor of some repute, was born
in Paris on the igth of February 1846. After an education
at the Ecole des Langues Orientales, he entered the diplo-
matic service as dragoman to the consulate at Jerusalem, and
afterwards at Constantinople. He laid the foundation of his
reputation by his discovery (in 1870) of the " stele " of Mesha
(Moabite Stone), which bears the oldest Semitic inscription
known. In 1874 he was employed by the British government to
take charge of an archaeological expedition to Palestine, and was

CLERMONT L'HERAULT CLERUCHY

499

subsequently entrusted by his own government with similar
missions to Syria and the Red Sea. He was made chevalier of
the Legion of Honour in 1875. After serving as vice-consul at
Jaffa from 1880 to 1882, he returned to Paris as " secrfitaire-
interprete " for oriental languages, and in 1886 was appointed
consul of the first class. He subsequently accepted the post of
director of the Ecole des Langues Orientales and professor at
the College de France. In 1889 he was elected a member of the
Academic des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, of which he had
been a correspondent since 1880. In 1896 he was promoted
to be consul-general, and was minister plenipotentiary in 1906.
He was the first in England to expose the famous forgeries of
Hebrew texts offered to the British Museum by M.W.Shapira(0.t>.)
in 1883, and in 1903 he took a prominent part in the investiga-
tion of the so-called " tiara of Saitapharnes." This tiara had been
purchased by the Louvre for 400,000 francs, and exhibited as
a genuine antique. Much discussion arose as to the perpetrators
of the fraud, some believing that it came from southern Russia.
It was agreed, however, that the whole object, except perhaps the
band round the tiara, was of modern manufacture.

His chief publications, besides a number of contributions to
journals, are: Palestine inconnue (1886), Eludes d'archeologie
orientate (1880, &c.), Les Fraudes archeologiques (1885), Recueil
d'archeologie orientate (1885, &c.), Album d antiquitcs orientates
(1897, &c.).

CLERHONT-L'HERAULT, or CLERMONT DE LODEVE, a town
of southern France in the department of Herault, 10 m. S.S.E.
by rail of Lodeve. Pop. (1906) 4731. The town is built on the
slope of a hill which is crowned by an ancient castle and skirted
by the Rhonel, a tributary of the Lergue. It has an interesting
church of the i3th and i4th centuries. The chief manufacture
is that of cloth for military clothing, and woollen goods, an
industry which dates from the latter half of the I7th century.
Tanning and leather-dressing are also carried on, and there is
trade in wine, wool and grain. Among the public institutions
are a tribunal of commerce, a chamber of arts and manufactures,
a board of trade-arbitration and a communal college. The town
was several times taken and retaken in the religious wars of
the 1 6th century.

CLERMONT-TONNERRE, the name of a French family,
members of which played some part in the history of France,
especially in Dauphine, from about noo to the Revolution.
Sibaud, lord of Clermont in Viennois, who first appears in 1080,
was the founder of the family. His descendant, another Sibaud,
commanded some troops which aided Pope Calixtus II. in his
struggle with the anti-pope Gregory VIII. ; and in return for this
service it is said that the pope allowed him to add certain em-
blems two keys and a tiara to the arms of his family. A
direct descendant, Ainard (d. 1349), called vicomte de Clermont,
was granted the dignity of captain-general and first baron of
Dauphine by his suzerain Humbert, dauphin of Viennois, in
1340; and in 1547 Clermont was made a county for Antoine
(d. 1578), who was governor of Dauphine and the French king's
lieutenant in Savoy. In 1572 Antoine's son Henri was created
a duke, but as this was only a " brevet " title it did not descend
to his son. Henri was killed before La Rochelle in 1573. In 1596
Henri's son, Charles Henri, count of Clermont (d. 1640), added
Tonnerre to his heritage; but in 1648 this county was sold by
his son and successor, Francois (d. 1679).

A member of a younger branch of Charles Henri's descendants
was Gaspard de Clermont-Tonnerre (1688-1781). This soldier
served his country during a long period, fighting in Bohemia
and Alsace, and then distinguishing himself greatly at the battles
of Fontenoy and Lawfeldt. In 1775 he was created duke of
Clermont-Tonnerre, and made a peer of France; as the senior
marshal (cr. 1 747) of France he assisted as constable at thecorona-
tion of Louis XVI. in 1774. His son and successor, Charles
Henri Jules, governor of Dauphin6, was guillotined in July 1794,
a fate which his grandson, Gaspard Charles, had suffered at Lyons
in the previous year. A later duke, Aime Marie Gaspard (1779-
1865), served for some years as a soldier, afterwards becoming
minister of marine and then minister of war under Charles X.,

and retiring into private life after the revolution of 1830. Aimfe's
grandson, Roger, duke of Clermont-Tonnerre, was born in 1842.

Among other distinguished members of this family was
Catherine (c. 1545-1603), only daughter of Claude de Clermont-
Tonnerre. This lady, dame d'honneur to Henry II.'s queen,
Catherine de' Medici, and afterwards wife of Albert de GoncU,
due de Retz, won a great reputation by her intellectual attain-
ments, being referred to as the " tenth muse " and the " fourth
grace." One of her grandsons was the famous cardinal de Retz.
Other noteworthy members of collateral branches of the family
were: Francois (1629-1701), bishop of Noyon from 1661 until
his death, a member of the French Academy, notorious for his
inordinate vanity; Stanislas M. A., comte de Clermont-Tonnerre
(q.v.) ; and Anne Antoine Jules (1740-1830), cardinal and bishop
of Chalons, who was a member of the states-general in 1789,
afterwards retiring into Germany, and after the return of the
Bourbons to France became archbishop of Toulouse.

CLERMONT-TONNERRE, STANISLAS MARIE ADELAIDE,
COMTE DE (1757-1792), French politican, was born at Pont-a-
Mousson on the loth of October 1757. At the beginning of the
Revolution he was a colonel, with some reputation as a free-
mason and a Liberal. He was elected to the states-general of
1789 by the noblesse of Paris, and was the spokesman of the
minority of Liberal nobles who joined the Third Estate on the
25th of June. He desired to model the new constitution of
France on that of England. He was elected president of the
Constituent Assembly on the I7th of August 1789; but on the
rejection by the Assembly of the scheme elaborated by the first
constitutional committee, he attached himself to the party of
moderate royalists, known as monarchiens, led by P. V. Malouet.
His speech in favour of reserving to the crown the right of
absolute veto under the new constitution drew down upon him
the wrath of the advanced politicians of the Palais Royal;
but in spite of threats and abuse he continued to advocate a
moderate liberal policy, especially in the matter of removing
the political disabilities of Jews and Protestants and of extending
the system of trial by jury. In January 1790 he collaborated
with Malouet in founding the Club des Impartiaux and the
Journal des Impartiaux, the names of which were changed in
November to the Societ6 des Amis de la ConstitutionMonarchique
and Journal de la Soctili, &c.. in order to emphasize their opposi-
tion to the Jacobins (Societ6 des Amis de la Constitution). This
club was denounced by Barnave in the Assembly (January 2ist,
1791), and on the 28th of March it was attacked by a mob,
whereupon it was closed by order of the Assembly. Clermont-
Tonnerre was murdered by the populace during the rising of the
9th and zoth of August 1792. He was an excellent orator,
having acquired practice in speaking, before the Revolution, in
the masonic lodges. He is a good representative of the type of
the grands seigneurs holding advanced and liberal ideas, who
helped to bring about the movement of 1789, and then tried
in vain to arrest its course.

See Recueil des opinions de Stanislas de Clermont-Tonnerre (4 vols.,
Paris, 1791), the text of his speeches as published by himself;
A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Constituante (2nd ed., Paris, 1905).

CLERUCHY (Gr. K\i]povxia, from icX^pos, a lot, l\ti, to have),
in ancient Greek history a kind of colony composed of Athenian l
citizens planted, practically as a garrison, in a conquered country.
Strictly, the settlers (cleruchs) were not colonists, inasmuch
as they retained their status as citizens of Athens (e.g. & orjtws
& tv 'H<cu0T) , and their allotments were politically part of
Attic soil. These settlements were of three kinds: (i) where
the earlier inhabitants were extirpated or expatriated, and the
settlers occupied the whole territory; (2) where the settlers
occupied allotments in the midst of a conquered people; and
(3) where the inhabitants gave up portions of land to settlers
in return for certain pecuniary concessions. The primary
object (cf . the 4000 cleruchs settled in 506 B.C. upon the lands of
the conquered oligarchs of Euboea, known as the Hippobotae)
was unquestionably military, and in the later days of the Delian

1 It seems (Strabo, p. 635) that similar colonies were sent out by
the Milesians, e.g. to Leros.

500

CLERVAUX CLEVELAND, DUCHESS OF

League the system was the simplest precaution against dis-
affection on the part of the allies, the strength of whose resent-
ment may be gathered from an inscription (Hicks and Hill, 101
[81]), which, in setting forth the terms of the second Delian
Confederacy, expressly forbids the holding of land by Athenians
in allied territory.

A secondary object of the cleruchies was social or agrarian,
to provide a source of livelihood to the poorer Athenians.
Plutarch (Pericles, n) suggests that Pericles by this means rid
the city of the idle and mischievous loafers; but it would
appear that the cleruchs were selected by lot, and in any case
a wise policy would not deliberately entrust important military
duties to recognized wastrels. When we remember that in 50
years of the sth century some 10,000 cleruchs went out, it is
clear that the drain on the citizen population was considerable.

It is impossible to decide precisely how far the state retained
control over the cleruchs. Certainly they were liable to military
service and presumably to that taxation which fell upon Athenians
at home. That they were not liable for the tribute which
members of the Delian League paid is clear from the fact that
the assessments of places where cleruchs were settled immedi-
ately went down considerably (cf. the Periclean cleruchies,
450-445); indeed, this follows from their status as Athenian
citizens, which is emphasized by the fact that they retained
then- membership of deme and tribe. In internal government
the cleruchs adopted the Boule and Assembly system of Athens
itself; so we read of Polemarchs, Archons Eponymi, Agoranomi,
Strategi, in various places. With a measure of local self-govern-
ment there was also combined a certain central authority (e.g.
in the matter of jurisdiction, some case being tried by the
Nautodicae at Athens); in fact we may assume that the more
important cases, particularly those between a cleruch and a
citizen at home, were tried before the Athenian dicasts. In a
few cases, the cleruchs, e.g. in the case of Lesbos (427), were
apparently allowed to remain in Athens receiving rent for their
allotments from the original Lesbian owners (Thuc. iii. 50);
but this represents the perversion of the original idea of the
cleruchy to a system of reward and punishment.

See G. Gilbert, Constitutional Antiquities of Athens and Sparta
(Eng. trans., London, 1895), but note that Brea, wrongly quoted
as an example, is not a cleruchy but a colony (Hicks and Hill, 41
[29]); A. H. J. Greenidge, Handbook of Greek Constitutional
Antiquities (London, 1896) ; for the Periclean cleruchs see PERICLES;
DELIAN LEAGUE.

CLERVAUX (clara vallis), a town in the northern province
of Oesling, grand-duchy of Luxemburg, on the Clerf, a tributary
of the Sflre. Pop. (1905) 866. In old days it was the fief of the
de Lannoy family, and the present proprietor is the bearer of a
name not less well known in Belgian history, the count de
Berlaymont. The old castle of the de Lannoys exists, and
might easily be restored, but. its condition is now neglected and
dilapidated. In 1798 the people of Clervaux specially distin-
guished themselves against the French in an attempt to resist
the institution of the conscription. The survivors of what was
called the Kloppel-krieg (the " cudgel war ") were shot, and a
fine monument commemorates the heroism of the men of
Clervaux.

CLETUS, formerly regarded as the name of one of the early
successors of St Peter in the see of Rome, or, according to
Epiphanius and Rufinus, as sharing the direction of the Roman
Church with Linus during Peter's lifetime. He has been identified
beyond doubt with Anencletus (?..). See Pere Colombier, in
Rev. des questions hist. Ap. ist, 1876, p. 413.

CLEVEDON, a watering-place in the northern parliamentary
division of Somersetshire, England, on the Bristol Channel,
15! m. W. of Bristol on a branch of the Great Western railway.
Pop. of urban district (1901) 5900. The cruciform church of
St Andrew has Norman and later portions; it is the burial-place
of Henry Hallam the historian, and members of his family,
including his sons Arthur and Henry. Clevedon Court is a
remarkable medieval mansion, dating originally from the early
part of the i4th century, though much altered in the Elizabethan
and other periods. The house is considered to be the original

of " Castlewood " in Thackeray's Esmond; the novelist was
acquainted with the place through his friendship with the Rev.
William Brookfield and his wife, the daughter of Sir Charles
Elton of Clevedon Court.

CLEVELAND, BARBARA VILLIERS, DUCHESS OF (1641-
1709), mistress of the English king Charles II., was the daughter
of William Villiers, 2nd Viscount Grandison (d. 1643), by his
wife Mary (d. 1684), daughter of Paul, ist Viscount Bayning.
In April 1659 Barbara married Roger Palmer, who was created
earl of Castlemaine two years later, and soon after this marriage
her intimacy with Charles II. began. The king was probably
the father of her first child, Anne, born in February 1661, although
the paternity was also attributed to one of her earliest lovers,
Philip Stanhope, 2nd earl of Chesterfield (1633-1713). Mistress
Palmer, as Barbara was called before her husband was made
an earl, was naturally much disliked by Charles's queen, Catherine
of Braganza, but owing to the insistence of the king she was
made a lady of the bedchamber to Catherine, and began to mix
in the political intrigues of the time, showing an especial hatred
towards Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon, who recipro-
cated this feeling and forbad his wife to visit her. Her house
became a rendezvous for the enemies of the minister, and
according to Pepys she exhibited a wild paroxysm of delight
when she heard of Clarendon's fall from power in 1667. Whilst
enjoying the royal favour Lady Castlemaine formed liaisons
with various gentlemen, which were satirized in public prints,
and a sharp quarrel which occurred between her and the king
in 1667 was partly due to this cause. But peace was soon made,
and her influence, which had been gradually rising, became
supreme at court in 1667 owing to the marriage of Frances
Stuart (la belle Stuart) (1648-1702) with Charles Stuart, 3rd
duke of Richmond (1640-1672). Accordingly Louis XIV. in-
structed his ambassador to pay special attention to Lady
Castlemaine, who had become a Roman Catholic in 1663.

In August 1670 she was created countess of Southampton
and duchess of Cleveland, with remainder to her first and third
sons, Charles and George Palmer, the king at this time not
admitting the paternity of her second son Henry; and she also
received many valuable gifts from Charles. An annual income
of 4700 from the post office was settled upon her, and also
other sums chargeable upon the revenue from the customs and
the excise, whilst she obtained a large amount of money from
seekers after office, and in other ways. Nevertheless her
extravagance and her losses at gaming were so enormous that
she was unable to keep up her London residence, Cleveland
House, St James's, and was obliged to sell the contents of her
residence at Cheam. About 1670 her influence over Charles
began to decline. She consoled herself meanwhile with lovers
of a less exalted station in life, among them John Churchill,
afterwards duke of Marlborough, and William Wycherley; by
1674 she had been entirely supplanted at court by Louise de
Keroualle, duchess of Portsmouth. Soon afterwards the duchess
of Cleveland went to reside in Paris, where she formed an intrigue
with the English ambassador, Ralph Montagu, afterwards 'duke
of Montagu (d. 1709), who lost his position through some revela-
tions which she made to the king. She returned to England
just before Charles's death in 1685. In July 1705 her husband,
the earl of Castlemaine, whom she had left hi 1662, died; and
in the same year the duchess was married to Robert (Beau)
Feilding (d. 1712), a union which was declared void in 1707,
as Feilding had a wife living. She died at Chiswick on the
9th of October 1 709.

Bishop Burnet describes her as " a woman of great beauty,
but most enormously vicious and ravenous, foolish but imperious,
ever uneasy to the king, and always carrying on intrigues with
other men, while yet she pretended she was jealous of him."
Dryden addressed Lady Castlemaine in his fourth poetical
Epistle in terms of great adulation, and Wycherley dedicated
to her his first play, Love in a Wood. Her portrait was frequently
painted by Sir Peter Lely and others, and many of these portraits
are now found in various public and private collections. By
Charles II. she had three sons and either one or two daughters.

CLEVELAND, J. CLEVELAND, GROVER

SGI

She had also in 1686 a son by the actor Cardonnell Goodman
(d. 1699), and one or two other daughters.

Her eldest son, Charles Fitzroy (1662-1730), was created in
1675 earl of Chichester and duke of Southampton, and became
duke of Cleveland and earl of Southampton on his mother's
death. Her second son, Henry (1663-1690), was created earl
of Euston in 1672 and duke of Grafton in 1675; by his wife
Isabella, daughter of Henry Bennet, earl of Arlington, he was
the direct ancestor of the later dukes of Grafton; he was the
most popular and the most able of the sons of Charles II., saw a
considerable amount of military service, and met his death
through a wound received at the storming of Cork. Her third
son, George (1665-1716), was created duke of Northumberland
in 1683, and died without issue, after having served in the
army. Her daughters were Anne (1661-1722), married in 1674
to Thomas Lennard, Lord Dacre (d. 1715), who was created
earl of Sussex in 1684; Charlotte (1664-1718), married in 1677
to Edward Henry Lee, earl of Lichfield (d. 1716); and Barbara
(1672-1737), the reputed daughter of John Churchill, who
entered a nunnery in France, and became by James Douglas,
afterwards 4th duke of Hamilton (1658-1712), the mother of an
illegitimate son, Charles Hamilton (1691-1754).

The first husband of the duchess, Roger Palmer, earl of
Castlemaine (1634-1 705), diplomatist and author, was an ardent
Roman Catholic, who defended his co-religionists in several
publications. Having served in the war against Holland in
1665-67, he wrote in French an account of this struggle,
which was translated into English and published by T. Price
in London in 1671. Having been denounced by Titus Gates
as a Jesuit, he was tried and acquitted, afterwards serving
James II. as ambassador to Pope Innocent XI., a mission which
led to a brief imprisonment after the king's flight from England.
Subsequently his Jacobite sympathies caused him to be suspected
by the government, and his time was mainly spent either in
prison or in exile. The earl died at Oswestry on the 2ist of
July 1705.

The title of duke of Cleveland, which had descended in 1 709
to Charles Fitzroy, together with that of duke of Southampton,
became extinct when Charles's son William, the 2nd duke, died
without issue in 1774. One of the first duke's daughters, Grace,
was married in 1725 to Henry Vane, 3rd Baron Barnard, after-
wards earl of Darlington (d. 1758), and their grandson William
Henry Vane (1766-1842) was created duke of Cleveland in 1833.
The duke was succeeded in the title in turn by three of his sons,
who all died without male issue; and consequently when Harry
George, the 4th duke, died in 1891 the title again became extinct.

Previous to the creation of the dukedom of Cleveland there
was an earldom of Cleveland which was created in 1626 in
favour of Thomas, 4th Baron Wentworth (1591-1667), and
which became extinct on his death.

See the article CHARLES II. and the bibliography thereto; G. S.
Steinmann, Memoir of Barbara, duchess of Cleveland (London, 1871),
and Addenda (London, 1874); and the articles ("Villiers, Barbara"
.and " Palmer, Roger ") in the Dictionary of National Biography,
vols. xliii. and Iviii. (London, 1895-1899).

CLEVELAND (or CLEIVELAND), JOHN (1613-1658), English
poet and satirist, was born at Loughborough, where he was
baptized on the 2oth of June 1613. His father was assistant to
the rector and afterwards vicar of Hinckley. John Cleveland was
educated at Hinckley school under Richard Vines, who is
described by Fuller as a champion of the Puritan party. In his
fifteenth year he was entered at Christ's College, Cambridge, and
in 1634 was elected to a fellowship at St John's. He took his
M.A. degree in 1635, and was appointed college tutor and reader
in rhetoric. His Latinity and oratorical powers were warmly
praised by Fuller, who also commends the " lofty fancy " of his
verse. He eagerly opposed the candidature of Oliver Cromwell
as M.P. for Cambridge, and when the Puritan party triumphed
there Cleveland, like many other Cambridge students, found his
way (1643) to Oxford. His gifts as a satirist were already known,
and he was warmly received by the king, whom he followed (1645)
to Newark. In that year he was formally deprived of his

Cambridge fellowship as a " malignant." He was judge-
advocate in the garrison at Newark, and under the governor
defended the town until in 1646 Charles I. ordered the surrender
of the place to Leslie; when there is a curious story that the
Scottish general contemptuously dismissed him as a mere
ballad-monger. He saw Charles's error in giving himself into the
hands of the Scots, and his indignation when they surrendered
the king to the Parliament is expressed in the vigorous verses of
" The Rebel Scot," the sting of which survives even now.
Cleveland wandered over the country depending on the alms of
the Royalists for bread. He at length found a refuge at Norwich
in the house of Edward Cooke, but in 1655 ne was arrested as
being of no particular occupation, and moreover a man whose
great abilities " rendered him able to do the greater disservice."
He spent three months in prison at Yarmouth, but was released
by order of Cromwell, to whom he addressed a manly appeal, in
which he declared his fidelity to the royal house, pointing out at
the same time that his poverty and inoffensiveness were sufficient
assurance that his freedom was no menace to Cromwell's govern-
ment. He was released early in 1656, and seems to have renewed
his wanderings, finding his way eventually to Gray's Inn, where
Aubrey says he and Samuel Butler had a " club " every night.
There he died on the 29th of April 1658.

Cleveland's poems were more highly esteemed than Milton's by
his contemporaries, and his popularity is attested by the very
numerous editions of his works. His poems are therefore of
great value as an index to the taste of the i7th century. His
verse is frequently obscure and full of the far-fetched conceits
of the " metaphysical " poets, none of whom surpassed the in-
genuity of " Fuscara, or the Bee Errant." His satires are
vigorous personal attacks, the interest of which is, from the
nature of the subject, often ephemeral; but the energy of his
invective leaves no room for obscurity in such pieces as " Smec-
tymnuus, or the Club Divines," " Rupertismus " and " The Rebel
Scot."

Cleveland's works are: " Character of a London Diurnal," a
broadside; Monumentum regale. . . (1649), chiefly by Cleveland,
containing three of his elegies on the king; " The King's Dis-
guise " (1646); " On the Memory of Mr Edward King," in the
collection of verse which also included Milton's " Lycidas," and
many detached poems.

For a bibliographical account of Cleveland's peoms see J. M.
Berdan, The Poems of John Cleveland (New York, 1903), in which
there is a table of the contents of twenty-three editions, of which
the chief are: The Character of a London Diurnal, with Several
Select Poems (1647); Poems. By John Cleavland. With additions,
never before printed (1659); /. Clsaveland Revived . . . (1659), in
which the editor, E. Williamson, says he inserted poems by other
authors, trusting to the critical facujty of the readers to distinguish
Cleveland's work from the rest; Clievelandi Vindiciae . . . (1677),
edited by two of Cleveland's former pupils, Bishop Lake and S.
Drake, who profess to take out the spurious pieces; and a careless
compilation, The Works of John Cleveland . . . (1687), containing
poems taken from all these sources. A prefatory note by Williamson
makes it clear that only a small proportion of Cleveland's political
poems have survived, many of them having been dispersed in JMS.
among his friends and so lost, and that he refused to authenticate
an edition of his works, although most of the earlier collections were
genuine.

CLEVELAND, STEPHEN GROVER (1837-1908), president of
the United States from 1885 to 1889, and again from 1893 to
1897, was born, the fifth in a family of nine children, in the
village of Caldwell, Essex county, New Jersey, on the i8th of
March 1837. His father, Richard F. Cleveland, a clergyman of
the Presbyterian Church, was of geod colonial stock, a descendant
of Moses Cleveland, who emigrated from Ipswich, England, to
Massachusetts in 1635. The family removed to Fayetteville,
N.Y., and afterwards to Clinton, N.Y. It was intended that
young Grover should be educated at Hamilton College, but this
was prevented by his father's death in 1 8 5 2 . A few years later he
drifted westward with twenty-five dollars in his pocket, and the
autumn of 1855 found him in a law office in the city of Buffalo.
At the end of four years (1859), he was admitted to the bar.

In 1863 he was appointed assistant district attorney of Erie
county, of which Buffalo is the chief city. This was his first

502

CLEVELAND, GROVER

public office, and it came to him, like all later preferments,
without any solicitation of his own. Two years later (1865) he
was the Democratic candidate for district attorney, but was
defeated. In 1869 Cleveland was nominated by the Democratic
party for the office of sheriff, and, despite the fact t'^at Erie
county was normally Republican by a decisive majority, was
elected. The years immediately succeeding his retirement from
the office of sheriff in 1873 he devoted exclusively to the practice
of law, coming to be generally recognized as one of the leaders
of the western New York bar. In the autumn of 1881 he was
nominated by the Democrats for mayor of Buffalo. The city
government had been characterized by extravagance and
maladministration, and a revolt of the independent voters at the
polls overcame the usual Republican majority and Cleveland was
elected. As mayor he attracted wide attention by his inde-
pendence and business-like methods, and under his direction the
various departments of the city government were thoroughly
reorganized. His ability received further recognition when in
1882 he was nominated by his party as its candidate for governor.
The Republican party in the state was at that time weakened by
the quarrels between the " Stalwart " and " Halfbreed " factions
within its ranks; and the Democrats were thus given an initial
advantage which was greatly increased by the Republicans'
nomination for governor of Charles J. Folger (1818-1884), then
secretary of the treasury. Secretary Folger was a man of high
character and ability, who had been chief justice of the New York
supreme court when placed in control of the treasury department
by President Arthur in 1881. But the cry of Federal interference
was raised as a result of the methods employed in securing his
nomination, and this, together with the party division and the
popularity of Cleveland, brought about Cleveland's election by
the unprecedented plurality of 192,854. As governor Cleveland's
course was marked by the sterling qualities that he had displayed
in his other public positions. His appointees were chosen for
their business qualifications. The demands of party leaders were
made subordinate to public interests. He promoted the passage
of a good civil service law. All bills passed by the legislature
were subjected to the governor's laborious personal scrutiny, and
the veto power was used without fear or favour.

In 1884 the Democratic party had been out of power in
national affairs for twenty-three years. In this year, however,
the generally disorganized state of the Republican party seemed
to give the Democrats an unusual opportunity. Upon a platform
which called for radical reforms in the administrative depart-
ments, the civil service, and the national finances, Cleveland was
nominated for president, despite the opposition of the strong
Tammany delegation from his own state. The nominee of the
Republican party, James G. Elaine (q. v.) of Maine, had received
the nomination only after a contest in which violent personal
animosities were aroused. The campaign that followed was one
of the bitterest political contests in American history. The
Republican party was still further weakened by the defection of
a large body of independents, known as " Mugwumps." The
result was close, but Cleveland carried New York, and was
elected, obtaining a majority in the electoral college of 219 to 182.

Cleveland's first term was uneventful, but was marked by
firmness, justice and steady adherence on his part to the principles
which he deemed salutary to the nation. He was especially
concerned in promoting a non-partisan civil service. Congress
in 1883 had passed the " Pendleton Bill " (introduced by Senator
George H. Pendleton) to classify the subordinate places in the
service, and to make entrance to it, and promotion therein,
depend upon competitive examination of applicants, instead
of mere political influence. The first test of the efficiency and
permanence of this law came with the shifting of political power
at Washington. The new president stood firmly by the new law.
It applied only to places of the rank of clerkships, but the pre-
sident was authorized to add others to the classified service from
time to time. He added 11,757 during his first term.

President Cleveland made large use of the veto power upon
bills passed by Congress, vetoing or "pocketing" during his
first term 413 bills, more than two-thirds of which were private

pension bills. The most important bill vetoed was the Dependent
Pension Bill, a measure of extreme profligacy, opening the door,
by the vagueness of its terms, to enormous frauds upon the
treasury. In 1887 there was a large and growing surplus in the
treasury. As this money was drawn from the channels of business
and locked up in the public vaults, the president looked upon
the condition as fraught with danger to the commercial com-
munity and he addressed himself to the task of reducing taxation.
About two- thirds of the public revenue was derived from duties on
imports, in the adjustment of which the doctrine of protection
to native industry had a large place. Cleveland attacked the
system with great vigour in his annual message of 1887. He
did not propose the adoption of free trade, but the administration
tariff measure, known as the -Mills Bill, from its introducer
Congressman Roger Q. Mills (b. 1832) of Texas, passed the House,
and although withdrawn owing to amendments in the Republican
Senate, it alarmed and exasperated the protected classes, among
whom were many Democrats, and spurred them to extraordinary
efforts to prevent his re-election.

In the following year (1888), however, the Democrats re-
nominated Cleveland, and the Republicans nominated Benjamin
Harrison of Indiana. The campaign turned on the tariff issue,
and Harrison was elected, receiving 233 electoral votes to 168
for Cleveland, who however received a popular plurality of more
than 100,000. Cleveland retired to private life and resumed the
practice of the law in New York. He had married on the and
of June 1886 Miss Frances Folsom, a daughter of a former law
partner in Buffalo.

Congress had passed a law in 1878 requiring the treasury
department to purchase a certain amount of silver bullion
each month and coin it into silver dollars to be full legal tender.
As no time had been fixed for this operation to cease, it amounted
to an unlimited increase of a kind of currency that circulated
at a nominal value much above its real value. Both political
parties were committed to this policy, and strong passions were
aroused whenever it was called in question. Cleveland had
written a letter for publication before he became president,
saying that a financial crisis of great severity must result if this
coinage were continued, and expressing the hope that Congress
would speedily put an end to it. In 1890 Congress, now con-
trolled by the Republican party, passed the McKinley Bill, by
which the revenues of the government were reduced by more
than $60,000,000 annually, chiefly through a repeal of the sugar
duties. At the same time expenditures were largely increased
by liberal pension legislation, and the government's purchase of
silver bullion almost doubled by the provisions of the new
Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890.

In 1892 Cleveland was nominated for president a third time
in succession. President Harrison was nominated by the
Republicans. Cleveland received 277 electoral votes and
Harrison 145, and 22 were cast for James B. Weaver (b. 1833)
of Iowa, the candidate of the " People's " party. Cleveland's
second term embraced some notable events. The most important
was the repeal of the silver legislation, which had been a growing
menace for fifteen years. Nearly $600,000,000 of " fiat money "
had been thrust into the channels of commerce in addition to
$346,000,000 of legal tender notes that had been issued during
the Civil War. A reserve of $100,000,000 of gold had been
accumulated for the redemption of these notes. In April 1893
the reserve fell below this sum. President Cleveland called an
extra session of Congress to repeal the Silver Law. The House
promptly passed the repealing act. In the Senate there was a
protracted struggle. The Democrats now had a majority of that
body and they were more decidedly pro-silver tha-n the Re-
publicans. The president had undertaken to coerce his own
party to do something against its will, and it was only by the aid
of the Republican minority that the passage of the repealing bill
was at last made possible (October 3oth). The mischief, how-
ever, was not ended. The deficit in the treasury made it inevit-
able that the gold reserve should be used to meet current ex-
penses. Holders of the government's legal tender notes anticipat-
ing this fact presented them for redemption. Borrowing was

CLEVELAND

resorted to by the government. Bonds were issued and sold
to the amount of $162,000,000. The business world was in a
state of constant agitation. Bank failures were numerous and
commercial distress widespread . Among the consequences of the
panic was a reduction of wages in many employments, accom-
panied by labour troubles more or less serious. The centre of
disturbance was the Pullman strike at Chicago (q.ii.), whence
the disorder extended to the Pacific coast, causing riot and
bloodshed in many places. President Cleveland waited a reason-
able time, as he conceived, for Governor Altgeld of Illinois
to put an end to the disorder in that state. On the 6th of July
1894, despite Governor Altgeld's protest, he directed the military
forces of the United States to clear the way for trains carrying
the mails. The rioters in and around Chicago were dispersed
in a single d*ay, and within a week the strike was broken.

Another important event was the action of the government
as regards the question of arbitration between Great Britain and
Venezuela (q.v.), in which Richard Olney, the secretary of state,
played a somewhat aggressive part. On the lyth of December
1895 President Cleveland sent to Congress a special message
calling attention to Great Britain's action in regard to the
disputed boundary line between British Guiana and Venezuela,
and declaring the necessity of action by the United States to
prevent an infringement of the Monroe Doctrine. Congress
at once appiopriated funds for an American commission to
investigate the matter. The diplomatic situation became for
the moment very acute, but after a short period of bellicose
talk the common-sense of both countries prevailed. Negotiations
with Great Britain ensued, and before the American special
commission finished its work, Great Britain had agreed,
November 1896, to arbitrate on terms which safeguarded the
national dignity on both sides.

Cleveland's independence was nowhere more strikingly shown
during his second term than in his action in regard to the tariff
legislation of his party in Congress. A tariff bill introduced
in the House by William Lyne Wilson (1843-1900), of West
Virginia, chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means, was
so amended in the Senate, through the instrumentality of
Senator Arthur Pue Gorman and a coterie of anti-administration
democratic senators, that when the bill eventually came before
him, although unwilling to veto it, the president signified his
dissatisfaction with its too high rates by allowing it to become
a law without his signature. Cleveland's second administration
began by vigorous action in regard to Hawaii; he at once
withdrew from the Senate the annexation treaty which President
Harrison had negotiated.

During his second term Cleveland added 44,004 places in the
civil service to the classified list, bringing them within the rules
of the merit system. This was a greater number than all that
had been placed in the list before, and brought the whole number
up to 86,932. Toward the end of his second term the president
became very much out of accord with his party on the free-silver
question, in consequence of which the endorsement of the
administration was withheld by the Democratic national conven-
tion at Chicago in 1896. In the ensuing campaign the president
and his cabinet, with the exception of Hoke Smith (b. 1855),
secretary of the interior, who resigned, gave their support to
Palmer and Buckner, the National, or " Sound Money " Demo-
cratic nominees.

Cleveland's second term expired on the 4th of March 1897,
and he then retired into private life, universally respected and
constantly consulted, in the university town of Princeton, New
Jersey, where he died on the 24th of June 1908. He was a
trustee of Princeton University and Stafford Little lecturer on
public affairs. Chosen in 1905 as a member of a committee of
three to act as trustees of the majority of the stock of the Equit-
able Life Assurance Company, he promoted the reorganization
and the mutualization of that company, and acted as rebate
referee for it and for the Mutual and New York Life insurance
companies. He published Presidential Problems (New York,
1904), made up in part of lectures at Princeton University, and
Fishing and Hunting Sketches (1906).

A large amount of magazine literature has been devoted to
President Cleveland's career. W. O. Stoddard's Graver Cleveland
(1888; " Lives of the Presidents" series) and J. Lowry Whittle's
Graver Cleveland (1896; " Public Men of To-day " series) are
judicious volumes; and " Campaign Biographies " (1884) were
written by W. Dorsheimcr, F. E. Goodrich, P. King and
D. Welch. See articles by Woodrow Wilson (Atlantic Monthly,
vol. 79; "Cleveland as President"); Carl Schurz (McClure's
Magazine, vol. ix. ; " Second Administration of Grover Cleve-
land ") ; William Allen White (McClure's, vol. 18, " Character
Sketch of Cleveland "), and Henry L. Nelson (North American
Review, vol. 188). Also Jesse L. Williams, Mr Cleveland: A
Personal Impression (1909). (H. WH.)

CLEVELAND, a city and port of entry in the state of Ohio,
U.S.A., and the county-seat of Cuyahoga county, the sizth
largest city in the United States. It is on Lake Erie at the
mouth of Cuyahoga river, about 260 m. N.E. of Cincinnati,
357 m. E. of Chicago, and 623 m. W. by N. of New York. Pop.
(1800) 261,353; (190) 381,768, of whom 124,631 were foreign-
born, 288,591 were of foreign parentage (i.e. having one or
both parents foreign-born), and 5988 were negroes; (1910)
560,663. Of the 124,631, who in 1900 were foreign-born,
Germans were greatly predominant (40,648, or 32-6%), with the
Bohemians (13,599, or IO- 9%) and Irish (13,120, or 10-6%) next
in importance, the Bohemians being later comers than the Irish.
The city commands pleasant views from its position on a
plateau, which, at places on bluffs along the shore, has elevations
of about 75 ft. above the water below, and rises gradually
toward the S.E. to 115 ft. and on the extreme E. border to more
than 200 ft. above the lake, or about 800 ft. above sea-level;
the surface has, however, been cut deeply by the Cuyahoga,
which here pursues a meandering course through a valley about
m. wide, and is also broken by several smaller streams. The
city's shore-line is more than 12 m. long. The city varies
considerably in width, and occupies a total area of about 41
sq. m., much the greater part of which is E. of the river. The
streets are of unusual width (varying from 60 ft. to 132 ft.);
are paved chiefly with Medina dressed stone, brick and asphalt;
and, like the parks, are so well shaded by maples, elms and
other trees, that Cleveland has become known as the " Forest
City." The municipality maintains an efficient forestry depart-
ment. About $ m. from the lake and the same distance E. of
the river is the Public Square, or Monumental Park, in the
business centre of the city. Thence the principal thoroughfares
radiate. The river is spanned with bridges, and its valley by
two viaducts, the larger of which (completed in 1878 at a cost
of more than $2,000,000), 3211 ft. long, 64 ft. wide, and 68 ft.
above water, connects Superior Avenue on the E. with Detroit
Avenue on the W. The Central Viaduct, finished in 1888,
extends from Central Avenue to W. I4th Street, and there
connects with a smaller viaduct across Walworth Run, the
combined length of the two being about 4000 ft. Another
viaduct (about 830 ft. long) crosses Kingsbury Run a short
distance above its mouth. Lower Euclid Avenue (the old
country road to Euclid, O., and Erie, Pa.) is given up to com-
mercial uses; the eastern part of the avenue has handsome
houses with spacious and beautifully ornamented grounds,
and is famous as one of the finest residence streets in the country.
Sections of Prospect Avenue, E. 4oth, E. 93rd, E. 75th, E. 55th,
W. 44th and E. 79th streets also have many fine residences.
The principal business thoroughfares are Superior Avenue
(132 ft. wide), the W. part of Euclid Avenue, and Ontario St.
The manufacturing quarters are chiefly in the valley of the
Cuyahoga, and along the railway tracks entering the city, chiefly
on the E. side. In 1902 the city arranged for grouping its
public buildings in the so-called " Group Plan " at a cost of
$25,000,000. The court-house and city hall are on the bluff
overlooking Lake Erie; 1000 ft. south are the Federal post-
office and the public library. The Mall connecting the court-
house and city hall with the post-office and library is 600 ft.
wide; on one side of it is the grand music-hall, on the other a
fine art gallery. The six granite buildings forming this quadrangle
were built under the supervision of Arnold Brunner, a govern-
ment architect, and of John M. Carrere and D. H. Burnharu,

CLEVELAND

who planned the buildings at the Pan-American Exposition
and the Chicago World's Fair respectively. The city has,
besides, numerous fine office buildings, including that of the
Society for Savings (an institution in which each depositor is
virtually a stockholder), the Citizens', Rose, Williamson, Rocke-
feller, New England and Garfield buildings; and several beautiful
churches, notably the Roman Catholic and Trinity cathedrals,
the First Presbyterian (" Old Stone "), the Second Presbyterian,
the First Methodist and Plymouth (Congregational) churches.
The Arcade, between Euclid and Superior avenues, and the
Colonial Arcade, between Euclid and Prospect avenues, are
office and retail store buildings worthy of mention. The former,
finished in 1889, is 400 ft. long, 180 ft. wide, and 140 ft. high,
with a large interior court, overlooked by five balconies. The
Colonial Arcade contains a hotel as well; it was finished in 1898.
In the Public Square is a soldiers' and sailors' monument consist-
ing of a granite shaft rising from a memorial room to a height
of 125 ft., and surmounted with a figure of Liberty; in the same
park, also, is a bronze statue of Moses Cleaveiand, the founder
of the city. On a commanding site in Lake View Cemetery is
the Garfield Memorial (finished in 1890) in the form of a tower
(165 ft. high), designed by George Keller and built mostly of
Ohio sandstone; in the base is a chapel containing a statue
of Garfield and several panels on which are portrayed various
scenes in his life; his remains are in the crypt below the statue.
A marble statue of Commodore Oliver H. Perry, erected in
commemoration of his victory on Lake Erie in 1813, is in Wade
Park, where there is also a statue of Harvey Rice (1800-1891),
who reformed the Ohio public school system and wrote Pioneers
of the Western Reserve (1882) and Sketches of Western Life (1888).

The parks contain altogether more than 1 500 acres. A chain of
parks connected by driveways follows the picturesque valley of
Doan Brook on the E. border of the city. At the mouth of the
brook and on the lake front is the beautiful Gordon Park of 122
acres, formerly the private estate of William J. Gordon but given
by him to the city in 1893; from this extends up the Doan Val-
ley the large Rockefeller Park, which was given to the city in 1896
by John D. Rockefeller and others, and which extends to and
adjoins Wade Park (85 acres; given by J. H. Wade) in which are
a zoological garden and a lake. Lake View Park along the lake
shore contains only 103 acres, but is a much frequented resting-
place near the business centre of the city, and affords pleasant
views of the lake and its commerce. Monumental Park is
divided into four sections (containing about i acre each) by
Superior Avenue and Ontario Street. Of the several cemeteries,
Lake View (about 300 acres), on an elevated site on the E. border,
is by far the largest and most beautiful, its natural beauty
having been enhanced by the landscape gardener. Besides
Garfield, John Hay and Marcus A. Hanna are buried here.

Education. Cleveland has an excellent public school system.
A general state law enacted in 1904 placed the management of
school affairs in the hands of an elective council of seven members,
five chosen at large and two by districts. This board has power
to appoint a school director and a superintendent of instruction.
The superintendent appoints the teaching force, the director all
other employes; appointments are subject to confirmation by
the board, and all employes are subject to removal by the
executive officials alone. The " Cleveland plan," in force in the
public schools, minimizes school routine, red tape and frequent
examinations, puts great stress on domestic and manual training
courses, and makes promotion in the grammar schools depend on
the general knowledge and development of the pupil, as estimated
by a teacher who is supposed to make a careful study of the
individual. In 1909 there were 8 high schools and 90 grammar
schools in the city; more than $2,500,000 is annually expended
by Cleveland on its public schools. Besides the public school
system there are many parochial schools; the University school,
with an eight years' course; the Western Reserve University,
with its medical school (opened in 1843), the Franklin T. Backus
Law School (1892), the dental department (1892), Adelbert
College (until 1882 the Western Reserve College, founded in 1826,
at Hudson, Ohio), the College for Women (1888), and the

Library school (1904); St Ignatius College (Roman Catholic,
conducted by the Fathers of the Society of Jesus; incorporated
1890), which has an excellent meteorological observatory; St
Mary's theological seminary (Roman Catholic) ; the Case School
of Applied Science, founded in 1880 by Leonard Case (1820-1880),
and opened in 1881; the Cleveland College of Physicians and
Surgeons (founded in 1863; from 1869 until 1896 the medical
department of the University of Wooster; since 1896 a part of
Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, Ohio), the Cleveland
Homeopathic Medical College, the Cleveland School of Pharmacy,
the Cleveland Art School, and a school for the deaf, dumb and
blind. In 1907-1908 Western Reserve University had 193
instructors and 914 students (277 in Adelbert College; 269 in
College for Women; 20 in graduate department; and 102 in
medical, 133 in law, 75 in dental and 51 in Library school); and
the Case School of Applied Science 40 instructors and 440 students.
The public library contained 330,000 volumes in 1908, the Case
library (subscription) 65,000 volumes, the Hatch library of
Adelbert College about 56,000 volumes, the library of the Western
Reserve Historical Society 22,500 volumes, and the Cleveland
law library, in the court house, 20,000 volumes.

The city has a highly developed system of charitable and
corrective institutions. A farm of more than 1600 acres, the
Cleveland Farm Colony, 1 1 m. from the city, takes the place of
workhouses, and has many cottages in which live those of the
city's poor who were formerly classed as paupers and were sent to
poorhouses, and who now apply their labour to the farm and are
relieved from the stigma that generally attaches to inmates of
poorhouses. On the " farm " the city maintains an " infirmary
village," a tuberculosis sanatorium, a detention hospital, a
convalescent hospital and houses of correction. On a farm 22m.
from the city is the Boyville Home (maintained in connexion with
the juvenile court) for " incorrigible " boys. The " cottage "
plan has been adopted; each cottage is presided over by a man
and wife whom the boys call father and mother. The boys have a
government of their own, elect their officials from among them-
selves, and inflict such punishment on any of their number as
the boys deem merited. Besides the city, there are the Northern
Ohio (for the insane, founded in 1855), the Cleveland general,
Lake Side (endowed), St Alexis and the Charity hospitals (the
last managed by Sisters of Charity). The Goodrich House (1897),
the Hiram House and the Alta House are among the best
equipped and most efficient social settlements in the country.
Cleveland has also its orphan asylums, homes for the aged,
homes for incurables, and day nurseries, besides a home for
sailors, homes for young working women, and retreats for
unfortunate girls. The various charity and benevolent institu-
tions are closely bound together on a co-operative basis by the
agency of the associated charities.

The principal newspapers of the city are the Plain Dealer
(1841, independent), the Press (1878, independent), the
Leader (1847, Republican), and the News (1889, Republican).
Bohemian, Hungarian and German dailies are published.

Municipal Enterprise. Municipal ownership has been a great-
er issue in Cleveland than in any other large city in the United
States, chiefly because of the advocacy of Tom Loftin Johnson
(born 1854), a street-railway owner, iron manufacturer, an
ardent single-taxer, who was elected mayor of the city in 1901,
1903, 1905 and 1907. The municipality owns the water-works,
a small electric-light plant, the garbage plant and bath houses.
The city water is pumped to reservoirs, through a tunnel 9 ft. in
diameter 60 ft. below the bottom of the lake, from an intake
situated a distance of 26,500 ft. from the shore. The system has
a delivery capacity of 80,000,000 gallons daily. The department
serves about 70,000 consumers. All water is metered and sells
for 40 cents per thousand cub. ft., or 5 barrels for i cent. The
municipal electric-lighting plant does not seriously compete with
the private lighting company. The municipal garbage plant
(destructor) collects and reduces to fertilizer ico tons of garbage
per day. The sale of the fertilizer more than pays for the cost of
reduction, and the only expense the city has is in collecting it.
In the city's six bath houses the average number of baths per day,

CLEVELAND

505

per house, in 1906, was 1165. The municipal street cleaning
department cleans all streets by the wet process. To do this the
city maintained (1006) 24 flushing wagons working 2 shifts of 8
hours each per day. A new street car company began operations
on the ist of November 1006, charging a 3 cent fare. The grants
of this company were owned by the Forest City RailwayCompany
and the property was leased to the Municipal Traction Company
(on behalf of the public the city itself not being empowered to
own and operate street railways). In 1908 the Cleveland Electric
Street Railway Corporation (capital $23,000,000), which owned
most of the electric lines in the city, was forced to lease its
property to the municipality's holding company, receiving a
" security franchise," providing that under certain circumstances
(e.g. if the holding company should default in its payment of
interest) the property was to revert to the corporation, which
was then to charge not more than twenty-five cents for six
tickets. In October 1908, at a special election, the security
franchise was invalidated, and the entire railway system was
put in the hands of receivers. In 1909 Johnson was defeated.
In 1910 a 25-year franchise was granted to the Cleveland Rail-
way Company, under which a 3-cent fare is required if the com-
pany can earn 6$ on that basis, and 4 cents (7 tickets for 25
cents) is the maximum fare, with a cent transfer charge, re-
turned when the transfer is used.

Commerce. To meet the demands of the rapidly increasing
commerce the harbour has been steadily improved. In 1908 it
consisted of two distinct parts, the outer harbour being the 'work
of the federal government, and the inner harbour being under the
control of the city. The outer harbour was formed by two
breakwaters enclosing an area of 2 m. long and 1700 ft. wide;
the main entrance, 500 ft. wide, lying opposite the mouth of the
Cuyahoga river, 1350 ft. distant. The depth of the harbour
ranges from 21 to 26 ft.; and by improving this entrance, so as
to make it 700 ft. wide, and 1000 ft. farther from the shore, and
extending the east breakwater 3 m., the capacity of the outer
harbour has been doubled. The inner harbour comprises the
Cuyahoga, the old river bed, and connecting slips. The channel at
the mouth of the river (325 ft. wide) is lined on the W. side by a
concrete jetty 1054 ft. long, and on the E. side by commercial
docks. The river and old river bed furnish about 13 m. of safe
dock frontage, the channel having been dredged for 6 m. to a
depth of 21 ft. The commerce of the harbour of Cleveland in 1907
was 12,872,448 tons.

Cleveland's rapid growth both as a commercial and as a
manufacturing city is due largely to its situation between the
iron regions of Lake Superior and the coal and oil regions of
Pennsylvania and Ohio. Cleveland is a great railway centre
and is one of the most important ports on the Great Lakes. The
city is served by the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern; the New
York, Chicago & St Louis; the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago
& St Louis; the Pennsylvania; the Erie; the Baltimore & Ohio;
and the Wheeling & Lake Erie railways; by steamboat lines to
the principal ports on the Great Lakes; and by an extensive
system of inter-urban electric lines. Cleveland is the largest
ore market in the world, and its huge ore docks are among its
most interesting features; the annual receipts and shipments
of coal and iron ore are enormous. It is also the largest market
for fresh-water fish in America, and handles large quantities of
lumber and grain. The most important manufactures are iron
and steel, carriage hardware, electrical supplies, bridges, boilers,
engines, car wheels, sewing machines, printing presses, agri-
cultural implements, and various other commodities made wholly
or chiefly from iron and steel. Other important manufactures
are automobiles (value, 1905, $4,256,979) and telescopes. More
steel wire, wire nails, and bolts and nuts are made here than in
any other city in the world (the total value for iron and steel
products as classified by the census was, in 1905, $42,930,995,
and the value of foundry and machine-shop products in the same
year was $18,832,487), and more merchant vessels than in any
other American city. Cleveland is the headquarters of the
largest shoddy mills in the country (value of product, 1905,
$1,084,594), makes much clothing (1905, $10,426,535), manu-

factures a large portion of the chewing gum made in the United
States, and is the site of one of the largest refineries of the
Standard Oil Company. The product of Cleveland breweries
in 1905 was valued at $3,986,059, and of slaughtering and meat-
packing houses in the same year at $10,426,535. The total
value of factory products in 1005 was $172,115,101, an increase
of 36-4% since 1900; and between 1900 and 1905 Cleveland
became the first manufacturing city in the state.

Government. Since Cleveland became a city in 1836 it has
undergone several important changes in government. The
charter of that year placed the balance of power in a council
composed of three members chosen from each ward and as
many aldermen as there were wards, elected on a general ticket.
From 1852 to 1891 the city was governed under general laws
of the state which entrusted the more important powers to
several administrative boards. Then, from 1891 to 1903, by
what was practically a new charter, that which is known as the
" federal plan " of government was tried; this centred power
in the mayor by making him almost the only elective officer,
by giving to him the appointment of his cabinet of directors
one for the head of each of the six municipal departments and
to each director the appointment of his subordinates. The fed-
eral plan was abandoned in 1903, when a new municipal code
went into effect, which was in operation until 1909, when the
Paine Law established a board of control, under a government
resembling the old federal plan. (For laws of 1903 and 1909
see OHIO.) Few if any cities in the Union have, in recent
years, been better governed than Cleveland, and this seems to
be due largely to the keen interest in municipal affairs which
has been shown by her citizens. Especially has this been
manifested by the Cleveland Chamber of Commerce and by the
Municipal Association, an organization of influential professional
and business men, which, by issuing bulletins concerning candi-
dates at the primaries and at election time, has done much
for the betterment of local politics. The Cleveland Chamber
of Commerce, an organization of 1600 leading business men, is a
power for varied good in the city; besides its constant and
aggressive work in promoting the commercial interests of the
city, it was largely influential in the federal reform of the consular
service; it studied the question of overcrowded tenements
and secured the passage of a new tenement law with important
sanitary provisions and a set minimum of air space; it urges
and promotes home-gardening, public baths and play-grounds,
and lunch-rooms, &c., for employ6s in factories; and it was
largely instrumental in devising and carrying out the so-called
" Group Plan " described above.

History. A trading post was established at the mouth of the
Cuyahoga river as early as 1786, but the place was not per-
manently settled until 1796, when it was laid out as a town by
Moses Cleaveland (1754-1806), who was then acting as the agent
of the Connecticut Land Company, which in the year before had
purchased from the state of Connecticut a large portion of the
Western Reserve. In 1800 the entire Western Reserve was
erected into the county of Trumbull and a township government
was given to Cleveland; ten years later Cleveland was made the
seat of government of the new county of Cuyahoga, and in 1814
it was incorporated as a village. Cleveland's growth was, how-
ever, very slow until the opening of the Ohio canal as far as
Akron in 1827; about the same time the improvement of the
harbour was begun, and by 1832 the canal was opened to the
Ohio river. Cleveland thus was connected with the interior
of the state, for whose mineral and agricultural products it
became the lake outlet. The discovery of iron ore in the Lake
Superior region made Cleveland the natural meeting-point of
the iron ore and the coal from the Ohio, Pennsylvania and West
Virginia mines; and it is from this that the city's great com-
mercial importance dates. The building of railways during
the decade 1850-1860 greatly increased this importance, and
the city grew with great rapidity. The growth during the
Civil War was partly due to the rapid development of the manu-
facturing interests of the city, which supplied large quantities
of iron products and of clothing to the Federal government

506

CLEVER CLEYNAERTS

The population of 1076 in 1830 increased to 6071 in 1840, to
1 7,034 in 1850, to 43,41 7 in 1860, to 92,829 in 1870 and to 160,146
in 1880. Until 1853 the city was confined to the E. side of the
river, but in that year Ohio City, which was founded in 1807,
later incorporated as the village of Brooklyn, and in 1836
chartered as a city (under the name Ohio City), was annexed.
Other annexations followed: East Cleveland in 1872, Newburg
in 1873, West Cleveland and Brooklyn in 1893, and Glenville
and South Brooklyn in 1005. In recent history the most notable
events not mentioned elsewhere in this article were the elaborate
celebration of the centennial cf the city in 1896 and the street
railway strike of 1899, in which the workers attempted to force
a redress of grievances and a recognition of their union. Mobs
attacked the cars, and cars were blown up by dynamite. The
strikers were beaten, but certain abuses were corrected. There
was a less violent street car strike in 1908, after the assumption
of control by the Municipal Traction Company, which refused
to raise wages according to promises made (so the employees
said) by the former owner of the railway; the strikers were
unsuccessful.

AUTHORITIES. Manual of the City Council (1879); Annuals of
the Cleveland Chamber of Commerce (1894- ); E. M. Avery,
Cleveland in a Nutshell: An Historical and Descriptive Ready-
reference Book (Cleveland, 1893) ; James H. Kennedy, A History
of the City of Cleveland (Cleveland, 1896); C. A. Urann, Centennial
History of Cleveland (Cleveland 1896); C. Whittlesey, The Early
History of Cleveland (Cleveland, 1867); C. E. Bolton, A Few Civic
Problems of Greater Cleveland (Cleveland, 1897) ; " Plan of School
Administration," by S. P. Orth, in vol. xix. Political Science Quarterly
(New York, 1904) ; Charles Snavely, A History of the City Govern-
ment of Cleveland (Baltimore, 1902) ; C. C. Williamson, The Finances
of Cleveland (New York, 1907); "The Government of Cleveland,
Ohio," by Lincoln Steffens, in McClure's Magazine, vol. xxv. (New
York, 1905); and C. F. Thwing, " Cleveland, the Pleasant City,"
in Powell's Historic Towns of the Western States (New York, 1901).

CLEVER, an adjective implying dexterous activity of mind
or body, and ability to meet emergencies with readiness and
adroitness. The etymology and the early history of the word
are obscure. The earliest instance quoted by the New English
Dictionary is in the Bestiary of c. 1200 (An Old English Mis-
cellany, ed. R. Morris, 1872, E.E.T.S. 49)" On the clothed the
neddre (adder) is cof (quick) and the devel cliver on sinnes,"
i.e. quick to seize hold of; this would connect the word
with a M. Eng. " cliver " or " clivre," a talon or claw (so
H. Wedgwood, Diet, of Eng. Elym.). The ultimate original would
be the root appearing in " claw," " cleave," " cling, " " clip,"
&c., meaning to " stick to." This original sense probably
survives in the frequent use of the word for nimble, dexterous,
quick and skilful in the use of the hands, and so it is often applied
to a horse, " clever at his fences." The word has also been
connected with 0. Eng. gUaia, wise, which became in M. Eng.
gleu, and is cognate with Scottish gleg, quick of eye. As
to the use of the word, Sir Thomas Browne mentions it among
" words of no general reception in English but of common use
in Norfolk or peculiar to the East Angle countries " (Tract, viii.
in Wilkins's ed. of Works, iv. 205). The earlier uses of the word
seem to be confined to that of bodily dexterity. In this sense
it took the place of a use of " deliver " as an adjective, mean-
ing nimble, literally " free in action," a use taken from Fr.
delivre (Late Lat. deliberare, to set free), cf. Chaucer, Prologue to
Cant. Tales, 84, " wonderly deliver and grete of strength," and
Romaunt of the Rose, 831, " Deliver, smert and of gret might."
It has been suggested that " clever " is a corruption of " deliver "
in this sense, but this is not now accepted. The earliest use of
the word for mental quickness and ability in the New English
Dictionary is from Addison in No. 22 of The Freeholder (1716).

CLEVES (Ger. Cleve or Kleve), a town of Germany in the
kingdom of Prussia, formerly the capital of the duchy of its own
name, 46 m. N.W. of Diisseldorf, 12 m. E. of Nijmwegen, on the
main Cologne-Amsterdam railway. Pop. (1900) 14,678. The
town, is neatly built in the Dutch style, lying on three small hills
in a fertile district near the frontier of Holland, about 2 m. from
the Rhine, with which it is connected by a canal (the Spoykanal).
The old castle of Schwanenburg (formerly the residence of the

dukes of Cleves), has a massive tower (Schwanenturm) 180 ft.
high. With it is associated the legend of the " Knights of the
Swan," immortalized in Wagner's Lohengrin. The building has
been restored in modern times to serve as a court of justice and a
prison. The collegiate church (Stiftskirche) dates from about
1340, and contains a number of fine ducal monuments. Another
church is the Annexkirche, formerly a convent of the Minorites;
this dates from the middle of the isth century. The chief manu-
factures are boots and shoes, tobacco and machinery; there is
also some trade in cattle. To the south and west of the city
a large district is laid out as a park, where there is a statue to
the memory of John Maurice of Nassau-Siegen (1604-1679),
who governed Cleves from 1650 to 1679, and in the western
part there are mineral wells with a pump room and bathing
establishment. Owing to the beautiful woods which surround
it and its medicinal waters Cleves has become a favourite
summer resort.

The town was the seat of the counts of Cleves as early as the
nth century, but it did not receive municipal rights until 1242.
The duchy of Cleves, which lay on both banks of the Rhine and
had an area of about 850 sq. m., belonged before the year 1000
to a certain Rutger, whose family became extinct in 1368. It
then passed to the counts of La Marck and was made a duchy
in 1417, being united with the neighbouring duchies of Jiilich
and Berg in 1521. The Reformation was introduced here in
1533, but it was not accepted by all the inhabitants. The death
without direct heirs of Duke John William in 1609 led to serious
complications in which almost all the states of Europe were
concerned; however, by the treaty of Xanten in 1614, Cleves
passed to the elector of Brandenburg, being afterwards incor-
porated with the electorate by the great elector, Frederick
William. The French held Cleves from 1757 to 1762 and in
1795 the part of the duchy on the left bank of the Rhine was
ceded to France; the remaining portion suffered a similar fate
in 1805. After the conclusion of peace in 1815 it was restored
to Prussia, except some small portions which were given to the
kingdom of Holland.

See Char, Geschichte des Herzoetums Kleve (Cleves, 1845); Velsen,
Die Stadt Kleve (Cleves, 1846); R. Scholten, Die Stadt Kleve
(Cleves, 1879-1881). For ANNE OF CLEVES see that article.

CLEYNAERTS (CLENARDUS or CLENARD), NICOLAS (1495-
1543), Belgian grammarian and traveller, was born at Diest,
in Brabant, on the 5th of December 1495. Educated at the
university of Louvain, he became a professor of Latin, which
he taught by a conversational method. He applied himself
to the preparation of manuals of Greek and Hebrew grammar,
in order to simplify the difficulties of learners. His Tabulae in
grammaticen hebraeam (1529), Institutiones in linguam graecam
(1530), and Meditationes graecanicae (1531) appeared at Louvain.
The Institutiones and Meditationes passed through a number of
editions, and had many commentators. He maintained a prin-
ciple revived in modern teaching, that the learner should not be
puzzled by elaborate rules until he has obtained a working ac-
quaintance with the language. A desire to read the Koran led
him to try to establish a connexion between Hebrew and Arabic.
These studies resulted in a scheme for proselytism among the
Arabs, based on study of the language, which should enable
Europeans to combat the errors of Islam by peaceful methods.
In prosecution of this object he travelled in 1532 to Spain, and
after teaching Greek at Salamanca was summoned to the court
of Portugal as tutor to Don Henry, brother of John III. He
found another patron in Louis Mendoza, marquis of Mondexas,
governor-general of Granada. There with the help of a Moorish
slave he gained a knowledge of Arabic. He tried in vain to gain
access to the Arabic MSS. in the possession of the Inquisition,
and finally, in 1540, set out for Africa to seek information for
himself. He reached Fez, then a flourishing seat of Arab learning,
but after fifteen months of privation and suffering was obliged
to return to Granada, and died in the autumn of 1542. He was
buried in the Alhambra palace.

See his Latin letters to his friends in Belgium, Nicolai Clenardi,
Peregrinationum ac de rebus machometicis epistolae elegantissimae
(Louvain, 1550), and a more complete edition, Nic. Clenardi

CLICHTOVE CLIFFORD, JOHN

507

Epistolarum libri duo (Antwerp, 1561), from the house of Plantin ; also
Victor Chauvin and Alphonse Roersch, " Etude sur la vie et les
travaux de Nicolas Clenard " in Memoires couronnes (vol. lx., 1900-
1901) of the Royal Academy of Belgium, which contains a vast
amount of information on Cleynaerts and an extensive bibliography
of his works, and of notices of him by earlier commentators.

CLICHTOVE, JOSSE VAN (d. 1543), Belgian theologian,
received his education at louvain and at Paris under Jacques
Lefebvre d'Etaples. He became librarian of the Sorbonne
and tutor to the nephews of Jacques d'Amboise, bishop of
Clermont and abbot of Cluny. In 1519 he was elected bishop
of Tournai, and in 1521 was translated to the see of Chartres.
He is best known as a distinguished antagonist of Martin Luther,
against whom he wrote a good deal. When Cardinal Duprat
convened his Synod of Paris in 1528 to discuss the new religion,
Clichtove was summoned and was entrusted with the task
of collecting and summarizing the objections to the Lutheran
doctrine. This he did in his Compendium veritatum . . . contra
erroneas Lutheranorum assertiones (Paris, 1529). He died at
Chartres on the 22nd of September 1543.

CLICHY, or CLICHY-LA-GARENNE, a town of northern France,
in the department of Seine, on the right bank of the Seine, immedi-
ately north of the fortifications of Paris, of which it is a manu-
facturing suburb. Pop. (1906) 41,516. Its church was built
in the iyth century under the direction of St Vincent de Paul,
who had previously been cure of Clichy. Its industries include
the manufacture of starch, rubber, oil and grease, glass, chemicals,
soap, &c. Clichy, under the name of Clippiacum, was a residence
of the Merovingian kings.

CLIFF-DWELLINGS, the general archaeological term for the
habitations of primitive peoples, formed by utilizing niches
or caves in high cliffs, with more or less excavation or with
additions in the way of masonry. Two special sorts of cliff-
dwelling are distinguished by archaeologists, (i) the cliff-house,
which is actually built on levels in the cliff, and (2) the cavate
house, which is dug out, by using natural recesses or openings.
A great deal of attention has been given to the North American
cliff-dwellings, particularly among the canyons of the south-west,
in Arizona, New Mexico, Utah and Colorado, some of which are
still used by Indians. There has been considerable discussion
as to their antiquity, but modern research finds no definite
justification for assigning them to a distinct primitive race, or
farther back than the ancestors of the modern Pueblo Indians.
The area in which they occur coincides with that in which other
traces of the Pueblo tribes have been found. The niches which
were utilized are often of considerable size, occurring in cliffs
of a thousand feet high, and approached by rock steps or log-
ladders.

See the article, with illustrations and bibliography, in the Hand-
book of American Indians (Washington, 1907).

CLIFFORD, the name of a famous English family and barony,
taken from the village of Clifford in Herefordshire, although
the family were mainly associated with the north of England.

Robert de Clifford (c. 1275-1314), a son of Roger de Clifford
(d. 1282), inherited the estates of his grandfather, Roger de
Clifford, in 1286; then he obtained through his mother part of
the extensive land of the Viponts, and thus became one of the
most powerful barons of his age. A prominent soldier during
the reigns of Edward I. and Edward II., Clifford was summoned
to parliament as a baron in 1299, won great renown at the siege
of Carlaverock Castle in 1300, and after taking part in the
movement against Edward II. 's favourite, Piers Gaveston, was
killed at Bannockburn. His son Roger, the 2nd baron (1299-
1322), shared in the rebellion of Thomas, earl of Lancaster, and
was probably executed at York on the 23rd of March 1322.
Robert's grandson Roger, the sth baron (1333-1389), and the
latter's son Thomas, the 6th baron (c. 1363-0. 1391), served the
English kings on the Scottish borders and elsewhere. The same
is true of Thomas, the Sth baron (1414-1455), who was killed
at the first battle of St Albans in May 1455.

Thomas's son John, the 9th baron (c. 1435-1461), was more
famous. During the Wars of the Roses he fought for Henry VI.,
earning by his cruelties the name of the " butcher "; after the

battle of Wakefield in 1460 he murdered Edmund, earl of Rutland,
son of Richard, duke of York, exclaiming, according to the
chronicler Edward Hall, " By God's blood thy father slew mine;
and so will I do thee and all thy kin." Shakespeare refers to
this incident in King Henry VI., and also represents Clifford
as taking part in the murder of York. It is, however, practically
certain that York was slain during the battle, and not afterwards
like his son. Clifford was killed at Ferrybridge on the 28th of
March 1461, and was afterwards attainted. His young son
Henry, the loth baron (c. 1454-1523), lived disguised as a
shepherd for some years, hence he is sometimes called the
" shepherd lord." On the accession of Henry VII. the attainder
was reversed and he received his father's estates. He spent a
large part of his time at Barden in Lancashire, being interested
in astronomy and astrology. Occasionally, however, he visited
London, and he fought at the battle of Flodden in 1513. This
lord, who died on the 23rd of April 1523, is celebrated by Words-
worth in the poems " The white doe of Rylstone " and " Song
at the feast of Brougham Castle." Henry, the nth baron, was
created earl of Cumberland in 1525, and from this time until the
extinction of the title in 1643 the main line of the Cliffords was
associated with the earldom of Cumberland (q.v.).

Richard Clifford, bishop of Worcester and London under
Henry IV. and Henry V., was probably a member of this family.
This prelate, who was very active at the council of Constance,
died on the 2oth of August 1421.

On the death of George, 3rd earl of Cumberland, in 1605, the
barony of Clifford, separated from the earldom, was claimed
by his daughter Anne, countess of Dorset, Pembroke and
Montgomery; and in 1628 a new barony of Clifford was created
in favour of Henry, afterwards sth and last earl of Cumbeiland.
After Anne's death in 1676 the claim to the older barony passed
to her daughter Margaret (d. 1676), wife of John Tufton, 2nd
earl of Thanet, and her descendants, whose title was definitely
recognized in 1691. After the Tuftons the barony was held
with intervening abeyances by the Southwells and the Russells,
and to this latter family the present Lord De Clifford belongs. 1

When the last earl of Cumberland died in 1643 the newer
barony of Clifford passed to his daughter Elizabeth, wife of
Richard Boyle, and earl of Cork, and from the Boyles it passed
to the Cavendishes, falling into abeyance on the death of William
Cavendish, 6th duke of Devonshire, in 1858.

The barony of Clifford of Lanesborough was held by the
Boyles from 1644 to 1753, and the Devonshire branch of the
family still holds the barony of Clifford of Chudleigh, which was
created in 1672.

See G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage (1887-1898); and T. D.
Whitaker, History of Craven (1877).

CLIFFORD, JOHN (1836- ), British Nonconformist
minister and politician, son of a warp-machinist at Sawley,
Derbyshire, was born on the i6th of October 1836. As a boy
he worked in a lace factory, where he attracted the notice of
the leaders of the Baptist community, who sent him to the
academy at Leicester and the Baptist college at Nottingham
to be educated for the ministry. In 1858 he was called to
Praed Street chapel, Paddington (London), and while officiating
there he attended University College and pursued bis education
by working at the British Museum. He matriculated at London
University (1859), and took its B.A. degree (1861), B.Sc. (1862),
M.A. (1864), and LL.B. (1866), and in 1883 he was given the
honorary degree of D.D. by Bates College, U.S.A., being known
therefrom as Dr Clifford. This degree, from an American
college of minor academic status, afterwards led to sarcastic
allusions, but Dr Clifford had not courted it, and his London
University achievements were evidence enough of his intellectual
equipment. At Praed Street chapel he gradually obtained a

'The original writ of summons (1299) was addressed in Latin,
Roberto domino de Clifford, i.e. Robert, lord of Clifford, and subse-
quently the barons styled themselves indifferently Lords Clifford
or de Clifford, until in 1777 the nth lord definitively adopted the
latter form. The " De " henceforth became part of the name, having
quite lost its earliest significance, and with unconscious tautology
the barony is commonly referred to as that of De Clifford.

508

CLIFFORD, W. K. CLIFFORD OF CHUDLEIGH

large following, and in 1877 Westbourne Park chapel was opened
for him. As a preacher, writer, propagandist and ardent Liberal
politician, he became a power in the Nonconformist body. He
was president of the London Baptist Association in 1879, of the
Baptist Union in 1888 and 1899, and of the National Council of
Evangelical Churches in 1898. His chief prominence in politics,
however, dates from 1903 onwards in consequence of his advocacy
of " passive resistance " to the Education Act of 1902. Into
this movement he threw himself with militant ardour, his own
goods being distrained upon, with those of numerous other
Nonconformists, rather than that any contribution should be
made by them in taxation for the purpose of an Education Act
which in their opinion was calculated to support denominational
religious teaching in the schools. The " passive resistance "
movement, with Dr Clifford as its chief leader, had a large share
in the defeat of the Unionist government in January 1906, and
his efforts were then directed to getting a new act passed which
should be undenominational in character. The rejection of
Mr Birrell's bill in 1906 by the House of Lords was accordingly
accompanied by denunciations of that body from Dr Clifford
and his followers; but as year by year went by, up to 1909,
with nothing but failure on the part of the Liberal ministry to
arrive at any solution of the education problem, failure due
now not to the House of Lords but to the inherent difficulties
of the subject (see EDUCATION), it became increasingly clear
to the public generally that the easy denunciations of the act of
1902, which had played so large a part in the elections of 1906,
were not so simple to carry into practice, and that a compromise
in which the denominationalists would have their say would
have to be the result. Meanwhile " passive resistance " lost
its interest, though Dr Clifford and his followers continued to
protest against their treatment.

CLIFFORD, WILLIAM KINGDOM (1845-1879), English
mathematician and philosopher, was born on the 4th of May
1845 at Exeter, where his father was a prominent citizen. He
was educated at a private school in his native town, at King's
College, London, and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he
was elected fellow in 1868, after being second wrangler in 1867
and second Smith's prizeman. In 1871 he was appointed
professor of mathematics at University College, London, and in
1874 became fellow of the Royal Society. In 1875 he married
Lucy, daughter of John Lane of Barbados. In 1876 Clifford,
a man of high-strung and athletic, but not robust, physique,
began to fall into ill-health, and after two voyages to the South,
died during the third of pulmonary consumption at Madeira,
on the 3rd of March 1879, leaving his widow with two daughters.
Mrs W. K. Clifford soon earned for herself a prominent place
in English literary life as a novelist, and later as a dramatist.
Her best-known story, Mrs Keith's Crime (1885), was followed
by several other volumes, the best of which is Aunt Anne
(1893) ; and the literary talent in the family was inherited by her
daughter Ethel (Mrs Fisher Dilke), a writer of some charming
verse.

Owing to his early death, Professor Clifford's abilities and
achievements cannot be fairly judged without reference to the
opinion formed of him by his contemporaries. He impressed
every one as a man of extraordinary acuteness and originality;
and these solid gifts were set off to the highest advantage by
quickness of thought and speech, a lucid style, wit and poetic
fancy, and a social warmth which made him delightful as a
friend and companion. His powers as a mathematician were
of the highest order. It harmonizes with the concrete visualizing
turn of his mind that, to quote Professor Henry Smith, " Clifford
was above all and before all a geometer." In this he was an
innovator against the excessively analytic tendency of Cambridge
mathematicians. In his theory of graphs, or geometrical repre-
sentations of algebraic functions, there are valuable suggestions
which have been worked out by others. He was much interested,
too, in universal algebra, non-Euclidean geometry and elliptic
functions, his papers " Preliminary Sketch of Bi-quaternions "
(1873) and " On the Canonical Form and Dissectionof a Riemann's
Surface " (1877) ranking as classics. Another important paper

is his " Classification of Loci " (1878). He also published several
papers on algebraic forms and projective geometry.

As a philosopher Clifford's name is chiefly associated with
two phrases of his coining, " mind-stuff" and the " tribal self."
The former symbolizes his metaphysical conception, which was
suggested to him by his reading of Spinoza. " Briefly put,"
says Sir F. Pollock, " the conception is that mind is the one
ultimate reality; not mind as we know it in the complex forms
of conscious feeling and thought, but the simpler elements out
of which thought and feeling are built up. The hypothetical
ultimate element of mind, or atom of mind-stuff, precisely corre-
sponds to the hypothetical atom of matter, being the ultimate
fact of which the material atom is the phenomenon. Matter
and the sensible universe are the relations between particular
organisms, that is, mind organized into consciousness, and the
rest of the world. This leads to results which would in a loose
and popular sense be called materialist. But the theory must,
as a metaphysical theory, be reckoned on the idealist side. To
speak technically, it is an idealist monism." The other phrase,
" tribal self," gives the key to Clifford's ethical view, which
explains conscience and the moral law by the development in
each individual of a " self," which prescribes the conduct
conducive to the welfare of the " tribe." Much of Clifford's
contemporary prominence was due to his attitude towards
religion. Animated by an intense love of truth and devotion
to public duty, he waged war on such ecclesiastical systems as
seemed to him to favour obscurantism, and to put the claims
of sect above those of human society. The alarm was greater,
as theology was still unreconciled with the Darwinian theory;
and Clifford was regarded as a dangerous champion of the anti-
spiritual tendencies then imputed to modern science.

His works, published wholly or in part since his death, are Elements
of Dynamic (1879-1887) ; Seeing and Thinking, popular science
lectures (1879) ; Lectures and Essays, with an introduction by Sir F.
Pollock (1879); Mathematical Papers, edited by R. Tucker, with an
introduction by Henry J. S. Smith (1882); and The Common Sense
of the Exact Sciences, completed by Professor Karl Pearson (1885).

CLIFFORD OF CHUDLEI6H, THOMAS CLIFFORD, IST

BARON (1630-1673), English lord treasurer, a member of the
ancient family of Clifford, descended from Walter de Clifford
of Clifford Castle in Herefordshire, was the son of Hugh Clifford
of Ugbrook near Exeter, and of Mary, daughter of Sir George
Chudleigh of Ashton, Devonshire. He was born on the ist of
August 1630, matriculated in 1647 at Exeter College, Oxford,
where he showed distinguished ability, supplicated for the B.A.
degree in 1650, and entered the Middle Temple in 1648. He
represented Totnes in the convention parliament and in that
of 1661; and he joined the faction of young men who spoke
" confidently and often," and who sought to rise to power by
attacking Clarendon. The chancellor, according to Burnet, had
repulsed bis advances on account of his 'Romanism, and Clifford
accordingly offered his services to Arlington, whose steady
supporter he now became.

On the 1 6th of February 1663 Clifford obtained the reversion
of a tellership in the exchequer, and in 1664, on the outbreak
of the Dutch war, was appointed commissioner for the care of
the sick, wounded and prisoners, with a salary of 1200. He
was knighted, and was present with James at the victory off
Lowestoft over the Putch on the 3rd of June 1665, was rewarded
with the prize-ship " Patriarch Isaac," and in August, under
the earl of Sandwich, took a prominent part in the unsuccessful
attempt to capture the Dutch East India fleet in Bergen harbour.
In August he was appointed by Arlington's influence ambassador
with Henry Coventry to the north of Europe. Subsequently
he served again with the fleet, was present with Albemarle at
the indecisive fight on the ist to the 4th of June 1666, and at
the victory on the 2$th of July. In October 1667 he was one
of those selected by the Commons to prepare papers concerning
the naval operations. He showed great zeal and energy in naval
affairs, and he is described by Pepys as " a very fine gentleman,
and much set by at court for his activity in going to sea and
stoutness everywhere and stirring up and down." He became
the same year controller of the household and a privy councillor,

CLIFTON CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY

509

in 1667 a commissioner for the treasury, and in 1668 treasurer
of the household. In the Commons he supported the court,
opposing the bill for frequent parliaments in 1668 and the
Coventry Act (see COVENTRY, SIR JOHN) in 1670.

Clifford was an ardent Roman Catholic, a supporter of the
royal prerogative and of the French alliance. He regarded with
favour the plan of seeking French assistance in order to force
Romanism and absolute government upon the country, and his
complete failure to understand the real political position and the
interests of the nation is reflected in the advice he was said to
have given to Charles, to accept the pension from Louis, and " be
the slave of one man rather than of 500." As one of the Cabal
ministry, therefore, he co-operated very zealously with the king
in breaking through the Triple Alliance and in effecting the
understanding with France. He was the only minister besides
Arlington entrusted with the secret treaty of Dover of 1670,
signing both this agreement and also the ostensible treaty im-
parted to all the members of the Cabal, and did his utmost to urge
Charles to join France in the attack upon the Dutch, whom he
detested as republicans and Protestants. In 1672, during the
absence of Arlington and Coventry abroad, Clifford acted as
principal secretary of state, and was chiefly responsible for the
" stop of the exchequer," and probably also for the attack upon
the Dutch Smyrna fleet. He was appointed this year a com-
missioner to inquire into the settlement of Ireland. On the 22nd
of April he was raised to the peerage as Baron Clifford of Chud-
leigh, and on the 28th of November, by the duke of York's
interest, he was made lord treasurer; his conduct to Arlington,
whose claims to the office he had pretended to press, was,
according to Evelyn, the only act of " real ingratitude " in his
career. Arlington, however, quickly discovered a means of
securing Clifford's fall. The latter was strongly in favour of
Charles's policy of indulgence, and supported the declaration of
this year, urging the king to overcome the resistance of parliament
by a dissolution. Arlington advocated the contrary policy of
concession, and after Charles's withdrawal of the declaration gave
his support to the Test Act of 1673. Clifford spoke with great
vehemence against the measure, describing it as " monstrum
horrendum ingens," but his speech only increased the anti-
Roman Catholic feeling in parliament and ensured the passing of
the bill. In consequence Clifford, as a Roman Catholic, followed
the duke of York into retirement. His resignation caused con-
siderable astonishment, since he had never publicly professed
his religion, and in 1671 had even built a new Protestant chapel
at his home at Ugbrook. According to Evelyn, however, his
conduct was governed by a promise previously given to James.
He gave up the treasuryship and his seat in the privy council in
June. On the 3rd of July 1673 he received a general pardon from
the king. In August he said a last farewell to Evelyn, and in less
than a month he died at Ugbrook. In Evelyn's opinion the cause
of death was suicide, but his suspicions do not appear to have
received any contemporary support. Clifford was one of the
worst advisers of Charles II., but a sincere and consistent one.
Evelyn declares him " a valiant, uncorrupt gentleman, ambitious,
not covetous, generous, passionate, a most constant, sincere
friend." He married Elizabeth, daughter of William Martin of
Lindridge, Devonshire, by whom he had fifteen children, four sons
and seven daughters surviving him. He was succeeded as 2nd
baron by Hugh, his fifth, but eldest surviving son, the ancestor of
the present Lord Clifford of Chudleigh. (P. C. Y.)

CLIFTON, a suburb and residential district of Bristol, England,
adjoining it on the west; 122 m. W. of London by the Great
Western railway. The river Avon (q.v.) here runs in a gorge,
followed closely by a railway on either side, and having several
quarries, which have in a measure spoiled the beauty of its
hanging woods. At a height of 245 ft. above high water Isambard
Brunei's famous suspension bridge bestrides this gorge. It was
begun in 1832 and completed in 1864. It has a span of 702 ft.,
and its total weight is 1500 tons, and it is calculated to bear a
burden of 9 tons per sq. in. The long famous hot springs of
Clifton, to which, in fact, the town was indebted for its rise,
issue from an aperture at the foot of St Vincent's Rock, in the

portion of Clifton known as Hotwells. The water has a tempera-
ture of about 76 F. A hydropathic establishment is attached
to them. Immediately above the suspension bridge the Clifton
Rocks railway ascends from the quays by the river-side to the
heights above. The Clifton and Durdham Downs (both on the
Gloucestershire side of the river), form the principal pleasure-
grounds of Bristol. They lie high above the river, extend for some
5000 acres, and command a beautiful prospect over the city, with
its picturesque irregular site and many towers, and over the
surrounding well-wooded country.

Three ancient British earthworks bear witness to an early
settlement on the spot, and a church was in existence as far back
as the time of Henry II., when it was bestowed by William de
Clyfton on the abbot of the Austin canons in Bristol; but there
are no longer any architectural vestiges of an earlier date than the
1 8th century. Clifton gives name to a Roman Catholic bishopric.
Of the churches the most important are St Andrew's parish
church; All Saints, erected in 1863 after the designs of G. E.
Street, and remarkable for the width of its nave and the narrow-
ness of its aisles; and the Roman Catholic pro-cathedral church
of the Holy Apostles, with a convent and schools attached.
Clifton College, a cluster of buildings in Gothic style, was founded
in 1862 by a limited liability company, and takes rank among the
principal modern English public schools. Down the river from
Clifton is Shirehampton, a favourite resort from Bristol.

CLIM (or CLVM) OF THE CLOUGH, a legendary English
archer, a supposed companion of the Robin Hood band. He
is commemorated in the ballad Adam Bell, Clym of the Cloughe
and Wyllyam of Cloudeslee. The three were outlaws who had
many adventures of the Robin Hood type. The oldest printed
copy of this ballad is dated 1550.

CLIMACTERIC (from the Gr. K\inaKrfip, the rung or step of
a K\i/ici or ladder), a critical period in human life; in a medical
sense, the period known as the " change of life," marked in
women by the menopause. Certain ages, especially those which
are multiples of seven or nine, have been superstitiously regarded
as particularly critical; thus the sixty- third and the eighty-first
year of life have been called the " grand climacteric." The word
is also used, generally, of any turning-point in the history of a
nation, a career or the like.

CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY. The word dima (from
Gr. K\Lvtiv, to lean or incline; whence also the English " clime,"
now a poetical term for this or that region of the earth, regarded
as characterized by climate), as used by the Greeks, probably
referred originally either to the supposed slope of the earth towards
the pole, or to the inclination of the earth's axis. It was an
astronomical or a mathematical term, not associated with any
idea of physical climate. A change of dima then meant a change
of latitude. The latter was gradually seen to mean a change in
atmospheric conditions as well as in length of day, and dima thus
came to have its present meaning. " Climate " is the average
condition of the atmosphere. " Weather " denotes a single
occurrence, or event, in the series of conditions which make up
climate. The climate of a place is thus in a sense its average
weather. Climatology is the study or science of climates.

Relation of Meteorology and Climatology. Meteorology and
climatology are interdependent. It is impossible to distinguish
sharply between them. In a strict sense, meteorology deals with
the physics of the atmosphere. It considers the various atmo-
spheric phenomena individually, and seeks to determine their
physical causes and relations. Its view is largely theoretical.
When meteorology (q.v.) is considered in its broadest meaning,
climatology is a subdivision of it. Climatology is largely
descriptive. It aims at giving a clear picture of the interaction
of the various atmospheric phenomena at any place on the
earth's surface. Climatology may almost be denned as geographi-
cal meteorology. Its main object is to be of practical service
to man. Its method of treatment lays most emphasis on the
elements which are most important to life. Climate and crops,
climate and industry, climate and health, are subjects of vital
interest to man.

The Climatic Elements and their Treatment. Climatology has

CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY

to deal with the same groups of atmospheric conditions as those
with which meteorology is concerned, viz. temperature (including
radiation); moisture (including humidity, precipitation and
cloudiness); wind (including storms); pressure; evaporation,
and also, but of less importance, the composition and chemical,
optical and electrical phenomena of the atmosphere. The
characteristics of each of these so-called climatic elements are set
forth in a standard series of numerical values, based on careful,
systematic, and long-continued meteorological records, corrected
and compared by well-known methods. Various forms of
graphic presentation are employed to emphasize and simplify the
numerical results. In Hann's Handbuch der Klimatologie, vol i.,
will be found a general discussion of the methods of presenting
the different climatic elements. The most complete guide in the
numerical, mathematical and graphic treatment of meteoro-
logical data for climatological purposes is Hugo Meyer's Anleitung
zur Bearbeitung meieorologischer Beobathtungen fur die Klimato-
logie (Berlin, 1891).

Climate deals first of all with average conditions, but a satis-
factory presentation of a climate must include more than mere
averages. It must take account, also, of regular and irregular
daily, monthly and annual changes, and of the departures,
mean and extreme, from the average conditions which may
occur at the same place in the course of time. The mean
minimum and maximum temperatures or rainfalls of a month or
a season are important data. Further, a determination of the
frequency of occurrence of a given condition, or of certain
values of that condition, is important, for periods of a day,
month or year, as for example the frequency of winds according
to direction or velocity; or of different amounts of cloudiness"
or of temperature changes of a certain number of degrees; the
number of days with and without rain or snow in any month,
or year, or with rain of a certain amount, &c. The probability
of occurrence of any condition, as of rain in a certain month;
or of a temperature of 32, for example, is also a useful thing to
know.

Solar Climate. Climate, in so far as it is controlled solely
by the amount of solar radiation which any place receives by
reason of its latitude, is called solar climate. Solar climate alone
would prevail if the earth had a homogeneous land surface, and
if there were no atmosphere. For under these conditions,
without air or ocean currents, the distribution of temperature
at any place would depend solely on the amount of energy
received from the sun and upon the loss of heat by radiation.
And these two factors would have the same value at all points
on the same latitude circle.

The relative amounts of insolation received at different
latitudes and at different times have been carefully determined.
The values all refer to conditions at the upper limit of the
earth's atmosphere, i.e. without the effect of absorption by
the atmosphere. The accompanying figure (fig. i), after Davis,
shows the distribution of insolation in both hemispheres at
different latitudes and at different times in the year. The lati-
tudes are given at the left margin and the time of year at the right
margin. The values of insolation are shown by the vertical
distance above the plane of the two margins.

At the equator, where the day is always twelve hours long,
there are two maxima of insolation at the equinoxes, when the
sun is vertical at noon, and two minima at the solstices when
the sun is farthest off the equator. The values do not vary much
through the year because the sun is never very far from the
zenith, and day and night are always equal. As ktitude in-
creases, the angle of insolation becomes more oblique and the
intensity decreases, but at the same time the length of day
rapidly increases during the summer, and towards the pole of
the hemisphere which is having its summer the gain in insolation
from the latter cause more than compensates for the loss by the
former. The double period of insolation above noted for the
equator prevails as far as about lat. 12 N. and S.; at lat. 15
the two maxima have united in one, and the same is true of the
minima. At the pole there is one maximum at the summer
solstice, and no insolation at all while the sun is below the horizon.

On the 2ist of June the equator has a day twelve hours long,
but the sun does not reach the zenith, and the amount of insola-
tion is therefore less than at the equinox. On the northern
tropic, however, the sun is vertical at noon, and the day is more
than twelve hours long. Hence the amount of insolation re-
ceived at this latitude is greater than that received on the equinox
at the equator. From the tropic to the pole the sun stands lower
and lower at noon, and the value of insolation would steadily
decrease with latitude if it were not for the increase in the length
of day. Going polewards from the northern tropic on the 2ist
of June, the value of insolation increases for a time, because,
although the sun is lower, the number of hours during which it
shines is greater. A maximum value is reached at about lat.
43^ N. The decreasing altitude of the sun then more than
compensates for the increasing length of day, and the value of
insolation diminishes, a minimum being reached at about lat.
62. Then the rapidly increasing length of day towards the pole
again brings about an increase in the value of insolation, until
a maximum is reached at the pole which is greater than the value
received at the equator at any time. The length of day is the
same on the Arctic circle as at the pole itself, but while the altitude
of the sun varies during the day on the former, the altitude at
the pole remains 23^ throughout the 24 hours. The result is to

FVom Davis's Elementary Meteorology.

FIG. I. Distribution of Insolation over the Earth's Surface.

give the pole a maximum. On the 2ist of June there are there-
fore two maxima of insolation, one at lat. 43^ and one at the
north pole. From lat. 435 N., insolation decreases to zero on
the Antarctic circle, for sunshine falls more and more obliquely,
and the day becomes shorter and shorter. Beyond lat. 66j S.
the night lasts 24 hours. On the 2ist of December the conditions
in southern latitudes are similar to those in the northern hemi-
sphere on the 2ist of June, but the southern latitudes have
higher values of insolation because the earth is then nearer
the sun.

At the equinox the days are equal everywhere, but the noon
sun is lower and lower with increasing latitude in both hemi-
spheres until the rays are tangent to the earth's surface at the
poles (except for the effect of refraction). Therefore, the values
of insolation diminish from a maximum at the equator to a
minimum at both poles.

The effect of the earth's atmosphere is to weaken the sun's rays.
The more nearly vertical the sun, the less the thickness of
atmosphere traversed by the rays. The values of insolation at
the earth's surface, after passage through the atmosphere, have
been calculated. They vary much with the condition of the air
as to dust, clouds, water vapour, &c. As a rule, even when the
sky is clear, about one-half of the solar radiation is lost during the
day by atmospheric absorption. The great weakening of insola-
tion at the pole, where the sun is very low, is especially noticeable.
The following table (after Angot) shows the effect of the earth's
atmosphere (co-efficient of transmission 0-7) upon the value of
insolation received at sea-level.

CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY

Values of Daily Insolation at the Upper Limit of the Earth's Atmosphere and

at Sea-Level.

Lat.

Upper Limit of Atmosphere.

Earth's Surface.

Equator.

40.

N. Pole.

Equator.

40.

N. Pole.

Winter solstice .
Equinoxes
Summer solstice

948

1000

888

360
773
i"5

I -MO

552
612

517

124
411
660

o
o

494

The following table gives, according to W. Zenker, the relative
thickness of the atmosphere at different altitudes of the sun, and
also the amount of transmitted insolation:

fact, in the higher latitudes, the former sometimes
follow the meridians more closely than they do the
parallels of latitude. Hence it has been suggested
that the zones be limited by isotherms rather than
by parallels of latitude, and that a closer approach
be thus made to the actual conditions of climate.
Supan 1 (see fig. 2) has suggested limiting the hot
belt, which corresponds to, but fa slightly greater
than, the old torrid zone, by the two mean
annual isotherms of 68 a temperature which approximately
coincides with the polar limit of the trade-winds and with the
polar limit of palms. The hot belt widens somewhat over the

Relative Distances traversed by Solar Rays through the Atmosphere, and Intensities of Radiation per Unit Areas.

Altitude of sun

Relative lengths of path through the

44-7

10-8

5'7

2'92

2-OO

I-S6

I'^I

I-IS

1*06

I'O2

I *OO

Intensity of radiation on a surface nor-
mal to the rays . . . . _ .
Intensity of radiation on a horizontal
surface

0-0

o-o

0-15

O'OI

0-31
0-05

0-51
0-iy

0-62
0-31

0-68

0-44

0-72
o-55

o-75
0-65

0-76
0-72

0-77
0-76

0-78
0-78

Physical Climate. The distribution of insolation explains
many of the large facts of temperature distribution, for example,
the decrease of temperature from equator to poles; the double
maximum of temperature on and near the equator; the increas-
ing seasonal contrasts with increasing latitude, &c. But the
regular distribution of solar climate between equator and poles
which would exist on a homogeneous earth, whereby similar
conditions prevail along each latitude circle, is very much
modified by the unequal distribution of land and water; by
differences of altitude; by air and ocean currents, by varying
conditions of cloudiness, and so on. Hence the climates met
with along the same latitude circle are no longer alike. Solar
climate is greatly modified by atmospheric conditions and by the
surface features of the earth. The uniform arrangement of
solar climatic belts, arranged latitudinally, is interfered with, and
what is known as physical climate results. According to the
dominant control we have solar, continental and marine, and
mountain climates. In the first- named, latitude is the essential;
in the second and third, the influence of land or water; in the
fourth, the effect of altitude.

Classification of the Zones by Latitude Circles. It is customary
to classify climates roughly into certain broad belts. These are
the climatic zones. The five zones with which we are most
familiar are the so-called torrid, the two temperate, and the two
frigid zones. The torrid, or better, the tropical zone, naming it
by its boundaries, is limited on the north and south by the two
tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, the equator dividing the zone
into two equal parts. The temperate zones are limited towards
the equator by the tropics, and towards the poles by the Arctic
and Antarctic circles. The two polar zones are caps covering both
polar regions, and bounded on the side towards the equator by
the Arctic and Antarctic circles.

These five zones are classified on purely astronomical grounds.
They are really zones of solar climate. The tropical zone has the
least annual variation of insolation. It has the maximum annual
amount of insolation. Its annual range of temperature is very
slight. It is the summer zone. Beyond the tropics the contrasts
between the seasons rapidly become more marked. The polar
zones have the greatest variation in insolation between summer
and winter. They also have the minimum amount of insolation
for the whole year. They may well be called the winter zones,
for their summer is so short and cool that the heat is insufficient
for most forms of vegetation, especially for trees. The temperate
zones are intermediate between the tropical and the polar in the
matter of annual amount and of annual variation of insolation.
Temperate conditions do not characterize these zones as a whole.
They are rather the seasonal belts of the world.

Temperature Zones. The classification of the zones on the basis
of the distribution of sunshine serves very well for purposes of
simple description, but a glance at any isothermal chart shows
that the isotherms do not coincide with the latitude lines. In

continents, chiefly because of the mobility of the ocean waters,
whereby there is a tendency towards an equalization of the
temperature between equator and poles in the oceans, while the
stable lands acquire a temperature suitable to their own latitude.
Furthermore, the unsymmetrical distribution of land in the low
latitudes of the northern and southern hemispheres results in an
unsymmetrical position of the hot belt with reference to the
equator, the belt extending farther north than south of the equator.
The polar limits of the temperate zones are fixed by the isotherm
of 50 for the warmest month. Summerheat is more important for
vegetation than winter cold, and where the warmest month has a
temperature below 50, cereals and forest trees do not grow, and
man has to adjust himself to the peculiar climatic conditions in a
very special way. The two polar caps are not symmetrical as

From Grwtdztige der physischen Erdkunde, by permission of Veit & Co.
FIG. 2. Supan's Temperature Zones.

regards the latitudes which they occupy. The presence of
extended land masses in the high northern latitudes carries the
temperature of 50 in the warmest month farther poleward there
than is the case in the corresponding latitudes occupied by the
oceans of the southern hemisphere, which warm less easily and
are constantly in motion. Hence the southern cold cap, which
has its equatorial limits at about lat. 50 S., is of much greater
extent than the northern polar cap. The northern temperate
belt, in which the great land areas lie, is much broader than the
southern, especially over the continents. These temperature
zones emphasize the natural conditions of climate more than is
the case in any subdivision by latitude circles, and they bear a
fairly close resemblance to the old zonal classification of the
Greeks.

Classification of the Zones by Wind Belts. The heat zones
however, emphasize the temperature to the exclusion of such

1 A. Supan, Grundzuge der physischen Erdkunde (Leipzig, 1896),
88-89. Also Atlas of Meteorology, PI. i.

CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY

important elements as wind and rainfall. So distinctive are the
larger climatic features of the great wind belts of the world,
that a classification of climates according to wind systems has
been suggested. 1 As the rain-belts of the world are closely
associated with these wind systems, a classification of the zones
by winds also emphasizes the conditions of rainfall. In such a
scheme the tropical zone is bounded on the north and south
by the margins of the trade-wind belts, and is therefore larger
than the classic torrid zone. This trade-wind zone is somewhat
wider on the eastern side of the oceans, and properly includes
within its limits the equable marine climates of the eastern
margins of the ocean basins, even as far north as latitude 30
or 35. Most of the eastern coasts of China and of the United
States are thus left in the more rigorous and more variable
conditions of the north temperate zone. Through the middle
of the trade-wind zone extends the sub-equatorial belt, with
its migrating calms, rains and monsoons. On the polar margins
of the trade-wind zone lie the sub-tropical belts, of alternating
trades and westerlies. The temperate zones embrace the
latitudes of the stormy westerly winds, having on their equator-
ward margins the subtropical belts, and being somewhat narrower
than the classic temperate zones. Towards the poles there is
no obvious limit to the temperate zones, for the prevailing
westerlies extend beyond the polar circles. These circles may,
however,, serve fairly well as boundaries, because of their import-
ance from the point of view of insolation. The polar zones
in the wind classification, therefore, remain just as in the older
scheme.

Need of a Classification of Climates. A broad division of the
earth's surface into zones is necessary as a first step in any
systematic study of climate, but it is not satisfactory when a
more detailed discussion is undertaken. The reaction of the
physical features of the earth's surface upon the atmosphere
complicates the climatic conditions found in each of the zones,
and makes further subdivision desirable. The usual method is
to separate the continental (near sea-level) and the marine. An
extreme variety of the continental is the desert; a modified
form, the littoral; while altitude is so important a control that
mountain and plateau climates are always grouped by themselves.

Marine or Oceanic Climate. Land and water differ greatly
in their behaviour regarding absorption and radiation. The
former warms and cools readily, and to a considerable degree;
the latter, slowly and but little. The slow changes in tempera-
ture of the ocean waters involve a retardation in the times of
occurrence of the maxima and minima, and a marine climate,
therefore, has a cool spring and a warm autumn, the seasonal
changes being but slight. Characteristic, also, of marine climates
is a prevailingly higher relative humidity, a larger amount of
cloudiness, and a heavier rainfall than is found over continental
interiors. All of these features have their explanation in the
abundant evaporation from the ocean surfaces. In the middle
latitudes the oceans have distinctly rainy winters, while over
the continental interiors the colder months have a minimum
of precipitation. Ocean air is cleaner and purer than land air,
and is generally in more active motion.

Continental Climate. Continental climate is severe. The
annual temperature ranges increase, as a whole, with increasing
distance from the oceans. The coldest and warmest months
are usually January and July, the times of maximum and
minimum temperatures being less retarded than in the case of
marine climates. The greater seasonal contrasts in temperature
over the continents than over the oceans are furthered by the
less cloudiness over the former. Diurnal and annual changes
of nearly all the elements of climate are greater over continents
than over oceans; and this holds true of irregular as well as
of regular variations. Fig. 3 illustrates the annual march of
temperature in marine and continental climates. Bagdad, in
Asia Minor (Bd.), and Funchal on the island of Madeira (M.)
are representative continental and marine stations for a low
latitude. Nerchinsk in eastern Siberia (N.) and Valentia in
south-western Ireland (V.) are good examples of continental

1 W.M.Davis, Elementary Meteorology (Boston, 1894), pp. 334-335.

and marine climates of higher latitudes in the northern hemi-
sphere. The data for these and the following curves were taken
from Hann's Lehrbuch der Meleorologie (1901).

Owing to the distance from the chief source of supply of
water vapour the oceans the air over the larger land areas
is naturally drier and dustier than that over the oceans. Yet
even in the arid continental interiors in summer the absolute
vapour content is surprisingly large, and in the hottest months
the percentages of relative humidity may reach 20 % or 30 %.
At the low temperatures which prevail in the winter of the higher
latitudes the absolute humidity is very low, but, owing to the
cold, the air is often damp. Cloudiness, as a rule, decreases
inland, and with this lower relative humidity, more abundant
sunshine and higher temperature, the evaporating power of a
continental climate is much greater than that of the more humid,

J. r. M. A. M. J. J. A. S. 0. N. 0. J.

-100

-200

-300

cloudier and cooler
marine climate.
Both amount and '
frequency of rainfall,
as a rule, decrease ,, o
inland, but the con-
ditions are very
largely controlled by
local topography 68
and by the prevail-
ing winds. Winds
average somewhat
lower in velocity,
and calms are more
frequent, over con-
tinents than over 330
oceans. The seasonal
changes of pressure
over the former give
rise to systems of
inflowing and out-
flowing, so-called
continental, winds, -40
sometimes so well
developed as to be-
come true monsoons.
The extreme tem-' 22
perature changes
which occur over the
continents are the

more easily borne J- F M - A - M - J - J - A - s - .- N - - J -
because of the dry- F IG - 3- Annual March of Air Temperature,
ness of the air; be- Influence of Land and Water (After Angot.)

ranep tlio minimum M - Madeira. V, Valentia.

cause the minimum Bd B dad- N Ner chinsk.

temperatures of

winter occur when there is little or no wind, and because
during the warmer hours of the summer there is the most air-
movement.

Desert Climate. An extreme type of continental climate
is found in deserts. Desert air is notably free from micro-
organisms. The large diurnal temperature ranges of inland
regions, which are most marked where there is little or no
vegetation, give rise to active convectional currents during
the warmer hours of the day. Hence high winds are common
by day, while the nights are apt to be calm and relatively cool.
Travelling by day is unpleasant under such conditions. Diurnal
cumulus clouds, often absent because of the excessive dryness
of the air, are replaced by clouds of blowing dust and sand.
Many geological phenomena, and special physiographic types
of varied kinds, are associated with the peculiar conditions of
desert climate. The excessive diurnal ranges of temperature
cause rocks to split and break up. Wind-driven sand erodes
and polishes the rocks. When the separate fragments become
small enough they, in their turn, are transported by the winds
and further eroded by friction during their journey. Curious
conditions of drainage result from the deficiency in rainfall.
Rivers " wither " away, or end in sinks or brackish lakes.

CLIMATE

PLATE I.

Antarctic Circle

MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATURE-

Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit and Centigrade

~i i i r

T~ r

I I [ [_

- MEAN ANNUAL PRESSURE

! '.>-"-."-."-'-.-.\/".-V.-. : Pressure in inches 3nd millimelres

_ ..

vi. S ".

ANNUAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE.

PLATE II.

CLIMATE

Vi!' V!

'-'a'!'.*

UJ ',

Ainr

ivyadk

'.' U i|

CI**

', l ,*,V ,

;

^
!

''I'!'! 1 ! 1 '
-, ,',,-,'

-I

s.j

i a

CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY

Desert plants protect themselves against the attacks of animals
by means of thorns, and against evaporation by means of hard
surfaces and by a diminished leaf surface. The life of man in
the desert is likewise strikingly controlled by the climatic
peculiarities of strong sunshine, of heat, and of dust.

Coast or Littoral Climate. Between the pure marine and the
pure continental types the coasts furnish almost every grade of
transition. Prevailing winds are here important controls. When
these blow from the ocean, the climates are marine in character,
but when they are off-shore, a somewhat modified type of con-
tinental climate prevails, even up to the immediate sea-coast.
Hence the former have a smaller range of temperature; their
summers are more moderate and their winters milder; extreme
temperatures are rare; the air is damp, and there is much cloud.
All these marine features diminish with increasing distance
from the ocean, especially when there are mountain ranges near
the coast. In the tropics, windward coasts are usually well
supplied with rainfall, and the temperatures are modified by
sea breezes. Leeward coasts in the trade-wind belts offer
special conditions. Here the deserts often reach the sea, as on
the western coasts of South America, Africa and Australia.
Cold ocean currents, with prevailing winds along-shore rather
than on-shore, are here hostile to rainfall, although the lower
air is often damp, and fog and cloud are not uncommon.

Monsoon Climate. Exceptions to the general rule of rainier
eastern coasts in trade-wind latitudes are found in the monsoon
regions, as in India, for example, where the western coast of
the peninsula is abundantly watered by the wet south-west
monsoon. As monsoons often sweep over large districts, not
only coast but interior, a separate group of monsoon climates
is desirable. In India there are really three seasons one cold,
during the winter monsoon; one hot, in the transition season;
and one wet, during the summer monsoon. Little precipitation
occurs in winter, and that chiefly in the northern provinces.
In low latitudes, monsoon and non-monsoon climates differ but
little, for summer monsoons and regular trade-winds may both
give rains, and wind direction has slight effect upon temperature.

The winter monsoon is off-shore and the summer monsoon
on-shore under typical conditions, as in India. But exceptional
cases are found where the opposite is true. In higher latitudes
the seasonal changes of the winds, although not truly monsoonal,
involve differences in temperature and in other climatic elements.
The only well-developed monsoons on the coast of the continents
of higher latitudes are those of eastern Asia. These are off-shore
during the winter, giving dry, clear and cold weather; while
the on-shore movement in summer gives cool, damp and cloudy
weather.

Mountain and Plateau Climate. Both by reason of their
actual height and because of their obstructive effects, mountains
influence climate similarly in all the zones. Mountains as con-
trasted with lowlands are characterized by a decrease in pressure,
temperature and absolute humidity; an increased intensity of
insolation and radiation; usually a greater frequency of, and
up to a certain altitude more, precipitation. At an altitude of
16,000 ft., more or less, pressure is reduced to about one-half
of its sea-level value. The highest human habitations are found
under these conditions. On high mountains and plateaus the
* pressure is lower in winter than in summer, owing to the fact
that the atmosphere is compressed to lower levels in the winter
and is expanded upwards in summer.

The intensity of insolation and of radiation both increase
aloft in the cleaner, purer, drier and thinner air of mountain
climates. The great intensity of the sun's rays attracts the
attention of mountain-climbers at great altitudes. The vertical
decrease of temperature, which is also much affected by local
conditions, is especially rapid during the warmer months and
hours; mountains are then cooler than lowlands. The inversions
of temperature characteristic of the colder months, and of the
night, give mountains the advantage of a higher temperature

then a fact of importance in connexion with the use of mountains
as winter resorts. At such times the cold air flows down the
mountain sides and collects in the valleys below, being replaced
vi. 17

by warmer air aloft. Hence diurnal and annual ranges of
temperature on the mountain tops of middle and higher latitudes
are lessened, and the climate in this respect resembles a marine
condition. The times of occurrence of the maximum and
minimum temperature are also much influenced by local condi-
tions. Elevated enclosed valleys, with strong sunshine, often
resemble continental conditions of large temperature range, and
plateaus, as compared with mountains at the same altitude,
have relatively higher temperatures and larger temperature
ranges. Altitude tempers the heat of the low latitudes. High
mountain peaks, even on the equator, can remain snow-covered
all the year round.

No general law governs the variations of relative humidity
with altitude, but on the mountains of Europe the winter is
the driest season, and the summer the dampest. At well-exposed
stations there is a rapid increase in the vapour content soon after
noon, especially in summer. The same is true of cloudiness,
which is often greater on mountains than at lower levels, and is
usually at a maximum in summer, while, the opposite is true
of the lowlands in the temperate latitudes. One of the great
advantages of the higher Alpine valleys in winter is their small
amount of cloud. This, combined with their low wind velocity
and strong insolation, makes them desirable winter health resorts.
Latitude, altitude, topography and winds are the determining
factors in controlling the cloudiness on mountains. In the rare,
often dry, air of mountains and plateaus evaporation is rapid,
the skin dries and cracks, and thirst is increased.

Rainfall usually increases with increasing altitude up to a
certain point, beyond which, owing to the loss of water vapour,
this increase stops. The zone of maximum rainfall averages
about 6000 to 7000 ft. in altitude, more, or less, in intermediate
latitudes, being lower in winter and higher in summer. Mountains
usually have a rainy and a drier side; the contrast between the
two is greatest when a prevailing damp wind crosses the moun-
tain, or when one slope faces seaward and the other landward.
Mountains often provoke rainfall, and local " islands," or
better, " lakes," of heavier precipitation result.

Mountains resemble marine climates in having higher wind
velocities than continental lowlands. Mountain summits have
a nocturnal maximum of wind velocity, while plateaus usually
have a diurnal maximum. Mountains both modify the general,
and give rise to local winds. Among the latter the well-known
mountain and valley winds are often of considerable hygienic
importance in their control of the diurnal period of humidity,
cloudiness and rainfall, the ascending wind of daytime tending
to give clouds and rain aloft, while the opposite conditions
prevail at night.

Supan's Clin.atic Provinces. The broad classification of
climates into the three general groups of marine, continental
and mountain, with the subordinate divisions of desert, littoral
and monsoon, is convenient for purposes of summarizing the
interaction of the climatic elements under the controls of land,
water and altitude. But in any detailed study some scheme
of classification is needed in which similar climates in different
parts of the world are grouped together, and in which their
geographic distribution receives particular consideration. An
almost infinite number of classifications might be proposed;
or we may take as the basis of subdivision either the special
conditions of one climatic element, or similar conditions of a
combination of two or more elements. Or we may take a
botanical or a zoological basis. Of the various classifications
which have been suggested, that of Supan gives a very rational,
simple and satisfactory scheme of grouping. In this scheme
there are thirty-five so-called climatic provinces. 1 It emphasizes
the essentials of each climate, and serves to impress these
essentials upon the mind by means of a compact, well-considered
verbal summary in the case of each province described.
Obviously, no classification of climates which is at all complete
can approach the simplicity of the ordinary classification of
the zones.

1 A. Supan, Grundzuge der physischen Erdkunde (3rd ed. ( Leipzig,
!93). PP- 211-214. Also Atlas of Meteorology, PI. I.

CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY

The Characteristics of the Torrid Zone.

General: Climate and Weather. The dominant characteristic
of the torrid zone is the simplicity and uniformity of its climatic
features. The tropics lack the proverbial uncertainty and
changeableness of the weather of higher latitudes. Weather and
climate are essentially synonymous terms. Periodic phenomena,
depending upon the daily and annual march of the sun, are
dominant. Non-periodic weather changes are wholly subordinate.
In special regions only, and at special seasons, is the regular
sequence of weather temporarily interrupted by an occasional
tropical cyclone. These cyclones, although comparatively in-
frequent, are notable features of the climate of the areas in
which they occur, generally bringing very heavy rains. The
devastation produced by one of these storms often affects the
economic condition of the people in the district of its occurrence
for many years.

Temperature. The mean temperature is high, and very
uniform over the whole zone. There is little variation during the
year. The mean annual isotherm of 68 is a rational limit at the
polar margins of the zone, and the mean annual isotherm of 80
encloses the greater portion of the land areas, as well as much of
the tropical oceans. The warmest latitude circle for the year is
not the equator, but latitude 10 N. The highest mean annual
temperatures, shown by the isotherm of 85, are in Central Africa,
in India, the north of Australia and Central America, but, with
the exception of the first, these areas are. small. The tempera-
tures average highest where there is little rain. In June, July
and August there are large districts in the south of Asia and
north of Africa with temperatures over 90.

Over nearly all of the zone the mean annual range of tempera-
ture is less than 10, and over much of it, especially on the oceans,
it is less than 5. Even near the margins of the zone the ranges
are less than 25, as at Calcutta, Hong-Kong, Rio de Janeiro and
Khartum. The mean daily range is usually larger than the mean
annual. It has been well said that " night is the winter of the
tropics." Over an area covering parts of the Pacific and Indian
Oceans from Arabia to the Caroline Islands and from Zanzibar to
New Guinea, as well as on the Guiana coast, the minimum
temperatures do not normally fall below 68. Towards the
margins of the zone, however, the minima on the continents fall to
or even below 32. Maxima of 115 and even over 120 occur
over the deserts of northern Africa. A district where the mean
maxima exceed 113 extends from the western Sahara to north-
western India, and over Central Australia. Near the equator the
maxima are therefore not as high as those in many so-called
" temperate " climates. The tropical oceans show remarkably
small variations in temperature. The " Challenger " results on
the equator showed a daily range of hardly 0.7 in the surface
water temperature, and P. G. Schott determined the annual
range as 4-1 on the equator, 4-3 at latitude 10, and 6- 5 at
latitude 20.

The Seasons. In a true tropical climate the seasons are not
classified according to temperature, but depend on rainfall and the
prevailing winds. The life of animals and plants in the tropics,
and of man himself, is regulated very largely, in some cases almost
wholly, by rainfall. Although the tropical rainy season is
characteristically associated with a vertical sun, that season is not
necessarily the hottest time of the year. It often goes by the
name of winter for this reason. Towards the margins of the zone,
with increasing annual ranges of temperature, seasons in the
extra-tropical sense gradually appear.

Physiological E/ects'of Heat and Humidity. Tropical heat is
associated with high relative humidity except over deserts and in
dry seasons. The air is therefore muggy and oppressive. The
high temperatures are disagreeable and hard to bear. The
" hot-house air " has an enervating effect. Energetic physical
and mental action are often difficult or even impossible. The
tonic effect of a cold winter is lacking. The most humid districts
in the tropics are the least desirable for persons from higher
latitudes; the driest are the healthiest. The most energetic
natives are the desert-dwellers. The monotonously enervating

heat of the humid tropics makes man sensitive to slight tempera-
ture changes. The intensity of direct insolation, as well as of
radiation from the earth's surface, may produce heat prostration
and sunstroke. " Beware of the sun " is a good rule in the
tropics.

Pressure. The uniform temperature distribution in the
tropics involves uniform pressure distribution. Pressure
gradients are weak. The annual fluctuations are slight, even on
the continents. The diurnal variation of the barometer is so
regular and so marked that, as von Humboldt said, the time of
day -can be told within about twenty minutes if the reading of the
barometer be known.

Winds and Rainfall. Along the barometric equator, where the
pressure gradients are weakest, is the equatorial belt of calms,
variable winds and rains the doldrums. This belt offers
exceptionally favourable conditions for abundant rainfall, and is
one of the rainiest regions of the world, averaging probably about
loo in. Here the sky is prevailingly cloudy; the air is hot and
oppressive; heavy showers and thunderstorms are frequent,
chiefly in the afternoon and evening. Here are the dense tropical
forests of the Amazon and of equatorial Africa. This belt of
calms and rains shifts north and south of the equator after the
sun. In striking contrast are the easterly trade winds, blowing
between the tropical high pressure belts and the equatorial belt
of low pressure. Of great regularity, and contributing largely to
the uniformity of tropical climates, the trades have long been
favourite sailing routes because of the steadiness of the wind, the
infrequency of storms, the brightness of the skies and the fresh-
ness of the air. The trades are subject to many variations.
Their northern and southern margins shift north and south after
the sun; at certain seasons they are interrupted, often over wide
areas near their equatorward margins, by the migrating belt of
equatorial rains and by monsoons; near lands they are often
interfered with by land and sea breezes; in certain regions they
are invaded by violent cyclonic storms. The trades, except
where they blow on to windward coasts or over mountains, are
drying winds. They cause the deserts of northern Africa and of
the adjacent portions of Asia; of Australia, South Africa and
southern South America. The monsoons on the southern and
eastern coasts of Asia are the best known winds of their class.
In the northern summer the south-west monsoon, warm and
sultry, blows over the latitudes from about 10 N. to and beyond
the northern tropic, between Africa and the Philippines, giving
rains over India, the East Indian archipelago and the eastern
coasts of China. In winter, the north-east monsoon, the normal
cold-season outflow from Asia combined with the north-east
trade, and generally cool and dry, covers the same district,
extending as far north as latitude 30. Crossing the equator,
these winds reach northern Australia and the western islands of
the South Pacific as a north-west rainy monsoon, while this
region in the opposite season has the normal south-east trade.
Other monsoons are found in the Gulf of Guinea and in equatorial
Africa. Wherever they occur, they control the seasonal changes.

Tropical rains are in the main summer rains, coming when the
normal trade gives way to the equatorial belt of rains, or when the
summer monsoon sets in. There are, however, many cases of a
rainy season when the sun is low, expecially on windward coasts
in the trades. Tropical rains come usually in the form of heavy
downpours and with a well-marked diurnal period, the maximum
varying with the locality between noon and midnight. Local
influences are, however, very important, and in many places
night rainfall maxima are found.

Land and Sea Breezes. The sea breeze is an important
climatic feature on many tropical coasts. With its regular
occurrence, and its cool, clean air, it serves to make many
districts habitable for white settlers, and has deservedly won the
name of " the doctor." On not a few coasts, the sea breeze is a
true prevailing wind. The location of dwellings is often deter-
mined by the exposure of a site to the sea bre?ze.

Thunderstorms. Local thunderstorms are frequent in the
humid portions of the tropics. They have a marked diurnal
periodicity, find their best opportunity in thtv equatorial belt

CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY

of weak pressure gradients and high temperature, and are
commonly associated with the rainy season, being most common
at the beginning and end of the regular rains. In many places,
thunderstorms occur daily throughout their season, with extra-
ordinary regularity and great intensity.

Cloudiness. Taken as a whole, the tropics are not favoured
with such clear skies as is often supposed. Cloudiness varies
about as does the rainfall. The maximum is in the equatorial
belt of calms and rains, where the sky is always more or less
cloudy. The minimum is in the trade latitudes, where fair skies
as a whole prevail. The equatorial cloud belt moves north and
south after the sun. Wholly clear days are very rare in the
tropics generally, especially near the equator, and during the
rainy season heavy clouds usually cover the sky. Wholly
overcast, dull days, such as are common in the winter of the
temperate zone, ocqur frequently only on tropical coasts in the
vicinity of cold ocean currents, as on the coast of Peru and on
parts of the west coast of Africa.

Intensity of Sky-Light and Twilight. The light from tropical
skies by day is trying, and the intense insolation, together with
the reflection from the ground, increases the general dazzling
glare under a tropical sun. During much of the time smoke
from forest and prairie fires (in the dry season), dust (in deserts),
and water-vapour give the sky a pale whitish appearance. In
the heart of the trade-wind belts at sea the sky is of a deeper
blue. Twilight within the tropics is shorter than in higher
latitudes, but the coming on of night is less sudden than is gener-
ally assumed.

Climatic Subdivisions. The rational basis for a classification
of the larger climatic provinces of the torrid zone is found in the
general wind systems, and in their control over rainfall. Follow-
ing this scheme there are: (i) the equatorial belt; (?) the trade-
wind belts; (3) the monsoon belts. In each of these sub-
divisions there are modifications due to marine and continental
influences. In general, both seasonal and diurnal phenomena
are more marked in continental interiors than or> the oceans,
islands and windward coasts. Further, the effect of altitude
is so important that another group should be added to include
(4) mountain climates.

i. The Equatorial Belt. Within a few degrees of the equator,
and when not interfered with by other controls, the annual curve

J. F. M. A. M. J. J. A. S. 0. N. 0. J.

8QO

900

TOO

FIG. 4. Annual march of temperature :
equatorial type. A, Africa, interior; B,
Batavia; J, Jaluit, Marshall Islands.

of temperature has
two maxima follow-
ing the two zenithal
positions of the sun,
and two minima at
about the time of
the solstices. This
equatorial type of
annual march of
temperature is illus-
trated in the three
curves for theinterior
of Africa, Batavia
and Jaluit (fig. 4).
The greatest range is
shown in the curve
for the interior of
Africa; the curve for
Bataviaillustratesin-
sular conditions with

less range, and the oceanic type for Jaluit, Marshall Islands,
gives the least range. This double maximum is not a universal
phenomenon, there being many cases where but a single maximum
occurs.

As the belt of rains swing? back and forth across the equator
after the sun, there should be two rainy seasons with the sun
vertical, and two dry seasons when the sun is farthest from the
zenith, and while the trades blow. These conditions prevail on
the equator, and as far north and south of the equator (about
io-i2) as sufficient time elapses between the two zenithal
positions of the sun for the two rainy seasons to be distinguished

from one another. In this belt, under normal conditions, there is
therefore no dry season of any considerable duration. The double
rainy season is clearly seen in equatorial Africa and in parts of
equatorial South America. The maxima lag somewhat behind
the vertical sun, coming in April and November, and are un-
symmetrically developed, the first maximum being the principal
one. The minima are also unsymmetrically developed, and the
so-called " dry seasons " are seldom wholly rainless. This rainfall
type with double maxima and minima has been called the
equatorial type, and is illustrated in the following curves for
South Africa and Quito (fig. 5). The monthly rainfalls are given
in thousandths of the iru4uii<tnitnj

annual mean. The (OflOW J ' F ' M< Al * J> a A $ 0. H. D. J.
mean annual rainfall
at Quito is 42-12 in.
Thesedouble rainy and
dry seasons are easily
modified by other con-
ditions, as by the mon-
soons of the Indo-
Australian area, so
that there is no rigid
belt of equatorial rains
extending around
the world. In South
America, east of the
Andes, the distinction
between rainy and dry
seasons is often much
confused. In this equa-
torial belt the cloudi-
ness is high through-
out the year, averaging
7 to -8, with a rela-
tively small annual
period. The curve fol-
lowing, E (fig. 6), is
fairly typical, but the
annual period varies
greatly under local
controls.

At greater distances
from the equator than
about 10 or 12 the
sun is still vertical
twice a year within
the tropics, but the

OIIO

250

200

ISO

100

P.O

ISO

100

~-^*

200

f -

ISO

100
50

,^"

200

1 \

ISO

/ .

100

~.s

S.R

^-.

~*s

200

ISO

100

^-^

1 "

<*-~

200
150
100
50

*=:

FIG. 5. Annual march of rainfall in the

tropics.

S.A, South Africa. M, Mexico.
Q, Quito. H, Hilo. .

S.P, Sao Paulo. P.D, Port Darwin.

interval between these two dates is so short that the two rainy
seasons merge into one, in summer, and there is also but one dry
season, in winter. This is the so-called tropical type of rainfall,
and is found where the trade belts are encroached upon by the
equatorial rains during the migration of these rains into each
hemisphere. It is illustrated in the curves for Sao Paulo, Brazil,
and for the city of
Mexico (fig. 5). The
mean annual rainfall at
Sao Paulo is 54-13 in.
and at Mexico 22-99 i n -
The districts of tropical
rains of this type lie
along the equatorial
margins of the torrid
zone, outside of the lati-
tudes of the equatorial
type of rainfall. The
rainy season becomes
shorter with increasing distance from the equator. The weather
of the opposite seasons is strongly contrasted. The single
dry season lasts longer than either dry season in the equatorial
belt, reaching eight months in typical cases, with the wet
season lasting four months. The lowlands often become dry
and parched during the long dry trade-wind season (winter)

J. r M. A. M. J. J. A. S. 0. N. 0. J.

FIG. 6. Annual march of cloudiness
in the tropics. E, Equatorial type;
M, Monsoon type.

5 i6

CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY

. _.
J -

and vegetation withers away, while grass and flowers grow
in great abundance and all life takes on new activity during
the time when the equatorial rainy belt with its calms,
variable winds and heavy rains is over them (summer). The
Sudan lies between the Sahara and the equatorial forests of
Africa. It receives rains, and its vegetation grows actively,
when the doldrum belt is north of the equator (May- August).
But when the trades blow (December-March) the ground is
parched and dusty. The Venezuelan llanos have a dry season
in the northern winter, when the trade blows. The rains come
in May-October. The campos of Brazil, south of the equator,
have their rains in October-April, and are dry the remainder of

the year. The Nile
-lOO ft fl results
from the rainfall on
the mountains of
Abyssinia during
the northward mi-
gration of the belt
of equatorial rains.
The so-called
' tropical type of
temperature varia-
tion, with one maxi-
mum and one mini-
mum, is illustrated
in the accompany-
ing curves for Wadi
80 Haifa, in upper
Egypt; Alice
Springs, Australia;
Nagpur, India;
Honolulu, Hawaii;
and Jamestown, St
Helena (fig. 7). The
,Q O effect of the rainy
season is often
shown in a dis-
placement of the
time of maximum
temperature to an
earlier month than
the usual one.
60 2. Trade - Wind
Belts. The trade
belts near sea-level
are characterized by
fair weather, steady
winds, infrequent
light rains or even
5QC an almost complete
absence of rain,
very regular, al-
though slight,
annual and diurnal
ranges of tempera-
ture, and a constancy and regularity of weather. The climate of
the ocean areas in the trade-wind belts is indeed the simplest and
most equable in the world, the greatest extremes over these
oceans being found to leeward of the larger lands. On the
lowlands swept over by the trades, beyond the polar limits
of the equatorial rain belt (roughly between lats. 20 and 30),
are most of the great deserts of the world. These deserts extend
directly to the water's edge on the leeward western coasts of
Australia, South Africa and South America.

The ranges and extremes of temperature are much greater
over the continental interiors than over the oceans of the trade-
wind belts. Minima of 32 or less occur during clear, quiet
nights, and daily ranges of over 50 are common. The mid-
summer mean temperature rises above 90, with noon maxima
of 1 10 or more in the non-cloudy, dry air of a desert day. The
days, with high, dry winds, carrying dust and sand, with extreme

J. F. M. A. M. J. J. A. S. 0. N. D. J.
FIG. 7. Annual march of temperature:
tropical type. W, Wadi Haifa; A, Alice
Springs; H, Honolulu; J, Jamestown, St
Helena; N, Nagpur.

heat, accentuated by the absence of vegetation, are disagreeable,
but the calmer nights, with active radiation under clear skies,
are much more comfortable. The nocturnal temperatures are
even not seldom too low for comfort in the cooler season,
when thin sheets of ice may form.

While the trades are drying winds as long as they blow strongly
over the oceans, or over lowlands, they readily become rainy
if they are cooled by ascent over a mountain or highland. Hence
the windward (eastern) sides of mountains or bold coasts in the
trade-wind belts are well watered, while the leeward sides, or
interiors, are dry. Mountainous islands in the trades, like the
Hawaiian islands, many of the East and West Indies, the
Philippines, Borneo, Ceylon, Madagascar, Teneriffe, &c., show
marked differences of this sort. The eastern coasts of Guiana,
Central America, south-eastern Brazil, south-eastern Africa,
and eastern Australia are well watered, while the interiors are
dry. The eastern highland of Australia constitutes a more
effective barrier than that in South Africa; hence the Australian
interior has a more extended desert. South America in the
south-east trade belt is not well enclosed on the east, and the
most arid portion is an interior district close to the eastern base
of the Andes where the land is low. Even far inland the Andes
again provoke precipitation along their eastern base, and the
narrow Pacific coastal strip, to leeward of the Andes, is a very
pronounced desert from near the equator to about lat. 30 S. The
cold ocean waters, with prevailing southerly (drying) winds
alongshore, are additional factors causing this aridity. Highlands
in the trade belts are therefore moist on their windward slopes,
and become oases of luxuriant plant growth, while close at hand,
on the leeward sides, dry savannas or deserts may be found.
The damp, rainy and forested windward side of Central America
was from the earliest days of European occupation left to the
natives, while the centre of civilization was naturally established
on the more open and sunny south-western side.

The rainfall associated with the conditions just described is
known as the trade type. These rains have a maximum in winter,
when the trades are most active. In cases where the trade
blows steadily throughout the year against mountains cr bold
coasts, as on the Atlantic coast of Central America, there is no
real dry season. The curve for Hilo (mean annual rainfall
145-24 in.) on the windward side of the Hawaiian Islands, shows
typical conditions (see fig. 5). The trade type of rainfall is often
much complicated by the combination with it of the tropical
type and of the monsoon type. In the Malay archipelago there
are also complications of equatorial and trade rains; likewise
in the West Indies.

3. Monsoon Belts. In a typical monsoon region the rains
follow the vertical sun, and therefore have a simple annual
period much like that of the tropical type above described.
This monsoon type of rainfall is well illustrated in the curve
for Port Darwin (mean annual rainfall 62-72 in.), in Australia
(see fig. 5). This summer monsoon rainfall results from the
inflow of a body of warm, moist air from the sea upon a land
area; there is a consequent retardation of the velocity of the air
currents, as the result of friction, and an ascent of the air, the
rainfall being particularly heavy where the winds have to climb
over high lands. In India, the precipitation is heaviest at the
head of the Bay of Bengal (where Cherrapunji, at the height
of 445 s ft. in the Khasi Hills, has a mean annual rainfall of
between 400 and $00 in.), along the southern base of the Hima-
layas (60 to 160 in.), on the bold western coast of the peninsula
(80 to 120 in. and over), and on the mountains of Burma
(up to 160 in.). In the rain-shadow of the Western Ghats, the
Deccan often suffers from drought and famine unless the monsoon
rains are abundant and well distributed. The prevailing direc-
tion of the rainy monsoon wind in India is south-west; on the
Pacific coast of Asia, it is south-east. This monsoon district
is very large, including the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, Bay
of Bengal, and adjoining continental areas; the Pacific coast
of China, the Yellow and Japan seas, and numerous islands
from Borneo to Sakhalin on the north and to the Ladrone
Islands on the east. A typical temperature curve for a monsoon

CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY

district is that for Nagpur, in the Indian Deccan (fig. 7), and a
typical monsoon cloudiness curve is given in fig. 6, the maximum
coming near the time of the vertical sun, in the rainy season,
and the minimum in the dry season.

In the Australian monsoon region, which reaches across
New Guinea and the Sunda Islands, and west of Australia, in
the Indian Ocean, over latitudes o-io S., the monsoon rains
come with north-west winds in the period between November
and March or April.

The general rule that eastern coasts in the tropics are the
"rainiest finds exceptions in the case of the rainy western coasts
in India and other districts with similar monsoon rains. On the
coast of the Gulf of Guinea, for example, there is a small rainy
monsoon area during the summer; heavy rains fall on the
seaward slopes of the Cameroon Mountains. Goree, lat. 15 N.,
on the coast of Senegambia, gives a fine example of a rainy
(summer) and a dry (winter) monsoon. Numerous combinations
of equatorial, trade and monsoon rainfalls are found, often
creating great complexity. The islands of the East Indian archi-
pelago furnish many examples of such curious complications.

4. Mountain Climate. In the torrid zone altitude is chiefly
important because of its effect in tempering the heat of the
lowlands, especially at night. If tropical mountains are high
enough, they carry snow all the year round, even on the equator,
and the zones of vegetation may range from the densest tropical
forest at their base to the snow on their summits. The highlands
and mountains within the tropics are thus often sharply con-
trasted with the lowlands, and offer more agreeable and more
healthy conditions for white settlement. They are thus often
sought by residents from colder latitudes as the most attractive
resorts. In India, the hill stations are crowded during the hot
months by civilian and military officials. The climate of many
tropical plateaus and mountains has the reputation of being a
" perpetual spring." Thus on the interior plateau of the tropical
Cordilleras of South America, and on the plateaus of tropical
Africa, the heat is tempered by the altitude, while the lowlands
and coasts are very hot. The rainfall on tropical mountains and
highlands often differs considerably in amount from that on the
lowlands, and other features common to mountain climates the
world over are also noted.

The Characteristics of the Temperate Zones.

General. As a whole, the " temperate zones " are temperate
only in that their mean temperatures and their physiological
effects are intermediate between those of the tropics and those
of the polar zones. A marked changeableness of the weather
is a striking characteristic of these zones. Apparently irregular
and haphazard, these continual weather changes, although they
are essentially non-periodic, nevertheless run through a fairly
systematic series. Climate and weather are by no means
synonymous over most of the extra-tropical latitudes.

Temperature. The mean annual temperatures at the margins
of the north temperate zone differ by more than 70. The
. ranges between the mean temperatures of hottest and coldest
months reach 120 at their maximum in north-eastern Siberia,
and 80 in North America. A January mean of -60 and a
July mean of 95, and maxima of over 120 and minima of
-90, occur in the same zone. Such great ranges characterize
the extreme land climates. Under the influence of the oceans,
the windward coasts have much smaller ranges. The annual
ranges in middle and higher latitudes exceed the diurnal, the
conditions of much of the torrid zone thus being exactly reversed.
Over much of the oceans of the temperate zones the annual
range is less than 10. In the south temperate zone there are
no extreme ranges, the maxima, slightly over 30, being near
the margin of the zone in the interior of South America, South
Africa and Australia. In these same localities the diurnal
ranges rival those of the north temperate zone.

The north-eastern Atlantic and north-western Europe are
about 35 too warm for their latitude in January, while north-
eastern Siberia is 30 too cold. The lands north of Hudson
Bay are 25 too cold, and the waters of the Alaskan Bay 20 too

warm. In July, and in the southern hemisphere, the anomalies
are small. The lands which are the centre of civilization in
Europe average too warm for their latitudes. The diurnal
variability of temperature is greater in the north temperate
zone than elsewhere in the world, and the same month may differ
greatly in its character in different years. The annual tempera-
ture curve has one maximum and one minimum. In the
continental type the times of maximum and minimum are about
one month behind the dates of maximum and minimum insola-
tion. In the marine type the retardation may amount to nearly
two months. Coasts and islands have a tendency to a cool
spring and warm autumn; continents, to similar temperatures
in both spring and fall.

Pressure and Winds. The prevailing winds are the " wester-
lies," which are much less regular than the trades. They vary
greatly in velocity in different regions' and in different seasons,
and are stronger in winter than in summer. They are much
interfered with, especially in the higher northern latitudes, by
seasonal changes of temperature and pressure over the continents,
whereby the latter establish, more or less successfully, a system
of obliquely outflowing winds in winter and of obliquely inflowing
winds in summer. In summer, when the lands have low pressure,
the northern oceans are dominated by great oval areas of high
pressure, with outflowing spiral eddies, while in winter, when
the northern lands have high pressure, the northern portions
of the oceans develop cyclonic systems of inflowing winds over
their warm waters. All these great continental and oceanic
systems of spiralling winds are important climatic controls.

The westerlies are also much confused and interrupted by
storms, whence their designation of stormy westerlies. So
common are. such interruptions that the prevailing westerly
wind direction is often difficult to discern without careful
observation. Cyclonic storms are most numerous and best
developed in winter. Although greatly interfered with near
sea-level by continental changes of pressure, by cyclonic and
anticyclonic whirls, and by local inequalities of the surface, the
eastward movement of the atmosphere remains very constant
aloft. The south temperate zone being chiefly water, the
westerlies are but little disturbed there by continental effects.
Between latitudes 40 and 60 S. the " brave west winds " blow
with a constancy and velocity found in the northern hemisphere
only on the oceans, and then in a modified form. Storms,
frequent and severe, characterize these southern hemisphere
westerlies, and easterly wind directions are temporarily noted
during their passage. Voyages to the west around Cape Horn
against head gales, and in cold wet weather, are much dreaded.
South of Africa and Australia, also, the westerlies are remarkably
steady and strong. The winter in these latitudes is stormier
than the summer, but the seasonal difference is less than north
of the equator.

Rainfall. Rainfall is fairly abundant over the oceans and
also over a considerable part of the lands (30-80 in. and more).
It comes chiefly in connexion with the usual cyclonic storms, or
in thunderstorms. So great are the differences, geographic
and periodic, in rainfall produced by differences in temperature,
topography, cyclonic conditions, &c., that only the most general
rules can be laid down. The equatorward margin of the tem-
perate zone rains is clearly defined on the west coasts, at the
points where the coast deserts are replaced by belts of light or
moderate rainfall. Bold west coasts, on the polar side of lat.
40, are very rainy (too in. and more a year in the most favourable
situations). The hearts of the continents, far from the sea, and
especially when well enclosed by mountains, or when blown over
by cool ocean winds which warm while crossing the land, have
light rainfall (less than 10-20 in.). East coasts are wetter than
interiors, but drier than west coasts. Winter is the season of
maximum rainfall over oceans, islands and west coasts, for the
westerlies are then most active, cyclonic storms are most numer-
ous and best developed, and the cold lands chill the inflowing
damp air. At this season, however, the low temperatures, high
pressures, and tendency to outflowing winds over the continents
are unfavourable to rainfall, and the interior land areas as a rule

5 i8

CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY

then have their minimum. The warmer months bring the
maximum rainfall over the continents. Conditions are then
favourable for, inflowing damp winds from the adjacent oceans;
there is the best opportunity for convection; thunder-showers
readily develop on the hot afternoons; the capacity of the air
for water vapour is greatest. The marine type of rainfall, with
a winter maximum, extends in over the western borders of the
continents, and is also found in the winter rainfall of the sub-
tropical belts. Rainfalls are heaviest along the tracks of most
frequent cyclonic storms.

For continental stations the typical daily march of rainfall
shows a chief maximum in the afternoon, and a secondary
maximum in the night or early morning. . The chief minimum
comes between 10 A.M. and 2 P.M. Coast stations generally have
a night maximum and a minimum between 10 A.M. and 4 P.M.

Humidity and Cloudiness. S. A. Arrhenius gives the mean
cloudiness for different latitudes as follows:

|7oN.

60"

Eq.

60 S'.

1 *>

4 8

of periodic diurnal elements, under the regular control of the
sun, and of non-periodic cyclonic and anticyclonic elements. In
summer, on land, when the cyclonic element is weakest and the
solar control is the strongest, the dominant types are associated
with the regular changes from day to night. Daytime cumulus
clouds; diurnal variation in wind velocity; afternoon thunder-
storms, with considerable regularity, characterize the warmest
months over the continents and present an analogy with tropical
conditions. Cyclonic and anticyclonic spells of hotter or cooler,
rainy jor dry, weather, with varying winds differing in the
temperatures and the moisture which they bring, serve to break
the regularity of the diurnal types. In winter the non-periodic,
cyclonic control is strongest. The irregular changes from clear to
cloudy, from warmer to colder, from dry air to snow or rain,
extend over large areas, and show little diurnal control. Spring
and fall are transition seasons, and have transition weather types.
The south temperate zone oceans have a constancy of non-
periodic cyclonic weather changes

The higher latitudes of the temperate zones thus have a mean
cloudiness which equals and even exceeds that of the equatorial
belt. The amounts are greater over the oceans and coasts than
inland. The belts of minimum cloudiness are at about lat. 30
N. and S. Over the continental interiors the cloudiest season
is summer, but the amount is never very large. Otherwise,
winter is generally the cloudiest season and with a fairly high
mean annual amount.

The absolute humidity as a whole decreases as the temperature
falls. The relative humidity averages 90 %, more or less, over the
oceans, and is high under the clouds and rain of cyclonic storms,
but depends, on land, upon the wind direction, winds from an
ocean or from a lower latitude being damper, and those from a
continent or from a colder latitude being drier.

Seasons. Seasons in the temperate zones are classified
according to temperature, not, as in the tropics, by rainfall.
The four seasons are important characteristics, especially of the
middle latitudes of the north temperate zone. Towards the
equatorial margins of the zones the difference in temperature
between summer and winter becomes smaller, and the transition
seasons weaken and even disappear. At the polar margins the
change from winter to summer, and vice versa, is so sudden that
there also the transition seasons disappear.

These seasonal changes are of the greatest importance in the
life of man. The monotonous heat of the tropics and the con-
tinued cold of the polar zones are both depressing. Their
tendency is to operate against man's highest development.
The seasonal changes of the temperate zones stimulate man to
activity. They develop him, physically and mentally. They
encourage higher civilization. A cold, stormy winter necessitates
forethought in the preparation during the summer of clothing,
food and shelter. Development must result from such conditions.
In the warm, moist tropics life is too easy; in the cold polar
zones it is too hard. Near the poles, the growing season is too
short; in the moist tropics it is so long that there is little
inducement to labour at any special time. The regularity,
and the need, of outdoor work during a part of the year are
important factors in the development of man in the temperate
zones.

Weather. An extreme changeableness of the weather, depend-
ing on the succession of cyclones and anticyclones, is another
characteristic. For most of the year, and most of the zone,
settled weather is unknown. The changes are most rapid in the
northern portion of the north temperate zone, especially on the
continents, where the cyclones travel fastest. The nature of
these changes depends on the degree of development, the velocity
of progression, the track, and other conditions of the disturbance
which produces them. The particular weather types resulting
from this control give the climates their distinctive character.

The types vary with the season and with the geographical
position. They result from a combination, more or less irregular,

through the year which is only
faintly imitated over the oceans
of the northern hemisphere.
Winter types differ little from summer. The diurnal control is
never very strong. Stormy weather prevails throughout the year
although the weather changes are more frequent and stronger in
the colder months.

Climatic Subdivisions. There are fundamental differences
between the north and south temperate zones. The latter zone is
sufficiently individual to be given a place by itself. The marginal
sub-tropical belts must also be considered as a separate group by
themselves. The north temperate zone as a whole includes large
areas of land, stretching over many degrees of latitude, as well
as of water. Hence it embraces so remarkable a diversity of
climates that no single district can be taken as typical of the
whole. The simplest and most rational scheme for a classifica-
tion of these climates is based on the fundamental differences
which depend upon land and water, upon the prevailing winds,
and upon altitude. Thus there are the ocean areas and the land
areas. The latter are then subdivided into western (windward)
and eastern (leeward) coasts, and interiors. Mountain climates
remain as a separate group.

South Temperate Zone. Because of the large ocean surface, the
whole meteorological regime in the south temperate zone is more
uniform than in the northern. The south temperate zone may
properly be called " temperate." Its temperature changes are
small; its prevailing winds are stronger and steadier than in the
northern hemisphere; its seasons are more uniform; its weather
is prevailingly stormier, more changeable, and more under
cyclonic control. The uniformity of the climatic conditions
over the far southern oceans is monotonously unattractive. The
continental areas are small, and develop to a limited degree only
the more marked seasonal and diurnal changes which are
characteristic of lands in general. The summers are less stormy
than the winters, but even the summer temperatures are not
high. Such an area as that of New Zealand, with its mild climate
and fairly regular rains, is really at the margins of the zone, and
has much more favourable conditions than the islands farther
south. These islands, in the heart of this zone, have dull, cheer-
less and inhospitable climates. The zone enjoys a good reputa-
tion for healthfulness, which fact has been ascribed chiefly to
the strong and active air movement, the relatively drier air
than in corresponding northern latitudes, and the cool summers.
It must be remembered, also, that the lands are mostly in the
sub-tropical belt, which possesses peculiar climatic advantages,
as will be seen.

Sub-tropical Belts: Mediterranean Climates. At the tropical
margins of the temperate zones are the so-called sub-tropical
belts. Their rainfall regime is alternately that of the westerlies
and of the trades. They are thus associated, now with the
temperate and now with the torrid zones. In winter the
equatorward migration of the great pressure and wind systems
brings these latitudes under the control of the westerlies, whose
frequent irregular storms give a moderate winter precipitation.

CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY

These winter rains are not steady and continuous, but are separ-
ated by spells of fine sunny weather. The amounts vary greatly. 1
In summer, when the trades are extended polewards by the out-
flowing equatorward winds on the eastern side of the ocean
anticyclones, mild, dry and nearly continuous fair weather
prevails, with general northerly winds.

The sub-tropical belts of winter rains and dry summers are
not very clearly defined. They are mainly limited to the western
coasts of the continents, and to the islands off these coasts in
latitudes between about 28 and 40. The sub-tropical belt
is exceptionally wide in the old world, and reaches far inland
there, embracing the countries bordering on the Mediterranean
in southern Europe and northern Africa, and then extending
eastward across the Dalmatian coast and the southern part of
the Balkan peninsula into Syria, Mesopotamia, Arabia north
of the tropic, Persia and the adjacent lands. The fact that the
Mediterranean countries are so generally included has led to
the use of the name " Mediterranean climate." Owing to the
great irregularity of topography and outline, the Mediterranean
province embraces many varieties of climate, but the dominant
characteristics are the mild temperatures, except on the higher
elevations, and the sub-tropical rains.

On the west coasts of the two Americas the sub-tropical
belt of winter rains is clearly seen in California and in northern
Chile, on the west of the coast mountain ranges. Between the
region which has rain throughout the year from the stormy
westerlies, and the districts which are permanently arid under
the trades, there is an indefinite belt over which rains fall in
winter. In southern Africa, which is controlled by the high
pressure areas of the South Atlantic and south Indian oceans,
the south-western coastal belt has winter rains, decreasing to the
north, while the east coast and adjoining interior have summer
rains, from the south-east trade. Southern Australia is climatic-
ally similar to South Africa. In summer the trades give rainfall
on the eastern coast, decreasing inland. In winter the westerlies
give moderate rains, chiefly on the south-western coast.

The sub-tropical climates follow the tropical high pressure
belts across the oceans, but they do not retain their distinctive
character far inland from the west coasts of the continents
(except in the Mediterranean case), nor on the east coasts. On
the latter, summer monsoons and the occurrence of general
summer rains interfere, as in eastern Asia and in Florida.

Strictly winter rains are typical of the coasts and islands of
this belt. The more continental areas have a tendency to spring
and autumn rains. The rainy and dry seasons are most marked
at the equatorward margins of the belt. With increasing
latitude, the rain is more evenly distributed through the year,
the summer becoming more and more rainy until, in the con-

tinental interiors of
the higher latitudes,
the summer becomes
the season of maxi-
mum rainfall. The
monthly distribution
of rainfall in two sub-
tropical regions is
shown in the accom-
panying curves for
Malta and for Western
Australia (fig. 8). In
FIG. 8. Annual March of Rainfall : Sub- Alexandria the dry
tropical Type. W.A, Western Australia; season lasts nearly
M.Malta. . eight months; in

Palestine, from six to seven months; in Greece, about four
months. The sub-tropical rains are peculiarly well developed
on the eastern coast of the Atlantic Ocean.

The winter rains which migrate equatorward are separated
by the Sahara from the equatorial rains which migrate poleward.
An unusually extended migration of either of these rain belts
may bring them close together, leaving but a small part, if any,

'Approximately Lisbon has 28-60 in.; Madrid, 16-50; Algiers,
28-15; Nice, 33-00; Rome, 29-90; Ragusa, 63-90.

1000 THS

200
150
100
50

200
ISO
100
50

J. F. M. A. M. J: J. A. S. 0. N. D. J.

"^^

*!.

s
M.

' ^

*~~

^-s.

J. F. M. A. M. J. J. A. S. 0. N. J.

of the intervening desert actually rainless. The Arabian desert
occupies a somewhat similar position. Large variations in the
annual rainfall may be expected towards the equatorial margins
of the sub-tropical belts.

The main features of the sub-tropical rains east of the Atlantic
are repeated on the Pacific coasts of the two Americas. In
North America the rainfall decreases from Alaska, Washington
and northern Oregon southwards to lower California, and the
length of the summer dry season increases. At San Diego, six
months (May-October) have each less than 5% of the annual
precipitation, and four of these have i%. The southern ex-
tremity of Chile, from about latitude 38 S. southward, has heavy
rainfall throughout the year from the westerlies, with a winter
maximum. Northern Chile is persistently dry. Between these
two there are winter rains and dry summers. Neither Africa
nor Australia extends far enough south to show the different
members of this system well. New Zealand is almost wholly in
the prevailing westerly belt. Northern India is unique in
having summer monsoon rains and also winter rains, the latter
from weak cyclonic

storms which corre- 100", , \ M , A M J- J- * S " - N " P "
spond with the sub-
tropical winterrains.

From the position
of the sub-tropical
belts to leeward
of the oceans, and
at the equatorial
margins of the
temperate zones,
it follows that their
temperatures are not
extreme. Further,
the protection
afforded by moun-
tain ranges, as by
the Alps in Europe
and the Sierra Ne-
vada in the United
States, is an import-
ant factor in keep-
ing out extremes of
winter cold. The
annual march and
ranges of tempera-

400

J. F. M. A. M. J J. A.

,
FIG. 9. Annual March of Temperature for

p HpnpnH ,, nnn selected Sub-tropical Stations. C, Cordoba;

e depend upon A AuckUmd . B Bermuda; Bd, Bagdad.
position with refer-

ence to continental or marine influences. This is seen in
the accompanying data and curves for Bagdad, Cordoba
(Argentina) , Bermuda and Auckl and (fig. 9) . The Mediterranean
basin is particularly favoured in winter, not only in the protection
against cold afforded by the mountains but also in the high
temperature of the sea itself. The southern Alpine valleys
and the Riviera are well situated, having good protection and a
southern exposure. The coldest month usually has a mean
temperature well above 32. Mean minimum temperatures
of about, and somewhat below, freezing occur in the northern
portion of the district, and in the more continental localities
minima a good deal lower have been observed. Mean maximum
temperatures of about 95 occur in northern Italy, and of still
higher degrees in the southern portions. Somewhat similar
conditions obtain in the sub-tropical district of North America.
Under the control of passing cyclonic storm areas, hot or cold
winds, which often owe some of their special characteristics
to the topography, bring into the sub-tropical belts, from higher
or lower latitudes, unseasonably high or low temperatures.
These winds have been given special names (mistral, sirocco,
bora, &c.).

These belts are among the least cloudy districts in the world.
The accompanying curve, giving an average for ten stations,
shows the small annual amount of cloud, the winter maximum
and the marked summer minimum, in a typical sub-tropical

520

CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY

--.

"-"

climate (fig. 10). The winter rains do not bring continuously
overcast skies, and a summer month with a mean cloudiness

of 10% is not excep-
* f * * M - J. J- A. s. o. N. o. A,, tlonal in the drier parts

9 of the sub-tropics.

With prevailing fair

s skies, even tempera-
tures, and moderate rain-
fall, the sub-tropical belts
possess many climatic
advantages which fit

them for health resorts.
FIG. 10. Annual March of Cloudiness TL i t *.n

in a Sub-tropical Climate (Eastern Medi- The lon S bst of *"
terranean). known resorts on the

Mediterranean coast,
and the shorter list for California, bear witness to this fact.

North Temperate Zone: West Coasts. Marine climatic types
are carried by the prevailing westerlies on to the western coasts
of the continents, giving them mild winters and cool summers,
abundant rainfall, and a high degree of cloudiness and relative
humidity. North-western Europe is particularly favoured
because of the remarkably high temperatures of the North
Atlantic Ocean. January means of 40 to 50 in the British
Isles and on the northern French coast occur in the same latitudes
as those of o and 10 in the far interior of Asia. In July means
60 to 70 in the former contrast with 70 to 80 in the latter
districts. The conditions are somewhat similar in North America.
Along the western coasts of North America and of Europe the
mean annual ranges are under 25 actually no greater than
some of those within the tropics. Irregular cyclonic temperature
changes are, however, marked in the temperate zone, while absent
in the tropics. The curves for the Stilly Isles and for Thorshavn,
Faroe Islands, illustrate the insular type of temperature on the
west coasts (fig. n). The annual march of rainfall, with the
marked maximum in the fall and winter which is characteristic
of the marine regime, is illustrated in the curve for north-western
Europe (fig. 12). On the northern Pacific coast of North America

the distribution is
similar, and in the
southern hemisphere
the western coasts
of southern South
America, Tasmania
and New Zealand
show the same type.
The cloudiness and
re-lative humidity
average high on wes-
tern coasts, with the
maximum in the
colder season.

The west coasts
therefore, including
the important cli-
matic province of
FIG. 12. Annual March of Rainfall : Tem- western Europe, and
perate Zone. C.E, Central Europe; A, the coast provinces of
Northern Asia; N.A, Atlantic coast of north-western North
North America ;N.W.E, North-west Europe. . . ' T

America, New Zea-
land and southern Chile, have as a whole mild winters, equable
temperatures, small ranges, and abundant rainfall, fairly well
distributed through the year. The summers are relatively cool.
Continental Interiors. The equable climate of the western
coasts changes, gradually or suddenly, into the more extreme
climates of the interiors. In Europe, where no high mountain
ranges intervene, the transition is gradual, and broad stretches
of country have the benefits of the tempering influence of the

FIG. II. Annual March of Temperature for Selected Stations in
the Temperate Zones.

Scilly Isles. S, Semipalatinsk. Sa, Sakhalin.

Prague. K, Kiakta. T, Thorshavn.

Charkow. B, Blagovyeshchensk. Y, Yakutsk.

1 MOTHS

150
100
50

250
200
150
100

100
50

150
100
50
-O

J. f. M. A. M. J. J. A. 5. 0. N. 0. J.

C.F

N^.

-*~~

'*^~

-***

ann J. r. M. A. M. J. J. A. S. 0. N. D. J.

80i i i i i

700

300

400

500

J. F. M. A. M. J. J. A. S. -0. N. D. J.
FIG. ii.

CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY

Atlantic. In North America the change is abrupt, and conies
on crossing the lofty western mountain barrier. The curves in
fig. ii illustrate well the gradually increasing continentality of
the climate with increasing distance inland in Eurasia.

The continental interiors of the north temperate zone have
the greatest extremes in the world. Towards the Arctic circle
the winters are extremely severe, and January mean temperatures
of -10 and -20 occur over considerable areas. At the cold
pole of north-eastern Siberia a January mean of -60 is found.
Mean minimum temperatures of -40 occur in the area from
eastern Russia, over Siberia and down to about latitude 50 N.
Over no small part of Siberia minimum temperatures below
-70 may be looked for every winter. Thorshavn and Yakutsk
are excellent examples of the temperature differences along the
same latitude line (see fig. 1 1). The winter in this interior region
is dominated by a marked high pressure. The weather is pre-
vailingly clear and calm. The ground is frozen all the year round
below a slight depth over wide areas. The extremely low
temperatures are most trying when the steppes are swept by icy
storm winds (buran, purga), carrying loose snow, and often
resulting in loss of life. In the North American interior the winter
cold is somewhat less severe. North American winter weather in
middle latitudes is often interrupted by cyclones, which, under
the steep poleward temperature gradient then prevailing, cause
frequent, marked and sudden changes in wind direction and
temperature over the central and eastern United States. Cold
waves and warm waves are common, and blizzards resemble the
buran or purga of Russia and Siberia. With cold northerly
winds, temperatures below freezing are carried far south towards
the tropic.

The January mean temperatures in the southern portions of
the continental interiors average about 50 or 60. In summer
the northern continental interiors are warm, with July means
of 60 and thereabouts. These temperatures are not much
higher than those on the west coasts, but as the northern interior
winters are much colder than those on the coasts, the interior
ranges are very large. Mean maximum temperatures of 86
occur beyond the Arctic circle in north-eastern Siberia, and
beyond latitude 60 in North America. In spite of the extreme
winter cold, agriculture extends remarkably far north in these
regions, because of the warm, though short, summers, with
favourable rainfall distribution. The summer heat is sufficient
to thaw the upper surface of the frozen ground, and vegetation
prospers for its short season. At this time great stretches of flat
surface become swamps. The southern interiors have torrid
heat in summer, temperatures of over 90 being recorded in the
south-western United States and in southern Asia. In these
districts the diurnal ranges of temperature are very large, often
exceeding 40, and the mean maxima exceed 110.

The winter maximum rainfall of the west coasts becomes a
summer maximum in the interiors. The change is gradual in
Europe, as was the change in temperature, but more sudden in
North America. The curves for central Europe and for northern
Asia illustrate these continental summer rains (see fig. 12). The
summer maximum becomes more marked with the increasing
continental character of the climate. There is also a well-
marked decrease in the amount of rainfall inland. In western
Europe the rainfall averages 20 to 30 in., whith much larger
amounts (reaching 80-100 in. and even more) on the bold west
coasts, as in the British Isles and Scandinavia, where the moist
Atlantic winds are deflected upwards, and also locally on moun-
tain ranges, as on the Alps. There are small rainfalls (below
20 in.) in eastern Scandinavia and on the Iberian peninsula.
Eastern Europe has generally less than 20 in., western Siberia
about i S in., and eastern Siberia about 10 in. In the southern part
of the great overgrown continent of Asia an extended region
of steppes and deserts, too far from the sea to receive sufficient
precipitation, shut in, furthermore, by mountains, controlled
in summer by drying northerly winds, receives less than 10 in.
a year, and in places less than 5 in. In this interior district of
Asia population is inevitably small and suffers under a condition
of hopeless aridity.

The North American interior has more favourable rainfall con-
ditions than Asia, because the former continent is not overgrown.
The heavy rainfalls on the western slopes of the Pacific coast
mountains correspond, in a general way, with those on the west
coast of Europe, although they are heavier (over 100 in. at a
maximum). The close proximity of the mountains to the Pacific,
however, involves a much more rapid decrease of rainfall inland
than is the case in Europe, as may be seen by comparing the
isohyetal lines l in the two cases. A considerable interior region
is left with deficient rainfall (less than 10 in.) in the south-west.
The eastern portion of the continent is freely open to the Atlantic
and the Gulf of Mexico, so that moist cyclonic winds have access,
and rainfalls of over 20 in. are found everywhere east of the tooth
meridian. These conditions are much more favourable than
those in eastern Asia. The greater part of the interior of North
America has the usual warm-season rains. In the interior basin,
between the Rocky and Sierra Nevada mountains, the higher
plateaus and mountains receive much more rain than the desert
lowlands. Forests grow on the higher elevations, while irrigation
is necessary for agriculture on the lowlands. The rainfall here
comes largely from thunderstorms.

In South America the narrow Pacific slope has heavy rainfall
(over 80 in.). East of the Andes the plains are dry (mostly less
than 10 in.). The southern part of the continent is very narrow,
and is open to the east, as well as more open to the west owing
to the decreasing height of the mountains. Hence the rainfall
increases somewhat to the south, coming in connexion with

passing cyclones. Tas- ......'...... .

mania and New Zealand
have most rain on their
western slopes.

In a typical conti-
nental climate the
winter, except for radia-
tion fogs, is very clear,
and the summer the
cloudiest season, as is
well shown in the accom-
panying curve for
eastern Asia (A, fig. 13).

r ^ >

_*!

^-^

-~,

/^,

---.

V,,

FIG. 13. Annual March of Cloudiness:
Temperate Zones. E, Central Europe;
A, Eastern Asia; M, mountain.

In a more moderate continental climate, such as that of central
Europe (E, fig. 13), and much of the United States, the winter is
the cloudiest season. In the first case the mean cloudiness is
small; in the second there is a good deal of cloud all the year
round.

a.s< C0<w/s. The prevailing winds carry the continental
climates of the interiors off over the eastern coasts of the
temperate zone lands, and even for some distance on to the
adjacent oceans. The east coasts therefore have continental
climates, with modifications resulting from the presence of the
oceans to leeward, and are necessarily separated from the west
coasts, with which they have little in common. On the west
coasts of the north temperate lands the isotherms are far apart.
On the east coasts they are crowded together. The east coasts
share with the interiors large annual and cyclonic ranges of
temperature. A glance at the isothermal maps of the world will
show at once how favoured, because of its position to leeward of
the warm North Atlantic waters, is western Europe as compared
with eastern North America. A similar contrast, less marked, is
seen in eastern Asia and western North America. In eastern Asia
there is some protection, by the coast mountains, against the
extreme cold of the interior, but in North America there is no
such barrier, and severe cold winds sweep across the Atlantic
coast states, even far to the south. Owing to the prevailing
offshore winds, the oceans to leeward have relatively little effect.

As already noted, the rainfall increases from the interiors
towards the east coasts. In North America the distribution
through the year is very uniform, with some tendency to a
summer maximum, as in the interior (N.A, fig. 12).

In eastern Asia the winters are relatively dry and clear, under

1 i.e. lines drawn on a map to connect all places having an equal
rainfall.

522

CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY

the influence of the cold offshore monsoon, and the summers
are warm and rainy. Rainfalls of 40 in. are found on the east
coasts of Korea, Kamchatka and Japan, while in North America,
which is more open, they reach farther inland. Japan, although
occupying an insular position, has a modified continental rather
than a marine climate. The winter monsoon, after crossing the
water, gives abundant rain on the western coast, while the winter
is relatively dry on the lee of the mountains, on the east. Japan
has smaller temperature ranges than the mainland.

Mountain Climates. The mountain climates of the temperate
zone have the usual characteristics which are associated with
altitude everywhere. If the altitude is sufficiently great the
decreased temperature gives mountains a polar climate, with the
difference that the summers are relatively cool while the winters
are mild owing to inversions of temperature in anticyclonic
weather. Hence the annual ranges are smaller than over
lowlands. At such times of inversion the mountain-tops often
appear as local areas of higher temperature in a general region of
colder air over the valleys and lowlands. The increased intensity
of insolation aloft is an important factor in giving certain
mountain resorts their deserved popularity in winter (e.g. Davos
and Meran). Of Meran it has been well said that from December
to March the nights are winter, but the days are mild spring. The
diurnal ascending air currents of summer usually give mountains
their maximum cloudiness and highest relative humidity in the
warmer months, while winter is the drier and clearer season.
This is shown in curve M, fig. 13. The clouds of winter are low,
those of summer are higher. Hence the annual march of cloudi-
ness on mountains is usually the opposite of that on lowlands.

Characteristics of the Polar Zones.

General. The temperate zones merge into the polar zones at
the Arctic and Antarctic circles, or, if temperature be used as the
basis of classification, at the isotherms of 50 for the warmest
month, as suggested by Supan. The longer or shorter absence of
the sun gives the climate a peculiar character, not found elsewhere.

Beyond the isotherm of 50 for the warmest month forest trees
and cereals do not grow. In the northern hemisphere this line is
well north of the Arctic circle in the continental climate of Asia,
and north of it also in north-western North America and in
northern Scandinavia, but falls well south in eastern British
America, Labrador and Greenland, and also in the North Pacific
Ocean. In the southern hemisphere this isotherm crosses the
southern extremity of South America, and runs fairly east and
west around the globe there. The conditions of life are
necessarily very specialized for the peculiar climatic features
which are met with in these zones. There is a minimum of life,
but more in the north polar than the south polar zone. Plants
are few and lowly. Land animals which depend upon plant food
must therefore likewise be few in number. Farming and cattle-
raising cease. Population is small and scattered. There are no
permanent settlements at all within the Antarctic circle. Life is a
constant struggle for existence. Man seeks his food by the chase
on land, but chiefly in the sea. He lives along, or near, the sea-
coast. The interior lands, away from the sea, are deserted.
Gales and snow and cold cause many deaths on land, and,
especially during fishing Mean

expeditions, at sea. Under
such hard conditions of
securing food, famine is a
likely occurrence.

In the arctic climate vegetation must make rapid growth in
the short, cool summer. In the highest latitudes the summer
temperatures are not high enough to melt snow on a level.
Exposure is therefore of the greatest importance. Arctic plants
grow and blossom with great rapidity and luxuriance where the
exposure is favourable, and where the water from the melting
snow can run off. The soil then dries quickly, and can be
effectively warmed. Protection against cold winds is another
important factor in the growth of vegetation. Over great
stretches of the northern plains the surface only is thawed out
in the warmer months, and swamps, mosses and lichens are

found above eternally frozen ground. Direct insolation is very
effective in high latitudes. Where the exposure is favourable,
snow melts in the sun when the temperature of the air in the
shade is far below freezing.

Arctic and antarctic zones differ a good deal in the distribution
and arrangement of land and water around and in them. The
southern zone is surrounded by a wide belt of open sea; the
northern, by land areas. The northern is therefore much
affected by the conditions of adjacent continental masses.
Nevertheless, the general characteristics are apparently much the
same over both, so far as is now known, the antarctic differing
from the arctic chiefly in having colder summers and in the
regularity of its pressure and winds. Both zones have the lowest
mean annual temperatures in their respective hemispheres, and
hence may properly be called the cold zoiies.

Temperature. At the solstices the two poles receive the
largest amounts of insolation which any part of the earth's
surface ever receives. It would seem, therefore, that the
temperatures at the poles should then be the highest in the
world, but as a matter of fact they are nearly or quite the lowest.
Temperatures do not follow insolation in this case because much
of the latter never reaches the earth's surface; because most of
the energy which does reach the surface is expended in melting
the snow and ice of the polar areas; and because the water areas
are large, and the duration of insolation is short.

A set of monthly isothermal charts of the north polar area,
based on all available observations, has been prepared by
H. Mohn and published in the volume on Meteorology of the
Nansen expedition. In the winter months there are three cold
poles, in Siberia, in Greenland and at the pole itself. In January
the mean temperatures at these three cold poles are -49, -40
and -40 respectively. The Siberian cold pole becomes a
maximum of temperature during the summer, but the Greenland
and polar minima remain throughout the year. In July the
temperature distribution shows considerable uniformity; the
gradients are relatively weak. A large area in the interior of
Greenland, and one of about equal extent around the pole, are
within the isotherm of 32. For the year a large area around
the pole is enclosed by the isotherm of -4, with an isotherm
of the same value in the interior of Greenland, but a local area
of -7-6 is noted in Greenland, and one of -11-2 is centred
at lat. 80 N. and long. 170 E.

The north polar chart of annual range of temperature shows
a maximum range of about 120 in Siberia; of 80 in North
America; of 75-6 at the North Pole, and of 72 in Greenland.
The North Pole obviously has a continental climate. The
minimum ranges are on the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The
mean annual isanomalies show that the interior of Greenland
has a negative anomaly in all months. The Norwegian sea area
is 45 too warm in January and February. Siberia has +10-8
in summer, and 45 in January. Between Bering Strait and
the pole there is a negative anomaly in all months. The influence
of the Gulf Stream drift is clearly seen on the chart, as it is
also on that of mean annual ranges.

For the North Pole Mohn gives the following results, obtained
by graphic methods:
Temperatures at the North Pole.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May.

June.

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Year.

-41-8

-31-0

-18-4

8-6

28-4

30-2"

26-6

8-6

-11-2

-27-4

-36-4

-8-9

It appears that the region about the North Pole is the coldest
place in the northern hemisphere for the mean of the year, and
that the interior ice desert of Greenland, together with the inner
polar area, are together the coldest parts of the northern hemi-
sphere in July. In January, however, Verkhoyansk, in north-
eastern Siberia, just within the Arctic circle, has a mean tempera-
ture of about 60, while the inner polar area and the northern
interior of Greenland have only 40. Thus far no minima
as low as those of north-eastern Siberia have been recorded in
the Arctic.

For the Antarctic our knowledge is still very fragmentary,

CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY

523

and relates chiefly to the summer months. Hann has determined
the mean temperatures of the higher southern latitudes as
follows: *

Mean Temperatures of High Southern Latitudes.
S. Lat. . . .50 60 70 80"

Mean Annual . 41-9 28-4 11-3 3-6
January . . . 46-9 37-8 30-6 20-3

July . . . 37-2 18-3 -8-0 -24-7

From lat. 70 S. polewards, J. Hann finds that the southern
hemisphere is colder than the northern. Antarctic summers
are decidedly cold. The mean annual temperatures experienced
have been in the vicinity of 10, and the minima of an ordinary
antarctic winter go down to -40 and below, but so far no
minima of the severest Siberian intensity have been noted. The
maxima have varied between 35 and 50.

The temperatures at the South Pole itself furnish an interesting
subject for speculation. It is likely that near the South Pole
will prove to be the coldest point on the earth's surface for the
year, as the distribution of insolation would imply, and as the
conditions of land and ice and snow there would suggest. The
lowest winter and summer temperatures in the southern hemi-
sphere will almost certainly be found in the immediate vicinity
of the pole. It must not be supposed that the isotherms in the
antarctic region run parallel with the latitude lines. They bend
polewards, and equatorwards at different meridians, although
much less so than in the Arctic.

The annual march of temperature in the north polar zone, for
which we have the best comparable data, is peculiar in having
a much-retarded minimum in February or even in March the
result of the long, cold winter. The temperature rises rapidly
towards summer, and reaches a maximum in July. Autumn
is warmer than spring.

The continents do not penetrate far enough into the arctic
zone to develop a pure continental climate in the highest latitudes.
Verkhoyansk, in lat. 67 6' N., furnishes an excellent example
of an exaggerated continental type for the margin of the zone,
with an annual range of 1 20. One-third as large a range is
found on Novaya Zemlya. Polar climate as a whole has large
annual and small diurnal ranges, but sudden changes of wind
may cause marked irregular temperature changes within twenty-
four hours, especially in winter. The smaller ranges are associ-
ated with greater cloudiness, and vice versa. The mean diurnal
variability is very small in summer, and reaches its maximum
in winter, about 7 in February, according to Mohn.

Pressure and Winds. Owing to the more symmetrical dis-
tribution of land and water in the southern than in the northern
polar area, the pressures and winds have a simpler arrangement
in the former, and may be first considered. The rapid southward
decrease of pressure, which is so marked a feature of the higher
latitudes of the southern hemisphere on the isobaric charts of
the world, does not continue all the way to the South Pole. Nor
do the prevailing westerly winds, constituting the " circumpolar
whirl," which are so well developed over the southern portions
of the southern hemisphere oceans, blow all the way home to
the South Pole. The steep poleward pressure gradients of these
southern oceans end in a trough of low pressure, girdling the
earth at about the Antarctic circle. From here the pressure
increases again towards the South Pole, where a permanent inner
polar anticyclonic area is found, with outflowing winds deflected
by the earth's rotation into easterly and south-easterly directions.
These easterly winds have been observed by the recent expedi-
tions which have penetrated far enough south to cross the low-
pressure trough. The limits between the prevailing westerlies
and the outflowing winds from the pole (" easterlies ") vary with
the longitude and migrate with the seasons. The change in
passing from one wind system to the other is easily observed.
This south polar anticyclone, with its surrounding low-pressure
girdle, migrates with the season, the centre apparently shifting
polewards in summer and towards the eastern hemisphere in
winter. The outflowing winds from the polar anticyclones
sweep down across the inlajid ice. Under certain topographic
1 Nature, Ixxi. (Jan. 5, 1905), p. 221.

conditions, descending across mountain ranges, as in the case
of the Admiralty Range in Victoria Land, these winds may
develop high velocity and take on typical John character-
istics, raising the temperature to an unusually high degree.
Fohn winds are also known on both coasts of Greenland, when
a passing cyclonic depression draws the air down from the icy
interior. These Greenland John winds are important climatic
elements, for they blow down warm and dry, raising the tempera-
ture even 30 or 40 above the winter mean, and melting the
snow.

In the Arctic area the wind systems are less clearly defined
and the pressure distribution is much less regular, on account
of the irregular distribution of land and water. The isobaric
charts published in the report of the Nansen expedition show
that the North Atlantic low-pressure area is more or less well
developed in all months. Except in June, when it lies over
southern Greenland, this tongue-shaped trough of low pressure
lies in Davis strait, to the south-west or west of Iceland, and
over the Norwegian Sea. In winter it greatly extends its limits
farther east into the inner Arctic Ocean, to the north of Russia
and Siberia. The Pacific minimum of pressure is found south of
Bering Strait and in Alaska. Between these two regions of lower
pressure the divide extends from North America to eastern
Siberia. This divide has been called by Supan the " Arktische
Wind-scheide." The pressure gradients are steepest in winter.
At the pole itself pressure seems to be highest in April and
lowest from June to September. The annual range is only
about 0-20 in.

The prevailing westerlies, which in the high southern latitudes
are so symmetrically developed, are interfered with to such an
extent by the varying pressure controls over the northern
continents and oceans in summer and winter that they are often
hardly recognizable on the wind maps. The isobaric and wind
charts show that on the whole the winds blow out from the inner
polar basin, especially in winter and spring.

Rain and Snow. Rainfall on the whole decreases steadily
from equator to poles. The amount of precipitation must of
necessity be comparatively slight in the polar zones, chiefly
because of the small capacity of the air for water vapour at the
low temperatures there prevailing; partly also because of the
decrease, or absence, of local convectional storms and thunder-
showers. Locally, under exceptional conditions, as in the case
of the western coast of Norway, the rainfall is a good deal
heavier. Even cyclonic storms cannot yield much precipitation.
The extended snow and ice fields tend to give an exaggerated idea
of the actual amount of precipitation. It must be remembered,
however, that evaporation is slow at low temperatures, and
melting is not excessive. Hence the polar store of fallen snow is
well preserved: interior snowfields, ice sheets and glaciers are
produced.

The commonest form of precipitation is naturally snow,
the summer limit of which, in the northern hemisphere, is near
the Arctic circle, with the exception of Norway. So far as
exploration has yet gone into the highest latitudes, rain falls in
summer, and it is doubtful whether there are places where all
the precipitation falls as snow. The snow of the polar regions
is characteristically fine and dry. At low polar temperatures
flakes of snow are not found, but precipitation is in the form of
ice spicules. The finest glittering ice needles often fill the air,
even on clear days, and in calm weather, and gradually descend-
ing to the surface, slowly add to the depth of snow on the ground.
Dry snow is also blown from the snowfields on windy days,
interfering with the transparency of the air.

Humidity, Cloudiness and Fog. The absolute humidity must
be low in polar latitudes, especially in winter, on account of the
low temperatures. Relative humidity varies greatly, and very
low readings have often been recorded. Cloudiness seems to
decrease somewhat towards the inner polar areas, after passing
the belt of high cloudiness in the higher latitudes of the temperate
zones. In the marine climates of high latitudes the summer,
which is the calmest season, has the maximum cloudiness;
the winter, with more active wind movement, is clearer. The

524

CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY

curve here given illustrates these conditions (fig. 14). The
summer maximum is largely due to fogs, which are produced
where warm, damp air is chilled by coming in contact with ice.
They are also formed over open waters, as among the Faeroe
Islands, for example, and open water spaces, in the midst of an
ice-covered sea, are commonly detected at a distance by means
of the " steam fog " which rises from them. Fogs are less
. A. 8. o. N. o. j. .. common in winter, when
they occur as radiation
fogs, of no great thick-
ness. The small winter
cloudiness, which is re-
ported also from the ant-
arctic zone, corresponds
with the low absolute
humidity and small pre-
FIG. 14 Annual March of Cloudiness in c j p j t ation. The coasts
Polar Latitudes (marine type). 3 islands bathec? by

the warm waters of the Gulf Stream drift usually have a higher
cloudiness in winter than in summer. The place of fog is in
winter taken by the fine snow crystals, which often darken the
air like fog when strong winds raise the dry snow from the surfaces
on which it is lying. Cumulus cloud forms are rare, even in
summer, and it is doubtful whether the cloud occurs at all in
its typical development. Stratus is probably the commonest
cloud of high latitudes, often covering the sky for days without
a break. Cirrus cloud forms probably decrease polewards.

Cyclones and Weather. The prevailing westerlies continue
up into the margins of the polar zones. Many of their cyclonic
storms also continue on to the polar zones, giving sudden and
irregular pressure and weather changes. The inner polar areas
seem to be beyond the reach of frequent and violent cyclonic
disturbance. Calms are more common; the weather is quieter
and fairer; precipitation is less. Most of the observations thus
far obtained from the Antarctic come from this marginal zone
of great cyclonic activity, violent winds, and wet, disagreeable,
inhospitable weather, and therefore do not show the features
of the actual south polar climate.

During the three years of the " Pram's " drift depressions
passed on all sides of her, with a preponderance on the west.
The direction of progression averaged nearly due east, and the
hourly velocity 27 to 34 m., which is about that in the United
States. For the higher latitudes, most of the cyclones must pass
by on the equatorial side of the observer, giving " backing "
winds in the northern hemisphere. The main cyclonic tracks
are such that the wind characteristically backs in Iceland, and
still more so in Jan Mayen and on the eastern coast of Greenland,
these districts lying on the north and west of the path of progres-
sion. Frightful winter storms occasionally occur along the east
coast of Greenland and off Spitzbergen.

For much of the year in the polar zones the diurnal control
is weak or absent. The successive spells of stormy or of fine
weather are wholly cyclonically controlled. Extraordinary
records of storm and gale have been brought back from the far
south and the far north. Wind direction and temperature
vary in relation to the position of the cyclone. During the long
dreary winter night the temperature .falls to very low readings.
Snowstorms and gales alternate at irregular short intervals
with calmer spells of more extreme cold and clearer skies. The
periods of greatest cold in winter are calm. A wind from any
direction will bring a rise in temperature. This probably results
from the fact that the cold is the result of local radiation, and
a wind interferes with these conditions by importing higher
temperatures, or by mixing upper and lower strata. During the
long summer days the temperature rises well above the winter
mean, and under favourable conditions certain phenomena,
such as the diurnal variation in wind velocity, for example, give
evidence of the diurnal control. But the irregular cyclonic
weather changes continue, in a modified form. There is no really
warm season. Snow still falls frequently. The summer is
essentially only a modified winter, especially in the Antarctic.
In summer clear spells are relatively warm, and winds bring

lower temperatures. In spite of its lack of high temperatures,
the northern polar summer, near the margins of the zone, has
many attractive qualities in its clean, pure, crisp, dry air, free
from dust and impurities; its strong insolation; its slight
precipitation.

Twilight and Optical Phenomena. The monotony and darkness
of the polar night are decreased a good deal by the long twilight.
Light from moon and stars, and from the aurora, also relieves
the darkness. Optical phenomena of great variety, beauty
and complexity are common. Solar and lunar haloes, and
coronae, and mock suns and moons are often seen. Auroras
seem to be less common and less brilliant in the Antarctic than
in the Arctic. Sunset and sunrise colours within the polar
zones are described as being extraordinarily brilliant and im-
pressive.

Physiological Effects. The north polar summer, as has been
pointed out, in spite of its drawbacks, is in some respects a
pleasant and healthful season. But the polar night is mono-
tonous, depressing, repelling. Sir W. E. Parry said that it would
be difficult to conceive of two things which are more alike than
two polar winters. An everlasting uniform snow covering;
rigidity; lifelessness; silence except for the howl of the gale
or the cracking of the ice. Small wonder that the polar night
has sometimes unbalanced men's minds. The first effects are
often a strong desire for sleep, and indifference. Later effects
have been sleeplessness and nervousness, tending in extreme
cases to insanity; anaemia, digestive troubles. Extraordinarily
low winter temperatures are easily borne if the air be dry and
still. Zero weather seems pleasantly refreshing if dear and
calm. But high relative humidity and wind even a light
breeze give the same degree of cold a penetrating feeling of
chill which may be unbearable. Large temperature ranges are
endured without danger in the polar winter when the air is dry.
When exposed to direct insolation the skin burns and blisters;
the lips swell and crack. Thirst has been much complained
of by polar explorers, and is due to the active evaporation from
the warm body into the dry, relatively cold air. There is no
doubt that polar air is singularly free from micro-organisms
a fact which is due chiefly to lack of communication with other
parts of the world. Hence many diseases which are common
in temperate zones, " colds " among them, are rare.

Changes of Climate.

Popular Belief in Climatic Change. Belief in a change in the
climate of one's place of residence, within a few generations,
and even within the memory of living men, is widespread.
Evidence is constantly being brought forward of apparent
climatic variations of greater or less amount which are now
taking place. Thus we have many accounts of a gradual desicca-
tion which seems to have been going on over a large region in
Central Asia during historical times. In northern Africa certain
ancient historical records have been taken by different writers
to indicate a general decrease of rainfall during the last 3000 or
more years. In his crossing of the Sahara between Algeria and
the Niger, E. F. Gautier found evidence of a former large popula-
tion. A gradual desiccation of the region is therefore believed
to have taken place, but to-day the equatorial rain belt seems
to be again advancing farther north, giving an increased rainfall.
Farther south, several lakes have been reported as decreasing
in size, e.g. Chad and Victoria; and wells and springs as running
dry. In the Lake Chad district A. J. B. Chevalier reports the
discovery of vegetable and animal remains which indicate an
invasion of the Sudan by a Saharan climate. It is often held
that a steady decrease in rainfall has taken place over Greece,
Syria and other eastern Mediterranean lands, resulting in a
gradual and inevitable deterioration and decay of their people.

What Meteorological Records show. As concerns the popular
impression regarding change of climate, it is clear at the start
that no definite answer can be given on the basis of tradition
or of general impression. The only answer of real value must
be based on the records of accurate instruments, properly
exposed and carefully read. When such instrumental records

CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY

525

are carefully examined, from the time when they were first kept,
which in a few cases goes back about 150 years, there is found
no good evidence of any progressive change in temperature, or
in the amount of rain and snow. Even when the most accurate
instrumental records are available, care must be taken to inter-
pret them correctly. Thus, if a rainfall or snowfall record of
several years at some station indicates an apparent increase or
decrease in the amount of precipitation, it does not necessarily
follow that this means a permanent, progressive change in
climate, which is to continue indefinitely. It may simply mean
that there have been a few years of somewhat more precipitation,
and that a period of somewhat less precipitation is to follow.

Value of Evidence concerning Changes of Climate. The body
of facts which has been adduced as evidence of progressive
changes of climate within historical times is not yet sufficiently
large and complete to warrant any general correlation and study
of these facts as a whole. But there are certain considera-
tions which should be borne in mind in dealing with this evidence
before any conclusions are reached. In the first place, changes
in the distribution of certain fruits and cereals, and in the dates
of the harvest, have often been accepted as undoubted evidence
of changes in climate. Such a conclusion is by no means inevit-
able, for many changes in the districts of cultivation of various
crops have naturally resulted from the fact that these same
crops are in time found to be more profitably grown, or more
easily prepared for market, in another locality. In France, C. A.
Angot has made a careful compilation of the dates of the vintage
from the i4th century down to the present time, and finds no
support for the view so commonly held there that the climate
has changed for the worse. At the present time, the average
date of the grape harvest in Aubonne is exactly the same as at
the close of the i6th century. After a careful study of the
conditions of the date tree, from the 4th century, B.C., D. Eginitis
concludes that the climate of the eastern portion of the Mediter-
ranean basin has not changed appreciably during twenty-three
centuries.

Secondly, a good many of the reports by explorers from little-
known regions are contradictory. This shows the need of caution
in jumping at conclusions of climatic change. An increased use
of water for irrigation may cause the level of water in a lake
to fall. Periodic oscillations, giving higher and then lower water,
do not indicate progressive change in one direction. Many writers
have seen a law in what was really a chance coincidence.

Thirdly, where a progressive desiccation seems to have taken
place, it is often a question whether less rain is actually falling,
or whether the inhabitants have less capacity and less energy
than formerly. Is the change from a once cultivated area to a
barren expanse the result of decreasing rainfall, or of the emigra-
tion of the former inhabitants to other lands? The difference
between a country formerly well irrigated and fertile, and a,
present-day sandy, inhospitable waste may be the result of a
former compulsion of the people, by a strong governing power,
to till the soil and to irrigate, while now, without that compulsion,
no attempt is made to keep up the work. A region of deficient
rainfall, once thickly settled and prosperous, may readily
become an apparently hopeless desert, even without the inter-
vention of war and pestilence, if man allows the climate to master
him. In many cases the reports of increasing dryness really
concern only the decrease in the water supply from rivers and
springs, and it is well known that a change in the cultivation
of the soil, or in the extent of the forests, may bring about marked
changes in the flow of springs and rivers without any essential
change in the actual amount of rainfall.

Lastly, a region whose normal rainfall is at best barely sufficient
for man's needs may be abandoned by its inhabitants during a
few years of deficient precipitation, and not again occupied even
when, a few years later, normal or excessive rainfall occurs.

Periodic Oscillations of Climate: Sun-spot Period. The
discovery of a distinct eleven-year periodicity in the magnetic
phenomena of the earth naturally led to investigations of similar
periods in meteorology. The literature on this subject has
assumed large proportions. The results, however, have not been

satisfactory. The problem is difficult and obscure. Fluctua-
tions in temperature and rainfall, occurring in an eleven-year
period, have been made out for certain stations but the varia-
tions are slight, and it is not yet clear that they are sufficiently
marked, uniform and persistent over large areas to make
practical application of the periodicity in forecasting possible.
In some cases the relation to sun-spot periodicity is open to
debate; in others, the results are contradictory.

W. P. Koppen has brought forward evidence of a sun-spot
period in the mean annual temperature, especially in the tropics,
the maximum temperatures coming in the years of sun-spot
minima. The whole amplitude of the variation in the mean
annual temperatures, from sun-spot minimum to sun-spot
maximum, is, however, only 1-3 in the tropics and a little less
than i in the extra-tropics. More recently Nordmann (for the
years 1870-1900) has continued Koppen's investigation.

In 1872 C. Meldrum, then Director of the Meteorological
Observatory at Mauritius, first called attention to a sun-spot
periodicity in rainfall and in the frequency of tropical cyclones
in the South Indian Ocean. The latter are most numerous in
years of sun-spot maxima, and decrease in frequency with the
approach of sun-spot minima. Poe'y found later a similar relation
in the case of the West Indian hurricanes. Meldrum 's conclusions
regarding rainfall were that, with few exceptions, there is more
rain in years of sun-spot maxima. S. A. Hill found it to be true of
the Indian summer monsoon rains that theie seems to be an
excess in the first half of the cycle, after the sun-spot maximum.
The winter rains of northern India, however, show the opposite
relation; the minimum following, or coinciding with, the sun-spot
maximum. Particular attention has been paid to the sun-spot
cycle of rainfall in India, because of the close relation between
famines and the summer monsoon rainfall in that country. Sir
Norman Lockyer and Dr W. J. S. Lockyer have recently studied
the variations of rainfall in the region surrounding the Indian
Ocean in the light of solar changes in temperature. They find
that India has two pulses of rainfall, one near the maximum and
the other near the minimum of the sun-spot period. The famines
of the last fifty years have occurred in the intervals between these
two pulses, and these writers believe that if as much had been
known in 1836 as is now known, the probability of famines at all
the subsequent dates might have been foreseen.

Relations between the sun-spot period and various other
meteorological phenomena than temperature, rainfall and tropical
cyclones have been made the subject of numerous investigations,
but on the whole the results are still too uncertain to be of
any but a theoretical value. Some promising conclusions seem,
however, to have been reached in regard to pressure variations,
and their control over other climatic elements.

Bruckner's 35- Year Cycle. Of more importance than the
results thus far reached for the sun-spot period are those which
clearly establish a somewhat longer period of slight fluctuations
or oscillations of climate, known as the Bruckner cycle, after
Professor Bruckner of Bern, who has made a careful investiga-
tion of the whole subject of climatic changes and finds evidence
of a 35-year periodicity in temperature and rainfall. In a cycle
whose average length is 35 years, there comes a series of years
which are somewhat cooler and also more rainy, and then a series
of years which are somewhat warmer and drier. The interval in
some cases is twenty years; in others it is fifty. The average
interval between two cool and moist, or warm and dry, periods
is about 35 years. The mean amplitude of the temperature
fluctuation, based on large numbers of data, is a little less than
2. The fluctuations in rainfall are more marked in interiors
than on coasts. The general mean amplitude is 12%, or, ex-
cluding exceptional districts, 24%. Regions whose normal
rainfall is small are most affected.

The following table shows the dates and characters of
Bruckner's periods:

Warm 1746-1755 1791-1805 1821-1835 1851-1870

Dry . 1756-1770 1781-1805 1826-1840 1856-1870

Cold . 1731-1745 1756-1790 1806-1820 1836-1850 1871-1885

Wet . 1736-1755 1771-1780 1806-1825 1841-1855 1871-1885

526

CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY

Interesting confirmation of BrUckner's 35-year period has been
found by E. Richter in the variations of the Swiss glaciers, bul
as these glaciers differ in length, they do not all advance anc
retreat at the same time. The advance is seen during the cole
and damp periods. Bruckner has found certain districts in which
the phases and epochs of the climatic cycle are exactly reversed.
These exceptional districts are almost altogether limited to
marine climates. There is thus a sort of compensation between
oceans and continents. The rainier periods on the continents are
accompanied by relatively low pressures, while the pressures are
high and the period dry over the oceans and vice versa. The cold
and rainy periods are also marked by a decrease in all pressure
differences. It is obvious that changes in the general distribu-
tion of atmospheric pressures, over extended areas, are closely
associated with fluctuations in temperature and rainfall. These
changes in pressure distribution must in some way be associated
with changes in the general circulation of the atmosphere, and
these again must depend upon some external controlling cause or
causes. W. J. S. Lockyer has called attention to the fact that
there seems to be a periodicity of about 3 5 years in solar activity,
and that this corresponds with the Bruckner period.

It is clear that the existence of a 35-year period will account for
many of the views that have been advanced in favour of a
progressive change of climate. A succession of a few years wetter
or drier than the normal is likely to lead to the conclusion that
the change is permanent. Accurate observations extending over
as many years as possible, and discussed without prejudice, are
necessary before any conclusions are drawn. Observations for
one station during the wetter part of a cycle should not be
compared with observations for. another station during the drier
part of the same, or of another cycle.

There are evidences of longer climatic cycles than eleven or 35
years. Bruckner calls attention to the fact that sometimes two of
his periods seem to merge into one. E. Richter shows much the
same thing for the Alpine glaciers. Evidence of considerable
climatic changes since the last glacial period is not lacking. But
as yet nothing sufficiently definite to warrant general con-
clusions has been brought forward.

Geological Changes in Climate. Changes of climate in the
geological past are known with absolute certainty to have taken
place: periods of glacial invasion, as well as periods of more
genial conditions. The evidence, and the causes of these changes
have been discussed and re-discussed, by writers almost without
number, and from all points of view. Changes in the intensity
of insolation; hi the sun itself; in the conditions of the earth's
atmosphere; in the astronomical relations of earth and sun;
in the distribution of land and water; in the position of the
earth's axis; in the altitude of the land; in the presence of
volcanic dust; now cosmic, now terrestrial conditions have
been suggested, combated, put forward again. None of these
hypotheses has prevailed in preference to others. No actual
proof of the correctness of this or that theory has been brought
forward. No general agreement has been reached.

Conclusion. Without denying the possibility, or even the
probability, of the establishment of the fact of secular changes,
there is as yet no sufficient warrant for believing in considerable
permanent changes over large areas. Dufour, after a thorough
study of all available evidence, has concluded that a change of
climate has not been proved. There are periodic oscillations of
slight amount. A 35-year period is fairly well established,
but is nevertheless of considerable irregularity, and cannot as
yet be practically applied in forecasting. Longer periods are
suggested, but not made out. As to causes, variations in solar
activity are naturally receiving attention, and the results thus
far are promising. But climate is a great complex, and complete
and satisfactory explanations of all the facts will be difficult,
perhaps impossible, to reach. At present, indeed, the facts
which call for explanation are still hi most cases but poorly
determined, and the processes at work are insufficiently under-
stood. Climate is not absolutely a constant. The pendulum
swings to the right and to the left. And its swing is as far to
the right as to the left. Each generation lives through a part of

one, or two, or even three oscillations. A snapshot view of these
oscillations makes them seem permanent. As Supan has well
said, it was formerly believed that climate changes locally, but
progressively and permanently. It is now believed that oscilla-
tions of climate are limited in time, but occur over wide areas.

LITERATURE. Scientific climatology is based upon numerical
results, obtained by systematic, long continued, accurate meteoro-
logical observations. The essential part of its literature is therefore
found in the collections of data published by the various meteoro-
logical services. The only comprehensive text-book of climatology
is the Handbuch der Klimatologie of Professor Julius Hann, of tne
university of Vienna (Stuttgart, 1897). This is the standard book
on the subject, and upon it is based much of the present article, and
of other recent discussions of climate. The first volume deals with
general climatology, and has been translated into English (London
and New York, 1903). Reference should be made to this book for
further details than are here given. The second and third volumes
are devoted to the climates of the different countries of the world.
Woeikof's Die Klimate der Erde (Jena, 1887) is also a valuable refer-
ence book. The standard meteorological journal of the world, the
Meteor ologische Zeitschrift (Braunschweig, monthly), is indispensable
to any one who wishes to keep in touch with the latest publications.
The Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society (London),
Symons's Monthly Meteorological Magazine (London), and the
Monthly Weather Review (Washington, D.C.) are also valuable.
The newest and most complete collection of charts is that in the
Atlas of Meteorology (London, 1899), in which also there is an excellent
working bibliography. For the titles of more recent publications
reference may be made to the International Catalogue of Scientific
Literature (Meteorology). (R. DE C. W.)

CLIMATE IN THE TREATMENT OF DISEASE. The most important
qualities of the atmosphere in relation to health are (L) the
chemical composition, (ii.) the solids floating in it, (iii.) the mean
and extreme temperatures, (iv.) the degree of humidity, (v.) the
diathermancy, (vi.) the intensity of light, (vii.) the electrical
conditions, (vui.)the density and pressure, and (ix.) the prevailing
winds. Generally speaking, the relative purity of the air i.e.
absence of septic solid particles is an important consideration;
while cold acts as a stimulant and tonic, increasing the amount
of carbon dioxide exhaled in the twenty-four hours. Different
individuals, however, react both to heat and cold very differently.
At health resorts, where the temperature may vary between
55 and 70 F., strong individuals gradually lose strength and
begin to suffer from various degrees of lassitude; whereas a
delicate person under the same conditions gains vigour both of
mind and body, puts on weight, and is less liable to disease.
And a corresponding intensity of cold acts in the reverse manner
in each case. Thus a health resort with a moderate degree of
heat is very valuable for delicate or elderly people, and those
who are temporarily weakened by illness. Cold, however, when
combined with wind and damp must be specially avoided by
the aged, the delicate, and those prone to gouty and rheumatic
affections. The moisture of the atmosphere controls the distri-
bution of warmth on the earth, and is closely bound up with
the prevailing winds, temperature, light and pressure. In dry
air the evaporation from both skin and lungs is increased,
especially if the sunshine be plentiful and the altitude high.
In warm moist air strength is lost and there is a distinct tendency
to intestinal troubles. In moist cold air perspiration is checked,
and rheumatic and joint affections are very common. The main
differences between mountain air and that of the plains depend
on the former being more rarefied, colder, of a lower absolute
humidity, and offering less resistance to the sun's rays. As the
altitude is raised, circulation and respiration are quickened,
probably as an effort on the part of the organism to compensate
'or the diminished supply of oxygen, and somewhat more
;radually the number of red blood corpuscles increases, this
ncrease persisting for a considerable time after a return to
ower ground. In addition to these changes there is a distinct
:endency to diminished proteid metabolism, resulting in an in-
crease of weight owing to the storage of proteid in the tissues.
Thus children and young people whose development is not yet
complete are especially likely to benefit by the impetus given to
growth and the blood-forming organs, and the therapeutic value
n their case rarely fails. For older people, however, the benefit
depends on whether their organs of circulation and respiration

CLIMAX CLINOCLASITE

527

are sufficiently vigorous to respond to the increased demands
on them. For anaemia, pulmonary tuberculosis, pleural thicken-
ing, deficient expansion of the lungs, neurasthenia, and the
debility following fevers and malaria, mountain air is invaluable.
But where there is valvular disease of the heart, or rapidly
advancing disease of the lungs, it is to be avoided. Light,
especially direct sunlight, is of primary importance, the lack
of it tending to depression and dyspeptic troubles. Probably
its germicidal power accounts for the aseptic character of the
air of the Alps, the desert and other places.

Sir Hermann Weber has defined a " good " climate as that
in which all the organs and tissues of the body are kept evenly
at work in alternation with rest. Thus a climate with constant
moderate variations in its principal factors is the best for the
maintenance of health. But the best climate for an invalid
depends on the particular weakness from which he may suffer.
Pulmonary tuberculosis stands first in the importance of the
effects of climate. The continuous supply of pure fresh air is
the main desideratum, a cool climate being greatly superior to a
tropical one. Exposure to strong winds is harmful, since it
increases the tendency to cough and thus leads to loss of body
temperature, which is in its turn made up at the expense of
increased metabolism. A high altitude, from the purity and
stimulating properties of the air, is of value to many mild or
very early cases, but where the disease is extensive, where the
heart is irritable, or where there is any tendency to insomnia,
high altitudes are contra-indicated, and no such patient should
be sent higher than some 1500 ft. Where the disease is of long
standing, with much expectoration, or accompanied by albu-
minuria, the patient appears to do best in a humid atmosphere
but little above the sea-level. The climate of Egypt is especially
suitable for cases complicated with bronchitis or bronchiectasis,
,but is contra-indicated where there is attendant diarrhoea.
Madeira and the Canaries are useful when emphysema is present
or where there is much irritability of constitution. Bronchitis
in young people is best treated by high altitudes, but in older
patients by a moist mild climate, except where much expectora-
tion is present.

The influence of atmospheric conditions on the functions of the
nose is very marked. Within the ordinary ranges of humidity
and temperature the nasal mucous membrane completely
saturates the air with aqueous vapour before it reaches the
pharynx. In cold and dry mountain climates there is a very
free nasal secretion, far beyond what is needed for the saturation
of the air; and at low levels the reverse action takes place, the
nose becoming " stuffy." The mechanism on which thir depends
is found in the erectile tissue, and anything favouring the
engorgement of the veins, such as weak heart action, chronic
bronchitis or kidney troubles, &c., leads to a corresponding
turgidity of the nose and sinuses. In addition to barometric
and other influences, it has been found that light produces
collapse of this tissue, smoke having a similar effect. On this
latter effect probably depends the fact that many asthmatics
are better in a city like London than elsewhere, the smoke
relieving the turgescence of the inferior turbinals of the nose.
In the treatment of pathological nasal conditions, all cases of
obstruction from whatsoever cause are best in a dry atmosphere,
and where there is atrophy and a deficient flow of mucus in a
moist atmosphere. If the mucous membrane is irritable a dry
sheltered spot on a sandy soil and in the neighbourhood of
pine trees is by far the best.

Scrofulous children, namely, those in whom the resistance to
micro-organisms and their products is low, pre-eminently
require sea air, and had better be educated at some seaside
place. Where the child is very delicate, with small power of
reaction, the winter should be passed on some mild coast resort.
Gouty and rheumatic affections require a dry soil and warm dry
climate, cold and moist winds being especially injurious.

For heart affections high altitudes are to be avoided, though
some physicians make an exception of mitral cases where the
compensation is good. Moderate elevations of 500 to 1500 ft.
are preferable to the sea-level.

In diseases of the kidneys, a warm dry climate, by stimulating
the action of the skin, lessens the work to be done by these
organs, and thus is the most beneficial. Extremes of heat and
cold and elevated regions are all to be avoided.

CLIMAX, JOHN (c. 525-600 A.D.), ascetic and mystic, also
called Scholasticus and Sinaltes. After having spent forty years
in a cave at the foot of mount Sinai, he became abbot of the
monastery. His life has been written by Daniel, a monk belong-
ing to the monastery of Raithu, on the Red Sea. He derives his
name Climax (or Climacus) from his work of the same name
(KXi/ia TOV llapadtiffov, ladder to Paradise), in thirty sections,
corresponding to the thirty years of the life of Christ. It is
written in a simple and popular style. The first part treats of
the vices that hinder the attainment of holiness, the second of
the virtues of a Christian.

EDITIONS. J. P. Migne, Patrologia eraeca, Ixxxviii. (including
the biography by Daniel); S. Eremites (Constantinople, 1883); see
also C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur ('897);
Gass-Kruger in Herzog-Hauck, RealencyklopOdie fur protestantische
Theologie, Bd. 9 (1901). The Ladder has been translated into several
foreign languages into English by Father Robert, Mount St Ber-
nard s Abbey, Leicestershire (1856).

CLIMBING 1 FERN, the botanical genus Lygodium, with about
twenty species, chiefly hi the warmer parts of the Old World,
of interest from its climbing habit. The plants have a creeping
stem, on the upper face of which is borne a row of leaves. Each
leaf has a slender stem-like axis, which twines round a support
and bears leaflets at intervals; it goes on growing indefinitely.
It is a favourite warm greenhouse plant.

CLINCHANT, JUSTIN (1820-1881), French soldier, entered
the army from St Cyr hi 1841. From 1847 to 1852 he was
employed hi the Algerian campaigns, and in 1854 and 1855 in
the Crimea. At the assault on the Malakoff (Sept. 8th, 1855)
he greatly distinguished himself at the head of a battalion.
During the 1859 campaign he won promotion to the rank of
lieut.-colonel, and as a colonel he served hi the Mexican War.
He was made general of brigade in 1866, and led a brigade of the
Army of the Rhine in 1870. His troops were amongst those
shut up in Metz, and he passed into captivity, but soon escaped.
The government of national defence made him general of division
and put him at the head of the 2oth corps of the Army of the
East. He was under Bourbaki during the campaign of the Jura,
and when Bourbaki attempted to commit suicide he succeeded
to the command (Jan. 23rd, 1871), only to be driven with
84,000 men over the Swiss frontier at Pontarlier. In 1871
Clinchant commanded the 5th corps operating against the
Commune. He was military governor of Paris when he died
in 1881.

CLINIC; CLINICAL (Gr. K\ivrj, a bed), an adjective strictly
connoting association with the bedside, and so used in ecclesiology
of baptism of the sick or dying, but more particularly in medicine
to characterize its aspect as associated with practice on the
living patient. Thus clinical experience is opposed to what
is learnt from laboratory research or theoretical considerations.
The substantive " clinic " is technically employed for a medical
school or class where instruction is given in practical work as
illustrated by the examination and treatment of actual cases
of disease.

CLINKER, (i) (From an old Dutch word klinkaerd, from
klinken, to ring), a hard paving brick, a brick with a vitrified
surface, or a fused mass of brick; also the incombustible residue
of coal, which occurs, half-fused into hard masses, in grates or
furnaces; a fused mass of lava. (2) (From clinch, or clench,
a common Teutonic word, meaning " to fasten together "), a
term appearing usually hi the form " clinker-built " as opposed
to " cravel-built," for a boat whose strakes overlap and are not
fastened " flush."

CLINOCLASITE, a rare mineral consisting of the basic copper
arsenate (CuOHJsAsO^ It crystallizes in the monoclinic

'The word "'climb " (O.E. climban), meaning strictly to ascend
(or similarly descend) by progressive self-impulsion, with some
apparent degree of laborious effort and by means of contact with
the surface traversed, is connected with the same root as in " cleave "
and " cling." For Alpine climbing, &c., see MOUNTAINEERING.

CLINTON, DE WITT- -CLINTON, G.

system and possesses a perfect cleavage parallel to the basal
plane; this cleavage is obliquely placed with respect to the
prism faces of the crystal, hence the name clinoclase or clino-
clasite, from Gr. K\iveiv, to incline, and K\O.I>, to break. The
crystals are deep blue in colour, and are usually radially arranged
in hemispherical groups. Hardness 2^-3; specific gravity 4-36.
The mineral was formerly found with other copper arsenates
in the mines of the St Day district of Cornwall. It has also bean
found near Tavistock in Devonshire, near Sayda (or Saida) in
Saxony, and in the Tintic district of Utah. It is a mineral of
secondary origin, having resulted by the decomposition of copper
ores and mispickel in the upper part of mineral veins. The
corresponding basic copper phosphate, (CuOH) 3 PO4, is the
mineral pseudomalachite, which occurs as green botryoidal
masses resembling malachite in appearance.

CLINTON, DE WITT (1769-1828), American political leader,
was born on the 2nd of March 1769 at Little Britain, Orange
county, New York. His father, James Clinton (1736-1812),
served as a captain of provincial troops in the French and Indian
War, and as a brigadier-general in the American army in the War
of Independence, taking part in Montgomery's attack upon
Quebec in 1775, unsuccessfully resisting at Fort Montgomery,
along the Hudson, in 1777 the advance of Sir Henry Clinton,
accompanying General John Sullivan in 1779 in his expedition
against the Iroquois in western New York, and in 1781 taking
part in the siege of Yorktown, Virginia. De Witt Clinton
graduated at Columbia College in 1 786, and in 1 790 was admitted
to the bar. From 1790 to 1795 he was the private secretary of his
uncle, George Clinton, governor of New York and a leader of the
Republican party. He was a member of the New York assembly
from January to April 1798, and in August of that year entered
the state senate, serving until April 1802. He at once became
a dominant factor in New York politics, and for the next quarter
of a century he played a leading role in the history of the common-
wealth. From 1801 to 1802 and from 1806 to 1807 he was a
member of the Council of Appointment, and realizing the power
this body possessed through its influence over -the selection of
a vast number of state, county and municipal officers, he
secured in 1801, while his uncle was governor, the removal of a
number of Federalist office-holders, in order to streng'then the
Republican organization by new appointments. On this account
Clinton has generally been regarded as the originator of the
" spoils system " in New York; but he was really opposed to
the wholesale proscription of opponents that became such a
feature of American'politics ia later years. It was his plan to fill
the more important offices with Republicans, as they had been
excluded from appointive office during the Federalist ascendancy,
and to divide the smaller places between the parties somewhat
in accordance with their relative strength. 1 In counties where
the Federalists had a majority very few removals were made.

In 1802 Clinton became a member of the United States Senate,
but resigned in the following year to become mayor of New York
city, an office he held from 1803 to 1807, from 1808 to 1810,
and from 1811 to 1815. During his mayoralty he also held other
offices, being a member of the state senate from 1896 to 1811
and lieutenant-governor from 1811 to 1813. In 1812, after a
congressional caucus at Washington had nominated Madison for
a second term, the Republicans of New York, desiring to break
up the so-called Virginia dynasty as well as the system of con-
gressional nominations, nominated Clinton for the presidency
by a legislative caucus. Opponents of a second war with Great
Britain had revived the Federalist organization, and Federalists
from eleven states met in New York and agreed to support Clinton,
not on account of his war views, which were not in accord with
their own, but as a protest against the policy of Madison. In
the election Clinton received 89 electoral votes and Madison 1 28.

As a member of the legislature Clinton was active in securing

_' In 1 80 1 a state convention adopted an amendment to the con-
stitution giving the council an equal voice with the governor in the
matter of appointments; but Clinton, who is often represented
as the father of this movement, though chosen as a member of the
convention, did not attend its meetings.

the abolition of slavery and of imprisonment for debt, and in
perfecting a system of free public schools. In 1810 he was a
member of a commission to explore a route for a canal between
Lake Erie and the Hudson river, and in 1811 he and Gouverneur
Morris were sent to Washington to secure Federal aid for the
undertaking, but were unsuccessful. The second war with Great
Britain prevented any immediate action by the state, but in 1816
Clinton was active in reviving the project, and a new commission
was appointed, of which he became president. His connexion
with this work so enhanced his popularity that he was chosen
governor by an overwhelming majority and served for two
triennial terms (1817-1823). As governor he devoted his energies
to the construction of the canal, but the opposition to his admin-
istration, led by Martin Van Buren and Tammany Hall, became
so formidable by 1822 that he declined to seek a third term. His
successful opponents, however, overreached themselves when
in 1824 they removed him from the office of canal commissioner.
This partisan action aroused such indignation that at the next
election he was again chosen governor, by a large majority, and
served from 1825 until his death. As governor he took part in
the formal ceremony of admitting the waters of Lake Erie into
the canal in October 1825, and thus witnessed the completion
of a work which owed more to him than to any other man.
Clinton died at Albany, N.Y., on the nth of February 1828.
In addition to his interest in politics and public improvements,
he devoted much study to the natural sciences; among his
published works are a Memoir on the Antiquities of Western
New York (1818), and Letters on the Natural History and Internal
Resources of New York (1822).

See J. Renwick's Life of De Witt Clinton (New York, 1845);
D. Hosack's Memoir of De Witt Clinton (New York, 1829) ; W. W.
Campbell's Life and Writings of De Witt Clinton (New York, 1849) ;
and H. L. McBain's De Witt Clinton and the Origin of the Spoils
System in New York (New York, 1907).

CLINTON, GEORGE (1730-1812), American soldier and
political leader, was born at Little Britain, Ulster (now Orange)
county, New York, on the 26th of July 1 739. His father, Charles
Clinton (1690-1773), who was born of English parents in Co.
Longford, Ireland, emigrated to America in 1729, and commanded
a regiment of provincial troops in the French and Indian War.
The son went to sea at the age of sixteen, but, finding the sailor's
life distasteful,joined his father's regiment and accompanied him
as lieutenant in the expedition against Fort Frontenac in 1758.
After the war he practised law in his native town and held a
number of minor civil offices in Ulster county. From 1768 to
1775 he sat in the New York provincial assembly, and in the
controversies with Great Britain zealously championed the
colonial cause. In 1774 he was a member of the New York
committee of correspondence, and in 1775 was chosen a member
of the second Continental Congress. In December of this year he
was appointed a brigadier-general of militia by the New York
provincial congress, and in the following summer, being ordered
by Washington to assist in the defence of New York, he left
Philadelphia shortly after voting for the Declaration of Inde-
pendence, but too soon to attach his signature to that document.
He had also been chosen a deputy to the provincial congress
(later the state convention) for 1776-1777, but his various other
duties prevented his attendance.

General Clinton took part in the battle of White Plains (October
28th, 1776), and later was charged with the defence of the High-
lands of the Hudson, where, with De Witt Clinton, in October
1777, he offered a firm but unsuccessful resistance to the advance
of Sir Henry Clinton. In March of this year he had been
appointed by Congress a brigadier-general in the Continental
army, and he thus held two commissions, as the state convention
refused to accept his resignation as brigadier-general of militia.
So great was Clinton's popularity at this time that at the first
election under the new state constitution he was chosen both
governor and lieutenant-governor; he declined the latter office,
and on the 3oth of July 1777 entered upon his duties as governor,
which were at first largely of a military nature. In 1780 he took
the field and checked the advance of Sir John Johnson and the

CLINTON, SIR H. CLINTON

529

Indians in the Mohawk Valley. In his administration Clinton
was energetic and patriotic, and though not possessing the
intellectual attainments of some of his New York contemporaries,
he was more popular than any of them, as is attested by his
serivice as governor for eighteen successive years (1777-1795),
and for another triennial term from 1801 to 1804. In the
elections of 1780, 1783 and 1786 he had no opponent. In 1800-
1801 he was a member of the assembly. In the struggle in New
York over the adoption of the Federal Constitution he was one of
the leaders of the opposition, but in the state convention of 1788,
over which he presided, his party was defeated, and the con-
stitution was ratified. In national politics he was a follower of
Thomas Jefferson, and in state politics he led the faction known as
" Clintonians," which was for a long time dominant. In 1789,
1 792 and 1 796 Clinton received a number of votes in the electoral
college, but not a sufficient number to secure him the vice-
presidency, which was then awarded to the recipient of the second
highest number of votes. In 1804, however, after the method of
voting had been changed, he was nominated for the vice-presi-
dency by a Congressional caucaus, and was duly elected. In 1 808
he sought nomination for the presidency, and was greatly dis-
appointed when this went to Madison. He was again chosen
as vice-president, however, and died at Washington before the
expiration of his term, on the 2oth of April 1812. He was buried
in the Congressional Cemetery, from which in May 1908 his
remains were transferred to Kingston, N.Y. His casting vote in
the Senate in 1811 defeated the bill for the renewal of the charter
of the Bank of the United States.

The Public Papers of George Clinton (6 vols., New York, 1899-
1902) have been published by the state of New York.

CLINTON, SIR HENRY (c. 1738-1795), British general, was
the son of admiral George Clinton (governor of Newfoundland
and subsequently of New York), and grandson of the 6th earl of
Lincoln. After serving in the New York militia, he came to
England and joined the Coldstream Guards. In 1758 he became
captain and lieutenant-colonel in the Grenadier Guards, and in
1760-62 distinguished himself very greatly as an aide-de-camp
to Ferdinand of Brunswick in the Seven Years' War. He was
promoted colonel in 1762, and after the peace received the
colonelcy of a regiment of foot, becoming major-general in 1772.
From 1772 to 1784, thanks to the influence of his cousin, the 2nd
duke of Newcastle, he had a seat in parliament, first for Borough-
bridge and subsequently for Newark, but for the greater part of
this time he was on active service in America in the War of
Independence. He took part in the battles of Bunker Hill and
Long Island, subsequently taking possession of New York. For
his share in the battle of Long Island he was made a lieutenant-
general and K.B. After Saratoga he succeeded Sir William
Howe as commander-in-chief in North America. He had already
been made a local general. He at once concentrated the British
forces at New York, pursuing a policy of foraying expeditions in
place of regular campaigns. In 1779 he invaded South Carolina,
and in 1780 in conjunction with Admiral M. Arbuthnot won
an important success in the capture of Charleston. Friction,
however, was constant between him and Lord Cornwallis, his
second in command, and in 1782, after the capitulation of Corn-
wallis at Yorktown, he was superseded by Sir Guy Carleton.
Returning to England, he published in 1783 his Narrative of the
Campaign of 1781 in North America, which provoked an acri-
monious reply from Lord Cornwallis. He was elected M.P. for
Launceston in 1790, and in 1794 was made governor of Gibraltar,
where he died on the 23rd of December 1795.

His elder son, Sir WILLIAM HENRY CLINTON (1769-1846),
entered the British army in 1784, and served in the campaigns of
1793-94 m the Low Countries. In 1796 he became aide-de-camp
to the duke of York, and in 1799 he was entrusted with a mission
to the Russian army in Italy, returning to the duke in time for the
Dutch expedition of 1799. He was promoted colonel in 1801, and
took part in the expedition which took possession of Madeira,
which he governed up to 1802. His next important service was
in 1807, when he went to Sweden on a military mission. Pro-
moted major-general in 1808, he served from 1812 to 1814 in the

Mediterranean and in Catalonia, and in the latter year he com-
manded against Marshal Suchet. He had become a lieutenant-
general in 1813, and in 1815 he was made a G.C.B. He com-
manded the British troops in Portugal, 1826-28, and was promoted
full general in 1830. He died at Cockenhatch, near Royston,
Herts, on the 1 5th of February 1846.

The younger son, Sir HENRY CLINTON (1771-1829), entered
the army in 1787 and saw some service with the Prussians in
Holland in 1789. He served on the staff of the duke of York in
1793-94, becoming brevet-major in 1794, and lieutenant-colonel
of a line regiment in 1796. In 1797-98 he was aide-de-camp to
Lord Cornwallis in the Irish rebellion, and in 1799 he was sent
with Lord William Bentinck to the Russian headquarters in Italy,
being present at the Trebbia, at Novi, and in the fighting about
the St Gotthard. During a short period of service in India Clinton
distinguished himself at Laswari. He accompanied the Russian
headquarters in the Austerlitz campaign, and was adjutant-
general to his intimate friend, Sir John Moore, in the Corunna
campaign of 1808-9. Promoted major-general in 1810, he
returned to the Peninsula to fill a divisional command under
Wellington in 1811. His division played a notable part in the
capture of the forts at Salamanca and in the battle of Salamanca
(181 2), and he was given the local rank of lieutenant-general early
in 1813. For his conduct at Vitoria he was made a K.B., and he
took his part in the subsequent victories of the Nive, Orthes and
Toulouse. At the end of the war he was made a lieutenant-
general and inspector-general of infantry. Clinton commanded
a division with distinction at Waterloo. He died on the nth of
December 1829.

CLINTON, HENRY FYNES (1781-1852), British classical
scholar and chronologist, was born at Gamston in Nottingham-
shire on the I4th of January 1781. He was descended from
Henry, second earl of Lincoln; for some generations his family
bore the name of Fynes, but his father resumed the older family
name of Clinton in 1821. He was educated at Westminster
school and Christ Church, Oxford, where he studied classical
literature and history. From 1806 to 1826 he was M.P. for
Aldborough. He died at Welwyn, Herts, where he had purchased
the residence and estate of the poet Young, on the 24th of
October 1852. His reading was extraordinarily methodical
(see his Literary Remains). The value of his Fasti, which set
classical chronology on a scientific basis, can scarcely be over-
estimated, even though subsequent research has corrected some
of his conclusions.

His chief works are :~ Fasti Hellenici, the Civil and Literary
Chronology of Greece from the jjth to the I24th Olympiad (1824-1851),
including dissertations on points of Greek history and Scriptural
chronology; and Fasti Romani, the Civil and Literary Chronology of
Rome and Constantinople from the Death of Augustus to the Death of
Heraclius (1845-1850). In 1851 and 1853 respectively he published
epitomes of the above. The Literary Remains of H. F. Chnton (the
first part of which contains an autobiography written in 1818) were
edited by C. J. F. Clinton in 1854.

CLINTON, a city and the county-seat of Clinton county, Iowa,
U.S.A., on the Mississippi river, in the extreme eastern part of the
state. Pop. (1890) 13,619; (1900) 22,698 (5434 being foreign-
born,); (1905)22,756; (1910)25,577. The great increase during
the decade 1890-1900 was partly due to the absorption by Clinton
in 1895 of the city of Lyons (pop. in 1890, 5700). Clinton is
served by the Chicago & North-Western (which has machine-
shops here), the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago,
Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific
railways, and is connected with Davenport by an electric line.
The river is spanned here by a railway bridge. A large portion
of the city stands between the river and a series of bluffs. Clinton
is the seat of Wartburg College (1869), a German Evangelical
Lutheran institution, and of the Clinton Business College.
Among the public buildings are the city hall, the court-house,
the Federal building and the Carnegie library. As a manu-
facturing centre Clinton has considerable importance; among
its manufactures are furniture, blinds, wire-cloth, papier-mach6
goods, gas-engines, farm wagons, harness and saddlery, door
locks, pressed brick, flour, and glucose products. There is also

CLINTON CLISSON, O. DE

a large sugar refinery. The value of the factory product in 1900
was $6,203,316; in 1005, $4,96,355- The American Protective
Association (A.P.A.),a secret order opposed to Roman Catholi-
cism, was formed here in 1887. The city was founded in 1855
by the Iowa Land Company, and was incorporated first in 1857,
and again in 1867, this time under a general law of the state
for the incorporation of cities. The county, from which the city
took its name, was named in honour of De Witt Clinton.

CLINTON, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., in the central part of the state, on the Nashua river,
about 15 m. N.N.E. of Worcester. Pop. (1890) 10,424; (1900)
13,667, of whom 5504 were foreign-born; (1910, U. S. census)
I 3i7S- The township is traversed by the Boston & Maine, and
New York, New Haven & Hartford railways. It contains
7 sq. m. of varied and picturesque hilly country on the E. slope
of the highland water-parting between the Connecticut river
and the Atlantic. There is charming scenery along the Nashua
river, the chief stream. The S.W. corner of the township is
now part of an immense water reservoir, the Wachusett dam and
reservoir (excavated 1896-1905; circumference, 35-2 m.), on the
S. branch of the Nashua, which will hold 63,000 million gallons
of water for the supply of the metropolitan region around
Boston. On this is situated the village of Clinton, which has
large manufactories, among whose products are cotton and
woollen fabrics, carpets, wire-cloth, iron and steel, and combs.
The textile and carpet mills are among the most famous in the
United States. In 1905 the total factory product of the township
was valued at $5,457,865, the value of cotton goods, carpets
and wire-work constituting about nine-tenths of the total.
The prominence of the township as a manufacturing centre
is due to Erastus Brigham Bigelow (1814-1879), one of the
incorporates of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
who devised power-looms for the weaving of a variety of
figuredfabrics, coach-lace, counterpanes, ginghams, silkbrocatel,
tapestry carpeting, ingrain and Brussels carpets, and revolu-
tionized their manufacture. In 1843 he and his brother Horatio
N. Bigelow established in Clinton the Lancaster Mills for the
manufacture of ginghams. From 1845 to 1851 he perfected his
loom for the weaving of Brussels and Wilton carpets, the greatest
of his inventions; and he established the Bigelow Carpet Mills
here. He also invented the loom for the weaving of wire-cloth.
It is claimed that the first production in the United States of
finished cotton cloths under one roof and under the factory
system was not at Waltham in 1816, but at Clinton in 1813;
neither place was the first to spin by power, nor the first to
produce finished cloths without the factory system. The comb
industry dates from the eighteenth century. The first of the
modern textile mills were established in 1838 for the manu-
facture of coach-lace. Clinton was a part of Lancaster, now
a small farming township (pop. in 1910, 2464), until 1850, when
it was set off as an independent township. The earliest settle-
ment goes back to 1645.

See A. E. Ford, History of the Origin of the Town of Clinton,
Massachusetts, 1653-1865 (Clinton, 1896).

CLINTON, a city and the county-seat of Henry county,
Missouri, U.S.A., on the Grand river, 87 m. S.E. of Kansas City.
Pop. (1800) 4737; ( i ooo) 5061 (470 being negroes); (1910)4902.
It is served by the St Louis & San Francisco, the Missouri,
Kansas & Texas, and the Kansas City, Clinton & Springfield
railways. The city is situated on the border of a rolling prairie
about 770 ft. above the sea. The vicinity abounds in coal,
but is principally agricultural, and Clinton's chief interest is in
trade with it. The principal manufactures are flour and pottery.
Clinton was laid out in 1836 and was incorporated in 1865.

CLINTON, a village of Oneida county, New York, U.S.A.,
on the Oriskany Creek, about 9 m. S.W. of Utica. Pop. (1890)
1269; (1900) 1340; (1905) 1315; (1910) 1236. It is served
by the New York, Ontario & Western railway, and is connected
with Utica by an electric line. . Several fine mineral springs in
the vicinity have given Clinton some reputation as a health
resort. There are iron mines, blast furnaces, and iron smelters.
Clinton is the seat of Hamilton College (non-sectarian), which

was opened as the Hamilton Oneida Academy in 1798, and
was chartered under its present name in 1812. It was founded
by the Rev. Samuel Kirkland (1741-1808), a missionary among
the Oneida Indians; its corner-stone was laid by Baron Steuben;
its shade trees were furnished by Thomas Jefferson; and its
name was received from Alexander Hamilton, one of its early
trustees. It had in 1907-1908 20 instructors, 178 students,
and a library of 47,000 volumes and 30,000 pamphlets. At
Clinton are also excellent minor schools. Litchfield Observatory
is connected with the college, and was long in charge of the well-
known astronomer, Christian H. F. Peters (1813-1890), who
discovered here more than 40 asteroids and made extensive
investigations concerning comets. The village was settled
about 1786 by pioneers from New England, was named in honour
of George Clinton, and was incorporated in 1842.

CLINTONITE, a group of micaceous minerals known as the
" brittle micas." Like the micas and chlorites, they are mono-
clinic in crystallization and have a perfect cleavage parallel to
the flat surface of the plates or scales, but differ markedly from
these in the brittleness of the laminae; they are also considerably
harder, the hardness of chloritoid being as high as 65 on Mobs'
scale. They differ chemically from the micas in containing less
silica and no alkalis, and from the chlorites in containing much
less water; in many respects they are intermediate between
the micas and chlorites.

The following species are distinguished:

Margarite is a basic calcium aluminium silicate, HzCaAUSizOu,
and is classed by some authors as a lime-mica. It forms white
pearly scales, and was at first known as pearl-mica and after-
wards as margarite, from fiapyapirris, a pearl. It is a character-
istic associate of corundum, of which it is frequently an alteration
product (facts which suggested the synonymous names corun-
dellite and emerylite), and is found in the emery deposits of
Asia Minor and the Grecian Archipelago, and with corundum
at several localities in the United States.

Seybertite, Brandisite and Xanthophyllite are closely allied
species consisting of basic magnesium, calcium and aluminium
silicate, and have been regarded as isomorphous mixtures of a
silicate (H 2 CaMg4Si3Oi2) and an amminate (H 2 CaMgAlOi2).
Seybertite (the original clintonite) occurs as reddish-brown to
copper-red, brittle, foliated masses in metamorphic limestone
at Amity, New York; brandisite as yellowish-green hexagonal
prisms in metamorphic limestone in the Fassathal, Tirol; xantho-
phyllite as yellow folia and as distinct crystals (waluewite) in
chloritic schists in the Urals.

Chloritoid has the formula H2(Fe,Mg)Al2SiO7. .It forms
tabular crystals and scales, with indistinct hexagonal outlines,
which are often curved or bent and aggregated in rosettes. The
colour is dark grey or green; a characteristic feature is the
pleochroism, the pleochroic colours varying from yellowish-
green to indigo-blue. Hardness, 63; specific gravity, 3-4-3-6. It
occurs as isolated scales scattered through schistose rocks and
phyllites of dynamo-metamorphic origin. The ottrelites of the
phyllites and ottrelite-schists of Ottrez and other localities in
the Belgian Ardennes is a manganiferous variety of chloritoid,
but owing to enclosed impurities the analyses differ widely from
those of typical chloritoid. (L. J. S.)

CLISSON, OLIVIER DE (1336-1407), French soldier, was the
son of the Olivier de Clisson who was put to death in 1343 on the
suspicion of having wished to give up Nantes to the English.
He was brought up in England, where his mother, Jeanne de
Belleville, had married her second husband. On his return to
Brittany he took arms on the side of de Montfort, distinguishing .
himself at the battle of Auray (1364), but in consequence of
differences with Duke John IV. went over to the side of Blois;
In 1370 he joined Bertrand du Guesclin, who had lately become
constable of France, and followed him in all his campaigns against
the English. On the death of du Guesclin Clisson received the
constable's sword (1380). He fought with the citizens of Ghent,
defeating them at Roosebek (1382), later on commanded the
army in Poitou and Flanders (1389), and made an unsuccessful
attempt to invade England. On his return to Paris, in 1392,

CLISSON CLIVE, KITTY

an attempt was made to assassinate him by Pierre de Craon,
at the instigation of John IV. of Brittany. In order to punish
the latter, Charles VI., accompanied by the constable, marched
on Brittany, but it was on this expedition that the king was
seized with madness. The uncles of Charles VI. took proceedings
against Clisson, so that he had to take refuge in Brittany. He
was reconciled with John IV., and after the duke's death, in
1399, he became protector of the duchy, and guardian of the
young princes. lie had gathered vast wealth before his death
on the 2$rd of April 1407.

CLISSON, a town of western France, in the department of
Loire-Inferieure, prettily situated at the confluence of the Sevre
Nantaise and the Moine 17 m. S.E. of Nantes by rail. Pop.
(1906) 2244. The town gave its name to the celebrated family
of Clisson, of which the most famous member was Olivier de
Clisson. It has the imposing ruins of their stronghold, parts
of which date from the i3th century. The town and castle were
destroyed in 1792 and 1793 during the Vendean wars. The
sculptor F. F. Lemont afterwards bought the castle, and the town
was rebuilt in the early part of the igth century according to
his plans. There are picturesque parks on the banks of the
rivers. The Moine is crossed by an old Gothic bridge and by a
fine modern viaduct.

CLITHEROE, a market town and municipal borough in the
Clitheroe parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 220 m.
N.N-.W. from London and 35 m. N. by W. from Manchester, on
the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 11,414. It is
finely situated in the valley of the Ribble, at the foot of Pendle
Hill, a steep plateau-like mass rising to 1831 ft. The church of
St Mary Magdalene, though occupying an ancient site, is wholly
modernized. There are a grammar school, founded in 1554,
and a technical school. On a rocky elevation commanding the
valley stands the keep and other fragments of a Norman castle,
but part of the site is occupied by a modern mansion. The
industrial establishments comprise cotton-mills, print-works,
paper-mills, foundries, and brick and lime works. The corpora-
tion consists of a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area,
2385 acres.

Stonyhurst College, 5 m - S.W. of Clitheroe, is the principal
establishment in England for Roman Catholic students. The
Jesuits of St Omer, after emigrating to Bruges and Liege, were
disorganized by the revolutionary troubles at the close of the
1 8th century, and a large body came to England, when Thomas
Weld, in 1795, conferred his property of Stonyhurst upon them.
The fine and extensive buildings, of which the nucleus is a
mansion of the I7th century, contain a public school for boys
and a house of studies for Jesuit ecclesiastics, while there is a
preparatory school at a short distance. Every branch of study
is prosecuted, the college including such institutions as an
observatory, laboratories and farm buildings.

The Honour of Clitheroe, the name of which is also written
Clyderhow and Cletherwoode, was first held by Roger de Poictou,
wh'o was almost certainly the builder of the castle, which was
dismantled in 1649. He granted it to Robert de Lacy, in whose
family it remained with two short intervals until it passed by
marriage to Thomas, earl of Lancaster, in 1310. It formed part
of the duchy of Lancaster till Charles II. at the Restoration
bestowed it on General Monk, from whose family it descended
through the house of Montague to that of Buccleuch. The
Clitheroe Estate Company are the present lords of the Honour.
The first charter was granted about 1283 to the burgesses by
Henry de Lacy, second earl of Lincoln, confirming the liberties
granted by the first Henry de Lacy, who is therefore sometimes
said, although probably erroneously, to have granted a charter
about 1147. The 1283 charter was confirmed by Edward III. in
1346, Henry V. in 1413-1414, Henry VIII. in 1542, and James I.
in 1604. Of the fairs, those on December 7th to glh and March
24th to 26th are held under a charter of Henry IV. in 1409.
A weekly market has been held on Saturday since the Conqueror's
days. In 1558 the borough was granted two members of parlia-
ment, and continued to return them till 1832, when the number
was reduced to one. Under the Redistribution Act of 1885 the

borough was disfranchised. The municipal government was
formerly vested in an in-bailiff and an out-bailiff elected annually
from the in and out burgesses. A court-leet and court-baron
used to be held half-yearly, but both are now obsolete. The
present corporation governs under the Municipal Corporation
Act (1837). There was a church or chapel here in early times,
and a chaplain is mentioned in Henry II. 's reign.

CLITOMACHUS, Greek philosopher, was a Carthaginian
originally named Hasdrubal, who came to Athens about the
middle of the 2nd century B.C. at the age of twenty-four. He
made himself well acquainted with Stoic and Peripatetic philo-
sophy; but he studied principally under Carneades, whose views
he adopted, and whom he succeeded as chief of the New Academy
in 129 B.C. He made it his business to spread the knowledge of
the doctrines of Carneades, who left nothing in writing himself.
Clitomachus' works were some four hundred in number; but
we possess scarcely anything but a few titles, among which are
De sustinendis assensionibus (litpl tirox'js, " on suspension of
judgment ") and Ilept alpkatw (an account of various philo-
sophical sects). In 146 he wrote a treatise to console his country-
men after the ruin of their city, in which he insisted that a wise
man ought not to feel grieved at the destruction of his country.
Cicero highly commends his works and admits his own debt in
the Academics to the treatise Ilepi twoxW- Parts of Cicero's
De Natura and De Divinatione, and the treatise De Fata are also
in the main based upon Clitomachus.

See E. Wellmann in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyclopddie;
R. Hirzel, Untersuchungen zu Ciceros philosophischen Schriften, \.
(1877); Diog. Laert. iv. 67-92; Cicero, Acad. Pr. ii. 31, 32, and
Tusc. iii. 22; and article ACADEMY, GREEK.

CLITUMNUS, a river in Umbria, Italy, which rises from a very
abundant spring by the road between the ancient Spoletium and
Trebia, 8 m. from the former, 4 m. from the latter, and after a
short course through the territory of the latter town joins the
Tinia, a tributary of the Tiber. The spring is well described
by Pliny (Episl. viii. 8): it was visited by Caligula and by
Honorius, and is still picturesque a clear pool surrounded by
poplars and weeping willows. The stream was personified as a
god, whose ancient temple lay near the spring, and close by
other smaller shrines; the place, therefore, occurs under the name
Sacraria (the shrines) as a Roman post station. The building
generally known as the Tempio di Clitunno, close to the spring,
is, however, an ancient tomb, converted into a Christian church
in the early middle ages, the decorative sculptures, which are
obviously contemporary with those of S. Salvatore at Spoleto,
belonging to the 4th or 6th century according to some authorities,
to the 1 2th according to others.

See H. Grisar, Nuovo bitllettino di archeologia cristiana (Rome,
1895) i. 127; A. Venturi, Storia dell' arle italiana (Milan, 1904),
iii. 903.

CLIVE, CAROLINE (1801-1873), English authoress, was born
in London on the 24th of June 1801, the daughter of Air Meysey-
Wigley, M.P. for Worcester. She married, in 1840, the Rev.
Archer Clive. She published, over the signature " V.," eight
volumes of poetry, but is best known as the author of Paul
Ferroll (1855), a sensational novel, and Why Paul Ferroll killed
his Wife (1860). She died on the I3th of July 1873, at Whit-
field, Herefordshire.

CLIVE, CATHERINE [KITTY] (1711-1785), British actress,
was born, probably in London, in 1711. Her father, William
Raftor, an Irishman of good family but small means, had held
a captain's commission in the French army under Louis XIV.
From her earliest years she showed a talent for the stage, and
about 1728 became a member of the company at Drury Lane,
of which Colley Gibber was then manager. Her first part was
that of the page Ismenes (" with a song ") in the tragedy Milliri-
dates. Shortly afterwards she married George Cliv.e, a barrister
and a relative of the ist Lord Clive, but husband and wife soon
separated by mutual consent. In 1731 she definitely established
her reputation as a comic actress and singer in Charles Coffey's
farce-opera adaptation, The Devil to Pay, and from this time
she was always a popular favourite. She acted little outside
Drury Lane, where in 1747 she became one of the original

532

CLIVE, LORD

members of Garrick's company. She took part, however, in some
of the oratorios of Handel, whose friend she was. In 1 769, having
been a member of Garrick's company for twenty-two years, she
quitted the stage, and lived for sixteen years in retirement at
a villa at Twickenham, which had been given her some time
previously by her friend Horace Walpole. Mrs Clive had small
claim to good looks, but as an actress of broad comedy she was
unreservedly praised by Goldsmith, .Johnson and Garrick. She
had a quick temper, which on various occasions involved her
iu quarrels, and at times sorely tried the patience of Garrick, but
her private life remained above suspicion, and she regularly
supported her father and his family. She died at Twickenham
on the 6th of December 1785. Horace Walpole placed in his
garden an urn to her memory, bearing an inscription, of which
the last two lines run:

" The comic muse with her retired
And shed a tear when she expired."

See Percy Fitzgerald, Life of Mrs Catherine Clive (1888) ; W. R.
Chetwpod, General History of the Stage (1749); Thomas Davies,
Memoirs of the Life of David Garrick (1784).

CLIVE, ROBERT CLIVE, BARON (1725-1774), the statesman
and general who founded the empire of British India, was born on
the zgth of September 1725 at Styche, the family estate, in the
parish of Moreton Say, Market Drayton, Shropshire. We learn
from himself, in his second speech in the House of Commons in
1773, that as the estate yielded only 500 a year, his father
followed the profession of the law also. The Clives, or Clyves,
were one of the oldest families in the county of Shropshire,
having held the manor of that name in the reign of Henry II.
One Clive was Irish chancellor of the exchequer under Henry
VIII.; another was a member of the Long Parliament; Robert's
father for many years represented Montgomeryshire in parlia-
ment. His mother, to whom he was tenderly attached, and who
had a powerful influence on his career, was a daughter, and with
her sister Lady Sempill co-heir, of Nathaniel Gaskell of Man-
chester. Robert was their eldest son. With his five sisters, all of
whom were married in due time, he ever maintained the most
affectionate relations. His only brother survived to 1825.

Young Clive was the despair of his teachers. Sent from school
to school, and for only a short time at the Merchant Taylors'
school, which then as now had a high reputation, he neglected his
books for perilous adventures. But he was not so ignorant as his
biographers represent. He could read Horace in after life ; and
he must have laid in his youth the foundation of that clear and
vigorous English style which marked all his despatches, and
made Lord Chatham declare of one of his speeches in the House
of Commons that it was the most eloquent he had ever heard.
From his earliest years, however, his ambition was to lead his
fellows; but he never sacrificed honour, as the word was then
understood, even to the fear of death. At eighteen he was sent
out to Madras as a " factor " or " writer " in the civil service of
the East India Company. The detention of the ship in Brazil for
nine months enabled him to acquire the Portuguese language,
which, at a time when few or none of the Company's servants
learned the vernaculars of India, he often found of use. For the
first two years of his residence he was miserable. He felt keenly
the separation from home; he was always breaking through the
restraints imposed on young " writers "; and he was rarely out
of trouble with his fellows, with one of whom he fought a duel.
Thus early, too, the effect of the climate on his health began to
show itself in those fits of depression during one of which he
afterwards prematurely ended his life. The story is told of him
by his companions, though he himself never spoke of it, that he
twice snapped a pistol at his head in vain. His one solace was
found in the governor's library, where he sought to make up for
past carelessness by a systematic course of study. He was just of
age, when in 1746 Madras was forced to capitulate to Labour-
donnais during the War of the Austrian Succession. The breach
of that capitulation by Dupleix, then at the head of the French
settlements in India, led Clive, with others, to escape from the
town to the subordinate Fort St David, some 20 m. to the south.
There, disgusted with the state of affairs and the purely com-

mercial duties of an East Indian civilian, as they then were, Clive
obtained an ensign's commission.

At this time India was ready to become the prize of the first
conqueror who to the dash of the soldier added the skill of
the administrator. For the forty years since the death of the
emperor Aurangzeb, the power of the Great Mogul had gradually
fallen into the hands of his provincial viceroys or subadhars.
The three greatest of these were the nawab of the Deccan, or
south and central India, who ruled from Hyderabad, the nawab
of Bengal, whose capital was Murshidabad, and the nawab or
wazir of Oudh. The prize lay between Dupleix, who had the
genius of an administrator, or rather intriguer, but was no
soldier, and Clive, the first of a century's brilliant succession of
those " soldier-politicals," as they are called in the East, to whom
Great Britain owes the conquest and consolidation of its greatest
dependency. Clive successively established British ascendancy
against French influence in the three great provinces under these
nawabs. But his merit lies especially in the ability and foresight
with which he secured for his country, and for the good of the
natives, the richest of the three, Bengal. First, as to Madras and
the Deccan, Clive had hardly been able to commend himself to
Major Stringer Lawrence, the commander of the British troops, by
his courage and skill in several small engagements, when the
peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) forced him to return to his civil
duties for a short time. An attack of the malady which so
severely affected his spirits led him to visit Bengal, where he was
soon to distinguish himself. On his return he found a contest
going on between two sets of rival claimants for the position of
viceroy of the Deccan, and for that of nawab of the Carnatic, the
greatest of the subordinate states under the Deccan. Dupleix,
who took the part of the pretenders to power in both places, was
carrying all before him. The British had been weakened by the
withdrawal of a large force under Admiral Boscawen, and by the
return home, on leave, of Major Lawrence. But that officer had
appointed Clive commissary for the supply of the "troops with
provisions, with the rank of captain. More than one disaster had
taken place on a small scale, when Clive drew up a plan for
dividing the enemy's forces, and offered to carry it out himself.
The pretender, Chanda Sahib, had been made nawab of the
Carnatic with Dupleix's assistance, while the British had taken
up the cause of the more legitimate successor, Mahommed Ali.
Chanda Sahib had left Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic, to
reduce Trichinopoly, then held by a weak English battalion.
Clive offered to attack Arcot in order to force Chanda Sahib to
raise the siege of Trichinopoly. But Madras and Fort St David
could supply him with only 200 Europeans and 300 sepoys. Of
the eight officers who led them, four were civilians like Clive
himself, and six had never been in action. His force had but
three field-pieces. The circumstances that Clive, at the head of
this handful, had been seen marching during a storm of thunder
and lightning, frightened the enemy into evacuating the fort,
which the British at once began to strengthen against a siege.
Clive treated the great population of the city with so much
consideration that they helped him, not only to fortify his position,
but to make successful sallies against the enemy. As the days
passed on, Chanda Sahib sent a large army under his son and his
French supporters, who entered Arcot and closely besieged Clive
in the citadel.

Macaulay gives the following brilliant account of the siege:
" Raja Sahib proceeded to invest the fort, which seemed quite
incapable of sustaining a siege. The walls were ruinous, the ditches
dry, the ramparts too narrow to admit the guns, and the battle-
ments too low to protect the soldiers. The little garrison had been
greatly reduced by casualties. It now consisted of 120 Europeans
and 200 sepoys. Only four officers were left, the stock of provisions
was scanty, and the commander who had to conduct the defence
under circumstances so discouraging was a young man of five and
twenty, who had been bred as a book-keeper. During fifty days the
siege went on, and the young captain maintained the defence with
a firmness, vigilance and ability which would have done honour to
the oldest marshal in Europe. The breach, however, increased day
by day. Under such circumstances, any troops so scantily provided
with officers might have been expected to show signs of insubor-
dination; and the danger was peculiarly great in a force composed of
men differing widely from each other in extraction, colour, language,

CLIVE, LORD

533

manners and religion. But the devotion of the little band to its
chief surpassed anything that is related of the Tenth Legion of
Caesar, or the Old Guard of Napoleon. The sepoys came to Clive,
not to complain of their scanty fare, but to propose that all the grain
should be given to the Europeans, who required more nourishment
than the natives of Asia. The thin gruel, they said, which was
strained away from the rice would suffice for themselves. History
contains no more touching instance of military fidelity, or of the
influence of a commanding mind. An attempt made by the governor
of Madras to relieve the place had failed ; but there was hope from
another quarter. A body of 3000 Mahrattas, half soldiers, half
robbers, under the command of a chief named Murari Rao had been
hired to assist Mahommed Ali; but thinking the French power
irresistible, and the triumph of Chanda Sahib certain, they had
hitherto remained inactive on the frontiers of the Carnatic. The
fame of the defence of Arcot roused them from their torpor; Murari
Rao declared that he had never before believed that Englishmen
could fight, but that he would willingly help them since he saw that
they had spirit to help themselves. Raja Sahib learned that the
Mahrattas were in motion, and it was necessary for him to be ex-
peditious. He first tried negotiations he offered large bribes to
Clive, which were rejected with scorn ; he vowed that if his proposals
were not accepted, he would instantly storm the fort, and put every
man in it to the sword. Clive told him, in reply, with characteristic
haughtiness, that his father was a usurper, that his army was a rabble,
and that he would do well to think twice before he sent such poltroons
into a breach defended by English soldiers. Raja Sahib determined
to storm the fort. The day was well suited to a bold military enter-
prise. It was the great Mahommedan festival, the Muharram, which
is sacred to the memory of Husain, the son of Ali. Clive had received
secret intelligence of the design, had made his arrangements, and,
exhausted by fatigue, had thrown himself on his bed. He was
awakened by the alarm, and was instantly at his post. The enemy
advanced, driving before them elephants whose foreheads were
armed with iron plates. It was expected that the gates would yield
to the shock of these living battering-rams. But the huge beasts
no sooner felt the English musket balls than they turned round and
rushed furiously away, trampling on the multitude which had urged
them forward. A raft was launched on the water which filled one
part of the ditch. Clive perceiving that his gunners at that post
did not understand their business, took the management of a piece
of artillery himself, and cleared the raft in a few minutes. Where
the moat was dry, the assailants mounted with great boldness; but
they were received with a fire so heavy and so well directed, that it
soon quelled the courage even of fanaticism and of intoxication.
The rear ranks of the English kept the front ranks supplied with a
constant succession of loaded muskets, and every shot told on the
living mass below. The struggle lasted about an ho,ur; 400 of the
assailants fell; the garrison lost only five or six men. The besieged
passed an anxious night, looking for a renewal of the attack. But
when day broke, the enemy were no more to be seen. They had
retired, leaving to the English several guns and a large quantity of
ammunition."

In India, we might say in all history, there is no parallel to
this exploit of 1751 till we come to the siege of Lucknow in 1857.
Clive, now reinforced, followed up his advantage, and Major
Lawrence returned in time to carry the war to a successful issue.
In 1754 the first of the Carnatic treaties was made provisionally,
between T. Saunders, the Company's resident at Madras, and
M. Godeheu, the French commander, in which the English
protege, Mahommed Ali, was virtually recognized as nawab, and
both nations agreed to equalize their possessions. When war
again broke out in 1 7 56, and the French, during Clive's absence in
Bengal, obtained successes in the northern districts, his efforts
helped to drive them from their settlements. The Treaty of
Paris in 1763 formally confirmed Mahommed Ali in the position
which Clive had won for him. Two years after, the Madras work
of Clive was completed by a firman from the emperor of Delhi,
recognizing the British possessions in southern India.

The siege of Arcot at once gave Clive a European reputation.
Pitt pronounced the youth of twenty-seven who had done such
deeds a " heaven-born general," thus endorsing the generous
appreciation of his early commander, Major Lawrence. When
the court of directors voted him a sword worth 700, he refused
to receive it unless Lawrence was similarly honoured. He left
Madras for home, after ten years' absence, early in 1753, but
not before marrying Miss Margaret Maskelyne, the sister of a
friend, and of one who was afterwards well known as astronomer
royal. All his correspondence proves him to have been a good
husband and father, at a time when society was far from pure,
and scandal made havoc of the highest reputations. In after
days, when Clive's uprightness and stern reform of the Company's

civil and military services made him many enemies, a biography
of him appeared under the assumed name of Charles Carracioli,
Gent. All the evidence is against the probability of its scandalous
stories being true. Clive as a young man occasionally indulged
in loose or free talk among intimate friends, but beyond this
nothing has been proved to his detriment. After he had been
two years at home the state of affairs in India made the directors
anxious for his return. He was sent out, in 1756, as governor
of Fort St David, with the reversion of the government of
Madras, and he received the commission of lieutenant-colonel
in the king's army. He took Bombay on his way, and there
commanded the land force which captured Gheria, the stronghold
of the Mahratta pirate, Angria. In the distribution of prize
money which followed this expedition he showed no little self-
denial. He took his seat as governor of Fort St David on the
day on which the nawab of Bengal captured Calcutta, and
thither the Madras government at once sent him, with admiral
Watson. He entered on the second period of his career.

Since, in August 1690, Job Charnock had landed at the village
of Sutanati with a guard of one officer and 30 men, the infant
capital of Calcutta had become a rich centre of trade. The
successive nawabs or viceroys of Bengal had been friendly to it,
till, in 1 7 56, Suraj-ud-Dowlah succeeded his uncle at Murshidabad.
His predecessor's financial minister had fled to Calcutta to escape
the extortion of the new nawab, and the English governor
refused to deliver up the refugee. Enraged at this, Suraj-ud-
Dowlah captured the old fort of Calcutta on the zoth of June,
and plundered it of more than two millions sterling. Many of
the English fled to ships and dropped down the river. The 146
who remained were forced into " the Black Hole 1 " in the stifling
heat of the sultriest period of the year. Only 23 came out alive.
The fleet was as strong, for those days, as the land force was
weak. Disembarking his troops some miles below the city,
Clive marched through the jungles, where he lost his way owing
to the treachery of his guides, but soon invested Fort William,
while the fire of the ships reduced it, on the 2nd of January 1757.
On the 4th of February he defeated the whole army of the nawab,
which had taken up a strong position just beyond what is now
the most northerly suburb of Calcutta. The nawab hastened
to conclude a treaty, under which favourable terms were con-
ceded to the Company's trade, the factories and plundered
property were restored, and an English mint was established.
In the accompanying agreement, offensive and defensive, Clive
appears under the name by which he was always known to the
natives of India, Sabut Jung, or " the daring in war." The hero
of Arcot had, at Angria's stronghold, and now again under the
walls of Calcutta, established his reputation as the first captain
of the time. With 600 British soldiers, 800 sepoys, 7 field-pieces
and 500 sailors to draw them, he had routed a force of 34,000 men
with 40 pieces of heavy cannon, 50 elephants, and a camp that
extended upwards of four miles in length. His own account, in a
letter to the archbishop of Canterbury, gives a modest but vivid
description of the battle, the importance of which has been
overshadowed by Plassey. In spite of his double defeat and the
treaty which followed it, the madness of the nawab burst forth
again. As England and France were once more at war, Clive
sent the fleet up the river against Chandernagore, while he
besieged it by land. After consenting to the siege, the nawab
sought to assist the French, but in vain. The capture of their
principal settlement in India, next to Pondicherry, which had
fallen in the previous war, gave the combined forces prize to
the value of 130,000. The rule of Suraj-ud-Dowlah became
as intolerable to his own people as to the British. They formed
a confederacy to depose him, at the head of which was Jafar
Ali Khan, his commander-in-chief. Associating with himself
Admiral Watson, Governor Drake and Mr Watts, Clive made
a treaty in which it was agreed to give the office of viceroy of
Bengal, Behar and Orissa to Jafar, who was to pay a million
sterling to the Company for its losses in Calcutta and the cost
of its troops, half a million to the British inhabitants of Calcutta,
200,000 to the native inhabitants, and 70,000 to its Armenian
merchants. Up to this point all is clear. Suraj-ud-Dowlah was

534

CLIVE, LORD

hopeless as a ruler. His relations alike to his master, the merely
titular emperor of Delhi, and to the people left the province open
to the strongest. After " the Black Hole," the battle of Calcutta,
and the treachery at Chandernagore in spite of the treaty which
followed that battle, the East India Company could treat the
nawab only as an enemy. Clive, it is true, might have disregarded
all native intrigue, marched on Murshidabad, and at once held
the delta of the Ganges in the Company's name. But the time
was not ripe for this, and the consequences, with so small a
force, might have been fatal. The idea of acting directly as
rulers, or save under native charters and names, was not developed
by events for half a century. The political morality of the time
in Europe, as well as the comparative weakness of the Company
in India, led Clive not only to meet the dishonesty of his native
associate by equal dishonesty, but to justify his conduct by the
declaration, years after, in parliament, that he would do the
same again. It became necessary to employ the richest Bengali
trader, Omichund, as an agent between Jafar Ali and the British
officials. Master of the secret of the confederacy against Suraj-
ud-Dowlah, the Bengali threatened to betray it unless he was
guaranteed, in the treaty itself, 300,000. To dupe the villain,
who was really paid by both sides, a second, or fictitious treaty,
was shown him with a clause to this effect. This Admiral
Watson refused to sign; " but," Clive deponed to the House
of Commons, " to the best of his remembrance, he gave the
gentleman who carried it leave to sign his name upon it; his
lordship never made any secret of it; he thinks it warrantable
in such a case, and would do it again a hundred times; he had
BO interested motive in doing it, and did it with a design of
disappointing the expectations of a rapacious man." Such is
Clive's own defence of the one act which, in a long career of
abounding temptations, was of questionable honesty.

The whole hot season of 1757 was spent in these negotiations,
till the middle of June, when Clive began his march from Chander-
nagore, the British in boats, and the sepoys along the right bank
of the Hugli. That river above Calcutta is, during the rainy
season, fed by the overflow of the Ganges to the north through
three streams, which in the hot months are nearly dry. On the
left bank of the Bhagirathi, the most westerly of these, 100 m.
above Chandernagore, stands Murshidabad, the capital of the
Mogul viceroys of Bengal, and then so vast that Clive compared
it to the London of his day. Some miles farther down is the field
of Plassey, then an extensive grove of mango trees, of which
enough yet remains, in spite of the changing course of the stream,
to enable the visitor to realize the scene. On the 2ist of June
Clive arrived on the bank opposite Plassey, in the midst of that
outburst of rain which ushers in the south-west monsoon of India.
His whole army amounted to uoo Europeans and 2100 native
troops, with 9 field-pieces. The nawab had drawn up 18,000
horse, 50,000 foot and 53 pieces of heavy ordnance, served by
French artillerymen. For once in his career Clive hesitated, and
called a council of sixteen officers to decide, as he put it, " whether
in our present situation, without assistance, and on our own
bottom, it would be prudent to attack the nawab, or whether
we should wait till joined by some country power?" Clive
himself headed the nine who voted for delay; Major (afterwards
Sir) Eyre Coote led the seven who counselled immediate attack.
But, either because his daring asserted itself, or because, also,
of a letter that he received from Jafar Ali, as has been said, Clive
was the first to change his mind and to communicate with Major
Eyre Coote. One tradition, followed by Macaulay, represents
him as spending an hour in thought under the shade of some
trees, while he resolved the issues of what was to prove one of
the decisive battles of the world. Another, turned into verse by
Sir Alfred Lyall, pictures his resolution as the result of a dream.
However that may be, he did well as a soldier to trust to the dash
and even rashness that had gained Arcot and triumphed at Cal-
cutta, and as a statesman, since retreat, or even delay, would
have put back the civilization of India for years. When, after
the heavy rain, the sun rose brightly on the 22nd, the 3200 men
and the 9 guns crossed the river and took possession of the
grove and its tanks of water, while Clive established his head-

quarters in a hunting lodge. On the 23rd the engagement took
place and lasted the whole day. Except the 40 Frenchmen and
the guns which they worked, the enemy did little to repry to the
British cannonade which, with the 39th Regiment, scattered
the host, inflicting on it a loss of 500 men. Clive restrained the
ardour of Major Kilpatrick, for he trusted to Jafar Ali's abstin-
ence, if not desertion to his ranks, and knew the importance of
sparing his own small force. He lost hardly a white soldier; in
all 22 sepoys were killed and 50 wounded. His own account,
written a month after the battle to the secret committee of the
court of directors, is hot less unaffected than that in which he
had announced the defeat of the nawab at Calcutta. Suraj-ud-
Dowlah fled from the field on a camel, secured what wealth he
could, and came to an untimely end. Clive entered Murshidabad,
and established Jafar Ali in the position which his descendants
have ever since enjoyed, as pensioners, but have not infrequently
abused. When taken through the treasury, amid a million and a
half sterling's worth of rupees, gold and silver plate, jewels and
rich goods, and besought to ask what he would, Clive was content
with 160,000, while half a million was distributed among the
army and navy, both in addition to gifts of 24,000 to each
member of the Company's committee, and besides the public
compensation stipulated for in the treaty. It was to this occasion
that he referred in his defence before the House of Commons,
when he declared that he marvelled at his moderation. He
sought rather to increase the shares of the fleet and the troops
at his own expense, as he had done at Gheria, and did more
than once afterwards, with prize of war. What he did take from
the grateful nawab for himself was less than the circumstances
justified from an Oriental point of view, was far less than was
pressed upon him, not only by Jafar Ali, but by the hundreds
of native nobles whose gifts Clive steadily refused, and was openly
acknowledged from the first. He followed a usage fully recog-
nized by the Company, although the fruitful source of future evils
which he himself was again sent out to correct. The Company
itself acquired a revenue of 100,000 a year, and a contribution
towards its losses and military expenditure of a million and a half
sterling. Such was Jafar Ali's gratitude to Clive that he after-
wards presented him with the quit-rent of the Company's lands
in and around Calcutta, amounting to an annuity of 27,000
for life, and left him by will the sum of 70,000, which Clive
devoted to the army.

While busy with the civil administration, the conqueror of
Plassey continued to follow up his military success. He sent
Major Coote in pursuit of the French almost as far as Benares.
He despatched Colonel Forde to Vizagapatam and the northern
districts of Madras, where that officer gained the battle of
Condore, pronounced by Broome " one of the most brilliant
actions on military record." He came into direct contact, for
the first time, with the Great Mogul himself, an event which
resulted in the most important consequences during the third
period of his career. Shah Alam, when shahzada, or heir-apparent,
quarrelled with his father Alam Gir II., the emperor, and
united with the viceroys of Oudh and Allahabad for the con-
quest of Bengal. He advanced as far as Patna, which he besieged
with 40,000 men. Jafar Ali, in terror, sent his son to its relief,
and implored the aid of Clive. Major Caillaud defeated the
prince's army and dispersed it. Finally, at this period, Clive
repelled the aggression of the Dutch, and avenged the massacre
of Amboyna, on that occasion when he wrote his famous letter,
" Dear Forde, fight them immediately; I will send you the order
of council to-morrow." Meanwhile he never ceased to improve
the organization and drill of the sepoy army, after a European
model, and enlisted into it many Mahommedans of fine physique
from upper India. He refortified Calcutta. In 1760, after four
years of labour so incessant and results so glorious, his health
gave way and he returned to England. " It appeared," wrote a
contemporary on the spot, "as if the soul was departing from
the government of Bengal." He had been formally made
governor of Bengal by the court of directors at a time when his
nominal superiors in Madras sought to recall him to their help
there. But he had discerned the importance of the province

CLIVE, LORD

535

even during his first visit to its rich delta, mighty rivers and
teeming population. It should be noticed, also, that he had
the kingly gift of selecting the ablest subordinates, for even thus
early he had discovered the ability of young Warren Hastings,
destined to be his great successor, and, a year after Plassey, made
him resident at the nawab's court.

In 1760, at thirty-five years of age, Clive returned to England
with a fortune of at least 300,000 and the quit-rent of 27,000
a year, after caring for the comfort of his parents and sisters,
and giving Major Lawrence, his old commanding officer, who had
early encouraged his military genius, 500 a year. The money
had been honourably and publicly acquired, with the approval
of the Company. The amount might have been four times what
it was had Clive been either greedy after wealth or ungenerous
to the colleagues and the troops whom he led to victory. In the
five years of his conquests and administration in Bengal, the
young man had crowded together a succession of exploits which
led Lord Macaulay, in what that historian termed his " flashy "
essay on the subject, to compare him to Napoleon Bonaparte.
But there was this difference in Clive's favour, due not more
to the circumstances of the time than to the object of his policy
he gave peace, security, prosperity and such liberty as the case
allowed of to a people now reckoned at nearly three hundred
millions, who had for centuries been the prey of oppression,
while Napoleon's career of conquest was inspired only by personal
ambition, and the absolutism he established vanished with his
fall. During the three years that Clive remained in England he
sought a political position, chiefly that he might influence the
course of events in India, which he had left full of promise. He
had been well received at court, had been made Baron Clive of
Plassey, in the peerage of Ireland, had bought estates, and had
got not only himself, but his friends returned to the House of
Commons after the fashion of the time. Then it was that he set
himself to reform the home system of the East India Company,
and began a bitter warfare with Mr Sulivan, chairman of the
court of directors, whom in the end he defeated. In this he
was aided by the news of reverses in Bengal. Vansittart, his
successor, having no great influence over Jafar Ali Khan, had
put Kasim Ali Khan, the son-in-law, in his place in consideration
of certain payments to the English officials. After a brief tenure
Kasim Ali had fled, had ordered Walter Reinhardt (known to the
Mahommedans as Sumru), a Swiss mercenary of his, to butcher
the garrison of 150 English at Patna, and had disappeared under
the protection of his brother viceroy of Oudh. The whole
Company's service, civil and military, had become demoralized
by gifts, and by the monopoly of the inland as well as export
trade, to such an extent that the natives were pauperized, and
the Company was plundered of the revenues which Clive had
acquired for them. The court of proprietors, accordingly, who
elected the directors, forced them, in spite of Sulivan, to hurry
out Lord Clive to Bengal with the double powers of governor and
commander-in-chief.

What he had done for Madras, what he had accomplished
for Bengal proper, and what he had effected in reforming the
Company itself, he was now to complete in less than two years,
in this the third period of his career, by putting his country
politically in the place of the emperor of Delhi, and preventing
for ever the possibility of the corruption to which the British
in India had been driven by an evil system. On the 3rd of May
1765 he landed at Calcutta to learn that Jafar Ali Khan had
died, leaving him personally 70,000, and had been succeeded
by his son, though not before the government had been further
demoralized by taking 100,000 as a gift from the new nawab;
while Kasim Ali had induced not only the viceroy of Oudh,
but the emperor of Delhi himself, to invade Behar. After the
first mutiny in the Bengal army, which was suppressed by
blowing the sepoy ringleader from a gun, Major Munro, " the
Napier < f those times," scattered the united armies on the hard-
fought field of Buxar. The emperor, Shah Alam, detached
himself from the league, while the Oudh viceroy threw himself
on the mercy of the British. Clive had now an opportunity of
repeating in Hindustan, or Upper India, what he had accom-

plished for the good of Bengal. He might have secured what are
now called the United Provinces, and have rendered unnecessary
the campaigns of Wellesley and Lake. But he had other work
in the consolidation of rich Bengal itself, making it a base from
which the mighty fabric of British India could afterwards
steadily and proportionally grow. Hence he returned to the
Oudh viceroy all his territory save the provinces of Allahabad
and Kora, which he made over to the weak emperor. But from
that emperor he secured the most important document in the
whole of British history in India up to that time, which appears
in the records as " firmaund from the King Shah Aalum, granting
the dewany of Bengal, Behar and Orissa to the Company,
1765." The date was the izth of August, the place Benares,
the throne an English dining-table covered with embroidered
cloth and surmounted by a chair in Clive's tent. It is all pictured
by a Mahommedan contemporary, who indignantly exclaims
that so great a " transaction was done and finished in less time
than would have been taken up in the sale of a jackass." 'By
this deed the Company became the real sovereign rulers of thirty
millions of people, yielding a revenue of four millions sterling.
All this had been accomplished by Clive in the few brief years
since he had avenged " the Black Hole " of Calcutta. This would
be a small matter, or might even be a cause of reproach,
were it not that the Company's undisputed sovereignty proved,
after a sore period of transition, the salvation of these millions.
The lieutenant-governorship of Bengal since Clive's time has
grown so large and prosperous that in 1905 it was found advis-
able to divide it into two separate provinces. But Clive, though
thus moderate and even generous to an extent which called
forth the astonishment of the natives, had all a statesman's
foresight. On the same date he obtained not only an imperial
charter for the Company's possession in the Carnatic also, thus
completing the work he began at Arcot, but a third firman for
the highest of all the lieutenancies of the empire, that of the
Deccan itself. This fact is mentioned in a letter from the secret
committee of the court of directors to the Madras government,
dated the 27th of April 1768. Still so disproportionate did the
British force seem, not only to the number and strength of the
princes and people of India, but to the claims and ambition of
French, Dutch and Danish rivals, that Clive's last advice to
the directors, as he finally left India in 1767, was this: " We
are sensible that, since the acquisition of the dewany, the power
formerly belonging to the soubah of those provinces is totally, in
fact, vested in the East India Company. Nothing remains
to him but the name and shadow of authority. This name,
however, this shadow, it is indispensably necessary we should
seem to venerate." On a wider arena, even that of the Great
Mogul himself, the shadow was kept up till it obliterated itself
in the massacre of English people in the Delhi palace in 1857;
and Queen Victoria was proclaimed, first, direct ruler on the
ist of November 1858, and then empress of India on the ist of
January 1877.

Having thus founded the empire of British India, Clive's
painful duty was to create a pure and strong administration,
such as alone would justify its possession by foreigners. The
civil service was de-orientalized by raising the miserable salaries
which had tempted its members to be corrupt, by forbidding
the acceptance of gifts from natives, and by exacting covenants
under which participation in the inland trade was stopped.
Not less important were his military reforms. With his usual
tact and nerve he put down a mutiny of the English officers,
who chose to resent the veto against receiving presents and the
reduction of batta at a time when two Mahratta armies were
marching on Bengal. His reorganization of the army, on the
lines of that which he had begun after Plassey, and which was
neglected during his second visit to England, has since attracted
the admiration of the ablest Indian officers. He divided the
whole into three brigades, so as to make each a complete force,
in itself equal to any single native army that could be brought
against it. He had not enough British artillerymen, however,
and would not make the mistake of his successors, who trained
natives to work the guns, which were turned against the British

53 6

CLOACA CLOCK

with such effect in 1857. It is sufficient to say that after the
Mutiny the government returned to his policy, and not a native
gunner is now to be found in the Indian army.

Clive's final return to England, a poorer man than he went out,
in spite of still more tremendous temptations, was the signal
for an outburst of his personal enemies, exceeded only by that
which the malice of Sir Philip Francis afterwards excited against
Warren Hastings. Every civilian whose illicit gains he had
cut off, every officer whose conspiracy he had foiled, every
proprietor or director, like Sulivan, whose selfish schemes he
had thwarted, now sought their opportunity. He had, with
consistent generosity, at once made over the legacy of 70,000
from the grateful Jafar Ali, as the capital of what has since
been known as " the Clive Fund," for the support of invalided
European soldiers, as well as officers, and their widows, and
the Company had allowed 8 % on the sum for an object which
it was otherwise bound to meet. General John Burgoyne, of
Saratoga memory, did his best to induce the House of Commons,
in which Lord Clive was now member for Shrewsbury, to
impeach the man who gave his country an empire, and the
people of that empire peace and justice, and that, as we have
seen, without blot on the gift, save in the matter of Omichund.
The result, after the brilliant and honourable defences of his
career which will be found in Almon's Debates for 1773, was a
compromise that saved England this time from the dishonour
which, when Warren Hastings had to run the gauntlet, put it in
the same category with France in the treatment of its public
benefactors abroad. On a division the House, by 155 to 95,
carried the motion that Lord Clive " did obtain and possess
himself " of 234,000 during his first administration of Bengal;
but, refusing to express an opinion on the fact, it passed unanim-
ously the second motion, at five in the morning, " that Robert,
Lord Clive, did at the same time render great and meritorious
services to his country." The one moral question, the one
questionable transaction in all that brilliant and tempted life
the Omichund treaty was not touched.

Only one who can personally understand what Clive's power
and services had been will rightly realize the effect on him,
though in the prime of life, of the discussions through which he
had been dragged. In the greatest of his speeches, in reply to
Lord North, he said, " My situation, sir, has not been an easy
one for these twelve months past, and though my conscience
could never accuse me, yet I felt for ray friends who were involved
in the same censure as myself. ... I have been examined by the
select committee more like a sheep-stealer than a member of this
House." Fully accepting that statement, and believing him to
have been purer than his accusers in spite of temptations un-
known to them, we see in Clive's end the result merely of physical
suffering, of chronic disease which opium failed to abate, while the
worry and chagrin caused by his enemies gave it full scope. This
great man, who did more for his country than any soldier till
Wellington, and more for the people and princes of India than
any statesman in history, died by his own hand on the 22nd of
November 1774 in his fiftieth year.

The portrait of Clive, by Dance, in the council chamber of
Government House, Calcutta, faithfully represents him. He was
slightly above middle-size, with a countenance rendered heavy
and almost sad by a natural fulness above the eyes. Reserved to
the many, he was beloved by his own family and friends. His
encouragement of scientific undertakings like Major James
RennelPs surveys, and of philological researches like Francis
Gladwin's, gained him to two honorary distinctions of F.R.S.
and LL.D.

His son and successor Edward (1754-1839) was created earl of
Powis in 1804, his wife being the sister and heiress of George
Herbert, earl of Powis (1755-1801). He is thus the ancestor of
the later earls of Powis, who took the name of Herbert instead of
that of Clive in 1807.

See Sir A. J. Arbuthnot,' Lord Clive (" Builders of Great Britain"
series) (1899); Sir C. Wilson, Lord Clive (" English Men of Action"
series) (1890) ; G. B. Malleson, Lord Clive (" Rulers of India " series)
(1890); F. M. Holmes, Four Heroes of India (1892); C. Caraccioh,
Life of Lord Clive (1775).

CLOACA, the Latin term given to the sewers laid to drain the
low marshy grounds between the hills of Rome. The most
important, which drained the forum, is known as the Cloaca
Maxima and dates from the 6th century B.C. This was 10 ft. 6 in.
wide, 14 ft. high, and was vaulted with three consecutive rings of
voussoirs in stone, the floor being paved with polygonal blocks
of lava.

CLOCK. The measurement of time has always been based on
the revolution of the celestial bodies, and the period of the
apparent revolution of the sun, i.e. the interval between two
consecutive crossings of a meridian, has been the usual standard
for a day. By the Egyptians the day was divided into 24 hours of
equal length. The Greeks adopted a different system, dividing
the day, i.e. the period from sunrise to sunset, into 12 hours,
and also the night. Whence it followed that it was only at two
periods in the year that the length of the hours during the day and
night were uniform (see CALENDAR). In consequence, those who
adopted the Greek system were obliged to furnish their water-
clocks (see CLEPSYDRA) with a compensating device so that the
equal hours measured by those clocks should be rendered un-
equal, according to the exigencies of the season. The hours were
divided into minutes and seconds, a system derived from the
sexagesimal notation which prevailed before the decimal system
was finally adopted. Our mode of computing time, and our
angular measure, are the only relics of this obsolete system.

The simplest measure of time is the revolution of the earth
round its axis, which so far as we know is uniform, perfectly
regular, and has not varied in speed during any period of human
observation. The time of such a revolution is called a sidereal
day, and is divided into hours, minui.es and seconds. The period
of rotation of the earth is practially measured by observations of
the fixed stars (see TIME), the period between two successive
transits of the same star across a meridian constituting the
sidereal day. But as the axis of the earth slowly revolves round in
a cone, whereby the phenomenon known as the precession of the
equinoxes is produced, it follows that the astronomical sidereal
day is not the true period of the earth's rotation on its axis, but
varies from it by less than a twenty millionth part, a fraction so
small as to be inappreciable. But the civil day depends not on
the revolution of the earth with regard to the stars, but on its
revolution as compared with the position of the sun. Therefore
each civil day is on the average longer than a sidereal one by
nearly four minutes, or, to be exact, each sidereal day is to an
average civil day as -99727 to i, and the sidereal hour, minute
and second are also shorter in like proportion. Hence a sidereal
clock has a shorter, quicker-moving pendulum than an ordinary
clock.

Ordinary civil time thus depends on the apparent revolution of
the sun round the earth. As, however, this is not uniform, it is
needful for practical convenience to give it an artificial uniformity.
For this purpose an imaginary sun, moving round the earth with
the average velocity of the real sun, and called the " mean " sun,
is taken as the measure of civil time. The day is divided into 24
hours, each hour into 60 minutes, and each minute into 60 seconds.
After that the sexagesimal division system is abandoned, and
fractions of seconds are estimated in decimals.

A clock consists of a train of wheels, actuated by a spring or
weight, and provided with a governing device which so regulates
the speed as to render it uniform. It also has a mechanism by
which it strikes the hours on a bell or gong (cp. Fr. cloche, Ger.
Glocke, a bell; Dutch klok, bell, clock), whereas, strictly, a
timepiece does not strike, but simply shows the time.

The earliest clocks seem to have come into use in Europe
during the i3th century. For although there is evidence that
they may have been invented some centuries sooner, yet until
that date they were probably only curiosities. The first form they
took was that of the balance clock, the invention of which is
ascribed, but on very insufficient grounds* to Pope Silvester II. in
A.D. 996. A clock was put up in a former clock tower at West-
minster with some great bells in 1 288, out of a fine imposed on a
chief-justice who had offended the government, and the motto
Discite justitiam, moniti, inscribed upon it. The bells were sold,

CLOCK

537

or rather, it is said, gambled away, by Henry VIII. In 1292 a
clock in Canterbury cathedral is mentioned as costing 30, and
another at St Albans, by R. Wallingford, the abbot in 1326, is
said to have been such as there was not in all Europe, showing
various astronomical phenomena. A description of one in Dover
Castle with the date 1348 on it was published by Admiral
W. H. Smyth (1788-1865) in 1851, and the clock itself was
exhibited going, in the Scientific Exhibition of 1876. A very
similar one, made by Henry de Vick for the French king
Charles V. in 1379 was much like the common clocks of the i8th
century, except that it had a vibrating balance instead of a
pendulum. The works of one of these old clocks still exist in a
going condition at the Victoria and Albert Museum. It came from
Wells cathedral, having previously been at Glastonbury abbey.
These old clocks had what is called a verge escapement, and
a balance. The train of wheels ended with a crown wheel, that
is, a wheel serrated with teeth like those of a saw, placed parallel
with its axis (fig. i). These teeth, D, engaged with pallets
CB, CA, mounted on a verge or staff placed parallel to the face
of the crown wheel. As the crown wheel was turned round the
teeth pushed the pallets alternately until one or the other slid
past a tooth, and thus let the crown wheel rotate. When one
pallet had slipped over a tooth, the other pallet caught a corre-
sponding tooth on the opposite side of the wheel. The verge

was terminated by a balance rod
placed at right angles to it with a
ball at each end. It is evident that
when the force of any tooth on the
crown wheel began to act on a
pallet, it communicated motion to
the balance and thus caused it to
rotate. This motion would of course
be accelerated, not uniformly, but
according to some law dependent on
the shape of the teeth and pallets.
When the motion had reached its
maximum, the tooth slipped past
the pallet. The other pallet now
engaged another tooth on the op-
posite side of the wheel. The motion
of the balls, however, went on and
they continued to swing round, but

FIG. i.- Verge Escapement. th / s time the y were o PP ose * bv

the pressure of the tooth. For a

time they overcame that pressure, and drove the tooth back,
causing a recoil. As, however, every motion if subjected to an
adverse acceleration (i.e. a retardation) must come to rest, the
balls stopped, and then the tooth, which had been forced to
recoil, advanced in its turn, and the swing was repeated. The
arrangement was thus very like a huge watch balance wheel in
which the driving weight acted in a very irregular manner, not
only as a driving force, but also as a regulating spring. The
going of such clocks was influenced greatly by friction and by
the oil on the parts, and never could be satisfactory, for the time
varied with every variation in the swing of the balls, and this
again with every variation of the effective
( driving force.

The first great step in the improvement of
the balance clock was a very simple one. In
the i7th century Galileo had discovered the
isochronism of the pendulum, but he made
no practical use of it, except by the invention
of a little instrument for enabling doctors to
count their patients' pulse-beats. His son,
however, is supposed to have applied the
pendulum to clocks. There is at the Victoria
FIG. 2. Galileo s an( j Albert Museum a copy of an early clock,
said to be Galileo's, in which the pins on a
rotating wheel kick a pendulum outwards, remaining locked after
having done so till the pendulum returns and unlocks the next
pin, which then administers another kick to the pendulum (fig. 2).
The interest of the specimen is that it contains the germ of the

chronometer escapement and free pendulum, which is possibly
destined to be the escapement of the future.
The essential component parts of a clock are:

1. The pendulum or time-governing device;

2. The escapement, whereby the pendulum controls the speed
of going;

3. The train of wheels, urged round by the weight or main-
spring, together with the recording parts, i.e. the dial, hands
and hour motion wheels;

4. The striking mechanism.

The general construction of the going part of all clocks, except
large or turret clocks, is substantially the same, and fig. 3 is a
section of any or-
dinary house clock.
B is the barrel with
the cord coiled round
it, generally 16 times
for the 8 days; the
barrel is fixed to its
arbor K. which is
prolonged into the
winding square com-
ing up to the face
or dial of the clock;
the dial is here
shown as fixed either
by small screws x,
or by a socket and
pin 2, to the pro-
longed pillars p, p,
which (4 or 5 in
number) connect the
plates or frame of
the clock together,
though the dial is
commonly set on to
the front plate by
another set of pillars
of its own. The great
wheel G rides on the
arbor, and is con-
nected with the
barrel by the ratchet
R, the action of
which is shown more
fully in fig. 25. The
intermediate wheel r

FIG. 3. Section of House Clock.

in this drawing is for a purpose which will be described hereafter,
and for the present it may be considered as omitted, and the click
of the ratchet R as fixed to the great wheel. The great wheel
drives the pinion c which is called the centre pinion, on the arbor
of the centre wheel C, which goes through to the dial, and carries
the long, or minute-hand; this wheel always turns in an hour,
and the great wheel generally in 12 hours, by having 12 times
as many teeth as the centre pinion. The centre wheel drives
the " second wheel " D by its pinion d, and that again drives
the scape-wheel E by its pinion e. If the pinions d and e have
each 8 teeth or leaves (as the teeth of pinions are usually called),
C will have 64 teeth and D 60, in a clock of which the scape-
wheel turns in a minute, so that the seconds hand may be set
on its arbor prolonged to the dial. A represents the pallets of
the escapement, which will be described presently, and their
arbor a goes through a large hole in the back plate near F, and
its back pivot turns in a cock OFQ screwed on to the back plate.
From the pallet arbor at F descends the crutch F/, ending in
the fork f, which embraces the pendulum P, so that as the
pendulum vibrates, ths crutch and the pallets necessarily vibrate
with it. The pendulum is hung by a thin spring S from the cock
Q, so that the bending point of the spring may be just opposite
the end of the pallet arbor, and the edge of the spring as close
to the end of that arbor as possible.
We may now go to the front (or left hand) of the clock, and

CLOCK

describe the dial or " motion-work." The minute hand fits on
to a squared end of a brass socket, which is fixed to the wheel
M, and fits close, but not tight, on the prolonged arbor of the
centre wheel. Behind this wheel is a bent spring which is (or
ought to be) set on the same arbor with a square hole (not a
round one as it sometimes is) in the middle, so that it must
turn with the arbor; the wheel is pressed up against this spring,
and kept there, by a cap and a small pin through the end of the
arbor. The consequence is, that there is friction enough between
the spring and the wheel to carry the hand round, but not
enough to resist a moderate push with the finger for the purpose
of altering the time indicated. This wheel M, which is sometimes
called the minute-wheel, but is better called the hour-wheel as
it turns in an hour, drives another wheel N, of the same number
of teeth, which has a pinion attached to it; and that pinion
drives the twelve-hour wheel H, which is also attached to a large
socket or pipe carrying the hour hand, and riding on the former
socket, or rather (in order to relieve the centre arbor of that
extra weight) on an intermediate socket fixed to the bridge L,
which is screwed to the front plate over the hour-wheel M. The
weight W, which drives the train and gives the impulse to the
pendulum through the escapement, is generally hung by a
catgut line passing through a pulle}' attached to the weight,
the other end of the cord being tied to some convenient, place
in the clock frame or seat-board, to which it is fixed by screws
through the lower pillars.

Pendulum. Suppose that we have a body P (fig. 4) at rest,
and. that it is material, that is to say, has " mass." And for
simplicity let us consider it a ball of
some heavy matter. Let it be free
P to move horizontally, but attached
F IG - 4- to a fixed point A by means of a

spring. As it can only move horizontally and not fall, the
earth's gravity will be unable to impart any motion to it.
Now it is a law first discovered by Robert Hooke (1635-1703)
that if any elastic spring be pulled by a force, then, within its
elastic limits, the amount by which it will be extended is propor-
tional to the force. Hence then, if a body is pulled out against
a spring, the restitutional force is proportional to the displace-
ment. If the body be released it will tend to move back to its
initial position with an acceleration proportioned to its mass and
to its distance from rest. A body thus circumstanced moves with
harmonic motion, vibrating like a stretched piano string, and the
peculiarity of its motion is that it is isochronous. That is to say,
the time of returning to its initial position is the same, whether
it makes a large movement at a high velocity under a strong
restitutional force, or a small movement at a lower velocity under
a smaller restitutional force (see MECHANICS) . In consequence of
this fact the balance wheel of a watch is isochronous or nearly
so, notwithstanding variations in the amplitude of its vibrations.
It is like a piano string which sounds the same note, although the
sound dies away as the amplitude of its vibrations diminishes.

A pendulum is isochronous for similar reasons. If the bob be
drawn aside from D to C (fig. 5), then the restitutional force
tending to bring it back to rest is ap-
proximately the force which gravitation
would exert along the tangent CA, i.e.

. _, lr BC displacement BC
g COS ACW= gQC = length of pendulum'

Since g is constant, and the length of the
pendulum does not vary, it follows that
when a pendulum is drawn aside through
a small arc the force tending to bring it
back to rest is proportional to the dis-
placement (approximately). Thus the
pendulum bob under the influence of
gravity, if the arc of swing is small, acts
as though instead of being acted on by gravity it was acted on
by a spring tending to drag it towards D, and therefore is
isochronous. The qualification " If the arc of swing is small " is
introduced because, as was discovered by Christiaan Huygens,
the arc of vibration of a truly isochronous pendulum should

mat is, at

as iv. niso x =
ds Idx

MP v*(2/-*)'
i

*.i\A

V2g(F-^*)
dx I

-5V i

-<ix(p-x) V I -X/2l

not be a circle with centre 0, but a cycloid DM, generated by
the rolling of a circle with diameter DQ = JOD, upon a straight
line QM. However, for a short distance near the bottom, the
circle so nearly coincides with the cycloid that a pendulum
swinging in the usual circular path is,

for small arcs, isochronous for practical
purposes.

The formula representing the time of
oscillation of a pendulum, in a circular arc,
is thus found: Let OB (fig. 6) be the
pendulum, B be the position from which
the bob is let go, and P be its position at
some period during its swing. Put FC = A,
and MC x, and OB=/. Now when a
body is allowed to move under the force
of gravity in any path from a height h,
the velocity it attains is the same as a body would attain falling
freely vertically through the distance h. Whence if t> be the
velocity of the bob at P, w = V2gFM = -*J 2g(h x). Let Pp = ds, and
the vertical distance of p below P=dx, then Pp = ve\ocity at PXdt;

Expanding the second part we have

If this is integrated between the limits of o and h, we have

where / is the time of swing from B to A. The terms after the second
may be neglected. The first term, IT V II g, is the time of swing in a
cycloid. The second part represents the addition necessary if the
swing is circular and not cycloidal, and therefore expresses the
" circular error." Now ;j = BC 2 // = 2*-W/36o 2 , where 6 is half the
angle of swing expressed in degrees; hence h/8l = 0V52 520, and the

formulabecomes / = *

Hence the ratio of the time of swing of an ordinary pendulum of any
length, with a semiarc of swing =0 degrees is to the time of swing
of a corresponding cycloidal pendulum as 1+6^/52520:1. Also
the difference of time of swing caused by a small increase 0' in the
semiarc of swing = 209752520 second per second, or 3-300' seqonds
per day. Hence in the case of a seconds pendulum whose semiarc
of swing is 2 an increase of -1 in this semiarc of 2 would cause
the clock to lose 3-3X2X0-1 = -66 second a day.

Huygens proposed to apply his discovery to clocks, and since the
evolute of a cycloid is an equal cycloid, he suggested the use of a
flexible pendulum swinging between cycloidal cheeks. But this was
only an example of theory pushed too far, because the friction on the
cycloidal cheeks involves more error than they correct, and other
disturbances of a higher degree of importance are left uncorrected.
In fact the application of pendulums to clocks, though governed
in the abstract by theory, has to be modified by experiment.

Neglecting the circular error, if L be the length of a pendulum and
g the acceleration of gravity at the place where the pendulum
is, then T, the time of a single vibration = 7rV(L/g). From this
formula it follows that the times of vibration of pendulums are
directly proportional to the square root of their lengths, and in-
versely proportional to the square root of the acceleration of gravity
at the place where the pendulum is swinging. The value of g for
London is 32-2 ft. per second per second, whence it results that the
length of a pendulum for London to beat seconds of mean solar
time = 39-i4 in. nearly, the length of an astronomical pendulum to
beat seconds of sidereal time being 38-87 in.

This length is calculated on the supposition that the arc of swing
is cycloidal and that the whole mass of the pendulum is concentrated
at a point whose distance, called the radius of oscillation, from the
point of suspension of the pendulum is 39- 14 in. From this it might
be imagined that if a sphere, say of iron, were suspended from a light
rod, so that its centre were 39-14 in. below its point of support, it
would vibrate once per second. This, however, is not the case. For
as the pendulum swings, the ball also tends to turn in space to and
fro round a horizontal axis perpendicular to the direction of its
motion. Hence the force stored up in the pendulum is expended,
not only in making it swing, but also in causing the ball to oscillate
to and fro through a small angle about a horizontal axis. We have
therefore to consider not merely the vibrations of the rod, but the.
oscillations of the bob. The moment of the momentum of the system
round the point of suspension, called its moment of inertia, is com-
posed of the sum of the mass of each particle multiplied into the
square of its distance from the axis of rotation. Hence the moment

CLOCK

539

of inertia of the body I=2(ma 2 ). If k be defined by the relation
S(ma s )=S(m)X 2 , then Miscalled the radius of gyration. If A be the
radius of gyration of a bob round a horizontal axis through its centre
of gravity, h the distance of its centre of gravity below its point of
suspension, and k' the radius of gyration of the bob round the centre
of suspension, then k'* = h*+k i . If / be the length of a simple pen-
dulum that oscillates in the same time, then lh = k' i = h*+k*. Now
k can be calculated if we know the form of the bob, and / is the length
of the simple pendulum =39-14 in.; hence h, the distance of the
centre of gravity of the bob below the point of suspension, can be
found.

In an ordinary pendulum, with a thin rod and a bob, this distance
A is not very different from the theoretical length, /=3g-i4 in., of
a simple theoretical pendulum in which the rod has no weight and
the bob is only a single heavy point. For the effect of the weight
of the rod is to throw the centre of oscillation a little above the centre
of gravity of the bob, while the effect of the size of the bob is to
throw the centre of oscillation a little down. In ordinary practice
it is usual to make the pendulum so that the centre of gravity is
about 39 in. below the upper free end of the suspension spring and
leave the exact length to be determined by
trial.

Since T = irV L/g, we have, by differentiating,
<2L/L = 2<fT/T, that is, any small percentage of
Regula- increase in L will correspond to
tloo. double the percentage of increase in

T. Therefore with a seconds pen-
dulum, in order to make a second's difference in
a day, equivalent to 1/86,400 of the pendulum's
rate of vibration, since there are 86,400 seconds
in 24 hours, we must have a difference of length
amounting to 2/86,400 = 1/43,200 of the length
of the rod. This is 39- 138/43,200 = -000906 in.
Hence if under the pendulum bob be put a nut
working a screw of 32 threads to the inch and
having its head divided into 30 parts, a turn
of this nut through one division will alter the
length of the pendulum by -0009 in. and change
the rate of the clock by about a second a day.
To accelerate the clock the nut has always to
be turned to the right, or as you would drive
in a corkscrew and vice versa. But in astrono-
mical and in large turret clocks, it is desirable
to avoid stopping or in any way disturbing the
pendulum; and for the finer adjustments other
methods of regulation are adopted. The best
is that of fixing a collar, as shown in fig. 7 at C,
about midway down the rod, capable of having
very small weights laid upon it, this being the
place where the addition of any small weight
produces the greatest effect, and where, it may
be added, any moving of that weight up or
down on the rod produces the least effect. If
M is the weight of the pendulum and I its
length (down to the centre of oscillation), and
m a small weight added at the distance n
below the centre of suspension or above the
c.o. (since they are reciprocal), / the time of
vibration, and -dt the acceleration due to
adding m ; then

-dt m In n*\ .

/ ^--Section = 2M \T j) '

of Westminster

Clock Pendulum. from which it is evident that if n=l/2, then
dt/t = ml8M. But as there are 86400 seconds
in a day, <fT, the daily acceleration, =86400 dt, or 10800 m/M,
or if m is the loSooth of the weight of the pendulum it will
accelerate the clock a second a day, or 10 grains will do that
on a pendulum of 15 Ib weight (7000 gr. being =i ft.), or an
ounce on a pendulum of 6 cwt. In like manner if n=//3 from
either top or bottom, m must =M/72OO to accelerate the clock a
second a day. The higher up the collar the less is the risk of disturb-
ing the pendulum in putting on or taking off the regulating weights,
but the bigger the weight required to produce the effect. The weights
should be made in a series, and marked }, J, I, 2, according to the
number of seconds a day by which they will accelerate; and the
pendulum adjusted at first to lose a little, perhaps a second a day,
when there are no weights on the collar, so that it may always have
some weight on, which can be diminished or increased from time
to time with certainty, as the rate may vary.

The length of pendulum rods is also affected by temperature and
also, if they are made of wood, by damp. Hence, to ensure good
time-keeping qualities in a clock, it is necessary (i ) to make
the rods of materials that are as little affected by such

Com-
pensation.

influences as possible, and (2) to provide means of com-
pensation by which the effective length of the rod is kept constant
in spite of expansion or contraction in the material of which it is
composed. Fairly good pendulums for ordinary use may be made
out of very well dried wood, soaked in a thin solution of shellac
in spirits of wine, or in melted paraffin wax; but wood shrinks in

so uncertain a manner that such pendulums are not admissible for
clocks of high exactitude. Steel is an excellent material for pen-
dulum rods, for the metal is strong, is not stretched by the weight
of the bob, and does not suffer great changes in molecular structure
m the course of time. But a steel rod expands on the average
lineally by -0000064 of its length for each degree F. by which its
temperature rises; hence an expansion of -00009 in. on a pendulum
rod of 39-14 in., that is -000023 of its length, will be caused by an
increase of temperature of about 4 F., and that is sufficient to make
the clock lose a second a day. Since the summer and winter tem-
peratures of a room may differ by as much as 50 F., the going of a
clock may thus be affected by an error of 12 seconds a day. With a
pendulum rod of brass, which has a coefficient of expansion of
ooooi, a clock might gain one-third of a minute daily in winter as
compared with its rate in summer. The coefficients of linear ex-
pansion per degree F. of some other materials used in making pen-
dulums are as follows: white deal, -0000024; flint glass, -0000048;
iron, -000007; lead, -000016; zinc, -000016; and mercury, -000033.
The solid or cubical expansions of these bodies are three times the ,
above quantities respectively.

The first method of compensating a pendulum was invented in
1722 by George Graham, who proposed to use a bob of mercury,
taking advantage of the high coefficient of expansion of that metal.
As now employed, the mercurial pendulum consists of a rod of steel
terminating in a stirrup of the same metal on which rests a glass
vessel full of mercury, having its centre of gravity about 39 in. below
the point of suspension of the pendulum. For each Fahrenheit
degree of temperature the centre of gravity of the bob is lowered
by the expansion of the rod about rfn of an inch. The glass vessel
and the mercury in it have therefore to be so contrived, that their
centre of gravity will rise jAo in. per degree F. The glass having a
small coefficient of expansion, the lateral expansion of the mercury
will be checked by it, and this will help to raise the column. For
the linear coefficient of expansion of glass is -0000048 per degree F.,
whence the sectional area of a glass vessel increases by -0000096 per
degree F., and theretore the coefficient of yertica,! expansion of a
column of mercury whose volumetric expansion coefficient is -oooi
per degree F. is (-0001 -0000096) = -0000904. Let * be the height
of the vessel necessary to compensate a steel rod upon the bottom
of which it rests. Then, the coefficient of expansion of steel being
0000066 per degree F., we have

-(0000904 -0000066) = -0000066X39- 14, whence je = 6} in.

[t must, however, be remembered that the glass jar has some weight
and that it does not rise by anything like the amount of the mercury.
This tends to keep the centre of gravity down. So that the height
of mercury of 6j in. will not be sufficient to effect the compensation,
and about 6J to 7 in. will be required. Some authors specify 7 in.;
:his is when the diameter of the jar is small. A certain amount of
negative compensation must also be deducted to allow for the
changes of temperature in the air, as will presently be seen; this
amounts in the case of mercury to about J in.

In consequence of the complication of all these calculations it is
usual to allow about 6J to 7 in. of mercury in the glass vessel and to
adjust the exact amount of mercury by trial.

Another very good form of mercurial pendulum was proposed by
E. J. Dent; it consists of a cast-iron jar into the top of which the
steel pendulum rod is screwed, having its end plunged into the
mercury contained in the jar. By this means the mercury, jar and
rod rapidly acquire the same temperature. This pendulum is less
likely to break than the form just described. The depth of mercury
required in an iron jar is stated by Lord Grimthorpe to be 8J to 9 in.
The reason why it is greater than it is when a glass jar is employed
is that iron has a larger coefficient of expansion than glass, and that
it is also heavier. In all cases, however, of mercury pendulums
experiment seems to be the only ultimate test of the quantity of
mercury required, for the results are so complicated by the behaviour
of the oil and the barometric errors that at its best the regulation
of a clock can only be ultimately a matter of scientifically guided
compromise. A small amount of compensation of a purely experi-
mental character is also allowed to compensate the changes which
temperature effects on the suspension spring. This is sometimes
made as much as J of the length correction.

As an alternative to the mercurial pendulum other systems have
been employed. The " gridiron " pendulum consists of a group of
alternate rods of steel and brass, so arranged that the expansion of
the brass acts upwards and counteracts that of the steel downwards.
It was invented in 1726 by John Harrison. Assuming that 9 rods
are used 5 of steel and 4 of brass their lengths may be as follows
From pin to pin: Centre steel rod 31-5 in.; 2 steel rods next the
centre 24-5 in.; 2 steel rods farthest from centre 29-5 in.; from
the lower end of outside steel rods to centre of bob 3 in.; total
39-5 in. Of the 4 brass rods the 2 outside ones are 26-87 in.; and
the two inside ones 22-25 in.; total 49-12 in. Thus the expansion
of 88J in. of steel is counteracted by the expansion of 49! in. of brass.
Everything depends, however, on the expansion coefficient of the
steel and brass employed, the requirement in every case being that
of total lengths of the brass and iron should be in proportion to the
inear coefficients of expansion of those metals. The above figures

540

CLOCK

are for a very soft brass and steel. Thos. Reid, with more ordinary
steel and brass, prescribed a ratio of 112 to 71, Lord Grimthorpe a
ratio of 100 to 61. It is absolutely necessary to put the actual rods
to be used for making the pendulum in a hot water bath, and
measure their expansions with a microscope.

John Smeaton, taking advantage of a far greater expansion co-
efficient of zinc as compared with brass, proposed to use a steel rod
with a collar at the bottom, on which rested a hard drawn zinc rod.
From this rod hung a steel tube to which the bob was attached.
The total length of the steel rod and of the steel tube down to the
centre of the bob was made to the total length of the zinc tube, in
the ratio of 5 to 2 (being the ratio of the expansions of zinc and steel) ;
for a 39- 14 in. pendulum we should therefore want a zinc tube equal in
length to f (39-14) =26$ in. In practice the zinc tube is made about
27 in. long, and then gradually cut down by trial. In fact the weight
of a heavy pendulum squeezes the zinc, and it is impossible by mere
theory to determine what will be its behaviour. The zinc tube must
be of rolled zinc, hard drawn through a die, and must not be cast.
Ventilating holes must be made in suitable places in the steel tube
and the collar on which it rests, to ensure that changes of temperature
are rapidly communicated throughout the system.

A pendulum with a rod of dry varnished deal is tolerably com-
pensated by a bob of lead or of zinc loj to 13 in. in height, resting
on a nut at the bottom of the rod.

The old methods of pendulum compensation for heat may now
be considered as superseded by the invention of " invar," a com-
lavar. bination of nickel and steel, due to Charles E. Guillaume,
of the International Office of Weights and Measures at
Sevres near Paris. This alloy has a linear coefficient of expansion
on the average of oooooi per degree centigrade, that is to say, only
about j 1 ! that of ordinary steel. Hence it can be easily compensated
by means of brass, lead or any other suitable metal. Brass is
usually employed. In the invar pendulum introduced into Great
Britain by Mr Agar Baugh a departure is made from the previous
practice of merely calculating the length of the compensator, fasten-
ing it to the lower part of the pendulum, and attaching it to the
centre of the bob. In the case of these pendulums, accurate com-
putations are made of the moments of inertia of every separate
individual part. Thus, for instance, since an addition of volume
due to the effect of heat to the upper part of the bob has a different
effect upon the moment of inertia from that of an equal quantity
added to the lower part of the bob, the bob is suspended not from
its centre, but from a point about ^ in. below it, the distance varying
according to the shape of the bob, so that the heat expansion of the
bob may cause its centre of gravity to rise and compensate the effect
of its increased moment of inertia. Again the suspension spring
is measured for isochronism, and an alloy of steel prepared for it
which does not alter its elasticity with change of temperature.
Moreover, since rods of invar steel subjected to strain do not acquire
their final coefficients of expansion and elasticity for some time,
the invar is artificially " aged " by exposure to strain and heat.

These considerations serve as a guide in arranging for the com-
pensation of the expansion of the rod and bob due to change of
temperature. But they are not the only ones required; we have
also to deal with changes due to the density of the air in which the
pendulum is moving. A body suspended in a fluid loses in weight
by an amount equal to the weight of the fluid displaced, whence it
follows that a pendulum suspended in air has not the weight which
ought truly to correspond to its mass. M remains constant while
Mg is less than in a vacuum. If the density of the air remained
constant, this loss of weight, being constant, could be allowed for
and would make no difference to the time-keeping. The period of
swing would only be a little increased over what it would be in vacuo.
But the weight of a given volume of air varies both with the baro-
metric pressure and also with temperature. If the bob be of type
metal it weighs less in air than in a vacuum by about -000103 part,
and for each i F. rise in temperature (the barometer remaining con-
stant and therefore the pressure remaining the same), the variation
of density causes the bob to gain -00000024 of its weight. This, of
course, makes the pendulum go quicker. Since the time of vibration
varies as the inverse square root of g, it follows that a small increment
of weight, the mass remaining constant, produces a diminution of
one half that increment in time of swing. Hence, then, a rise of
temperature of i F. will produce a diminution in the time of swing
of -ooooooizth part or -0104 second in a day. But in making this
calculation it has been assumed that the mass moved remains
unaltered by the temperature. This is not so. A pendulum when
swinging sets in motion a volume of air dependent on the size of the
bob, but in a 10 ft bob nearly equal to its own volume. Hence
while the rise of 1 of temperature increases the weight by
ooooooi2th part, it also decreases the mass by about the same
proportion, and therefore the increase of period due to a rise of
temperature of 1 F. will, instead of being -0104 second a day, be
about -02 second. This must be compensated negatively by

lengthening the pendulum by about -^^ in. for each degree of rise

of temperature, which will require a piece of brass about 2 in. long.
It follows, therefore, that with an invar rod having a linear expansion
coefficient of -0000002 per degree F., which requires a piece of
brass about -8 in. long to compensate it, the compensation which

is to regulate both the expansion of the rod and also that of the air
must be -8 in.-2 in., or -1-2 in.; so that the bob must be hung
downwards from a piece of brass nearly ij in. in length. If the co-
efficient of expansion of the invar were -00000053 per degree F.,
then the two corrections, one for the expansion of the rod and the
other for the expansion of the air, would just neutralize one another,
and the pendulum rod would require no compensator at all. There
are a number of other refinements which might be added, but which
are too long for insertion he;e. By taking in all the sources of error
of higher orders, it has been possible to calculate a pendulum so
accurately that, when the clock is loaded with the weight sufficient
to give the pendulum the arc of swing for which it is designed, a rate
of error has been produced of only half a minute in a year. These
refinements, however, are only required for clocks of precision;
for ordinary clocks an invar pendulum with a lead bob and brass
compensator is quite sufficient.

Invar pendulum rods are often made of steel with coefficients of
expansion of about -0000012 linear per I* C. ; such a bob as this
would require about 6-7 cm. of brass to compensate it, and, deduct-
ing 5 cm. of brass for the air compensation, this leaves about 1-7 cm.
of positive compensation for the pendulum. But as has been said,
the exact deduction depends on the shape and size of the bob, and
the metal of which it is made. The diameters of the rods are 8 mm.
for a 15 ft bob, 5 mm. for a 4 Ib bob, and 12 to 15 mm. for a 60 ft
bob. The bob is either a single cylinder or two cylinders with the
rod between them. Lenticular and spherical bobs are not used.
The great object is to allow the air ready access to all parts of the
rod and compensator, so that they are all heated or cooled simul-
taneously. The bobs are usually made of a compound of lead,
antimony, and tin, which forms a hard metal, free from bubbles
and with a specific gravity of about 10. The usual weight of the bobs
of the best pendulums for an ordinary astronomical clock is about
15 ft. A greater weight than this is found liable to make the
support of the pendulum rock and to put an undue strain on the
parts, without any corresponding advantage. The rods used are all
artificially aged, and have their heat expansion measured. No
adjusting screw at the bottom is provided, the regulation being done
by the addition of weights half way up the rod. An adjusting screw
at the bottom has the disadvantage that it is impossible to know
on which of the threads the rod is really resting; hence extra com-
pensation may be introduced when not required. It is considered
better that the supports of the bob should be rigid and invariable.

The effect of changes in the pressure of the air as shown by a
barometer is too important to be omitted in the design of a good
clock. But we do not propose to give more than a mere Baro-
indication of the principles which govern compensation metrical
for this effect, since the full discussion of the problem error.
would be too protracted. We have seen that the action
of the air in affecting the time of oscillation of a pendulum depends
chiefly on the fact that its buoyancy makes the pendulum lighter,
so that while the mass of the bob which has to be moved remains the
same or nearly the same, the acceleration of gravity on it has less
effect. A volume of air at ordinary temperature and pressure has,
as has been said, -000103 the weight of an equal volume of type
metal, whence it follows that the acceleration of gravity on a type
metal bob in air is -999897 of the acceleration of gravity on the bob
in vacuo. If, therefore, we diminish the value of g in the formula
T = jrVL7g by -000103, we shalj have the difference of time of
vibration of a type metal bob in air, as compared with its time
in vacua, and this, by virtue of the principle used when discussing
the increase of time of oscillation due to increased pendulum lengths,
is j(-oooiO3) second in one second, or about <jj seconds in a day
of 86,400 seconds. It follows that a barometric pressure of 30 in.
causes a loss of 4^ seconds in the day, equivalent 10-15 second per
day for each inch of difference of the barometer. But, as has already
been explained, the effect of the mass of the air transported with the
pendulum must also be taken into account and therefore the above
figures must be doubled or nearly doubled. A difference of 30 in.
of barometric pressure would thus make a difference of 9 seconds
per day in the rate of the pendulum, and the clock would lose about
J of a second a day for each inch of rise of the barometer, the result
being of the same magnitude as would be produced by a fall of
temperature of 15 F. in the air. Either of these effects would
require a shortening of the pendulum of mJVu in. This estimate
is not far from the truth, for observations taken at various European
observatories on various clocks, and collected by Jakob Hilnker,
give a mean of -15 second of retardation per day per centimetre of
barometric pressure, or -37 second per day for each inch rise of the
barometer.

In order to counteract variations in going which must thus
obviously be produced by variations of barometrical pressure,
attempts have been made purposely to disturb the isochronism of the
pendulum, by making the arcs of vibration abnormally large.
Again, the bob has been fitted with a piece of iron, which is subjected
to the attraction of a piece of magnetized steel floating on the mercury
in the open end of a barometer tube, so that when the barometer falls
the attraction is increased and the pendulum retarded. Again,
mercury barometers have been attached to pendulums. A simple
method is to fix an aneroid barometer with about seven compart-
ments on the pendulum about 5 to 6 in. below the suspension spring,

CLOCK

and to attach to the top of it a suitable weight which is lowerec
as the barometric pressure increases. One of the best methods o
neutralizing the effects of variations of barometric pressure is t
enclose the whole clock in an air-tight case, which may either be L
large glass cylinder or a square case with a stout plate-glass front
This renders it independent of outside variations, whether of tern
perature or pressure, and keeps the density of the air inside the case
uniform. If the case could be completely, or almost completely
exhausted of air, and kept so exhausted, of course the pendulum
would experience the minimum of resistance and would have to be
lengthened a little. But in practice it is impossible to secure the
maintenance of a good vacuum without sealing up the case in sue!
a way as to render repairs very difficult, and this plan is therefore
rarely resorted to. What is usually done is to put the clock in a meta
case covered with a thick sheet of plate glass bedded in india-rubbe
strips, and held down by an iron flanged lid or frame firmly fixei
by means of small bolts. An air-pump is attached to the case, a
turn-off tap being inserted, and by a few strokes the pressure of the
air inside the case can be lowered to (say) 29 in., or a little below
the usual barometric height at the place where the clock is. Th<
difference of pressure being small, the tendency of air from outside
to leak in is also small, and if the workmanship is good the inside
pressure will remain unaltered for many days. In any case the
difference produced by leakage will be small, and will not greatly
affect the going of the clock. With care, and a daily or weekly touch
of the pump, the pressure inside can be kept practically constant
and hence the atmospheric error will be eliminated. The cover has
also incidentally the effect of keeping damp and fumes from the
clock and thus preserving it from rust, especially if a vessel with
quicklime or some hygroscopic material be put in the case.

Cases have considerable effect on the air, which moves with a
pendulum and is flung off from it at each vibration; the going rate
of a chronometer can be altered by removing the case. It is therefore
desirable that cases enclosing pendulums should be roomy. Many

Cple prefer to omit the air-tight case, and to keep a record 01
ometric, thermometric and hygrometric changes, applying correc-
tions based on these to the times shown by the clock.

It was formerly usual to suspend pendulums by means of a single
spring about J in. wide riveted with chops of metal. The upper chop
Susoea- nac * a P' n driven through it, which rested in grooves
sloa of so as to a " ow tne pendulum to hang vertically. The
pendulums. ' )es . lt modern pendulums are now made with two parallel
springs put a little less than an inch apart. The edges pi
the chops where the springs enter are slightly rounded so as to avoid
too sharp bending of the springs. Suspension of pendulums on knife
edges was tried by B. L. Vulliamy and others, but did not prove
a success.

_ It was once thought that lenticular pendulum bobs resisted the
air less than those of other shapes, but it was forgotten that their
large surface offered more " skin friction." They are now no longer
used, nor are spheres on account of difficulty of construction. A
cylinder is the best form of bob; it is sometimes rounded at the
top and bottom.

Escapements. The term escapement is applied to any arrange-
ment by which, as the wheels rotate, periodic impulses are given
to the pendulum, while at the same time the motion of the wheels
is arrested until the vibration of the pendulum has been com-
pleted. It thus serves as a mechanism for both counting and
impelling. Since the vibrations of a pendulum through small
arcs are performed in times independent of the length of the arc,
it follows that if a pendulum hanging at rest receive an impulse
it will swing out and in again, and the time of its excursion
outwards and of its return will remain the same whatever
(within limits) be the arc of the swing, and whatever be the
impulse given to it. If the impulse is big, it starts with a high
velocity, but makes a larger excursion outwards, and the distance
it has to travel counteracts its increase of speed, so that its time
remains the same. Hence a pendulum, if free to swing outwards
and in again, without impediment, will adapt the length of its
swing to the impulse it has received, and any interference with
it, as by the locking or unlocking of the escapement, will be far
less deleterious to its isochronism when such interference occurs
at the middle of its path rather than at the ends. It follows that
the best escapement will be one which gives an impulse to the
pendulum for a short period at the lowest point of its path, and
then leaves it quite free to move as it chooses until the time comes
for the next impulse.

But a pendulum is not quite truly isochronous, and has its
time slightly affected by an increase of its arc; it is therefore
desirable that the impulses given to it shall always be equal. If
the escapement forms the termination of a clock-train impelled
by a weight, the driving force of the escapement is apt to vary

escape-
meat.

according to the friction of the wheels, while every change in
temperature causes a difference in the thickness of the oil. It
is therefore desirable, if possible, to secure uniformity of impulse
say, by causing the train of wheels to lift up a certain specified
weight, and let it drop on the pendulum at regular intervals,
or by some equivalent method.

The two requirements above stated have given rise respectively
to what are known as detached escapements, and remontoires,
which will be described presently. In the first place, however, it
is desirable to describe the principal forms of escapement in
ordinary use.

The balance escapement, which has been already mentioned,
was in use before the days of pendulums. It was to a
balance escapement that Huygens applied the pendulum,
by removing the weight from one arm and increasing the
length of the other arm.

Very shortly afterwards R. Hooke invented the anchor or recoil
escapement. This is represented in fig. 8, where a tooth of the escape-
wheel is just escaping from the right pallet, and another
tooth at the same time falls upon the left-hand pallet at
some distance from its point. As the pendulum moves on
in the same direction, the tooth slides farther up the pallet,
thus producing a recoil, as in the crown-wheel escapement. The act-
ing faces of the pallets should
be convex. For when they are
flat, and of course still more
when they are concave, the
points of the teeth always wear
a hole_ in the pallets at the
extremity of their usual swing,
and the motion is obviously
easier and therefore better when
the pallets are made convex;
in fact, they then approach
more nearly to the dead "
escapement, which will be de-
scribed presently. The effect
of some escapements is not
only to counteract the circular
error, or the natural increase
of the time of a pendulum as
the arc increases, but to over-
balance it by an error of
the contrary kind. The recoil
escapement does so; for it is
almost invariably found that
whatever may be the shape of
these pallets, the clock loses as
the arc of the pendulum falls
off, and vice versa. It is unfortunately impossible so to arrange
:he pallets that the circular error may be thus exactly neutralized,
Because the escapement error depends, in a manner reducible to no
aw, upon variations in friction of the pallets themselves and of
:he clock train, which produce different effects; and the result
s that it is impossible to
>btain very accurate time-
ceeping from any clock of this
construction. The point in
which the anchor escapement
was superior to all that had
gone before, was that it would
work well with a small arc of
swing of the pendulum. The
jalance escapement, even when
idapted to a pendulum, neces
itated a swing of some 20,
and hence the circular error,
hat is to say, the deviation of
he path from a true cycloid,
was considerable. But with an
mchor escapement the pendu-
um swing need be only 3
ir 4. On the other hand, it
iolates the conditions above
aid down for a perfect escape-
ment, inasmuch as the pendu-
um is never free, but at the
nd of its swing is still operated
n by the escapement, which it
auses to recoil.

FIG. 8. Anchor or Recoil Escape-
ment.

FIG. 9. Dead Escapement.

To get rid of this defect the dead escapement, or, as the French call
, rtchappement d, repos, was invented by G. Graham. It is _ .
epresented in fig. p. It will be observed that the teeth
f the scape-wheel have their points set the opposite way
o those of the recoil escapement. The tooth B is here
epresented in the act of dropping on to the right-hand pallet as the

542

CLOCK

tooth A escapes from the left pallet. But instead of the pallet having
a continuous face as in the recoil escapement, it is divided into two,
of which BE on the right pallet, and FA on the left, are called the
impulse faces, and BD,. FG, the dead faces. The dead faces are
portions of circles (not necessarily of the same circle), having the axis
of the pallets C for their centre; and the consequence evidently is,
that as the pendulum goes on, carrying the pallet still nearer to the
wheel than the position in which a tooth falls on to the corner A or
B of the impulse and the dead faces, the tooth still rests on the dead
faces without any recoil, until the pendulum returns and lets the
tooth slide down the impulse face, giving the impulse to the pendulum
as it goes. In order to diminish the friction and the necessity for
using oil as far as possible, the best clocks are made with jewels
(sapphires are the best for the purpose) let into the pallets.

The pallets are generally made to embrace about one-third of the
circumference of the wheel, and it is not at all desirable that they
should embrace more ; for the longer they are, the longer is the
run of the teeth upon them, and the greater the friction. In some
clocks the seconds hand moves very slowly and rests a very short
time; this shows that the impulse is long in proportion to the arc
of swing. In others the contrary is the case. A not uncommon
proportion is that out of a total arc of swing of 3, 2, or about one
degree on each side of the vertical, are occupied in receiving the
impulse. In other words, the points F and A should subtend an angle
of 2 at the centre C. It is not to be forgotten that the scape-wheel
tooth does not overtake the face of the pallet immediately, on
account of the moment of inertia of the wheel. The wheels of
astronomical clocks, and indeed of all English house clocks, arc
generally made too heavy, especially the scape-wheel, which, by
increasing the moment of inertia, causes a part of the work to be lost
in giving blows, instead of being all used up in gentle pushes.

A very useful form of the dead
escapement, which is adopted in
many of the best turret clocks,
is called the " 'pin- wheel escape-
ment." Fig. IO will sufficiently
explain its action and construc-
tion. Its advantages are that
it does not require so much
accuracy as the other; if a pin
gets broken it is easily replaced,
whereas in the other the wheel is
ruined if the point of a tooth is
injured; a wheel of given size
will work with more pins than
teeth, and therefore a train of
less velocity will do, and that
sometimes amounts to a saving
of one wheel in the train, and a
good deal of friction; and the
blow on both pallets being down-

FIG. io.-Pin-Whee. Escapement,

steady; all which things are of more consequence in the heavy and
rough work of a turret clock than in an astronomical one. It has
been found expedient to make the dead faces not quite dead, but
with a very slight recoil, which rather tends to check the variations
,of arc, and also the general disposition to lose time if the arc is
increased; when so made the escapement is generally called " half-
dead."

In the dead escapement, during each excursion of the pendulum
the repose surface of the pallets rubs against the points of the teeth
of the scape-wheel. Thus the pendulum is subject to a constant
retardation by friction. Curiously enough, this friction, which at
first sight might appear a defect, is an advantage, and to a large
extent accounts for the excellence of the escapement. For if the
driving force of the clock is increased so that the impulse on the
pallets is greater, the velocity of the pendulum is increased. But
this very increase of the driving force causes a greater pressure of
the teeth of the scape-wheel on the rest-faces of the pallets, apd
hence counteracts the increased drive of the pendulum by an in-
creased frictional retardation. If the clock weight be enormously
increased, the frictional retardation becomes increased relatively
in a greater proportion than the drive, so that as the weight of the
clock is increased the pendulum's time of vibration is first diminished,
until at last a neutral point is reached and finally the increased
loading of the clock weight begins to make the time of vibration
increase again. It is the neutral point which it is desirable to
arrange for, and only trial and experience can so fit the shape and
size of the pallets, scape-wheel and clock weight to one another,
as to secure that a moderate variation of the driving power neither
accelerates nor retards the motion of the pendulum, while at the
same time such an arc of vibration is secured as shall be least subject
to barometric error, and not have too great a circular error. The
celebrated clockmaker B. L. Vulliamy (1780-1854) greatly improved
Graham's escapement by careful experiment, and other makers
introduced further improvements into the shape of the scape-wheel
and pallets, so that the best form of the deadbeat escapement is
now fairly well determined and is given in books upon horology.
For small clocks a little slope is given to the rest-faces so as to

diminish the friction retardation. This is known as the half-dead
escapement. The pin-wheel escapement, if properly constructed,
is also " dead," that is to say, the outward swing of the pendulum
is unfettered except by the slight friction of the teeth against the
dead faces of the pallets.

In order to diminish the effect of the impact of the scape-wheel
on the pallets, and of the crutch on the pendulum rod, the plan has
been tried of making the crutch into an elastic spring. In theory
this of course would not destroy the isochronism of the pendulum,
for it would only be to apply upon the pendulum a. force at right
angles to the rod, and varying as the displacement. Hence any
acceleration given by such a spring would, like the action of gravity,
be harmonic, and it is an analytical principle that harmonic motions
superposed on one another still remain harmonic. Hence, then, the
action of a spring superadded upon the action of gravity on a pen-
dulum still leaves the motion harmonic. But changes of tempera-
ture would affect the spring considerably. In the case of such a
spring the repose faces of Graham's escapement might be minimized
and the escapement checked each side by a stop, so as to prevent the
pallets from rubbing on the points of the scape-wheel. Graham's
escapement can, if well made, be arranged so as not to vary more than
an average of jV of a second from its mean daily rate, and this is so
good a result that many people doubt whether further effort in the
direction of inventing new escapements will result in any better
form. Two adaptations of Graham's escapement have been made,

FIG. II. Riefler's Escapement.

one by Clemens Riefler of Nesselwang, and the other by L. Strasser
of Glashtitte, Saxony, which give good results in practice. Riefler's
scheme is to mount the upper block, into which the suspension
spring is fastened, upon knife edges, and rock it to and fro by the
action of a modified Graham's escapement, thus giving impulses
to the pendulum. Fig. n shows the arrangement. PP are the
agates upon which the knife edges CC rest. A is the anchor, RH
the scape-wheels, and S the pallets.

Strasser's clock is arranged on the same idea as that of Riefler, only
that the rocking motion is given, not to the springs that carry the
pendulum, but to a second pair of springs placed outside of them and
parallel to them. The weight of the pendulum is therefore carried
by an upper stationary block, but above that a second block is
subjected to the rocking motion of the anchor. The general design
is shown in fig. 12. The pallets are each formed of two stones, so
contrived as to minimize the banging of the teeth of the scape-wheel.
Both Riefler's and Strasser's clocks aim at haying a virtually free
pendulum; in fact, they are in reality adaptations of the principle
of the spring-clutch to Graham's escapement. The weak point in
both is the tampering with the suspension.

The dead escapement is not, however, truly free. In order to
make a free escapement it would be necessary to provide that as
soon as the pendulum approached its centre position, Detached
some pin or projecting point upon it should free the escaf>e .
escapement wheel, a tooth of which should thus be enabled meilt
to leap upon the back of the pendulum, give it a short
push, and then be locked until the pendulum had returned and again
swung forward. An arrangement of this kind is shown in fig. 13.
Let A be a block of metal fixed on the lower end of a pendulum rod.
On the block let a small pall B be fastened, free to move round a

CLOCK

543

centre C and resting against a stop D. Let E be a 4-leaved scape-
wheel, the teeth of which as they come round rest against the bent
pall GFL at G. The pall is prevented from flying too far back by
a pin H, and kept up to position by a very delicate spring K. As soon

FIG. 12. Strasser's Escapement (Strasser & Rohde).

as the pendulum rod, moving from left to right, has arrived at the
position shown in the figure, the pall B will engage the arm FL, force
it forwards, and by raising G will liberate the scape-wheel, a tooth
of which, M, will thus close upon the heel N of the block A, and urge
it forward. As soon, however, as N has arrived at G the tooth M
will slip off the block A and rest on the pall G, and the impulse will
cease. The pendulum is now perfectly free or " detached,' and can
swing on unimpeded as far as it chooses. On its return from right
to left, the pall B slips over the pall L without disturbing it, and the
pendulum is still free to make an excursion towards the left. On its
return journey from left to right the process is again repeated. Such
an escapement operates once every 2 seconds. One made on a some-
what similar plan was applied to a clock by Robert-Houdin, about
1830, and afterwards by Mr Haswell, and another by Sir George Airy.

FIG. 13. Free Escapement. FIG. 14. Free Escapement

(old form).

But the principle was alreadyan old one, as maybe seen from fig. 14,
which was the work of an anonymous maker in the l8th century.
A consideration of this escapement will show that it is only the
application of the detached chronometer escapement to a clock.

Even detached escapements, however, are not perfect. In order
that an escapement should be perfect, the impulse given to the pen-
dulum should be always exactly the same. It may be asked why,
if the time of oscillation of the pendulum be independent of the
amplitude of the arc of vibration, and hence of the impulse, it is
necessary that the impulse should be uniform. Theanwser is that
the arc of vibration not being a true cycloid, as it should be if true
isochronism is to be secured, but being the arc of a circle, any change
of amplitude of vibration produces a change of time in the swing given
by the formula |(a 2 & 2 )= loss in seconds per day, where a and b
are the semi-arcs of vibration estimated in degrees. Thus 10' in-
crease of arc in a swing of 4, that is to say, -I in. increase of arc in
a total arc of 2\ in., produces an error of about a second a day. Now
cold weather, by making the oil thick and thus clogging the wheels,
will easily produce such a change of arc; dust will also make a
change even though the clock weight, acted on by gravity, still
exerts a uniform pull. Besides, if the clock has work to do of a varying
amount as when the hands of a turret clock are acted on by a heavy
wind pressure tending sometimes to retard them, sometimes to drive
them on then it is clear that the impulses given by the scape-wheel
to the pendulum may be very unequal, and that the arc of vibration
of the pendulum may thus be seriously affected and its isochronism
disturbed.

To abolish errors arising from the changes in the force driving
the escapement, what is known as the " remontoire " system was
Kcmoa- adopted. It first came into use for watches, which was
tolre. perhaps natural, seeing that the driving force of a watch

is not a uniform weight like that of a clock, but depends
on springs, which are far less trustworthy. The idea of a remontoire

rtmoa-

luins.

is to disconnect the escapement from the clock train, and to give
the escapement a driving power of its own, acting as directly as
possible on the pallets without the intervention of a clock-train
containing many wheels. The escapement is thus as it were made
into a separate clock, which of course needs repeated winding, and
this winding is effected by the clock-train. From this it results that
variations in the force transmitted by the clock-train merely affect
the speed at which the " rewinding of the escapement is effected,
but do not affect the force exerted by the driving power of the
escapement.

There are several modes of carrying out this plan. The first of
them is simply to provide the scape-wheel with a weight or spring
of its own, which spring is wound up by the clock-tram tnla
as often as it runs down. Contrivances of this kind are
called train remontoires. In arranging such a remontoire
it is obvious that the clock-train must be provided with
a stop to prevent it from overwinding the scape-wheel weight or
spring, and further, that there must be on the scape-wheel some sort
of stud or other contrivance to release the clock-train as soon as the
scape-wheel weight or spring has run down and needs rewinding.
We believe the first maker of a large clock with a train remontoire
was Thomas Reid of Edinburgh, who described his apparatus in
his book on Horology (1819). The scape-wheel was driven by a small
weight hung by a Huygens's endless chain, of which one of the pulleys
was fixed to the arbor, and the other rode upon the arbor, with the
pinion attached to it, and the pinion was driven and the weight
wound up by the wheel below (which we will call the third wheel),
as follows. Assuming the scape-wheel to turn in a minute, its arbor
has a notch cut half through it on opposite sides in two places near
to each other; on the arbor of the wheel, which turns in ten minutes,
suppose, there is another wheel with 20 spikes sticking out of its
rim, but alternately in two different planes, so that one set of spikes
can only pass through one of the notches in the scape-wheel arbor,
and the other set only through the other. Whenever, then, the scape-
wheel completes a half-turn, one spike is let go, and the third wheel
is able to move, and with it the whole clock-train and the hands,
until the next spike of the other set is stopped by the scape-wheel
arbor; at the same time the pinion on that arbor is turned half
round, winding up the remontoire weight, but without taking its
pressure off the scape-wheel. Reid says that, so long as this appar-
atus was kept in good order, the clock went better than it did alter it
was removed in consequence of its getting out of order from the
constant banging of the spikes against the arbor.

A clock at the Royal Exchange, London, was made in 1844 on the
same principle, except that, instead of the endless chain, an internal
wheel was used, with the spikes set on it externally, which is one of
the modes by which an occasional secondary motion may be given
to a wheel without disturbing its primary and regular motion. The
following is a more simple arrangement of a gravity train remontoire,
much more frequently used in principle. Let E in fig. 15 be the
scape-wheel turning in a minute, and e its pinion, which is driven
by the wheel D having a pinion d driven by the wheel C, which we
may suppose to turn in an hour. The arbors of the scape-wheel and
hour-wheel are distinct, their pivots meeting in a bush fixed some-
where between the wheels. The pivots of the wheel D are set in the
frame AP, which rides on the arbors of the hour-wheel and scape-

FIG. 15. Gravity Train Remontoire.

wheel, or on another short arbor between them. The hour-wheel
also drives another wheel G, which again drives the pinion / on the
arbor which carries the two arms/ A, / B ; and on the same arbor is
set a fly with a ratchet, like a common striking fly, and the numbers
of the teeth are so arranged that the fly will turn once for each turn
of the scape-wheel. The ends of the remontoire arms / A, / B are
capable of alternately passing the notches cut half through the arbor
of the scape-wheel, as those notches successively come into the proper
position at the end of every half-minute; as soon as that happens
the hour-wheel raises the movable wheel D and its frame through
a small angle; but, nevertheless, that wheel keeps pressing on the
scape-wheel as if it were not moving, the point of contact of the
wheel C and the pinion d being the fulcrum or centre of motion of
the lever A d P. It will be observed that the remontoire arms / A,

544

CLOCK

/ B have springs set on them to diminish the blow on the scape-wheel
arbor, as it is desirable not to have the fly so large as to make the
motion of the train, and consequently of the hands, too slow to
be distinct.

Another kind of remontoire is on the principle of one bevelled
wheel lying between two others at right angles to it. The first
of the bevelled wheels is driven by the train, and the third is fixed
to the arbor of the scape-wheel; and the intermediate bevelled
wheel, of any size, rides on its arbor at right angles to the other two
arbors which are in the same line. The scape-wheel will evidently
turn with the same average velocity as the first bevelled wheel,
though the intermediate one may move up and down at intervals.
The transverse arbor which carries it is let off and lifted a little at
half-minute intervals, as in the remontoire just now described;
and it gradually works down as the scape-wheel turns under its
pressure, until it is freed again and lifted by the clock-train.

In all these gravity remontoires, however, only the friction of the
heavy parts of the train and the dial- work is got rid of, and the scape-
wheel is still subject to the friction of the remontoire wheels, which,
though much less than the other, is still something considerable.
Accordingly, attempts have frequently been made to drive the scape-
wheel by a spiral spring, like the mainspring of a watch. One of
these was described in the 7th edition of this encyclopaedia; and
Sir G. Airy invented another on the same principle, of which one
specimen is still going well. One of the best forms of such a remon-
toire is shown in fig. 16, in which A, B, D, E, e,/are the same things

as in fig. 15. But e, the scape

wheel pinion, is no longer fixed
to the arbor, nor does it ride
on the arbor, as had been the
case in all the previous spring
remontoires, thereby producing
probably more friction than was
saved in other respects; but it
rides on a stud k, which is set
in the clock frame. On the face
of the pinion is a plate, of which
the only use is to carry a pin h
(and consequently its shape is
immaterial), and in front of the
plate is set a bush b, with a hole
through it, of which half is
occupied by the end of the stud
, k, to which the bush is fixed by
a small pin, and the other half
is the pivot-hole for the scape-
wheel arbor. On the arbor is
set the remontoire spring s (a
moderate-sized musical-box
spring is generally used), of which
the outer end is bent into a loop
to take hold of the pin h. In
fact, there are two pins at h, one
a little behind the other, to keep
the coils of the spring from
touching each other. Now, it is
evident that the spring may be
wound up half or a quarter of a

-
FIG. 1 6. Spring Remontoire.

turn at the proper intervals without taking "the force off the scape-
wheel, and also without affecting it by any friction whatever. When
the scape-wheel turns in a minute, the letting-off would be done as
before described, by a couple of notches in the scape-wheel arbor,
through which the spikes A, B, as in fig. 15, would pass alternately.
During the half-minute that the spring is running down the impulse
on the pendulum constantly diminishes; but this error is small if
the spring be properly shaped, and besides, being periodic, does not
affect the average time-keeping of the clock. It would be inad-
missible in astronomical clocks where each particular second has
always to be true. In clocks with only three wheels in the train it
is best to make the scape-wheel turn in two minutes. In that case
four notches and four remontoire arms are required, and the fly
makes only a quarter of a turn. Lord Grimthorpe made the follow-
ing provision for diminishing the friction of the letting-off work.
The fly pinion /has only half the number of teeth of the scape- wheel
pinion, being a lantern pinion of 7 or 8, while the other is a leaved
pinion of 14 or 16, and therefore the same wheel D will properly
drive both, as will be seen hereafter. The scape-wheel arbor ends
in a cylinder about f in. in diameter, with two notches at right angles
cut in its face, one of them narrow and deep, and the other broad
and shallow, so that a long and thin pin B can pass only through
one, and a broad and short pin A through the other. Consequently,
at each quarter of a turn of the scape-wheel, the remontoire fly, on
which the pins A, B are set on springs, as in fig. 15, can turn half
round. It is set on its arbor/ by a square ratchet and click, which
enables the spring to be adjusted to the requisite tension to obtain
the proper vibration of the pendulum. A better construction,
afterwards introduced, is to make the fly separate from the letting-
off arms, whereby the blow on the cylinder is diminished, the fly
being allowed to go on as in the gravity escapement. It should be
observed, however, that even a spring remontoire requires a larger

weight than the same clock without one; but as none of that ad-
ditional force reaches the pendulum, that is of no consequence. The
variation of force of the remontoire spring from temperature, as it
only affects the pendulum through the medium of the dead escape-
ment, is far too small to produce any appreciable effect; and it is
found that clocks of this kind, with a compensated pendulum 8 ft.
long, and weighing about 2 cwt., will not vary above a second a month,
if the pallets are kept clean and well oiled. No turret clock without
either a train remontoire or a gravity escapement wilt approach that
degree of accuracy.

The introduction of this remontoire led to another very important
alteration in the construction of large clocks. Hitherto it had
always been considered necessary, with a view to diminish the
friction as far as possible, to make the wheels of brass or gun-metal,
with the teeth cut in an engine. The French clockmakers had begun
to use cast iron striking parts, and cast iron wheels had been oc-
casionally used in the going part of inferior clocks for the sake of
cheapness; but they had never been used in any clock making preten-
sions to accuracy. But in consequence of the success of a clock
shown in the 1851 Exhibition, it was determined by Sir G. Airy and
Lord Grimthorpe (then E. Denison), who were jointly consulted by the
Board of Works about the great Westminster clock in 1852, to alter the
original requisition for gun-metal wheels there to cast iron. But cast
iron wheels must drive cast iron pinions, for they will wear out steel.

The next kind of remontoire still leaves the scape-wheel linked
up with the clock-train, but makes it wind up the pallets which
are held raised up till their action is wanted, when they are allowed
to drop gently on the crutch or the pendulum rod. In this case the
two arms of the anchor are usually divided and mounted on separate
shafts so as to act independently. This idea was first started by
Thomas Mudge (1717-1794) and Alexander Gumming (1733-1814).
Mudge's escapement is shown in fig. 17. The tooth A of the scape-
wheel is resting against the stop or detent a at the end of the pallet
CA, from the axis or arbor of which descends the half- Oravlty
fork CP to touch the pendulum. From the other pallet
CB descends the other half-fork CO. The two arbors are
set as near the point of suspension, or top of the pendulum
spring, as possible. The pendulum, as here represented, must be
moving to the right, and just leaving contact with the left pallet and
going to take up the right one; as soon as it has raised that pallet
a little it will evidently unlock the wheel and let it turn, and then the
tooth B will raise the left pallet until it is caught by the stop b on that
pallet, and then it will stay until the pendulum returns and releases
it by raising that pallet still higher. Each pallet therefore descends
with the pendulum to a lower point than that where it is taken up,
and the difference between them is supplied by the lifting of each
pallet by the clock, which does not act on the pendulum at all; so
that the pendulum is independent of all variations of force and
friction in the train. This escapement is said by Lord Grim-

FIG. 17. Mudge's Gravity Escape- FIG. 18. Bloxam's Gravity
ment. Escapement.

thorpe, in hjs Rudimentary Treatise on Clocks, first published in
1850, to be liable to trip, the pallets being apt to be jerked by the
pendulum, so that the teeth slip past the hook, and the wheel flies
round. This, however, appears entirely a matter of construction.
The really weak point is that while the impulses on the pendulum
due to the gravitational fall of the arms are uniform, the force which
has to be exercised by the pendulum in unlocking them from the
scape-wheel varies with the pressure of the clock-train. Hence we
miss the compensation which is so beautiful a result of Graham's
escapement. To avoid this, J. M. Bloxam, a barrister, proposed
about the middle of the igth century his legged gravity escapement
(fig. 18). By this arrangement the parts of the scape-wheel which

CLOCK

545

lifted the gravity arms were brought as near to the axis of the scape-
wheel as possiblo, while the locking arms were brought as far from
the axis as possible so that the oressure should be light. The pallet
arbors were cranked, to embrace the pendulum-spring, so that their
centres of motion might coincide with that of the pendulum as nearly
as possible perhaps an unnecessary refinement; at least the three-
legged and four-legged gravity escapements answer very well with
the pallet arbors set on each side of the top of the spring. The size
of the wheel determines the length of the pallets, as they must be at
such an angle to each other that the radii of the wheel when in con-
tact with each stop may be at right angles to the pallet arm ; and
therefore, for a wheel of this size, the depth of locking can only be
very small. The pinion in Bloxam's clock only raises the pallet
through 40' at each beat; i.e. the angle which we call y, viz. the
amplitude of the pendulum when it begins to lift the pallet, is only
20'; and probably, if it were increased to anything like o/ Vz, where
a is the semiarc of swing, the escapement would trip immediately.
The two broad pins marked E, F, are the fork-pins, and A and B are
the stops. The clock which Bloxam had went very well; but it
had an extremely fine train, with pinions of 18; and nobody else
appears to have been able to make one to answer.

Bloxam's escapement was modified in form by Lord Grimthorpe,
his chief improvement being the addition of a fly vane, which, how-
ever, had previously been used for remontoires to steady the motion.
He tried various modifications of construction, but finally adopted
the " four-legged " and " double-three-legged " forms as being the
most satisfactory, the former for regulators and the latter for large
clocks. Fig. 19, is a back view of the escapement part of an astrono-
mical clock with the four-legged wheel; seen from the front the

FIG. 19. Four-legged Gravity
Escapement.

FIG. 20. Double Three-legged
Escapement.

wheel would turn the other way. The long locking teeth are made
about 2 in. long from the centre, and the lifting pins, of which four
point forwards while four other intermediate ones point backwards,
are at not more than A of the distance between the centres EC,
of the scape-wheel and pallets ; or rather C is the top of the pendulum
spring to which the pallets Cs, Cs' converge, though the resultant
of their action is a little below C. It is not worth while to crank
them as Bloxam did, in order to make them coincide exactly with
the top of the pendulum, as the friction of the beat pins on the
pendulum is insignificant, and even then would not be guile de-
stroyed. The pallets are not in the same plane, but one is behind
and the other in front of the wheel, with one stop pointing backwards
and the other forwards to receive the teeth alternately it does not
matter which; in this figure the stop s is behind and the stop s'
forward. The pendulum is now going to the right, and iust beginning
to lift the right pallet and free the stop s'; then the wheel will begin
to turn and lift the other pallet by one of the pins which is now
lowest, and which moves through 45 across the line of centres, and
therefore lifts with very; little friction. It goes on till the tooth now
below 5 reaches s and is stopped there. Meanwhile the pallet Cs'
goes on with the pendulum as far as it may go, to the end of the arc
which we have called o, starting from 7; but it falls with the pen-
dulum again, not only to -y but to -y on the other side of o, so that
the impulse is due to the weight of each pallet alternately falling
through 2y; and the magnitude of the impulse also depends on the
obliqueness of the pallet on the whole, i.e. on the distance of its centre
>f gravity from the vertical through C. The fly KK' is set on with a
-riction spring like the common striking-part fly, and should be as long
as there is room for, length being much more effective than width.

The double three-legged gravity escapement, which was first used
in the Westminster clock, is shown in fig. 20. The principle of it
is the same as of the four-legs; but instead of the pallets being one
behind and the other in front of the wheel, with two sets of lifting

pins, there are two wheels ABC, a&t, with the three lifting ping and
the two pallets between them like a lantern pinion. One stop B
points forward and the other A backward. The two wheels have
their teeth set intermediately or 60 apart, though that is not

found enough to prevent tripping even if the fly gets loose, which is
more likely to happen from carelessness in large clocks than in
astronomical ones.

Of course the fly for those escapements in large clocks, with
weights heavy enough to drive the hands in all weather, must be
much larger than in small ones. For average church clocks with
it sec. pendulum the legs of the scape-wheels are generally made
4 in. long and the fly from 6 to 7 in. long in each vane by I J or I J
wide. For ij sec. pendulums the scape-wheels are generally made
radius. At Westminster they are 6 in.

Lord Grimthorpe considered that these escapements act better,
especially in regulators, if the pallets do not fall quite on the lifting
pins, but on u banking, or stop at any convenient place, so as to
leave the wheel free at the moment of starting; just as the striking
of a common house clock will sometimes fail to start unless the wheel
with the pins has a little run before a pin begins to lift the hammer.
The best way to manage the banking is to make the beat-pins long
enough to reach a little way behind the pendulum, and let the banking
be a thin plate of any metal screwed adjustably to the back of the
case. This plate cannot well be shown in the drawings together
with the pendulum, which, it may be added, should take up one
pallet just when it leaves the other.

In chronometer spring remontoires the pendulum, as it goes by,
flips a delicate spring and releases a small weight or spring which
has been wound up in readiness by the action of the scape-
wheel and which by leaping on to the pendulum gives it
a push. One on this principle made about the middle
of the I9th century by Robert Houdin is to be seen at
the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers. It is very com-
plicated. The following is more simple. In fig. 21 a scape-wheel
AB has 30 pins and 360 teeth. It is engaged with a fly vane EP
mounted on a pinion of 12 teeth. Each pin as it passes raises an
impulse arm CD which is hooked upon a detent K. A pall NM then
engages the fly vane and prevents the scape-wheel from moving
farther. The impulse arm being now set, as the plate F attached
to the lower end of the pendulum flies past from left to right a pall

Uhroao-
tatter
spring n*
tnontoln.

FIG. 21. Chronometer Spring Remontoire.

G knocks aside the detent K, and allows a pin O projecting from
the end of the impulse arm to fall upon an inclined pallet h, which is
thus urged forward. As soon as the pallet has left the pin, the
impulse arm in its further fall strikes N, which disengages the pall
at P and allows the scape-wheel to move on and again wind up the
impulse arm CD, which is then again locked by the detent K. On
the return journey of the pendulum the light pall G, which acts the
part of a chronometer spring, flips over the detent. The pallet is
double sided, h and h', so that if by chance the clock runs down while
the pendulum swings from left to right the impulse arm will be simply
raised and not smashed. It has a flat apex, on which the pin falls
before descending. The impulse given depends on the weight of the
impulse arm and may be varied at pleasure. The work done in un-
locking the detent is invariable, as it depends on the pressure of the
fly vane at P and is independent of the clock-train. The duration of
the impulse is very short only about iV of the arc of swing. It is
given exactly at the centre of the swing, and when not under
impulse the pendulum is detached.

Clock Wheels. Since, as we have seen, any increase in the arc
of a pendulum is accompanied by a change in its going rate,

vi. 18

54-6

CLOCK

it is very desirable to keep the force which acts on the pendulum
uniform. This in fact is the great object of the best escapements.
Inasmuch as the impulse on the pendulum, derived from the work
done by a tailing weight or an unwinding spring, is transmitted
through a train of wheels, it is desirable that that transmission
should be as free from friction and as regular as possible. This
involves care in the shaping of the teeth. The object to be
aimed at is that as the wheel turns round the ratio of the
power of the driver to that of the driven wheel (" runner " or
" follower ") should never vary. That is to say, whether the
back part of the tooth of the driver is acting on the tip of the
tooth of the follower, or the tip of the driver is acting on the
back part of the tooth of the follower, the leverage ratio shall
always be uniform. For simplicity of manufacture the pinion
wheels are always constructed with radial leaves, so that the
surface of each tooth is a plane passing through the axis of the
wheel. The semicircular rounding of the end of the tooth is
merely ornamental. The question therefore is, suppose that it
is desired by means of a tooth on a wheel to push a plane round
an axis, what is the shape that must be given to that tooth in
order that the leverage ratio may remain unaltered ?

If a curved surface, known as a " cam," press upon a plane one,
both being hinged or centred upon pivots A and B respectively
(fig. 22), then the line of action and reaction at D, the
point where they touch, will be perpendicular to their
surfaces at the point of contact that is perpendicular
to BD, and the ratio of leverage will obviously be
AE : BD, or AC : CB. Hence to cause the leverage ratio of
the cam to the plane always to remain unaltered, the cam must

Spicy-
cloldal
teeth.

FIG. 22. Cam and Plane.

FIG. 23.

be so shaped that in any position the ratio AC : CB will remain
unchanged. In other words the shape of the cam must be such
that, as it moves and pushes BD before it, the normal at the
point of contact must always pass through the fixed point C.

If a circle PMB roll upon another circle SPT (fig. 23) any
point M on it will generate an epicycloid MN. The radius of
curvature of the curve at M will always be MP, for the part at
M is being produced by rotation round the point P. It follows
that a line from B to M will always be tangential to the epicycloid.
If the epicycloid be a cam moving as a centre round the centre
R (not shown in the figure) of the circle SPT, the leverage
it will exert upon a plane surface BM moving round a parallel
axis at B, will always be as BP to PR, that is, a constant;
whence MN is the proper shape of a tooth to act on a pinion
with radial arms and centred at B. In designing a pair of wheels
to transmit motion, which is to be multiplied say 6 times in
the transmission (about the usual ratio for clock wheels), if
we take two circles (called the " pitch circles ") touching one

another with radii as i : 6, then the
circumference of the smaller will
roll 6 times round that of the
larger. The smaller wheel will have
a number of teeth, say 8 to 16,
each of them being sectors of the
circle (fig. 24). If thereare 16 teeth,
then on the surface of the driving
wheel there will be 96 teeth. Each
of these teeth will be shaped as the
curve of an epicycloid formed by the
rolling on the big circle of a circle
whose diameter is the radius of the pitch circle of the
pinion. Points of the teeth so formed are cut off, so as to
allow of the pinion having a solid core to support it, and
gaps are made into the pitch circle to admit the rounded

FIG. 24.

ends of the leaves of the pinon wheel. Thus a cog-wheel is '
shaped out.

Clock wheels are made of hard hammered brass cut out by a
wheel cutting machine. This machine consists of a vertical
spindle on the top of which the wheel to be cut is fixed on a
firmly resisting plate of metal of slightly smaller diameter, so
as to allow the wheel to overlap. A cutter with the edges most
delicately ground to the exact shape of the gap between two
teeth is caused to rotate 3000-4000 times a minute, and brought
down upon the edge of the wheel. The shavings that come off
are like fine dust, but the cutter is pushed on so as to plunge
right through the rim of the wheel in a direction parallel to the
axis. In this way one gap is cut. The vertical spindle is now
rotated one division, by means of a dividing plate, and another
tooth is cut, and so the operation goes on round the wheel.

It is not desirable in clocks that the pinion wheels which are
driven should have too few teeth, for this throws all the work
on a pair of surfaces before the centres and is apt to produce a
grinding motion. Theoretically the more leaves a pinion has
the better. Pinions can be made with leaves of thin steel
watch-spring. In this case quite small pinions can have 20 leaves
or more. The teeth in the driving wheels then become mere
notches for which great accuracy of shape is not necessary.
Such wheels are easy to make and run well. Lantern pinions
are also excellent and are much used in American clocks. They
are easy to make in an ordinary lathe. The cog-wheels must,
however, be specially shaped to fit them. They consist of a
number of round pins arranged in a circle round the axis of the
wheel and parallel to it. The ends are secured in flanges like
the wires of a squirrel cage. The teeth of cog-wheels engage
them and thus drive the wheel round. They were much used
at one time but are now falling out of favour again.

It is possible to make toothed wheels that drive with perfect
uniformity by using for the curve of the teeth involutes of circles.
These involutes are traced out by a point on a string
that is gradually unwound from a circle. They are teeth.
in fact epicycloids traced by a rolling circle of infinite
radius, i.e. a straight line. Involute teeth have the advantage
that they roll on one another instead of sliding. When badly
made they put considerable strain on the axes or shafts that
carry them. Hence they have not been regarded with great
favour by clockmakers.

By the pitch of a wheel is meant the number of teeth to the
inch of circumference or diameter of the wheel; the former
is called the circumferential pitch, the latter the
diametral pitch. Thus if we say that a wheel has *
40 diametral pitch we mean that it has 40 teeth to each inch of
diameter. The circumferential pitch is of course got by dividing
the diametral pitch by IT. Wheel-cutters are made for all sizes
of pitches. If it were needed to make a pair of wheels the ratio
of whose motion was say 6 : r and we determined to use a dia-
metral pitch of 30 to the inch, that is teeth about ^ in. wide at
the base, and if the smaller circle were to have 20 teeth, we should
need a blank of a diameter of H+A = H' n - for the smaller
wheel, and one of V^+tfV = W" m - for tne larger wheel which
would have 120 teeth to the inch and be 4-06 in diameter to the
tips of the teeth. The smaller toothed wheel would be -73 of
an inch in diameter over all. The pitch circles of the wheels
would be f and 4 in. respectively. For fine wheel work, where
the driver is always much larger than the driven wheel, the
epicycloidal tooth appears preferable, as it is generally considered
to put less side strain on the pinion wheel. But the relative
merits of the two systems have never been properly tested for
clock work.

Going Barrels. A clock which is capable of going accurately
must have some contrivance to keep it going while it is being
wound up. In the old-fashioned house clocks, which were
wound up by merely pulling one of the strings, and in which
one such winding served for both the going and striking parts,
this was done by what is called the endless chain of Huygens,
which consists of a string or chain with the ends joined together,
, and passing over two pulleys on the arbors of the great wheels,

CLOCK

547

with deep grooves and spikes in them, to prevent the chain from
slipping. In one of the two loops or festoons which hang from
the upper pulleys is a loose pulley without spikes, carrying the
clock-weight, and in the other a small weight only heavy enough
to keep the chain close to the upper pulleys. Now, suppose one
of those pulleys to be on the arbor of the great wheel of the strik-
ing part, with a ratchet and click, and the other pulley fixed to
the arbor of the great wheel of the going part; then (whenever
the clock is not striking) the weight may be pulled up by pulling
down that part of the string which hangs from the other side of
the striking part; and yet the weight will be acting on the going
part all the time. It would be just the same if the striking part
and its pulley were wound up with a key, instead of the string
being pulled, and also the same, if there were no striking part at
all, but the second pulley were put on a blank arbor, except
that in that case the weight would take twice as long to run down,
supposing that the striking part generally requires the same
weight X fall as the going part.

This kind of going barrel, however, is evidently not suited to
the delicacy of an astronomical clock; and Harrison's going
ratchet is now universally adopted in such clocks, and also in
chronometers and watches for keeping the action of the train
on the escapement during the winding. Fig. 25 (in which the
same letters are used as in the corresponding parts of fig. 3)

shows its construction. The
click of the barrel-ratchet R
is set upon another larger
ratchet-wheel with its teeth
pointing the opposite way,
and its click rT is set in the
clock frame. That ratchet
is connected with the great
wheel by a spring ss' pressing
against the two pins s in the
ratchet and s' in the wheel.
When the weight is wound
up (which is equivalent to
_ taking it off), the click Tr

a prevents that ratchet from

turning back or to the right;
and as the spring ss' is kept

r~ r> ^ by the weight in a state
F.G. 25 .-HarnsonsGom g -Ratchet. of y tension * lvalent to the

weight itself it will drive the wheel to the left for a short
distance, when its end s is held fast, with the same force as if
that end was pulled forward by the weight; and as the
great wheel has to move very little during the short time the
clock is winding, the spring will keep the clock going long
enough.

In the commoner kind of turret clocks a more simple apparatus
is used, which goes by the name of the bolt and shutter, because it
consists of a weighted lever with a broad end, which shuts up the
winding-hole. When it is lifted a spring-bolt attached to the
lever, or its arbor, runs into the teeth of one of the wheels, and
the weight of the lever keeps the train going until the bolt has
run itself out of gear. Clocks are not always driven by weights.
When accuracy is not necessary, but portability is desirable,
springs are used. The old form of spring became weaker as it was
unwound and necessitated the use of a device called a fusee or
spiral drum. This apparatus will be found described in the
article WATCH.

Striking Mechanism. There are two kinds of striking work
used in clocks. The older of them, the locking-plate system,
which is still used in most foreign clocks, and in turret clocks in
England also, will not allow the striking of any hour to be either
omitted or repeated, without making the next hour strike wrong;
whereas in the rack system, which is used in all English house
clocks, the number of blows to be struck depends merely on the
position of a wheel attached to the going part, and therefore the
striking of any hour may be omitted or repeated without derang-
ing the following ones. We shall only describe the second of
these, which is the more usual in modern timepieces.

Fig. 26 is a front view of a common English house clock with
the face taken off, showing the repeating or rack striking move-
ment. Here, as in fig. 3, M is the hour-wheel, on the pipeof which
the minute-hand is set, N the reversed hour-wheel, and n its
pinion, driving the 1 2-hour wheel H, on whose socket is fixed
what is called the snail Y, which belongs to the striking work
exclusively. The hammer is raised by the eight pins in the rim
of the second wheel in the striking train, in the manner which is
obvious.

The hammer does not quite touch the bell, as it would jar in
striking if it did, and prevent the full sound. The form of the
hammer-shank at the arbor where the spring S acts upon it is
such that the spring both drives the hammer against the bell
when the tail T is raised, and also checks it just before it reaches
the bell, the blow on the bell thus being given by the hammer
having acquired momentum enough to go a little farther than its
place of rest. Sometimes two springs are used, one for impelling

FIG. 26. Front view of common English House Clock.

the hammer, and the other for checking it. But nothing will
check the chattering of a heavy hammer, except making it lean
forward so as to act, partially at least, by its weight. The
pinion of the striking-wheel generally has eight leaves, the same
number as the pins; and as a clock strikes 78 blows in 12 hours,
the great wheel will turn in that time if it has 78 teeth instead of
96, which the great wheel of the going part has for a centre
pinion of eight. The striking-wheel drives the wheel above it
once round for each blow, and that wheel drives a fourth (in
which there is a single pin P), six. or any other integral number of
turns, for one turn of its own, and that drives a fan-fly to
moderate the velocity of the train by the resistance of the air, an
expedient at least as old as De Vick's clock in 1 570.

The wheel N is so adjusted that, within a few minutes of the
hour, the pin in it raises the lifting-piece LONF so far that that
piece lifts the click C out of the teeth of the rack BKRV, which
immediately falls back (helped by a spring near the bottom) as
far as its tail V can go by reason of the snail Y, against which it
falls; and it is so arranged that the number of teeth which pass
the click is proportionate to the depth of the snail; and as there
is one step in the snail for each hour, and it goes round with the
hour-hand, the rack always drops just as many teeth as the

CLOCK

number of the hour to be struck. This drop makes the noise of
" giving warning." But the clock is not yet ready to strike till
the lifting piece has fallen again; for, as soon as the rack was let
off, the tail of the gathering pallet G,on the prolonged arbor of the
third wheel, was enabled to pass the pin K of the rack on which it
was pressing before, and the striking train began to move; but
before the fourth wheel had got half round, its pin P was caught
by the end of the lifting-piece, which is bent back and goes
through a hole in the plate, and when raised stands in the way of
the pin P, so that the train cannot go on till the lifting-piece
drops, which it does exactly at the hour, by the pin N then
slipping past it. Then the train is free; the striking wheel begins
to lift the hammer, and the gathering pallet gathers up the rack,
a tooth for each blow, until it has returned to the place at which
the pallet is stopped by the pin K coming under it. In this figure
the lifting-piece is prolonged to F, where there is a string hung to
it, as this is the proper place for such a string when it is wanted
for the purpose of learning the hour in the dark, and not (as it is
generally put) on the click C; for if it is put there and the string
is held a little too long, the clock will strike too many; and if the
string accidentally sticks in the case, it will go on striking till it is
run down neither of which things can happen when the string
is put on the lifting-piece.

The snail is sometimes set on a separate stud with the apparatus
called a star-wheel and jumper. On the left side of the frame we
have placed a lever x, with the letters st below it, and si above. If
it is pushed up to si, the other end will come against a pin in the
rack, and prevent it from falling, and will thus make the clock
silent; and this is much more simple than the old-fashioned
" strike and silent " apparatus, which we shall therefore not
describe, especially as it is seldom used now.

If -the clock is required to strike quarters, a third "part" or
train of wheels is added on the right hand of the going part; and
its general construction is the same as the hour-striking part;
only there are two more bells, and two hammers so placed that
one is raised a little after the other. If there are more quarter-
bells than two, the hammers are generally raised by a chime-
barrel, which is merely a cylinder set on the arbor of the striking-
wheel (in that case generally the third in the train), with short
pins stuck into it in the proper places to raise the hammers in the
order required for the tune of the chimes. The quarters are
usually made to let off the hour, and this connexion may be made
in two ways. If the chimes are different in tune for each quarter,
and not merely the same tune repeated two, three and four times,
the repetition movement must not be used for them, as it would
throw the tunes into confusion, but the old locking-plate move-
ment, as in turret clocks; and therefore, if we conceive the hour
lifting-piece connected with the quarter locking-plate, as it is with
the wheel N, in fig. 26, it is evident that the pin will discharge the
hour striking part as the fourth quarter finishes.

But where the repetition movement is required for the quarters,
the matter is not quite so simple. The principle of it may shortly
be described thus. The quarters themselves have a rack and
snail, &c., just like the hours, except that the snail is fixed on one
of the hour-wheels M or N, instead of on the twelve-hour wheel,
and has only four steps in it. Now suppose the quarter-rack to be
so placed that when it falls for the fourth quarter (its greatest
drop), it falls against the hour lifting-piece somewhere between O
and N, so as to raise it and the click C. Then the pin Q will be
caught by the click Qq, and so the lifting-piece will remain up
until all the teeth of the quarter-rack are gathered up; and as
that is done, it may be made to disengage the click Qg, and so
complete the letting off the hour striking part. This click Qq has
no existence except where there are quarters.

The method in which an alarum is struck may be understood
by reference to either of the recoil escapements (figs, i and 7).
If a short hammer instead of a long pendulum be attached to
the axis of the pallets, and the wheel be driven with sufficient
force, it will evidently swing the hammer rapidly backwards
and forwards; and the position and length of the hammer-head
may be so adjusted as to strike a bell inside, first on one side
and then on the other. As to the mode of letting off the alarum

at the time required: if it was always to be let off at the same
time all that would be necessary would be to set a pin in the
twelve-hour wheel at the proper place to raise the lifting-piece
which lets off the alarum at that time. But as the time must
be capable of alteration, this discharging pin must be set in
another wheel (without teeth), which rides with a friction-
spring on the socket of the twelve-hour wheel, with a small
movable dial attached to it, having figures so arranged with
reference to the pin that whatever figure is made to come to a .
small pointer set as a tail to the hour hand, the alarum shall
be let off at that hour.

The watchman's or tell-tale clock, used when it is desired to
make sure of a watchman being on the spot and awake all the
night, is a clock with a set of spikes, generally 48 or 96, sticking
out all round the dial, and a handle somewhere in the case, by
pulling which one of the spikes which is opposite to it, or to some
lever connected with it is pressed in. This wheel of spikes is
carried round with the hour-hand, which in these clocks is
generally a twenty-four hour one. It is evident that every spike
which is seen still sticking out in the morning indicates that at
the particular time to which that spike belongs the watchman
was not there to push it in or at any rate, that he did not.
At some other part of their circuit, the inner ends of the pins
are carried over a roller or an inclined plane which pushes them
out again ready for business the next night. The time at which
workmen arrive at their work may be recorded by providing
each of them with a numbered key with which he stamps his
number on a moving tape, on which also the time is marked
by a clock.

Church and Turret Clocks. Seeing that a clock at least the
going part of it is a machine in which the only work to be done
is the overcoming of its own friction and the resistance of the
air, it is evident that when the friction and resistance are much
increased it may become necessary to resort to expedients
for neutralizing their effects, which are not required in a smaller
machine with less friction. In a turret clock the friction is
enormously increased by the great weight of all the parts; and
the resistance of the wind, and sometimes snow, to the motion
of the hands, further aggravates the difficulty of maintaining
a constant force on the pendulum; and besides that, there is
the exposure of the clock to the dirt and dust which are always
found in towers, and of the oil to a temperature which nearly
or quite freezes it all through the usual cold of winter. This
last circumstance alone will generally make the arc of the
pendulum at least half a degree more in summer than in winter;
and inasmuch as the time is materially affected by the force
which arrives at the pendulum, as well as the friction, on the
pallets when it does arrive there, it is evidently impossible for
any turret clock of the ordinary construction/especially with large
dials, to keep any constant rate through the various changes
of temperature, weather and dirt to which it is exposed. Hence
special precautions, such as the use of remontoires and gravity
escapements, have to be observed in the design of large clocks
that have any pretensions to accuracy, in order to ensure that
the arc of the pendulum is not affected by external circumstances,
such as wind-pressure on the hands or dirt in the wheel-train.
But such have been the improvements effected in electric clocks,
that rather than go to the trouble and expense required by such
precautions, it appears far preferable to keep an accurate time-
piece in some sheltered position and use it with a source of
electricity to drive the hands of the large dial.

Electrical Clocks. One of the first attempts to apply electricity
to clocks was made by Alexander Bain in 1840-1850. About
the same time Sir C. Wheatstone, R. L. Jones, C. Shepherd,
Paul Garnier and Louis Br6guet invented various forms of
electrical time-keepers. It is not proposed here to go into the
history of these abortive attempts. Those who desire to follow
them may consult Bain, An Account of Some Applications of the
Electric Fluid to the UsefulArts(i&43),a.nd Short History of Electric
Clocks (1852); Sir Charles Wheatstone, Trade Circular of the
British Telegraph Manufactory; C. Shepherd, On the Application
of Electro-magnetism as a Motor for Clocks (1851), and a list of

CLOCK

549

FIG. 27. Turret Clock for Hidalgo, Mexico, driving
references in the Appendix to Tobler's Die dectrischen Uhren
(Leipzig, 1883), and a list of books given by F. Hope Jones, Proc.
Inst. Elec. Eng., 1900, vol. 29. The history of electrical clocks
is a long and complicated matter, for there are some 600 or 700
patents for these clocks in Europe and America, some containing
the germs of valuable ideas but most pure rubbish. All that can
be done is to select one or two prominent types of each class and
give a brief description of their general construction.

It is in the apparently simple matter of making and keeping
the electrical contact that most of the systems of electrical time-
keeping have failed, for want of attention to the essential
conditions of the problem. In practice every metal is covered
with a thin film of non-conducting oxide over which is another
film of moisture, oil, dirt or air. Hence what is wanted is a
good vigorous push of a blunted point or edge preferably obliquely
upon a more or less yielding surface so as to get a rubbing action.
Thus if the stiff spring a b (fig. 28) were stabbed down on the
oblique surface C D a good contact would invariably result,
provided that the metals employed were gold, platinum or some
not easily oxidizable metal. Or again, if a mercury surface be
simply touched with a pin, the slight sparking
that is produced on making the current will soon
form a little pile of dirty oxide at the point of
entry, and the contact will frequently fail. If it
be necessary to have a mercury contact, the pin
must be well driven in below the surface of the
mercury or else swept through it as an oar is swept
through the water. Another form of electrical
contact that acts well is a knife edge brought into
contact with a series of fine elastic strips of metal laid parallel
to one another like the fingers of a hand. The best metal for
contacts, if they are to bear hard usage, is either silver or gold
or a mixture of 40% iridium with 60% of platinum. A pressure
of some 15 grammes, at least, is needful to secure a good contact.
As to the source of current for driving electrical clocks, if
Leclanch6 cells be used they should preferably be kept in the
open air under cover so as not to dry up. If direct electric
current is available from electric light mains or the accumulators
used for lighting a private house, so much the better. Of course
the pressure of 50 or 100 volts used for lighting would be far too
great for clock-driving, where only the pressure of a few volts is
required. But it is easy by the insertion of suitable resistances,
as for instance one or more incandescent lamps, to weaken down

FIG. 28.

the pressure of the lighting system
and make it available for electric
clocks, bells or other similar purposes.
Electricity is applied to clocks in
three main ways: (i) in actuating
timepieces which measure their own
time and must therefore be provided
with pendulums or balance wheels;

(2) in reproducing on one or more
dials the movements of the hands of
a master clock, by the aid of electric
impulses sent at regular intervals, say
of a minute or a half -minute; and

(3) in synchronizing ordinary clocks '
by occasional impulses sent from
some accurate regulator at a distance.

Electrically driven timepieces may
be divided under two heads: (a)
those in which the electric current
drives either the pendulum or some
lever which operates upon it, which
lever or pendulum in turn drives the
clock hands; and (b) those time-
pieces which are driven by a weight
or spring which is periodically wound
up by electricity in fact electrical
remontoires.

The simplest clock of the first
four 8 ft. dials. character that could be imagined

would be constructed by fastening an electromagnet with a soft
iron core to the bottom of a pendulum, and causing it to be
attracted as the pendulum swings by another electromagnet
fixed vertically under it (fig. 29). As the pendulum approached
the vertical and was say half an inch from its lowest point,
the current would be switched on, yul switched off as soon as
the pendulum got to its lowest point. A very small attraction
with this arrangement, probably about a grain weight, acting
through the 5 in. would drive a heavy pendulum. A switch
would have to be worked in connexion with the pendulum.
A strip of ebonite with a small face of metal on the end of one side,
such as a b (fig. 29) might be pivoted at one end on the pendulum
with a weak spring to keep it where free along the rod. As the
pendulum swung by this would be swept on its journey from
left to right against a fixed pin P.
This would complete the electric
circuit down through the pendu-
lum rod, round the coil on the
bottom of the pendulum, through
the switch into the pin P, thence
through the fixed electromagnet,
and so back to the battery. On
the return journey no contact
would be made because only the
ebonite face of the switch would
touch P. The pendulum would
thus receive an impulse every
other vibration. We have de-
scribed this switch, not to advocate it, but to warn against its
use. For the contact would be quite insufficient. In order that
the switch might not unduly retard the pendulum it must be
light, but this would make the pressure on P too light to be
trustworthy. Moreover, the strength of the impulse would vary
with the strength of the battery, and hence the arc would be
repeatedly uneven.

In contrast with this, let us consider a clock that is now giving
excellent results at the Observatory of Neuchatel in Switzerland
on Hipp's system (La Pendule flectrique de prtcision, Neuchatel,
1884 and 1891). The pendulum (fig. 30) consists of two rods of
steel joined by four bridges, one just below the suspension
spring, the next about 12 in. lower, the next about half way
down, and the last supporting a glass vessel of mercury which
forms the bob. On the third of them is placed an iron armature,

FIG. 29. Electrical Clock
(faulty design).

550

CLOCK

which works between the poles of an electromagnet fixed to
the case, and by which the pendulum is actuated. The circuit
is closed and broken by a flipper, which is swayed to and fro by
a block fixed to the pendulum at the second bridge. As long as
the flipper is merely swayed, no contact takes place, but when
the arc of vibration of the pendulum is diminished the flipper
does not clear the block but is caught by a nick in it, and forced
downwards. In this way the circuit is closed. Fig. 31 is a dia-
gram of the apparatus. When the block g attached to the
pendulum catches and presses down the flipper s, the lever
/ / is rocked over, so that a contact is made at k, and the current
which enters the lever I through the knife
edge m, runs through the second lever n n,
down through the knife edge o to the
battery, and through the electromagnet
b which causes the armature a to be
attracted. As the block g goes on and
releases s, the lever / again falls upon the
rest p, the lever n follows it a part of the
way till it is stopped by the contact q;
this shortcircuits the electromagnet and
prevents to a large extent the formation
of an induced current. It is claimed that
sparking is by this method almost entirely
avoided. It is only when i is caught in the
notch of the block g that s is pressed down,
so that the electric attraction only takes
place every few vibrations. This ingenious
arrangement makes the working of the
clock nearly independent of the strength
of the battery, for if the battery is strong
the impulses are fewer and the average arc
remains the same. The clock is enclosed
in an airtight glass case so as to avoid
barometric error. It was tested in 1905
at the Neuchatel observatory. In winter
in a room of a mean temperature of 35 F.
it was J sec. too slow, in summer when
the temperature was 70, it was $ sec.
too fast. In the succeeding winter it
became -53 sec. too slow again, thus gain-
ing a little in summer and losing in

FIG. 30. Hipp Elec-
trical Clock (Peyer,
Favarger et Cie.).

Buttery

FIG. 31. Contact Arrange-
ment of Hipp Clock.

winter. Its average variation from its daily rate was, however,
only -033 sec.

In another system originated by G. Froment, a small weight
is raised by electricity and allowed to fall upon an arm sticking
out at right angles to the pendulum in the plane of its motion,
so as to urge it onwards. The weight is only allowed to rest on
the arm during the downward swing of the pendulum. The
method is not theoretically good, as the impulse is given at the
end of the vibration of the pendulum instead of at its middle
position.

In the clock invented by C. Fery (chef des travaux pratiques
at the Ecole de Physique et Chimie, Paris), an electric impulse
is given at every vibration, not by a battery but by means of the
uniform movement of an armature which is alternately pulled
away from and pushed towards a permanent horseshoe magnet.
Currents are thus induced in a bobbin of fine wire placed between
the poles of the horseshoe magnet. The movements of the

armature are produced by another horseshoe magnet actuated
by the primary current from a battery which is turned on and off
by the swinging of the pendulum. The energy of the induced
current that drives the clock depends solely on the total move-
ment of the armature, and is independent of whether that
movement be executed slowly or rapidly, and therefore of the
strength of the battery.

Electrical remontoires possess great advantages if they can
be made to operate with certainty. For they can be made
to wind up a scape-wheel just as is done in the case of
the arrangement shown in fig. 1 6 so as to constitute a
spring remontoire, or better still they can be made to raise
a weight as in the case of the gravity train remontoire
(fig. 15) but without the complications of wheel-work shown
in that contrivance. Of this type one of the best known is
that of H. Chesters Pond. A mainspring fixed on the arbor
of the hour wheel is wound up every hour by means of another
toothed wheel riding loose on the same arbor and driven by a
small dynamo, to which the other end of the mainspring is
attached. As soon as the hour wheel has made one revolution
(driven round by the spring) , a contact switch is closed whereupon

FIG. 32. Hope Jones Electrical Remontoire.

the dynamo winds up the spring again exactly as the train and
fly wind up the spring in fig. 15. These clocks require a' good
deal of power, and not being always trustworthy seem to have
gone out of use. A contrivance of this kind now in use is that
patented by F. Hope Jones and G. B. Bowell, and is represented
in fig. 32. A pendulum is driven by the scape-wheel A, and
pallets B B in the usual way. The scape-wheel is driven by
another wheel C which, in turn, is driven by the weighted lever
D supported by click E engaging the ratchet wheel F. This lever
is centred at G and has an extension H at right angles to it.
J is an armature of soft iron pivoted at K and worked by the
electromagnet M. D gradually falls in the act of driving the
clock by turning the wheels C and A until the contact plate on
the arm H meets with the contact screw L at the end of the arma-
ture J, thus completing the electrical circuit from terminal T
to terminal T' through the electromagnet M, and through any
number of step-by-step dial movements which may be included
in the same series circuit. The armature is then drawn towards
the magnet with rapid acceleration, carrying the lever D with it.
The armature is suddenly arrested by the poles of the magnet,
but the momentum of the lever D carries it farther, and the click
E engages another tooth of the ratchet F. A quick break of the
circuit is thus secured, and the contact at L is a good one, first
because the whole of the energy required to keep the clock going,
or in other words the energy required to raise the lever D is

CLOCK

mechanically transmitted through its surfaces at each operation,
and secondly, owing to the arrangement of the fulcrums at G
and K which secure a rubbing contact. The duration of the con-
tact is just that necessary to accomplish the work which has to be
done, and it is remarkable that when used to operate large
circuits of electrically propelled dials the duration accommodates
itself to their exact requirements and the varying conditions of
battery and self-induction. The ratchet wheel F is usually
mounted loosely upon its arbor and is connected to the wheel C
by means of a spiral spring, which in conjunction with the
back-stop click P maintains the turning force on the wheelwork
at the instant when the lever D is being raised.

Electrically driven dials usually consist of a ratchet wheel
driven by an electrically moved pall. Care has to be taken that
the pushes of the pall do not cause the ratchet wheel to be
impelled too far. The anchor escapement of a common grand-
father's clock can be made to drive the works by means of an
electromagnet, the pendulum being removed. With a common
anchor escapement the scape-wheel can be driven round by
wagging the anchor to and fro. All then that is necessary is to
fix a piece of iron on the anchor so that its weight pulls the
anchor over one way, while an electromagnet pulls the iron the
other. Impulses sent through the electromagnet will then
drive the clock. If the clock is wound up in the ordinary way

the motion will be so
much helped that the
electric current has very
little to do, and thus may
be very feeble. Fig. 33
shows the dial-driving de-
vice of Hope Jones's clock.
Each time that a current
is sent by the master-
clock, the electromagnet
B attracts the pivoted
armature C, and when the
current ceases the lever D
with the projecting arm
E is driven back to its old
position by the spring F,
thus driving the wheel A

FIG. 33. Hope Jones's Dial-driving
Device.

forward one division. G is a back-stop click, and H, I, fixed
stops.

It seems doubtful whether in large towns a number of dials
could be electrically driven from a distance because of the large
amount of power that would have to be transmitted. But for
large buildings, such as hotels, they are excellent. One master-
clock in the cellar will drive a hundred or so placed over the
building. The master-clock may itself be driven by electricity,
but it will require the services from time to time of some one
to correct the time. Even this labour may be avoided if the
master-clock is synchronized, and as synchronization requires
but a small expenditure of force, it can be done over large areas.
Hence the future of the clock seems to be a series of master-
clocks, electrically driven, and synchronized one with another,
in various parts of a city, from each of which a number of dials
in the vicinity are driven. Electrical synchronization was worked
out by Louis Breguet and others, and a successful system was
perfected in England by J. A. Lund. The leading principle of
the best systems is at each hour to cause a pair of fingers or some
equivalent device to close upon the minute hand and put it
exactly to the hour. Other systems are designed to retard or
to accelerate the pendulum, but the former appears the more
practical method. There is probably a future before synchroniza-
tion which will enable the services of a clockmaker to be largely
dispensed with and relegate his work merely to keeping the
instruments in repair.

Miscellaneous Clocks. Some small clocks are made to go for
a year. They have a heavy balance wheel of brass weighing
about 2 Ib and about 2^ in. in diameter, suspended from a point
above its centre by a fine watch spring about 4 in. long. The
crutch engages with the upper part of the spring, and as the

balance wheel swings the pallets are actuated. The whole
clock is but a large watch with a suspended balance wheel,
oscillating once in about 8 seconds. Unless the suspension
spring be compensated for temperature, such clocks gain very
much in winter.

An ingenious method of driving a clock by water has been
proposed. As the pendulum oscillates to one side, an arm on it
rises and at last lightly touches a drop of water hanging from
a very fine nozzle; this drop is taken off and carried away by the
arm, to be subsequently removed by adhesion to an escape
funnel placed below the arm. Hence at each double vibration
of the pendulum part of the work done by a drop of water
falling through a short distance is communicated to the pendu-
lum, which is thus kept in motion as long as the water lasts.
At this rate a gallon of water ought to drive the clock for 40
hours. Care of course must be taken to keep the water in
the reservoir at a constant level, so that the drops formed
shall be uniform.

If it were worth while, no doubt the oscillations of a pendulum
working in a vacuum could be maintained by the communication
and discharge at each oscillation of a slight charge of electricity;
or again, heat might at each oscillation be communicated to a
thermo-electric junction, and the resulting current used to drive
the pendulum.

The expansions and contractions of metal rods under the
influence of the changes of temperature which take place in the
course of each night and day have also been employed to keep
a clock wound up, and if there were any need for it no doubt
a small windmill rotating at the top of a tower would easily
keep a turret clock fully wound, by a simple arrangement which
would gear the going barrel of the clock to the wind vane motion,
whenever the weight had fallen too low, and release it when the
winding up was completed. Even a smoke jack would do the
same office for a kitchen clock.

The methods of driving astronomical telescopes by means of
clockwork will be found in the article TELESCOPE. Measurements
of small intervals of time are performed by means of chrono-
graphs which in principle depend on the use of isochronous
vibrating tuning-forks in place of pendulums. In practice it is
needful in most cases that an observer should intervene in time
measurements, although perhaps by means of a revolving
photographic film a transit of the sun might be timed with
extraordinary accuracy. But if the transit of a star across a
wire is to be observed, there is no mode at present in use of doing
so except by the use of the human eye, brain and hand. Hence in
all such observations there is an element of personal error.
Unfortunately we cannot apply a microscope to time as we
can to space and make the cycle of events that takes place in
a second last say for five minutes so as to time them truly. By
personal observations the divisions of a second cannot in general
be made more accurately than to iV or -fa of a second. The most
rapid music player does not strike a note more than 10 or 12
times in a second. It is only in case of recurring phenomena
that we can make personal observations more accurate than
this by taking the mean of a large number of observations, and
allowing for personal error. For the purpose of determining
longitude at sea accuracy to -g^ of a second of time would find the
place to about 20 yards. It seems to follow that the extent
to which astronomical clocks can be made accurate, viz. to -jfo
of a second average variation from their mean daily rate, or one
two-and-a-half millionth of 24 hours, is a degree of accuracy
sufficient for present purposes, and it seems rather doubtful
whether mechanical science will in the case of clocks be likely
to reach a much higher figure.

In the 1 7th century it was a favourite device to make a clock
show sidereal time as well as mean solar time. The length of
the sidereal day is to the mean solar day as -99727 to i, and
various attempts have been made by trains of wheels to obtain
this relation but all are somewhat complicated.

Magical clocks are of several kinds. One that was in vogue
about 1880 had a bronze figure on the top with outstretched arm
holding in its hand the upper part of the spring of a pendulum,

552

CLOCK

about 10 in. long. The pendulum had apparently no escapement
and the puzzle was how it was maintained in motion. It was
impossible to detect the mystery by the aid of the eye alone; the
truth, however, was that the whole figure swung to and fro at
each oscillation of the pendulum, to an amount of -ffaoi an inch
on the outside rim of the base. A movement of -ffa of an inch
per half second of time is imperceptible; it would be equivalent
to perception of motion of the minute hand of a clock about 6 in.
in diameter, which is almost impossible. The connexion of the
figure to the anchor of the escapement was very complicated, but
clocks of the kind kept fair time. A straw, poised near the end on
a needle and with the short end united by a thread to the bronze
figure, makes the motion apparent at once and discloses the trick.
Another magical clock consists of two disks of thin sheet glass
mounted one close behind the other, one carrying the minute hand
and the other the hour hand. The disks rest on rollers which rotate
and turn them round. The front and back of the movable
disks are covered by other disks of glass surrounded by a frame,
so that the whole looks simply like a single sheet of glass mounted
in a frame, in the centre of which the hands rotate, without any
visible connexion with the works of the clock.

Clocks have been made with a sort of balance wheel consisting
of a thread with a ball at the end which winds backwards and
forwards spirally round a rod. In others a swing or see-saw is
attached to the pendulum, or a ship under canvas is made to
oscillate in a heavy sea. In others the time is measured by the
fall of a ball down an inclined plane, the time of fall being given
by the formula /= V (zs/gsina), where s is the length of the incline
and a the inclination. But friction so modules the result as to
render experiment the only mode of adjusting such a clock.
Sometimes a clock is made to serve as its own weight, as for
instance when a clock shaped like a monkey is allowed to slide
down a rope wound round the going barrel. Or the clock is made
of a cylindrical shape outside and provided with a weighted arm
instead of a going barrel; on being put upon an incline, it rolls
down, and the fall supplies the motive power.

Clocks are frequently provided with chimes moved exactly like
musical boxes, except that the pins in the barrel, instead of
flipping musical combs, raise hammers which fall upon bells.
The driving barrel is let off at suitable intervals. The cuckoo
clock is a pretty piece of mechanism. By the push of a wire given
to the body of the bird, it is bent forward, the wings and tail are
raised and the beak opened. At the same time two weighted
bellows measuring about i X2 in. are raised and successively let
drop. These are attached to small wooden organ pipes, one tuned
a fifth above the other, which produce the notes. Phonographs
are also attached to clocks, by which the hours are called instead
of rung.

Clocks are also constructed with conical pendulums. It is a
property of the conical pendulum that if swung round, the time
of one complete revolution is the same as that of the double
vibration of a pendulum equal in length to the vertical distance
of the bob of the conical pendulum below its point of support.
It follows that if the driving force of such a pendulum can be kept
constant (as it easily can by an electric contact which is made at
every revolution during which it falls below a certain point) the
clock will keep time; or friction can be introduced so as to
reduce the speed whenever the pendulum flies round too fast and
hence the bob rises. Or again by suitable arrangements the bob
may be made to move in certain curves so as to be isochronous.
Plans of this kind are employed rather to drive telescopes,
phonographs and other machines requiring uniform and steady
movement. ,

Comical and performing clocks were very popular in the isth
and 1 6th centuries. One at Basel in Switzerland was arranged
so as gradually to protrude a long tongue as the pendulum
vibrated. It is still to be seen there in the museum. The famous
clock at Strassburg, originally constructed in 1574, remade in
1842, displays a whole series of scenes, including processions of
the apostles and other persons, and a cock that crows. A fine
clock at Venice has two rather stiff bronze giants that strike the
hours.

Clocks with complicated movements representing the positions
of the heavenly bodies and the days of the week and month,
allowance being made for leap year, were once the delight of the
curious. Repeating clocks, which sounded the hours when a
string waspulled, were once popular. The string simply raised the
lifting piece and let the clock strike as the hands would do when
they came to the hour. This was of use in the old days when the
only mode of striking a light at night was with a flint and steel,
but lucifer matches and the electric light have rendered these
clocks obsolete.

Testing Clocks. The average amount by which a clock gains or
loses is called its mean or average daily rate. A large daily rate
of error is no proof that a clock is a bad one, for it might be
completely removed by pendulum adjustment. What is required
is that the daily rate shall be uniform, that is, that the clock shall
not be gaining (or losing) more on one day than on another, or at
one period of the same day than at another. In fig. 34 A B is a
curve in which the abscissae represent intervals of time, the
ordinates the number of seconds at any time by which the clock
is wrong. The curve C D is one in which the ordinates are
proportional to the tangents of the angles of inclination of the
curve A B to the axis of x, that is dy/dx. Whenever the line A B
is horizontal, C D cuts the axis of *. In a clock having no
variation in its daily rate the curve A B would become a straight
line, though it might be inclined to the axis of *, and C D, also a
straight line, would be parallel to the axis of x, though it might
not coincide with it. In a clock set to exact time and having
no variations of daily
rate, both the curves
would be straight
lines and would coin-
cide with the axis of
x. The curve C D,
known as the curve
of variation of daily
rate, will generally
be found to follow
changes of day and
night, and of tem-

FIG. 34. Curve of Variation of daily rate.

perature, and the fluctuations of the barometer and hygrometer;
it is the curve which reveals the true character of the clock.
Hence in testing a clock two things have to be determined:
first, the daily rate of error, and second, the average variations
from that daily rate, in other words the irregularities of going.
To test a clock well six months' or a year's trial is needed, and
it is desirable to have it subjected to considerable changes of
temperature.

The bibliography of horology is very extensive. Among modern
works Lord Grimthorpe's Rudimentary Treatise on Clocks, Watches
and Bells (8th edition, London, 1903) is perhaps the most convenient.
Many references to older literature will be found in Thomas Reid's
Treatise on Clock and Watchmaking (1849). (G.; H. H. C.)

Decorative Aspects. In art the clock occupies a position of
considerable distinction, and antique examples are prized and
collected as much for the decorative qualities of their cases as
for the excellence of their time-keeping. French and English
cabinet-makers have especially excelled, although in entirely
different ways, in the making of clock cases. The one aimed at
comely utility, often made actually beautiful by fit proportion
and the employment of finely grained woods; the other sought
a bold and dazzling splendour in which ornament overlay
material. It was not in either country until the latter part of
the 1 7th century that the cabinet-maker's opportunity came.
The bracket or chamber clock gave comparatively little scope
to the worker in wood in its earlier period, indeed, it was
almost invariably encased in brass or other metal; and it was
not until the introduction of the long pendulum swinging in a
small space that it became customary to encase clocks' in de-
corative woodwork. The long or " grandfather " clock dates
from about the fourth quarter of the I7th century what is,
perhaps, the earliest surviving English dated specimen is
inscribed with the date 1681. Originally it was a development

CLODIA, VIA CLODIUS

553

of the dome-shaped bracket clock, and in the older examples
the characteristic dome or canopy is preserved. The first time-
keepers of this type had oaken cases indeed oak was never
entirely abandoned; but when walnut began to come into favour
a few years later that beautifully marked wood was almost
invariably used for the choicest and most costly specimens.
Thus in 1698 the dean and chapter of St Paul's cathedral paid
the then very substantial price of 14 for an inlaid walnut long-
cased eight-day dock to stand in one of the vestries. The
rapidity with which the new style came into use is suggested
by the fact that while very few long clocks can be certainly dated
before 1690, between that year and the end of the century there
are many examples. Throughout the i8th century they were
made in myriads all over England, and since they were a prized
possession it is not surprising that innumerable examples have
survived. Vary as they may in height and girth, in wood and
dial, they are all essentially alike. In their earlier years their
faces were usually of brass engraved with cherubs' heads or
conventional designs, but eventually the less rich white face
grew common. There are two varieties the eight-day and the
thirty-hour. The latter is but little esteemed, notwithstanding
that it is often as decorative as the more expensive clock. The
favourite walnut case of the late iyth and early i8th century
gave place in the course of a generation to mahogany, which
retained its primacy until the introduction of cheaper clocks
brought about the supersession of the long-cased variety. Many
of these cases were made in lacquer when that material was in
vogue; satinwood and other costly foreign timbers were also
used for bandings and inlay. The most elegant of the " grand-
father " cases are, however, the narrow-waisted forms of the
William and Mary period in walnut inlay, the head framed in
twisted pilasters. Long clocks of the old type are still made
in small numbers and at high prices; they usually contain
chimes. During the later period of their popularity the heads
of long clocks were often filled in with painted disks representing
the moon, by which its course could be followed. Such conceits
as ships moving on waves or time with wings were also in favour.
The northern parts of France likewise produced tall clocks,
usually in oaken cases; those with Louis Quinze shaped panels
are often very decorative. French love of applied ornament
was, however, generally inimical to the rather uncompromising
squareness of the English case, and the great Louis Quinze and
Louis Seize cabinetmakers made some magnificent and monu-
mental clocks, many of which were " long " only as regards the
case, the pendulum being comparatively short, while sometimes
the case acted merely as a pedestal for a bracket-clock fixed on
the top. These pieces were usually mounted very elaborately
in gilt bronze, cast and chased, and French bracket and chamber
clocks were usually of gilded metal or marble, or a combination
of the two; this essentially late 18th-century type still persists.
English bracket clocks contemporary with them were most
frequently of simple square or arched form in mahogany. The
"grandfather" case was also made in the Low Countries, of
generous height, very swelling and bulbous.

See F. J. Britten, Old Clocks and Watches and their Makers (2nd
edition, London, 1904) ; Mathieu Planchon, L'Horloge, son histoire
retrospective, pittoresque et artistique (Paris, 1899). (J. P.-B.)

CLODIA, VIA, an ancient high-road of Italy. Its course, for
the first ii m., was the same as that of the Via Cassia; it then
diverged to the N.N.W. and ran on the W. side of the Lacus
Sabatinus, past Forum Clodii and Blera. At Forum Cassii it
may have rejoined the Via Cassia, and it seems to have taken
the same line as the latter as far as Florentia (Florence). But
beyond Florentia, between Luca (Lucca) and Luna, we find
another Forum Clodii, and the Antonine Itinerary gives the
route from Luca to Rome as being by the Via Clodia wrongly
as regards the portion from Florentia southwards, but perhaps
rightly as regards that from Luca to Florentia. In that case
the Clodius whose name the road bears, possibly C. Clodius
Vestalis (c. 43 B.C.), was responsible for the construction of the
first portion and of that from Florentia to Luca (and Luna) , and
the founder of the two Fora Clodii. The name seems, in imperial

times, to have to some extent driven out that of the Cassia, and
both roads were administered, with other minor roads, by the
same curator.

See Ch. Hiilsen in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencydopadie, iv. 63; cf.
CASSIA, VIA. (T. As.)

CLODIUS, 1 PUBLIUS (c. 93-52 B.C.), surnamed PULCHER,
Roman politician. He took part in the third Mithradatic war
under his brother-in-law Lucius Licinius Lucullus, but considering
himself treated with insufficient respect, he stirred up a revolt;
another brother-in-law, Q. Marcius Rex, governor of Cilicia, gave
him the command of his fleet, but he was captured by pirates.
On his release he repaired to Syria, where he nearly 'lost his life
during a mutiny instigated by himself. Returning to Rome
in 65, he prosecuted Catiline for extortion, but was bribed by
him to procure acquittal. There seems no reason to believe that
Clodius was implicated in the Catilinarian conspiracy; indeed,
according to Plutarch (Cicero, 29), he rendered Cicero every
assistance and acted as one of his body-guard. The affair of
the mysteries of the Bona Dea, however, caused a breach
between Clodius and Cicero in December 62. Clodius, dressed
as a woman (men were not admitted to the mysteries), entered
the house of Caesar, where the mysteries were being celebrated,
in order to carry on an intrigue with Caesar's wife. He was
detected and brought to trial, but escaped condemnation by
bribing the jury. Cicero's violent attacks on this occasion
inspired Clodius with the desire for revenge. On his return from
Sicily (where he had been quaestor in 61) he renounced his
patrician rank, and, having with the connivance of Caesar been
adopted by a certain P. Fonteius, was elected tribune of the
people (loth of December 59). His first act was to bring forward
certain laws calculated to secure him the popular favour. Corn,
instead of being sold at a low rate, was to be distributed gratui-
tously once a month; the right of taking the omens on a fixed
day and (if they were declared unfavourable) of preventing the
assembly of the comitia, possessed by every magistrate by the
terms of the Lex Aelia Fufia, was abolished; the old clubs or
gilds of workmen were re-established; the censors were forbidden
to exclude any citizen from the senate or inflict any punishment
upon him unless he had been publicly accused and condemned.
He then contrived to get rid of Cicero (q.v.) and the younger
Cato (<?..), who was sent to Cyprus as praetor to take possession
of the island and the royal treasures. Cicero's property was
confiscated by order of Clodius, his house on the Palatine burned
down, and its site put up to auction. It was purchased by
Clodius himself, who, not wishing to appear in the matter, put
up some one to bid for him. After the departure of Caesar for
Gaul, Clodius became practically master of Rome with the aid
of armed ruffians and a system of secret societies. In 57 one of
the tribunes proposed the recall of Cicero, and Clodius resorted
to force to prevent the passing of the decree, but was foiled
by Titus Annius Milo (q.v.), who brought up an armed band
sufficiently strong to hold him in check. Clodius subsequently
attacked the workmen who were rebuilding Cicero's house at
the public cost, assaulted Cicero himself in the street, and set
fire to the house of Q. Cicero. In 56, when curule aedile, he
impeached Milo for public violence (de m), when defending his
house against the attacks of Clodius, and also charged him with
keeping armed bands in his service. Judicial proceedings were
hindered by outbreaks of disturbance, and the matter was
finally dropped. In 53, when Milo was a candidate for the
consulship, and Clodius for the praetorship, the rivals collected
armed bands and fights took place in the streets of Rome, and
on the 2oth of January 52 Clodius was slain near Bovillae.

His sister, CLODIA, wife of Q. Caecilius Metellus Celer, was
notorious for her numerous love affairs. It is now generally
admitted that she was the Lesbia of Catullus (Teuffel-Schwabe,
Hist, of Roman Lit., Eng. tr., 214, 3). For her intrigue with M.
Caelius Rufus, whom she afterwards pursued with unrelenting

1 It is suggested (W. M. Lindsay, The Latin Language, p. 41) that
he changed his name Claudius into the plebeian form Clodius, in
order to gain the favour of the mob.

554

CLOGHER CLOISTER

hatred and accused of attempting to poison her, see Cicero,
Pro Caelio, where she is represented as a woman of abandoned
character.

AUTHORITIES. ^Cicero, Letters (ed. Tyrrell and Purser), Pro Caelio,
pro Sestio, pro Mtione, pro Domo sua, de Haruspicum Responses, in
Pisonem; Plutarch, Luctdlus, Pompey, Cicero, Caesar; Dio Cassius
xxxvi. 16, IQ, xxxvii. 45, 46, SI, xxxviii. 12-14, xxxix. 6, II, xl. 48.
See also I. Gentile, Clodio e Cicerone (Milan, 1876); E. S. Beesley,
" Cicero and Clodius," in Fortnightly Review, v.; G. Lacour-Gayet,
De P. Clodio Pulchro (Paris, 1888), and in Revue historique (Sept.
1889); H. White, Cicero, Clodius and Milo (New York, 1900); G.
Boissier, Cicero and his Friends (Eng. trans., 1897).

^ CLOGHER, a market village of Co. Tyrone, Ireland, in the
south parliamentary division, on the Clogher Valley light
railway. Pop. (1901) 225. It gives name to dioceses of the
Church of Ireland and the Roman Catholic Church, but the
seat of the Roman Catholic bishop is at Monaghan, with the
cathedral. The Protestant cathedral, dedicated to St Macartin,
dates from the i8th and early igth century, but St Macartin
(c. 500) was a disciple of St Patrick, and it is said that St Patrick
himself founded a bishopric here. The name is derived from
the Irish clock, a pillar stone, such as were worshipped and
regarded as oracles in many parts of pagan Ireland; the stone
was preserved as late as the I5th century in the cathedral, and
identity is even now claimed for a stone which lies near the
church.

CLOISTER (Lat. claustrum; Fr. dottre; Ital. chiostro;
Span, claustro; Ger. Kloster). The word " cloister," though
now restricted to the four-sided enclosure, surrounded with
covered ambulatories, usually attached to coventual and
cathedral churches, and sometimes to colleges, or by a still
further limitation to the ambulatories themselves, originally
signified the entire monastery. In this sense it is of frequent
occurrence in earlier English literature (e.g. Shakespeare, Meas.
for Meas. i. 3, " This day my sister should the cloister enter"),
and is still employed in poetry. The Latin claustrum, as its
derivation implies, primarily denoted no more than the enclosing
wall of a religious house, and then came to be used for the whole
building enclosed within the wall. To this sense the German
" Kloster " is still limited, the covered walks, or cloister in the
modern sense, being called " Klostergang," or "Kreuzgang."
In French the word clottre retains the double sense.

In the special sense now most common, the word " cloister "
denotes the quadrilateral area in a monastery or college of
canons, round which the principal buildings are ranged, and
which is usually provided with a covered way or ambulatory
running all round, and affording a means of communication
between the various centres of the ecclesiastical life, without
exposure to the weather. According to the Benedictine
arrangement, which from its suitability to the requirements
of monastic life was generally adopted in the West, one side of
the cloister was formed by the church, the refectory occupying
the side opposite to it, that the worshippers might have the
least annoyance from the noise or smell of the repasts. On the
eastern side the chapter-house was placed, with other apartments
belonging to the common life of the brethren adjacent to it,
and, as a common rule, the dormitory occupied the whole of the
upper story. On the opposite or western side were generally
the cellarer's lodgings, with the cellars and store-houses, in
which the provisions necessary for the sustenance of the con-
fraternity were housed. In. Cistercian monasteries the western
side was usually occupied by the " domus conversorum," or
lodgings of the lay-brethren, with their day-rooms and workshops
below, and dormitory above. The cloister, with its surrounding
buildings, generally stood on the south side of the church, to
secure as much sunshine as possible. A very early example of
this disposition is seen in the plan of the monastery of St Gall
(see ABBEY, fig. 3). Local requirements, in some instances,
caused the cloister to be placed to the north of the church.
This is the case in the English cathedrals, formerly Benedictine
abbeys, of Canterbury, Gloucester and Chester, as well as in
that of Lincoln. Other examples of the northward situation
are at Tintern, Buildwas and Sherborne. Although the covered

ambulatories are absolutely essential to the completeness of a
monastic cloister, a chief object of which was to enable the
inmates to pass from one part of the monastery to another
without inconvenience from rain, wind, or sun, it appears that
they were sometimes wanting. The cloister at St Albans seems
to have been deficient in ambulatories till the abbacy of Robert
of Gorham, 1151-1166, when the eastern walk was erected.
This, as was often the case with the earliest ambulatories, was
of wood covered with a sloping roof or " penthouse." We learn
from Osbern's account of the conflagration of the monastery of
Christ Church, Canterbury, 1067, that a cloister with covered
ways existed at that time, affording communication between
the church, the dormitory and the refectory. We learn from an
early drawing of the monastery of Canterbury that this cloister
was formed by an arcade of Norman arches supported on shafts,
and covered by a shed roof. A fragment of an arcaded cloister
of this pattern is still found on the eastern side of the infirmary-
cloister of the same foundation. This earlier form of cloister
has been generally superseded in England by a range of windows,
usually unglazed, but sometimes, as at Gloucester, provided
with glass, lighting a vaulted ambulatory, of which the cloisters
of Westminster Abbey, Salisbury and Norwich are typical
examples. The older design was preserved in the South, where
" the cloister is never a window, or anything in the least approach-
ing to it in design, but a range of small elegant pillars, sometimes
single, sometimes coupled, and supporting arches of a light and
elegant design, all the features being of a character suited to
the place where they are used, and to that only " (Fergusson,
Hist, of Arch. i. p. 610). As examples of this description of
cloister, we may refer to the exquisite cloisters of St John
Lateran, and St Paul's without the walls, at Rome, where the
coupled shafts and arches are richly ornamented with ribbons
of mosaic, and those of the convent of St Scholastica at Subiaco,
all of the i3th century, and to the beautiful cloisters at Aries,
in southern France; those of Aix, Fontfroide, Elne, &c., are
of the same type; as also the Romanesque cloisters at Zurich,
where the design suffers from the deep abacus having only a
single slender shaft to support it, and at Laach, where the
quadrangle occupies the place of the " atrium " of the early
basilicas at the west end, as at St Clement's at Rome, and St
Ambrose at Milan. Spain also presents some magnificent
cloisters of both types, of which that of the royal convent of
Huelgas, near Burgos, of the arcaded form, is, according to
Fergusson, " unrivalled for beauty both of detail and design,
and is perhaps unsurpassed by anything in its age and style
in any part of Europe." Few cloisters are more beautiful than
those of Monreale and Cefalu in Sicily, where the arrangement
is the same, of slender columns in pairs with capitals of elaborate
foliage supporting pointed arches of great elegance of form.

All other cloisters are surpassed in dimensions and in sump-
tuousness of decoration by the " Campo Santo " at Pisa. This
magnificent cloister consists of four ambulatories as wide and
lofty as the nave of a church, erected in 1278 by Giovanni
Pisano round a cemetery composed of soil brought from Palestine
by Archbishop Lanfranchi in the middle of the I2th century.
The window-openings are semicircular, filled with elaborate
tracery in the latter half of the isth century. The inner walls
are covered with frescoes invaluable in the history of art by
Orcagna, Simone Memmi, Buffalmacco, Benozzo Gozzoli, and
other early painters of the Florentine school. The ambulatories
now serve as a museum of sculpture. The internal dimensions
are 415 ft. 6. in. in length, 137 ft. 10 in. in breadth, while each
ambulatory is 34 ft. 6. in. wide by 46 ft. high.

The cloister of a religious house was the scene of a large part
of the life of the inmates of a monastery. It was the place of
education for the younger members, and of study for the elders.
A canon of the Roman council held under Eugenius II., in 826,
enjoins the erection of a cloister as an essential portion of an
ecclesiastical establishment for the better discipline and instruc-
tion of the clerks. Peter of Blois (Serm. 25) describes schools
for the novices as being in the west walk, and moral lectures
delivered in that next the church. At Canterbury the monks'

CLONAKILTY CLONMEL

555

school was in the western ambulatory, and it was in the same
walk that the novices were taught at Durham (Willis, Monastic
Buildings of Canterbury, p. 44; Rites of Durham, p. 71). The
other alleys, especially that next the church, were devoted to the
studies of the elder monks. The constitutions of Hildemar and
Dunstan enact that between the services of the church the
brethren should sit in the cloister and read theology. For this
purpose small studies, known as " carrols," i.e. a ring or enclosed
space, were often found in the recesses of the windows. Of this
arrangement there are examples at Gloucester, Chester and
elsewhere. The use of these studies is thus described in the
Rites of Durham: " In every wyndowe " in the north alley
" were iii pewes or carrells, where every one of the olde monkes
had his carrell severally by himselfe, that when they had dyned
they dyd resorte to that place of cloister, and there studyed
upon their books, every one in his carrell all the afternonne unto
evensong tyme. This was there exercise every daie." On the
opposite wall were cupboards full of books for the use of the
students in the carrols. The cloister arrangements at Canterbury
were similar to those just described. New studies were made by
Prior De Estria in 1317, and Prior Selling (1472-1494) glazed
the south alley for the use of the studious brethren, and con-
structed " the new framed contrivances, of late styled carrols "
(Willis, Mon. Buildings, p. 45). The cloisters were used not for
study only but also for recreation. The constitutions of Arch-
bishop Lanfranc, sect. 3, permitted the brethren to converse
together there at certain hours of the day. To maintain necessary
discipline a special officer was appointed under the title of prior
daustri. The cloister was always furnished with a stone bench
running along the side. It was also provided with a lavatory,
usually adjacent to the refectory, but sometimes standing
in the central area, termed the cloister-garth, as at Durham.
The cloister-garth was used as a place of sepulture, as well as the
surrounding alleys. The cloister was in some few instances of
two stories, as at Old St Paul's, and St Stephen's chapel, West-
minster, and occasionally, as at Wells, Chichester and Hereford,
had only three alleys, there being no ambulatory under the
church wall.

The larger monastic establishments had more than one cloister;
there was usually a second connected with the infirmary, of which
there are examples at Westminster Abbey and at Canterbury;
and sometimes one giving access to the kitchen and other
domestic offices.

The cloister was not an appendage of monastic houses ex-
clusively. It was also attached to colleges of secular canons,
as at the cathedrals of Lincoln, Salisbury, Wells, Hereford and
Chichester, and formerly at St Paul's and Exeter. It is, however,
absent at York, Lichfield, Beverley, Ripon, Southwell and Wim-
borne. A cloister forms an essential part of the colleges of Eton
and Winchester, and of New College and Magdalen at Oxford,
and was designed by Wolsey at Christ Church. These were used
for religious processions and lectures, for ambulatories for the
studious at all times, and for places of exercise for the inmates
generally in wet weather, as well as in some instances for
sepulture.

For the arrangements of the Carthusian cloisters, as well as
for some account of those appended to the monasteries of the
East, see ABBEY. (E. V.)

CLONAKILTY, a seaport and market town of Co. Cork, Ireland,
in the south parliamentary division, at the head of Clonakilty
Bay, 33 m. S.W. of Cork on a branch of the Cork, Bandon &
South Coast railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 3098. It
was brought into prosperity by Richard Boyle, first earl of Cork,
and was granted a charter in 1613; but was partly demolished
on the occasion of a fight between the English and Irish in 1641.
It returned two members to the Irish parliament until the union.
In the i8th century there was an extensive linen industry. The
present trade is centred in brewing, corn-milling, yarn and
farm-produce. The harbour-mouth is obstructed by a bar, and
there is a pier for large vessels at Ring, a mile below the town. The
fisheries are of importance. A ruined church on the island of
Inchdorey, and castles on Galley Head, at Dunnycove, and at

Dunowen, together with a stone circle, are the principal antiquities
in the neighbourhood.

CLONES, a market town of Co. Monaghan, Ireland, in the
north parliamentary division, 64$ m. S.W. by W. from Belfast,
and 93$ m. N.W. from Dublin by the Great Northern railway,
on which system it is an important junction, the lines from
Dublin, from Belfast, from Londonderry and Enniskillen, and
from Cavan converging here. Pop. of urban district (1901), 2068.
The town has a considerable argicultural trade, and there are
corn mills and manufactures of agricultural implements. A
former lace-making industry is extinct. The market-place,
called the Diamond, occupies the summit of the slight elevation
on which the town is situated. Clones was the seat of an abbey
founded in the 6th century by St Tighernach (Tierney), to whom
the Protestant parish church is dedicated. Remains of the abbey
include a nave and tower of the 1 2th century, and a curious shrine
formed out of a great block of red sandstone. Other antiquities
are a round tower of rude masonry, 75 ft. high but lacking the
cap; a rath, or encampment, and an ancient market cross in the
Diamond.

CLONM ACNOISE, one of the most noteworthy of the numerous
early religious settlements in Ireland, on the river Shannon, in
King's county, 9 m. S. of Athlone. An abbey was founded here
by St Kieran in 541, which as a seat of learning gained a European
fame, receiving offerings, for example, from Charles the Great,
whose companion Alcuin the scholar received part of his educa-
tion from the great teacher Colcu at Conmacnoise. Several
books of annals were compiled here, and the foundation became
the seat of a bishopric, but it was plundered and wasted by the
English in 1552, and in 1568 the diocese was united with that of
Meath. The most remarkable literary monument of'Clonmac-
noise is the Book of the Dun Cow, written about noo, still
preserved (but in an imperfect form) by the Royal Irish Academy,
and containing a large number of romances. It is a copy of a
much earlier original, which was written on the skin of a favourite
cow of St Kieran, whence the name of the work. The full title of
the foundation is the " Seven Churches of Clonmacnoise," and
remains of all these are extant. The Great Church, though
rebuilt by a chief named McDermot, in the I4th century, retains
earlier remains in a fine west doorway; the other churches are
those of Fineen, Conor, St Kieran, Kelly, Melaghlin and Dowling.
There are two round towers; O'Rourke's, lacking the roof, but
occupying a commanding situation on rising ground, is dated by
Petrie from the early loth century, and stands 62 ft. in height;
and McCarthy's, attached to Fineen's church, which is more
perfect, but rather shorter, and presents the unusual feature of a
doorway level with the ground, instead of several feet above it as
is customary. There are three crosses, of which the Great Cross,
made of a single stone and 15 ft. in height, is splendidly carved,
with tracery and inscriptions. It faces the door of the Great
Church, and is of the same date. A large number of inscribed
stones dating from the gth century and after are preserved in the
churches. There are further remains of the Castle and Episcopal
palace, a fortified building of the I4th century, and of a nunnery
of the 1 2th century. In the neighbourhood are seen striking
examples of the glacial phenomenon of eskers, or gravel ridges.

CLONMEL, a municipal borough and the county town of Co.
Tipperary, Ireland, in the east parliamentary division, 112 m.
S.W. from Dublin on a branch from Thurles of the Great Southern
& Western railway, which makes a junction here with the
Waterford and Limerick line of the same company. Pop. (1901)
10,167. Clonmel is built on both sides of the Suir, and also
occupies Moore and Long Islands, which are connected with
the mainland by three bridges. The principal buildings are the
parish church, two Roman Catholic churches, a Franciscan friary,
two convents, an endowed school dating from 1685, and the
various county buildings. The beauty of the environs, and
especially of the river, deserves mention; and their charm is
enhanced by the neighbouring Galtee, Knockmealdown and other
mountains, among which Slievenaman (2364 ft.) is conspicuous.
A woollen manufacture was established in 1667, and was ex-
tensively carried on until the close of the i8th century The

556

CLOOTS CLOT

town contains breweries, flour-mills and tanneries, and has a
considerable export trade in grain, cattle, butter and provisions.
It stands at the head of navigation for barges on the Suir. It was
the centre of a system, established by Charles Bianconi (1786-
1875) in 1815 and subsequently, for the conveyance of travellers
on light cars, extending over a great part of Leinster, Munster
and Connaught. It is governed by a mayor and corporation,
which, though retained under the Local Government (Ireland)
Act of 1898, has practically the status of an urban district
council. By the same act a part of the town formerly situated
in county Waterford was added to county Tipperary. It was
a parliamentary borough, returning one member, until 1885;
having returned two members to the Irish parliament until the
union.

The name, Cluain mealla, signifies the Vale of Honey. In
1269 the place was chosen as the seat of a Franciscan friary by
Otho de Grandison, the first English possessor of the district; and
it frequently comes into notice in the following centuries. In
1641 it declared for the Roman Catholic party, and in 1650 it was
gallantly defended by Hugh O'Neill against the English under
Cromwell. Compelled at last to capitulate, it was completely
dismantled, and was never again fortified. Remains of the wall
are seen in the churchyard, and the West Gate still stands in the
main street.

CLOOTS, JEAN BAPTISTE DU VAL DE GRACE, BARON VON
(1755-1794), better known as ANACHARSIS CLOOTS, a noteworthy
figure in the French Revolution, was born near Cleves, at the
castle of Gnadenthal. He belonged to a noble Prussian family
of Dutch origin. The young Cloots, heir to a great fortune, was
sent at eleven years of age to Paris to complete his education.
There he imbibed the theories of his uncle the Abbe Cornelius de
Pauw (1730-1799), philosopher, geographer and diplomatist at
the court of Frederick the Great. His father placed him in the
military academy at Berlin, but he left it at the age of twenty and
traversed Europe, preaching his revolutionary philosophy as an
apostle, and spending his money as a man of pleasure. On the
breaking out of the Revolution he returned in 1789 to Paris,
thinking the opportunity favourable for establishing his dream
of a universal family of nations. On the i9th of June 1790 he
appeared at the bar of the Assembly at the head of thirty-six
foreigners; and, in the name of this " embassy of the human
race," declared that the world adhered to the Declaration of the
Rights of Man and of the Citizen. After this he was known as
" the orator of the human race," by which title he called himself,
dropping that of baron, and substituting for his baptismal names
the pseudonym of Anacharsis, from the famous philosophical
romance of the Abbe Jean Jacques Barthelemy. In 1792 he
placed 12,000 livres at the disposal of the Republic " for the
arming of forty or fifty fighters in the sacred cause of man
against tyrants." The xoth of August impelled him to a still
higher flight; he declared himself the personal enemy of Jesus
Christ, and abjured all revealed religions. In the same month he
had the rights of citizenship conferred on him; and, having in
September been elected a member of the Convention, he voted
the king's death in the name of the human race, and was an active
partisan of the war of propaganda. Excluded at the instance
of Robespierre from the Jacobin Club, he was soon afterwards
implicated in an accusation levelled against the Hebertists.
His innocence was manifest, but he was condemned, and
guillotined on the 24th of March 1794.

Cloots' main works are : La Certitude des preuiies du mahome-
tisme (London, 1780), published under the pseudonym of Ali-Gur-
Ber, in answer to Bergier's Certitude des preuves du christianisme ;
L'Orateur du genre humain, ou Deptches du Prussien Cloots au
Prussien Herzberg (Paris, 1791), and La Republique universelle
(1792).

The biography of Cloots by G. Avenel (2 vols., Paris, 1865) is too
eulogistic. See the three articles by H. Baulig in La Revolution
fratifaise, t. 41 (1901).

CLOQUET, a city of Carlton county, Minnesota, U.S.A., on
the St Louis river, 28 m. W. by S. of Duluth. Pop. (1890) 2530;
(1900) 3072; (1905, state census) 6117, of whom 2755 were

foreign-born (716 Swedes, 689 Finns, 685 Canadians, 334 Norwe-
gians); (1910) 7031. Cloquet is served by the Northern Pacific,
the Great Northern, the Duluth & North-Eastern, and (for
freight only) the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways. The
river furnishes good water-power, and the city has various
manufactures, including lumber, paper, wood pulp, match
blocks and boxes. The first mill was built in 1878, and the
village was named from the French word claquet (sound of the
mill). Cloquet was incorporated as a village in 1883 and was
chartered as a city in 1903.

CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (X822-I003), Irish geologist,
was born in Dublin in 1822. He was educated at Weymouth
and at Trinity College, Dublin, where he graduated in 1846; and
two years later he entered holy orders. For a year he was
curate of All Saints, Northampton; from 1849 to 1857 he was
rector of Shangton in Leicestershire; and then for four years
he was curate of Waltham-on- the- Wolds. In 1 86 1, on the death
of his father, he returned to Dublin, and while giving his services
to various churches in the city, devoted himself almost wholly
to literary and scientific pursuits, and especially to the glacial
geology of Ireland, on which subject he became an acknowledged
authority. His paper, read before the Geological Society of
Ireland in 1866, on the " General Glaciation of Ireland " is a
masterly description of the effects of glaciation, and of the
evidence in favour of^the action of land-ice. Later on he dis-
cussed the origin of the elevated shell-bearing gravels near
Dublin, and expressed the view that they were accumulated
by floating ice when the land had undergone submergence. He
was for a time treasurer of the Royal Irish Academy, an active
member of the Royal Dublin Society, and president in 1878
of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland. Astronomy and
physics, as well as the ancient language and antiquities of
Ireland, 'attracted his attention. He died in Dublin on the I2th
of September 1903.

The obituary by Prof. G. A. J. Cole in Irish Naturalist, vol. xii.
(1903) pp. 301-306, contains a list of publications and portrait.

CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut), a closed place or enclosure.
In English law, the term is applied to a portion of land, enclosed
or not, held as private property, and to any exclusive interest
in land sufficient to maintain an action for trespass quare clausum
fregit. The word is also used, particularly in Scotland, of the
entry or passage, including the common staircase, of a block
of tenement houses, and in architecture for the precincts of a
cathedral or abbey.

The adjective " close " (i.e. closed) is found in several phrases,
such as " close time " or " close season " (see GAME LAWS) ;
close borough, one of which the rights and privileges were
enjoyed by a limited class (see BOROUGH) ; close rolls and writs,
royal letters, &c., addressed to particular persons, under seal,
and not open to public inspection (see RECORD; Chqncery;
LETTERS PATENT). From the sense of " closed up," and so
" confined," comes the common meaning of " near."

CLOSURE (Fr. cldture), the parliamentary term for the closing
of debate according to a certain rule, even when certain
members are anxious to continue the debate. (See PARLIAMENT:
Procedure.)

CLOT, ANTOINE BARTHELEMY (1793-1868), French
physician, known as CLOT BEY, was born at Grenoble on the
7th of November 1793, and graduated in medicine and surgery
at Montpellier. After practising for a time at Marseilles he was
made chief surgeon to Mehemet Ali, viceroy of Egypt. At
Abuzabel, near Cairo, he founded a hospital and schools for all
branches of medical instruction, as well as for the study of
the French language; and, notwithstanding the most serious
religious difficulties, instituted the study of anatomy by means
of dissection. In 1832 Mehemet AU gave him the dignity of
bey without requiring him to abjure his religion; and in 1836
he received the rank of general, and was appointed head of the
medical administration of the country. In 1849 he returned to
Marseilles, though he revisited Egypt in 1856. He died at Mar-
seilles on the 28th of August 1868. His publications included:
Relation des epidemics de cholera qui ont rlgnf a I'Heggiaz,

CLOTAIRE CLOUD

557

A Suez, el en gyple (1832); De la pesle observie en gypte
(1840); Aperfu general sur l'gypte (1840); Coup d'oeil sur la
pesle el les quarantines (1851); De I'ophlhalmie (1864).

CLOTAIRE (CHLOTHACHAR), the name of four Prankish kings.

CLOTAIRE I. (d. 561) was one of the four sons of Clovis. On
the death of his father in 511 he received as his share of the
kingdom the town of Soissons, which he made his capital, the
cities of Laon, Noyon, Cambrai and Maastricht, and the lower
course of the Meuse. But he was very ambitious, and sought
to extend his domain. He was the chief instigator of the murder
of his brother Clodomer's children in 524, and his- share of
the spoils consisted of the cities of Tours and Poitiers. He took
part in the various expeditions against Burgundy, and after
the destruction of that kingdom in 534 obtained Grenoble, Die
and some of the neighbouring cities. When Provence was
ceded to the Franks by the Ostrogoths, he received the cities
of Orange, Carpentras and Gap. In 531 he marched against the
Thuringi with his brother Theuderich(Thierry)!., and in 542 with
his brother Childebert against the Visigoths of Spain. On the
death of his great-nephew Theodebald in 555, Clotaire annexed
his territories; and on Childebert's death in 558 he became king
of all Gaul. He also ruled over the greater part of Germany,
made expeditions into Saxony, and for some time exacted from
the Saxons an annual tribute of 500 cows. The end of his reign
was troubled by internal dissensions, his son Chram rising
against him on several occasions. Following Chram into
Brittany, where the rebel had taken refuge, Clotaire shut him
up with his wife and children in a cottage, to which he
set fire. Overwhelmed with remorse, he went to Tours to
implore forgiveness at the tomb of St Martin, and died shortly
afterwards.

CLOTAIRE II. (d. 629) was the son of Chilperic I. On the
assassination of his father in 584 he was still in his cradle. He
was, however, recognized as king, thanks to the devotion of his
mother Fredegond and the protection of his uncle Gontran,
king of Burgundy. It was not until after the death of his
cousin Childebert II. in 595 that Clotaire took any active part
in affairs. He then endeavoured to enlarge his estates at the
expense of Childebert's sons, Theodebert, king of Austrasia, and
Theuderich II., king of Burgundy; but after gaining a victory
at Laffaux (597), he was defeated at Domiciles (600), and lost
part of his kingdom. After the war between Theodebert and
Theuderich and their subsequent death, the nobles of Austrasia
and Burgundy appealed to Clotaire, who, after putting Brun-
hilda to death, became master of the whole of the Prankish
kingdom (613). He was obliged, however, to make great con-
cessions to the aristocracy, to whom he owed his victory. By
the constitution of the i8th of October 614 he gave legal force
to canons which had been voted some days previously by a
council convened at Paris, but not without attempting to modify
them by numerous restrictions. He extended the competence
of the ecclesiastical tribunals, suppressed unjust taxes and
undertook to select the counts from the districts they had to
administer. In 623 he made his son Dagobert king of the
Austrasians, and gradually subdued all the provinces that had
formerly belonged to Childebert II. He also guaranteed a
certain measure of independence to the nobles of Burgundy,
giving them the option of having a special mayor of the
palace, or of dispensing with that officer. These concessions
procured him a reign of comparative tranquillity. He died
on the i8th of October 629, and was buried at Paris in the
church of St Vincent, afterwards known as St Germain des
Pres.

CLOTAIRE III. (652-673) was a son of King Clovis II. In

1657 he became the nominal ruler of the three Prankish kingdoms,
but was deprived of Austrasia in 663, retaining Neustria and
Burgundy until his death.

CLOTAIRE IV. (d. 719) was king of Austrasia from 717 to
719- (C. Pr.)

CLOTH, properly a covering, especially for the body, clothing,
then the material of which such a covering is made; hence any
material woven of wool or hair, cotton, flax or vegetable fibre.

In commercial usage, the word is particularly applied to a
fabric made of wool. The word is Teutonic, though it does not
appear in all the branches of the language. It appears in
German as Kind, dress (Kleidung, clothing), and in Dutch
as klccd. The ultimate origin is unknown; it may be connected
with the root kli- meaning to stick, cling to, which appears
in " clay," " cleave " and other words. The original meaning
would be either that which dings to the body, or that which is
pressed or " felted " together. The regular plural of " cloth "
was " clothes," which is now confined in meaning to articles
of clothing, garments, in which sense the singular " doth " is
not now used. For that word, in its modern sense of material,
the plural " doths " is used. This form dates from the beginning
of the 1 7th century, but the distinction in meaning between
" cloths " and " clothes " is a 19th-century one.

CLOTHIER, a manufacturer of cloth, or a dealer who sells
either the cloth or made-up clothing. In the United States the
word formerly applied only to those who dressed or fulled cloth
during the process of manufacture, but now it is used in the
general sense, as above.

CLOTILDA, SAINT (d. 544), daughter of the Burgundian king
Chilperic, and wife of Clovis, king of the Franks. On the death
of Gundioc, king of the Burgundians, in 473, his sons Gundobald,
Godegesil and Chilperic divided his heritage between them;
Chilperic apparently reigning at Lyons, Gundobald at Vienne
and Godegesil at Geneva. According to Gregory of Tours,
Chilperic was slain by Gundobald, his wife drowned, and of his
two daughters, Chrona took the veil and Clotilda was exiled.
This account, however, seems to have been a later invention.
At Lyons an epitaph has been discovered of a Burgundian queen,
who died in 506, and was most probably the mother of Clotilda.
Clotilda was brought up in the orthodox faith. Her uncle
Gundobald was asked for her hand in marriage by the Prankish
king Clovis, who had just conquered northern Gaul, and the
marriage was celebrated about 493. On this event many romantic
stories, all more or less embroidered, are to be found in the
works of Gregory of Tours and the chronicler Fredegarius, and
in the Liber hisloriae Francorum. Clotilda did not rest until
her husband had abjured paganism and embraced the orthodox
Christian faith (496). With him she built at Paris the church
of the Holy Apostles, afterwards known as Ste Genevieve.
After the death of Clovis in 511 she retired to the abbey of St
Martin at Tours. In 523 she incited her sons against her uncle
Gundobald and provoked the Burgundian war. In the following
year she tried in vain to protect the rights of her grandsons, the
children of Clodomer, against the claims of her sons Childebert
I. and Clotaire I., and was equally unsuccessful in her efforts
to prevent the civil discords between her children. She died
in 544, and was buried by her husband's side in the church of
the Holy Apostles.

There is a mediocre Life in Man. Germ. Hist.: Script, rer. Merov.,
vol. ii. See also G. Kurth, Sainte Clotiide (and ed., Paris, 1897).

(C. PF.)

CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as " clod,"
a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a
mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the late
I3th century; the Anglo-Saxon dud is only used in the sense
of " a mass of rock," woken being used for " cloud "), a mass of
condensed vapour hanging in the ah" at some height from the
earth.

Classification of Clouds. The earliest serious attempt to name
the varieties of cloud was made by J. B. Lamarck in 1801, but
he only used French terms, and those were not always happily
chosen. The field was therefore still dear when in 1803 Luke
Howard published, in TUloch's Philosophical Magazine, an
entirely independent scheme in which the terms were all Latin,
and were applied with such excellent judgment that his system
remains as the broad basis of those in use to-day. He recognized
three primary types of doud Cirrus, Cumulus and Stratus
and four derivative or compound forms, Cirro-cumulus,
Cirro-stratus, Cumulo-stratus and Cumulo-cirro-stratus or
Nimbus.

CLOUD

His own definitions were:

(1) Cirrus. Parallel, flexuous or diverging fibres, extensible in
any or all directions.

(2) Cumulus. Convex or conical heaps, increasing upward from
a horizontal base.

(3) Stratus. A widely-extended continuous horizontal sheet,
increasing from below.

(4) Cirro-cumulus. Small, well-defined, roundish masses, in close
horizontal arrangement.

(5) Cirro-stratus. Horizontal or slightly inclined masses, attenu-
ated towards a part or the whole of their circumferences, bent
downward, or undulated, separate or in groups consisting of small
clouds having these characters.

(6) Cumulo-stratus. The cirro-stratus blended with the cumulus,
and either appearing intermixed with the heaps of the latter or
superadding a widespread structure to its base.

(7) Cumulo-cirro- stratus, or nimbus. The rain-cloud : a cloud or
system of clouds from which rain is falling. It is a horizontal sheet,
above which the cirrus spreads, while the cumulus enters it laterally
and from beneath.

This system was universally adopted, and apart from some
ambiguity in the definitions of cumulo-stratus and nimbus, it
was sufficiently detailed for many purposes, such as the general
relations between clouds and the movements of the barometer.
When, however, such questions as the mode of origin of parti-
cular forms of cloud came to be investigated, it was at once felt
that Howard's classes were too wide, and something much more
detailed was required. The result has been the promulgation
from time to time of revised schemes, most of these being based
on Howard's work, and differing from him by the introduction
of new terms or of subdivisions of his types. Some of these
new terms have come more or less into use, such as A. Poey's
pallium to signify a uniform sheet, but as a general rule the pro-
posals were not accompanied by a clear enough exposition of
their precise meaning for others to be quite sure of the author's
intention. Other writers not appreciating how fully Howard's
names had become established, boldly struck out on entirely
new lines. The most important of these were probably those
due respectively to (i) Poe'y, published in the Annuaire de la
socittt meteorologique de France, 1865, (2) M. 1'AbbS Maze,
published in the Mimoires du congres meteorologique inter-
national, 1889, and (3) Frederic Caster, Quart. Jour. R. Meteoro-
logical Society, 1893. In all of these Howard's terms are used,
but the systems were much more elaborate, and the verbal
descriptions sometimes difficult to follow.

In his book Cloudland (1894) Clement Ley published a novel
system. He grouped all clouds under four heads, in accordance
with the mode in which he believed them to be formed.

I. Clouds of Radiation.
Nebula Fog.

Nebula Stillans Wet fog.

Nebula Pulverea Dust fog.

II. Clouds of Inlerfret.

Nubes Informis. Scud.

Stratus Quietus Quiet cloud.

Stratus Lenticularis Lenticular cloud.

Stratus Maculosus Mackerel cloud.

Stratus Castellatus Turret cloud.

Stratus Precipitans Plane shower.

III. Clouds of Inversion.

Cumulo-rudimentum

Cumulus

Oumulo-stratus

Cumulo-stratus Mammatus

Cumulo-nimbus

Cumulo-nimbus Nivosus

Cumulo-nimbus Grandineus

Cumulo-nimbus Mammatus

Nimbus

Nimbus nivosus

Nimbus grandineus

IV. Clouds of Inclination.

Nubes Fulgens Luminous cloud.

Cirrus Curl cloud.

Cirro-filum Gossamer cloud.

Cirro-velum Veil cloud.

Cirro-macula Speckle cloud.

Cirro-velum Mammatum. 1 Draped veil cloud.

1 Varieties.

Rudiment.

Heap cloud.

Anvil cloud.

Tubercled anvil cloud.

Shower cloud.

Snow shower.

Hail shower.

Festooned shower cloud.

Rainfall cloud.

Snowfall.

Hailfall.

It will be seen that Ley's scheme is really an amplification
of Howard's. The term " Interfret " is defined as the interaction
of horizontal currents of different velocities. Inversion is a
synonym for vertical convection, and Inclination is used to imply
that such clouds consist of sloping lines of falling ice particles.

While Ley had been finishing his work and seeing it through
the press, H. Hildebrand-Hildebrandsson and R. Abercromby
had devised another modification which differed from Howard's
chiefly by the introduction of a new class, which they distin-
guished by the use of the prefix Alto. This scheme was formally
adopted by the International Meteorological Conference held
at Munich in 1891, and a committee was appointed to draw up
an atlas showing the exact forms typical of each variety con-
sidered. Finally in August 1894 a small sub-committee consist-
ing of Messrs H. Hildebrand-Hildebrandsson, A. Riggenbach-
Burckhardt and Teisserenc de Bort was charged with the task
of producing the atlas. Their task was completed in 1896, and
meteorologists were at last supplied with a fairly detailed scheme,
and one which was adequately illustrated, so that there could
be no doubt of the authors' meaning. It is as follows:
The International Classification.

(a) Separate or globular masses (most frequently seen in
dry weather).

(b) Forms which are widely extended, or completely cover
the sky (in wet weather).

A. Upper clouds, average altitude 9000 metres. 1

a. i. Cirrus.

b. 2. Cirro-stratus.

B. Intermediate clouds, between 3000 m. and 7000 m.

a. 3. Cirro-cumulus.
4. Alto-cumulus.

b. 5. Alto-stratus.

C. Lower clouds, 2000 m.

a. 6. Strato-cumulus.

b. 7. Nimbus.

D. Clouds of Diurnal Ascending Currents.

a. 8. Cumulus, apex 1800 m., base 1400 m.

b. 9. Cumulo-nimbus, apex 3000 in. to 8000 m., base

1400 m.

E. High Fogs, under 1000 m.

10. Stratus.

Explanations.

1. Cirrus (Ci.). Detached clouds, delicate and fibrous-looking,
taking the form of feathers, generally of a white cclpur, sometimes
arranged in belts which cross a portion of the sky in great circles
and by an effect of perspective, converge towards one or two points
of the horizon (the Ci.-S. and the Ci.-Cu. often contribute to the
formation of these belts). See Plate, fig. i.

2. Cirro-stratus (Ci.-S.). A thin, whitish sheet, at times com-
pletely covering the sky, and only giving it a whitish appearance
(it is then sometimes called cirro-nebula), or at others presenting,
more or less distinctly, a formation like a tangled web. This sheet
often produces halos around the sun and moon. See fig. 2.

3. Cirro-cumulus (Ci.-Cu.). Small globular masses, or white
flakes without shadows, or having very slight shadows, arranged in
groups and often in lines. See fig. 3.

4. ^Alto-cumulus (A.-Cu.). Largish globular masses, white or
greyish, partially shaded, arranged in groups or lines, and often so
closely packed that their edges appear confused. The detached
masses are generally larger and more compact (changing to S.-Cu.)
at the centre of the group; at the margin they form into finer
flakes (changing to Ci.-Cu.). They often spread themselves out in
lines in one or two directions. See fig. 4.

5. Alto-stratus (A.-S.). A thick sheet of a grey or bluish colour,
showing a brilliant patch in the neighbourhood of the sun or moon,
and without causing halos, sometimes giving rise to coronae. This
form goes through all the changes like Cirro-stratus, but according
to measurements made at Upsala, its altitude is one-half as great.
See fig. 5.

6. Strato-cumulus (S.-Cu.). Large globular masses or rolls of
dark cloud, frequently covering the whole sky, especially in winter,
and occasionally giving it a wavy appearance. The layer is not,
as a rule, very thick, and patches of blue sky are often seen through
intervening spaces. All sorts of transitions between this form and
Alto-cumulus are seen. It may be distinguished from nimbus by its
globular or rolled appearance, and also because it does not bring
rain. See fig. 6.

1 I metre = 3-28 ft.

CLOUD

PLATE

FIG. i. CIRRUS

FIG. 2. CIRRO-STRATUS.

FIG. 3 CIRRO-CUMULUS

FIG. 4. ALTO-CUMULUS.

FIG. 5. ALTO-STRATUS

IG. 6. STRATO-CUMULUS.

FIG. 8. STRATUS

FIG. 7. CUMULUS

FIG. o. NIMBUS.

FIG. io. CUMULO-NIMBUS.

CLOUDBERRY CLOUET, F.

7. Nimbus (N.) t Rain Cloud. A thick layer of dark clouds,
without shape and with ragged edges, from which continued rain
or snow generally falls. Through openings in these clouds an upper
layer of cirro-stratus or alto-stratus may almost invariably be seen.
'If the layer of nimbus separates up into shreds, or if small loose
clouds are visible floating at a low level, underneath a large nimbus
they may be described as fraclo-nimbus (Scud of sailors). See fig. q.

8. Cumulus (Cu.) (Wool-pack Clouds). Thick clouds of which
the upper surface is dome-shaped and exhibits protuberances while
the base is horizontal. These clouds appear to be formed by a diurnal
ascensional movement which is almost always observable. When the
cloud is opposite the sun, the surfaces usually presented to the
observer have a greater brilliance than the margins of the protuber-
ances. When the light falls aslant, these clouds give deep shadows,
but if they are on the same side as the sun they appear dark, with
bright edges. See fig. 7.

The true cumulus has clear superior and inferior limits. It is often
broken up by strong winds, and the detached portions undergo
continual changes. These altered forms may be distinguished by
the name of Fracto-cumulus.

g. Cumulo-nimbus (Cu.-N.); The Thunder-cloud; Shower-cloud.
Heavy masses of clouds, rising in the form of mountains, turrets
or anvils, generally having a sheet or screen of fibrous appearance
above (false cirrus) and underneath, a mass of cloud similar to
nimbus. From the base there generally fall local showers of rain or
snow (occasionally hail or soft hail). Sometimes the upper edges
have the compact form of cumulus, rising into massive peaks round
which the delicate false cirrus floats, and sometimes the edges
themselves separate into a fringe of filaments similar to that of cirrus.
This last form is particularly common in spring showers. See fig. 10.

The front of thunderclouds of wide extent frequently presents the
form of a large bow spread over a portion of the sky which is uniformly
brighter in colour.

10. Stratus (S.). A horizontal sheet of lifted fog. When this
sheet is broken up into irregular shreds by the wind, or by the
summits of mountains, it may be distinguished by the name of
Fracto-stratus. See fig. 8.

The scheme also provides that where a stratus or nimbus takes a
lumpy form, this fact shall be described by the adjective cumuliformis,
and if its base shows downward projecting bosses the word mammato
is prefixed.

Issued as it has been with the authority of an international
congress of specialists, this scheme has been generally accepted,
and must be regarded as the orthodox system, and for the great
majority of observations it is quite detailed enough. But it
does not give universal satisfaction. Cirrus clouds, for instance,
exhibit many forms, and these so diverse that they must be
due to very different causes. Hence for the minuter study of
cloud forms a more elaborate scheme is still needed.

Hence in 1896 H. H. Clayton of the Blue Hill observatory,
Massachusetts, published in the Annals of the astronomical
observatory of Harvard College a highly detailed scheme in
which the International types and a number of subdivisions
were grouped under four classes stratiforms or sheet clouds;
cumuliforms or woolpack clouds; flocciforms, including strato-
cumulus, alto-cumulus and cirro-cumulus; and cirriforms or
hairy clouds. The International terms are embodied and the
special varieties are distinguished by the use of prefixes such as
tracto-cirrus or cirrus bands, grano-cirro-cumulus or granular
cirrus, &c.

Again in 1904 F. L. Obenbach of the Cleveland observatory
devised a different system, published in the annual report, in
which the International types are preserved, but each is sub-
divided into a number of species. In the absence of any atlas
to define the precise meaning of the descriptions given, neither
of these American schemes has come into general use.

Further proposals were put forward by A. W. Clayden in Cloud
Studies (1905). His scheme accepts the whole of the International
names which he regards as the cloud genera, and suggests
specific Latin names for the chief varieties, accompanying the
descriptions by photographs. The proposed scheme is as follows.

Genus.
Cirrus

Species.

Cirro-nebula

Cirro-filum

Cirrus Excelsus
Ventosus
Nebulosus
Caudatus
Vittatus
Inconstans
Communis

Cirrus haze.

Thread cirrus.

High

Windy

Hazy

Tailed

Ribbon

Change

Common

Cirro-stratus

Cirro-cumulus
Alto-clouds

Alto-clouds

Stratus

Cumulus

Communis

Nebulosus

Vittatus

Cumulosus

Cirro- macula

Nebulosus

Alto-stratus

., maculosus
,, ,, fractus

Alto-strato-cumulus

Alto-cumulus informis
,, nebulosus

Alto-cumulus castellatus
glomeratus
communis
stratiformis

Stratus maculosus
radius
lenticularis

Strato-cumulus

Cumulus minor
,, major

Cumulo-nimbus

559

Common Ci.-S.

Ribbon ,,
Flocculent Ci.-S.
Speckle cloud.
Hazy Ci. cu.

Mackerel sky.

Turret cloud.
High ball cumulus.

Flat alto-cum.

Roll cloud.
Fall cloud.

Small cumulus.
Large cumulus.
Storm cloud.

The term nimbus is to be applied to any cloud from which rain
is falling, but if the true form of the cloud is visible the term
should be used as a qualifying adjective. The prefix fracto-
or the adjective fractus should be used when the cloud is under-
going disintegration or appears ragged or broken. Mammato-
is used in the ordinary sense, and finally undatus or waved is
to be added to the name of any cloud showing a wave-like or
rippled structure. (A. W. C.)

CLOUDBERRY, Ritbus Chamaemorus, a low-growing creeping
herbaceous plant, with stem not prickly, and 'with simple
obtusely lobed leaves and solitary white flowers, resembling
those of the blackberry, but larger one inch across, and with
stamens and pistils on different plants. The orange-yellow
fruit is about half an inch long and consists of a few large drupes
with a pleasant flavour. The plant occurs in the mountainous
parts of Great Britain, and is widely distributed through the
more northerly portions of both hemispheres. In northern
Denmark and Sweden the fruit is gathered in large quantities
and sold in the markets.

CLOUD-BURST, a sudden and violent storm of rain. The
name probably originated from the idea that the clouds were
solid masses full of water that occasionally burst with disastrous
results. A whirlwind passing over the sea sometimes carries the
water upwards in a whirling vortex; passing over the land its
motion is checked and a deluge of water falls. Occasionally on
high lands far from the sea violent storms occur, with rain that
seems to descend in sheets, sweeping away bridges and culverts
and tearing up roads and streets, being due to great and rapid
condensation and vortical whirling of the resulting heavy clouds
(see METEOROLOGY).

CLOUDED LEOPARD (Felis nebulosa or macroscelis), a large
arboreal cat from the forests of south-east Asia, Sumatra, Java,
Borneo and Formosa. This cat, often called the clouded tiger,
is beautifully marked, and has an elongated head and body,
long tail and rather short limbs. The canine teeth are pro-
portionately longer than in any other living cat. Little is known
of the habits of the clouded leopard, but it preys on small
mammals and birds, and rarely comes to the ground. The
native Malay name is Arimaudatiun (" tree-tiger "). The species
is nearly related to the small Indian marbled cat (F. marmorata),
and Fontaniers cat (F. tristis) of Central Asia. (R. L.*)

CLOUET, FRANCOIS (d. 1572), French miniature painter.
The earliest reference to him is the document dated December
1541 (see CLOUET, JEAN), in which the king renounces for the
benefit of the artist his father's estate which had escheated to
the crown as the estate of a foreigner. In it the younger Janet
is said to have " followed his father very closely in the science
of his art." Like his father, he held the office of groom of the
chamber and painter in ordinary to the king, and so far as salary
is concerned, he started where his father left off. A long list
of drawings contains those which are attributed to this artist,
but we still lack perfect certainty about his works. There is,
however, more to go upon than there was in the case of his father,

560

CLOUET, J. CLOUGH, MISS A. J.

as the praises of Francois Clouet were sung by the writers of the
day, his name was carefully preserved from reign to reign, and
there is an ancient and unbroken tradition in the attribution
of many of his pictures. There are not, however, any original
attestations of his works, nor are any documents known which
would guarantee the ascriptions usually accepted. To him are
attributed the portraits of Francis I. at the Uffizi and at the
Louvre, and various drawings relating to them. He probably
also painted the portrait of Catherine de' Medici at Versailles
and other works, and in all probability a large number of the
drawings ascribed to him were from his hand. One of his most
remarkable portraits is that of Mary, queen of Scots, a drawing
in chalks in the Bibliothe'que Nationale, and of similar character
are the two portraits of Charles IX. and the one at Chantilly
of Marguerite of France. Perhaps his masterpiece is the portrait
of Elizabeth of Austria in the Louvre.

He resided in Paris in the rue de Ste Avoye in the Temple
quarter, close to the H6tel de Guise, and in 1568 is known to
have been under the patronage of Claude Gouffier de Boisy,
Seigneur d'Oiron, and his wife Claude de Baune. Another
ascertained fact concerning Francois Clouet is that in 1571 he
was " summoned to the office of the Court of the Mint," and his
opinion was taken on the likeness to the king of a portrait struck
by the mint. He prepared the death-mask of Henry II., as in
1547 he had taken a similar mask of the face and hands of
Francis I., in order that the effigy to be used at the funeral
might be prepared from his drawings; and on each of these
occasions he executed the painting to be used in the decorations
of the church and the banners for the great ceremony.

Several miniatures are believed to be his work, one very
remarkable portrait being the half-length figure of Henry II.
in the collection of Mr J. Pierpont Morgan. Another of his
portraits is that of the due d'Alencon in the Jones collection
at South Kensington, and certain representations of members
of the royal family which were in the Hamilton Palace collection
and the Magniac sale are usually ascribed to him. He died on
the 22nd of December 1572, shortly after the massacre of St
Bartholomew, and his will, mentioning his sister and his two
illegitimate daughters, and dealing with the disposition of a
considerable amount of property, is still in existence. His
daughters subsequently became nuns.

His work is remarkable for the extreme accuracy of the drawing,
the elaborate finish of all the details, and the exquisite complete-
ness of the whole portrait. He must have been a man of high
intelligence, and of great penetration, intensely interested in his
work, and with considerable ability to represent the character
of his sitter in his portraits. His colouring is perhaps not
specially remarkable, nor from the point of style can his pictures
be considered specially beautiful, but in perfection of drawing
he has hardly any equal.

To Monsieur Louis Dimier, the leading authority upon his works,
and to his volume on French Painting in the Sixteenth Century, as
well as to the works of MM. Bouchot, La Borde and Maulde-La
Claviere, the present writer is indebted for the information contained
in this article. (G. C. W.)

CLOUET, JEAN (d. c. 1541). French miniature painter,
generally known as JANET. The authentic presence of this
artist at the French court is first to be noted in 1516, the second
year of the reign of Francis I. By a deed of gift made by the
king to the artist's son of his father's estate, which had escheated
to the crown, we learn that he was not actually a Frenchman,
and never even naturalized. He is supposed to have been a
native of the Low Countries, and probably his real name was
Clowet. His position was that of groom of the chamber to the
king, and he received a stipend at first of 180 livres and later
of 240. He lived several years in Tours, and there it was he
met his wife, who was the daughter of a jeweller. He is recorded
as living in Tours in 1522, and there is a reference to his wife's
residence in the same town in 1523, but in 1529 they were both
settled in Paris, probably in the neighbourhood of the parish
of Ste Innocent, in the cemetery of which they were buried. He
stood godfather at a christening on the 8th of July 1540, but

was no longer living in December 1541, and therefore died
between those two dates.

His brother, known as CLOUET DE NAVARRE, was in the
service of Marguerite d'AngoulSme, sister of Francis I., and is
referred to in a letter written by Marguerite about 1529. Jean
Clouet had two children, Francois and Catherine, who married
Abel Foulon, and left one son, who continued the profession of
Francois Clouet after his decease. Jean Clouet was undoubtedly
a very skilful portrait painter, but it must be acknowledged
without hesitation that there is no work in existence which has
been proved to be his. There is no doubt that he painted a
portrait of the mathematician, Oronce Fine 1 , in 1530, when
Fin was thirty-six years old, but the portrait is now known only
by a print. Janet is generally believed, however, to have been
responsible for a very large number of the wonderful portrait
drawings now preserved at Chantilly, and at the Bibliotheque
Nationale, and to him is attributed the portrait of an unknown
man at Hampton Court, that of the dauphin Francis, son of
Francis I. at Antwerp, and one other portrait, that of Francis I.
in the Louvre.

Seven miniature portraits in the Manuscript of the Gallic War
in the Bibliotheque Nationale (13,429) are attributed to Janet
with very strong probability, and to these may be added an
eighth in the collection of Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, and repre-
senting Charles de Coss6, Marechal de Brissac, identical in its
characteristics with the seven already known. There are other
miniatures in the collection of Mr Morgan, which may be attri-
buted to Jean Clouet with some strong degree of probability,
inasmuch as they closely resemble the portrait drawings at
Chantilly and in Paris which are taken to be his work. In his
oil paintings the execution is delicate and smooth, the outlines
hard, the texture pure, and the whole work elaborately and very
highly finished in rich, limpid colour. The chalk drawings are
of remarkable excellence, the medium being used by the artist
with perfect ease and absolute sureness, and the mingling of
colour being in exquisite taste, the modelling exceedingly subtle,
and the drawing careful, tender and emphatic. The collection
of drawings preserved in France, and attributed to this artist
and his school, comprises portraits of all the important persons
of the time of Francis I. In one album of drawings the portraits
are annotated by the king himself, and his merry reflections,
stinging taunts or biting satires, add very largely to a proper
understanding of the life of his time and court. Definite evidence,
however, is still lacking to establish the attribution of the best
of these drawings and of certain oil paintings to the Jean Clouet
who was groom of the chambers to the king.

The chief authority in France on the work of this artist is Monsieur
Louis Dimier, and to his works, and to information derived direct
from him, the present writer is indebted for almost all the information
given in this article. (G. C. W.)

CLOUGH, ANNE JEMIMA (1820-1892), English' educationalist,
was born at Liverpool on the 2oth of January 1820, the daughter
of a cotton merchant. She was the sister of Arthur Hugh
Clough, the poet. When two years old she was taken with the
rest of the family to Charleston, South Carolina. It was not
till 1836 that she returned to England, and though her ambition
was to write, she was occupied for the most part in teaching.
Her father's failure in business led her to open a school in 1841.
This was carried on until 1846. In 1852, after making some
technical studies in London and working at the Borough Road
and the Home and Colonial schools, she opened another small
school of her own at Ambleside in Westmorland. Giving this
up some ten years later, she lived for a time with the widow
of her brother Arthur Hugh Clough who had died in 1861
in order that she might educate his children. Keenly interested
in the education of women, she made friends with Miss Emily
Davies, Madame Bodichon, Miss Buss and others. After helping
to found the North of England council for promoting the higher
education of women, she acted as its secretary from 1867 to
1870 and as its president from 1873 to 1874. When it was
decided to open a house for the residence of women students
at Cambridge, Miss Clough was chosen as its first principal.

CLOUGH, A. H. CLOVER

561

This hostel, started in Regent Street, Cambridge, in 1871 with five
students, and continued at Merton Hall in 1872, led to the
building of Newnham Hall, opened in 1875, and to the erection
of Newnham College on its present basis in 1880. Miss Clough's
personal charm and high aims, together with the development
of Newnham College under her care, led her to be regarded as
one of the foremost leaders of the women's educational move-
ment. She died at Cambridge on the 27th of February 1892.
Two portraits of Miss Clough are at Newnham College, one by
Sir W. B. Richmond, the other by J. J. Shannon.

See Memoir of Anne Jemima Clough, by Blanche Athena Clough
(1897).

CLOUGH, ARTHUR HUGH (1810-1861), English poet, was
born at Liverpool on the ist of January 1819. He came of a
good Welsh stock by his father, James Butler Clough, and of a
Yorkshire one by his mother, Anne Perfect. In 1822 his father,
a cotton merchant, moved to the United States, and Clough's
childhood was spent mainly at Charleston, South Carolina,
much under the influence of his mother, a cultivated woman,
full of moral and imaginative enthusiasm. In 1828 the family
paid a visit to England, and Clough was left at school at Chester,
whence he passed in 1829 to Rugby, then under the sway of
Dr Thomas Arnold, whose strenuous views on life and education
he accepted to the full. Cut off to a large degree from home
relations, he passed a somewhat reserved and solitary boyhood,
devoted to the well-being of the school and to early literary
efforts in the Rugby Magazine. In 1836 his parents returned
to Liverpool, and in 1837 he went with a scholarship to Balliol
College, Oxford. Here his contemporaries included Benjamin
Jowett, A. P. Stanley, J. C. Shairp, W. G. Ward, Frederick
Temple and Matthew Arnold.

Oxford, in 1837, was in the full swirl of the High Church
movement led by J. H. Newman. Clough was for a time carried
away by the flood, and, although he recovered his equilibrium,
it was not without an amount of mental disturbance and an
expenditure of academic time, which perhaps accounted for his
failure to obtain more than a second class in his final examination.
He missed a Balliol fellowship, but obtained one at Oriel, with
a tutorship, and lived the Oxford life of study, speculation,
lectures and reading-parties for some years longer. Gradually,
however, certain sceptical tendencies with regard to the current
religious and social order grew upon him to such an extent as
to render his position as an orthodox teacher of youth irksome,
and in 1848 he resigned it. The immediate feeling of relief
showeditselfinbuoyant,if thoughtful, literature, and he published
poems both new and old. Then he travelled, seeing Paris in
revolution and Rome in siege, and hi the autumn of 1849 to k
up new duties as principal of University Hall, a hostel for
students at University College, London. He soon found that
he disliked London, in spite of the friendship of the Carlyles,
nor did the atmosphere of Unitarianism prove any more con-
genial than that of Anglicanism to his critical and at bottom
conservative temper. A prospect of a post in Sydney led him
to engage himself to Miss Blanche Mary Shore Smith, and when
it disappeared he left England in 1852, and went, encouraged
by Emerson, to Cambridge, Massachusetts. Here he remained
some months, lecturing and translating Plutarch for the book-
sellers, until in 1853 the offer of an examinership in the Education
Office brought him to London once more. He married, and
pursued a steady official career, diversified only by an appoint-
ment in 1856 as secretary to a commission sent to study certain
aspects of foreign military education. At this, as at every period
of his life, he enjoyed the warm respect and admiration of a
small circle of friends, who learnt to look to him alike for un-
selfish sympathy and for spiritual and practical wisdom. In
1860 his health began to fail. He visited first Malvern and
Freshwater, and then the East, France and Switzerland, in
search of recovery, and finally came to Florence, where he was
struck down by malaria and paralysis, and died on the i3th of
November 1861 . Matthew Arnold wrote upon him the exquisite
lament of Thyrsis.

Shortly before he left Oxford, in the stress of the Irish potato-

famine, Clough wrote an ethical pamphlet addressed to the
undergraduates, with the title, A Consideration of Objections
against the Retrenchment Association at Oxford (1847). His
Homeric pastoral The Bothie of Toper-na-Fuosick, afterwards
rechristened Tober-na-Vuolkh (1848), was inspired by a long
vacation after he had given up his tutorship, and is full of
socialism, reading-party humours and Scottish scenery. Am-
barvalia (1849), published jointly with his friend Thomas
Burbidge, contains shorter poems of various dates from 1840,
or earlier, onwards. Amours de Voyage, a novel in verse, was
written at Rome in 1849; Dipsychus, a rather amorphous satire,
at Venice in 1850; and the idylls which make up Mari Magno,
or Tales on Board, in 1861. A few lyric and elegiac pieces, later
in date than the Ambarvalia, complete the tale of Clough's
poetry. His only considerable enterprise in prose was a revision
of the 1 7th century translation of Plutarch by Dryden and others,
which occupied him from 1852, and was published as Plutarch's
Lives (1859).

No part of Clough's life was wholly given up to poetry, and
he probably had not the gift of detachment necessary to produce
great literature in the intervals of other occupations. He wrote
but little, and even of that little there is a good deal which
does not aim at the highest seriousness. He never became a
great craftsman. A few of his best lyrics have a strength of
melody to match their depth of thought, but much of what
he left consists of rich ore too imperfectly fused to make a
splendid or permanent possession. Nevertheless, he is rightly
regarded, like his friend Matthew Arnold, as one of the most
typical English poets of the middle of the igth century. His
critical instincts and strong ethical temper brought him athwart
the popular ideals of his day both in conduct and religion. His
verse has upon it the melancholy and the perplexity of an age
of transition. He is a sceptic who by nature should have been
with the believers. He stands between two worlds, watching one
crumble behind him, and only able to look forward by the
sternest exercise of faith to the reconstruction that lies ahead
in the other. On the technical side, Clough's work is interesting
to students of metre, owing to the experiments which he made,
in the Bothie and elsewhere, with English hexameters and other
types of verse formed upon classical models.

Clough's_ Poems were collected, with a short memoir by F. T.
Palgrave, in 1862; and his Letters and Remains, with a longer
memoir, were privately printed in 1865. Both volumes were pub-
lished together in 1869 and have been more than once reprinted.
Another memoir is Arthur Hugh Clough: A Monograph (1883),
by S. Waddington. Selections from the poems were made by Mrs
Clough for the Golden Treasury series in 1894, and by E. Rhys in
1896. (E. K. C.)

CLOUTING, the technical name given to a light plain cloth
used for covering butter and farmers' baskets, and for dish and
pudding cloths. The same term is often given to light cloths
of the nursery diaper pattern.

CLOVELLY, a fishing village in the Bamstaple parliamentary
division of Devonshire, England, n m. W.S.W. of Bideford.
Pop. (1901) 621. It is a duster of old-fashioned cottages in a
unique position on the sides of a rocky cleft in the north coast;
its main street resembles a staircase which descends 400 ft.
to the pier, too steeply to allow of any wheeled traffic. Thick
woods shelter it on three sides, and render the climate so mild
that fuchsias and other delicate plants flourish in midwinter.
All Saints' church, restored in 1866, is late Norman, containing
several monuments to the Carys, lords of the manor for 600
years. The surrounding scenery is famous for its richness of
colour, especially in the grounds of Gary Court, and along " The
Hobby," a road cut through the woods and overlooking the
sea. Clovelly is described by Dickens in A Message from the Sea.

CLOVER, in botany, the English name for plants of the
genus Trifolium, from Lat. tres, three, and folium, a leaf, so
called from the characteristic form of the leaf, which has three
leaflets (trifoliate), hence the popular name trefoil. It is a
member of the family Leguminosae, and contains about three
hundred species, found chiefly in north temperate regions, but
also, like other north temperate genera, on the mountains in

562

CLOVES

the tropics. The plants are small annual or perennial herbs
with trifoliate (rarely 5- or 7-foliate) leaves, with stipules adnate
to the leaf-stalk, and heads or dense spikes of small red, purple,
white, or rarely yellow flowers; the small, few-seeded pods
are enclosed in the calyx. Eighteen species are native in Britain,
and several are extensively cultivated as fodder-plants. T.
pratense, red or purple clover, is the most widely cultivated.

This plant, either sown alone or in mixture with rye-grass, has
for a long time formed the staple crop for soiling; and so long
as it grew freely, its power of shooting up again after repeated
mowings, the bulk of crop thus obtained, its palatableness to
stock and feeding qualities, the great range of soils and climate
in which it grows, and its fitness either for pasturage or soiling,
well entitled it to this preference. Except on certain rich
calcareous clay soils, it has now, however, become an exceedingly
precarious crop. The seed, when genuine, which unfortunately is
very often not the case, germinates as freely as ever, and no
greater difficulty than heretofore is experienced in having a full
plant during autumn and the greater part of winter; but over
most part of the country, the farmer, after having his hopes
raised by seeing a thick cover of vigorous-looking clover plants
over his field, finds to his dismay, by March or April, that
they have either entirely disappeared, or are found only in
capricious patches here and there over the field. No satisfactory
explanation of this " clover-sickness " has yet been given, nor
any certain remedy, of a kind to be applied to the soil, discovered.
One important fact is, however, now well established, viz. that
when the cropping of the land is so managed that clover does
not recur at shorter intervals than eight years, it grows with
much of its pristine vigour. The knowledge of this fact now
determines many farmers in varying their rotation so as to
secure this important end. At one time there was a somewhat
prevalent belief that the introduction of beans into the rotation
had a specific influence of a beneficial kind on the clover when
it came next to be sown; but the true explanation seems to be
that the beans operate favourably only by the incidental cir-
cumstance of almost necessarily lengthening the interval betwixt
the recurrences of clover.

When the four-course rotation is followed, no better plan of
managing this process has been yet suggested than to sow beans,
pease, potatoes or tares, instead of clover, for one round, making
the rotation one of eight years instead of four. The mechanical
condition of the soil seems to have something to do with the
success or failure of the clover crop. We have often noticed
that headlands, or the converging line of wheel-tracks near a
gateway at which the preceding root crop had been carted from
a field, have had a good take of clover, when on the field generally
it had failed. In the same way a field that has been much
poached by sheep while consuming turnips upon it, and which
has afterwards been ploughed up in an unkindly state, will have
the clover prosper upon it, when it fails in other cases where
the soil appears in far better condition. If red clover can be
again made a safe crop, it will be a boon indeed to agriculture.
Its seeds are usually sown along with a grain crop, any time
from the ist of February to May, at the rate of 12 Ib to 20 ft per
acre when not combined with other clovers or grasses.

Italian rye-grass and red clover are now frequently sown in
mixture for soiling, and succeed admirably. It is, however, a
wiser course to sow them separately, as by substituting the
Italian rye-grass for clover, for a single rotation, the farmer not
only gets a crop of forage as valuable in all respects, but is
enabled, if he choose, to prolong the interval betwixt the sowings
of clover to twelve years, by sowing, as already recommended,
pulse the first round, Italian rye-grass the second, and clover
the third.

These two crops, then, are those on which the arable-land
farmer mainly relies for green forage. To have them good, he
must be prepared to make a liberal application of manure.
Good farm-yard dung may be applied with advantage either
in autumn or spring, taking care to cart it upon the land only
when it is dry enough to admit of this being done without injury.
It must also be spread very evenly so soon as emptied from the

carts. But it is usually more expedient to use either guano,
nitrate of soda, or soot for this purpose, at the rates respectively
of 2 cwt., i cwt. and 20 bushels. If two or more of these sub-
stances are used, the quantities of each will be altered in pro-
portion. They are best also to be applied in two or three portions
at intervals of fourteen to twenty days, beginning towards the
end of December, and only when rain seems imminent or has
just fallen.

When manure is broadcast over a young clover field, and
presently after washed in by rain, the effect is identical with
that of first dissolving it in water, and then distributing the
dilution over the surface, with this difference, namely, that
the first plan costs only the price of the guano, &c., and is avail-
able at any time and to every one, whereas the latter implies
the construction of tanks and costly machinery.

T. incarnatum, crimson or Italian clover, though not hardy
enough to withstand the climate of Scotland in ordinary winters,
is a most valuable forage crop in England. It is sown as quickly
as possible after the removal of a grain crop at the rate of 18 Ib
to 20 Ib per acre. It is found to succeed better when only the
surface of the soil is stirred by the scarifier and harrow than
when a ploughing is given. It grows rapidly in spring, and
yields an abundant crop of green food, peculiarly palatable to
live stock. It is also suitable for making t into hay. Only one
cutting, however, can be obtained, as it does not shoot again
after being mown.

|^ T. repens, white or Dutch clover, is a perennial abundant in
meadows and good pastures. The flowers are white or pinkish,
becoming brown and deflexed as the corolla fades. T. hybridum,
Alsike or Swedish clover, is a perennial which was introduced
early in the I9th century and has now become naturalized in
Britain. The flowers are white or rosy, and resemble those of
the last species. T. medium, meadow or zigzag clover, a
perennial with straggling flexuous stems and rose-purple flowers,
is of little agricultural value. Other British species are: T.
arvense, hare's-foot trefoil, found in fields and dry pastures, a
soft hairy plant with minute white or pale pink flowers and
feathery sepals; T. fragiferum, strawberry clover, with densely-
flowered, globose, rose-purple heads and swollen calyxes; T.
procumbens, hop trefoil, on dry pastures and roadsides, the
heads of pale yellow flowers suggesting miniature hops; and
the somewhat similar T. minus, common in pastures and road-
sides, with smaller heads and small yellow flowers turning dark
brown. The last named is the true shamrock. Specimens of
shamrock and other clovers are not infrequently found with
four leaflets, and, like other rarities, are considered lucky.
Calvary clover is a member of the closely allied genus Medicago
M. Echinus, so called from the curled spiny pod; it has small
heads of yellow clover-like flowers, and is a native of the south
of France.

CLOVES, the dried, unexpanded flower-buds of Eugenia
caryophyllata, a tree belonging to the natural order Myrtaceae.
They are so named from the French word clou, on account of
their resemblance to a nail. The clove tree is a beautiful
evergreen which grows to a height of from 30 to 40 ft., having
large oval leaves and crimson flowers in numerous groups of
terminal clusters. The flower-buds are at first of a pale colour
and gradually become green, after which they develop into a
bright red, when they are ready for collecting. Cloves are
rather more than half an inch in length, and consist of a long
cylindricarcalyx, terminating in four spreading sepals, and four
unopened petals which form a small ball in the centre. The
tree is a native of the small group of islands in the Indian Archi-
pelago called the Moluccas, or Spice Islands; but it was long
cultivated by the Dutch in Amboyna and two or three small
neighbouring islands. Cloves were one of the principal Oriental
spices that early excited the cupidity of Western commercial
communities, having been the basis of a rich and lucrative
trade from an early part of the Christian era. The Portuguese,
by doubling the Cape of Good Hope, obtained possession of the
principal portion of the clove trade, which they continued to
hold for nearly a century, when, in 1605, they were expelled

CLOVIO CLOVIS

563

from the Moluccas by the Dutch. That power exerted great
and inhuman efforts to obtain a complete monopoly of the
trade, attempting to extirpate all the clove trees growing in
their native islands, and to concentrate the whole production
in the Amboyna Islands. With great difficulty the French
succeeded in introducing the clove tree into Mauritius in the
year 1770; subsequently the cultivation was introduced into
Guiana, Brazil, most of the West Indian Islands and Zanzibar.
The chief commercial sources of supply are now Zanzibar and
its neighbouring island Pemba on the East African coast, and
Amboyna. Cloves are also grown in Java, Sumatra, Reunion,
Guiana and the West India Islands.

Cloves as they come into the market have a deep brown
colour, a powerfully fragrant odour, and a taste too hot and
acrid to be pleasant. When pressed with the nail they exude a
volatile oil with which they are charged to the unusual pro-
portion of about 18 %. The oil is obtained as a commercial
product by submitting the cloves with water to repeated
distillation. It is, when new and properly prepared, a pale
yellow or almost colourless fluid, becoming after some time of
a brown colour; and it possesses the odour and taste peculiar
to cloves. The essential oil of cloves the Oleum Caryophylli
of the British Pharmacopoeia is a mixture of two substances,
one of which is oxidized, whilst the other is not. Eugenol, or
eugenic acid, CioH^Oj, is the chief constituent. It is capable
of forming definite salts. The other constituent is a hydro-
carbon CisHzi, of which the distilling point differs from that
of eugenol, and which solidifies only with intense cold. Oil of
cloves is readily soluble in alcohol and ether, and has a specific
gravity of about 1-055. Its dose is 5-3 minims. Besides this
oil, cloves also contain two neutral bodies, eugenin and caryo-
phyllin, the latter of which is an isomer of camphor. They are
of ..no practical importance. The British Pharmacopoeia con-
tains an infusion of cloves (Infusum Caryophylli), of which the
strength is I part in 40 of boiling water and the dose ^-i oz.
Cloves are employed principally as a condiment in culinary
operations, in confectionery, and in the preparation of liqueurs.
In medicine they are tonic and carminative, but they are little
used except as adjuncts to other substances on account of their
flavour, or with purgatives to prevent nausea and griping.
The essential oil forms a convenient medium for using cloves
for flavouring purposes, it possesses the medicinal properties
characteristic of a volatile oil, and it is frequently employed
to relieve toothache. Oil of cloves is regarded by many dental
surgeons as the most effective local anaesthetic they possess
in cases where it is desired, before cutting a sensitive tooth for
the purpose of filling it, to lower the sensibility of the dentine.
For this purpose the cavity must be exposed to cotton wool
saturated with the oil for about ten days.

CLOVIO, GIORGIO GIULIO (1498-1578), Italian painter, by
birth a Croat and by profession a priest, is said to have learned
the elements of design in his own country, and to have studied
afterwards with intense diligence at Rome under Giulio Romano,
and at Verona under Girolamo de' Libri. He excelled in histori-
cal pieces and portraits, painting as for microscopical examina-
tion, and yet contriving to handle his subjects with great force
and precision. His book of twenty-six pictures representing the
procession of Corpus Domini, in Rome, was the work of nine
years, and the covers were executed by Benvenuto Cellini.
The British Museum has his twelve miniatures of the victories
of the emperor Charles V. In the Vatican Library is preserved
a manuscript life of Frederick, duke of Urbino, superbly illus-
trated by Clovio,who is facile princeps among Italian miniaturists.
He was called Macedo, or Macedone, to connect him with his
supposed Macedonian ancestry.

CLOVIS [Chlodovech] (c. 466-511), king of the Salian Franks,
son of Childeric I., whom he succeeded in 481 at the age of fifteen.
At that date the Salian Franks had advanced as far as the
river Somme, and the centre of their power was at Tournai.
On the history of Clovis between the years 481 and 486 the
records are silent. In 486 he attacked Syagrius, a Roman
general who, after the fall of the western empire in 476, had

carved out for himself a principality south of the Somme, and
is called by Gregory of Tours " rex Romanorum." After being
defeated by Clovis at the battle of Soissons, Syagrius sought
refuge with the Visigothic king Alaric II., who handed him
over to the conqueror. Henceforth Clovis fixed his residence at
Soissons, which was in the midst of public lands, e.g. Berny-
Riviere, Juvigny, &c. The episode of the vase of Soissons 1
has a legendary character, and all that it proves is the deference
shown by the pagan king to the orthodox clergy. Clovis un-
doubtedly extended his dominion over the whole of Belgica
Secunda, of which Reims was the capital, and conquered the
neighbouring cities in detail. Little is known of the history of
these conquests. It appears that St Genevieve defended the
town of Paris against Clovis for a long period,and that Verdun-sur-
Meuse, after a brave stand, accepted an honourable capitulation
thanks to St Euspitius. In 491 some barbarian troops in the
service of Rome, Arboruchi ('Apft6pvxoi), Thuringians, and even
Roman soldiers who could not return to Rome, went over to
Clovis and swelled the ranks of his army.

In 493 Clovis married a Burgundian princess, Clotilda, niece
of Gundobald and Godegesil, joint kings of Burgundy. This
princess was a Christian, and earnestly desired the conversion
of her husband. Although Clovis allowed his children to be
baptized, he remained a pagan himself until the war against
the Alemanni, who at that time occupied the country between
the Vosges, and the Rhine and the neighbourhood of Lake
Constance. By pushing their incursions westward they came
into collision with Clovis, who marched against them and
defeated them in the plain of the Rhine. The legend runs that,
in the thickest of the fight, Clovis swore that he would be con-
verted to the God of Clotilda if her God would grant him the
victory. After subduing a part of the Alemanni, Clovis went to
Reims, where he was baptized by St Remigius on Christmas
day 496, together with three thousand Franks. The story of
the phial of holy oil (the Sainte Ampoule) brought from heaven
by a white dove for the baptism of Clovis was invented by
Archbishop Hincmar of Reims three centuries after the event.

The baptism of Clovis was an event of very great importance.
From that time the orthodox Christians in the kingdom of the
Burgundians and Visigoths looked to Clovis to deliver them
from their Arian kings. Clovis seems to have failed in the case
of Burgundy, which was at that time torn by the rivalry between
Godegesil and his brother Gundobald. Godegesil appealed for
help to Clovis, who defeated Gundobald on the banks of the
Ouche near Dijon, and advanced as far as Avignon (500), but
had to retire without being able to retain any of his conquests.
Immediately after his departure Gundobald slew Godegesil at
Vienne, and seized the whole of the Burgundian kingdom.
Clovis was more fortunate in his war against the Visigoths.
Having completed the subjugation of the Alemanni in 506, he
marched against the Visigothic king Alaric II. in the following
year, in spite of the efforts of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths,
to prevent the war. After a decisive victory at Vouill6 near
Poitiers, in which Clovis slew Alaric with his own hand, the whole
of the kingdom of the Visigoths as far as the Pyrenees was added
to the Frankish empire, with the exception of Septimania, which,
together with Spain, remained in possession of Alaric's grandson
Amalaric, and Provence, which was seized by Theodoric and
annexed to Italy. In 508 Clovis received at Tours the insignia
of the consulship from the eastern emperor, Anastasius, but
the title was purely honorific. The last years of his life Clovis
spent in Paris, which he made the capital of his kingdom, and
where he built the church of the Holy Apostles, known later as
the church of St GeneviSve. By murdering the petty Frankish

1 The story is as follows. The vase had been taken from a church
by a Frankish soldier after the battle of Soissons, and the bishop
had requested Clovis that it might be restored. But the soldier who
had taken it refused to give it up, and broke it into fragments with
his fruncisca, or battle-axe. Some time afterwards, when Clovis
was reviewing his troops, he singled out the soldier who had broken
the vase, upbraided him for the neglect of his arms, and dashed his
francisca to the ground. As the man stooped to pick it up, the king
clove his skull with the words: " Thus didst thou serve the vase of
Soissons."

5 6 4

CLOWN CLUB

kings who reigned at Cambrai, Cologne and other residences,
he became sole king of all the Prankish tribes. He died in 511.

Clovis was the true founder of the Prankish monarchy. He
reigned over the Salian Franks by hereditary right; over the
other Prankish tribes by reason of his kinship with their kings
and by the choice of the warriors, who raised him on the shield;
and he governed the Gallo-Romans by right of conquest. He
had the Salic law drawn up, doubtless between the years 486
and 507; and seems to have been represented in the cities by a
new functionary, the graf, comes, or count. He owed his success
in great measure to his alliance with the church. He took the
property of the church under his protection, and in 51 1 convoked
a council at Orleans, the canons of which have come down to us.
But while protecting the church, he maintained his authority
over it. He intervened in the nomination of bishops, and at the
council of Orleans it was decided that no one, save a son of a
priest, could be ordained clerk without the king's order or the
permission of the count.

The chief source for the life of Clovis is the Historia Francorum
(bk. ii.) of Gregory of Tours, but it must be used with caution.
Among modern works, see W. Junghans, Die Geschichte der frdnki-
schen Konige Childerich und Clodovech (Gottingen, 1857); F. Dahn,
Urgeschichte der germanischen und romanischen Volker, vol. iii.
(Berlin, 1883); W. Schultze, Deutsche Geschichte v. d. Urzeit bis zu
den Karolingern, vol. ii. (Stuttgart, 1896) ; G. Kurth, Clovis (and ed.,
Paris, 1901). (C. PF.)

CLOWN (derived by Fuller, in his Worthies, from Lat. colonus,
a husbandman; but apparently connected with "clod" and
with similar forms in Teutonic and Scandinavian languages),
a rustic, boorish person; the comic character in English panto-
mime, always dressed in baggy costume, with face whitened
and eccentrically painted, and a tufted wig. The character
probably descends from representations of the devil in medieval
miracle-plays, developed partly through the stage rustics and
partly through the fools or jesters (also called clowns) of the
Elizabethan drama. The whitened face and baggy costume
indicate a connexion also with the continental Pierrot. The
prominence of the clown in pantomime (q.v.) is a comparatively
modern development as compared with that of Harlequin.

CLOYNE, a small market town of Co. Cork, Ireland, in the
east parliamentary division, ism. E. S. E. of the city of Cork.
Pop. (1901) 827. It gives its name to a Roman Catholic diocese,
the cathedral of which is at Queenstown. Cloyne was the seat
of a Protestant diocese until 1835, when it was united to that of
Cork. It was originally a foundation of the 6th century. The
cathedral church, dedicated to its founder St Colman, a disciple
of St Finbar of Cork, is a plain cruciform building mainly of
the I4th century, with an earlier oratory in the churchyard.
It contains a few handsome monuments to its former bishops,
but until 1890, when a monument was erected, had nothing to
preserve the memory of the illustrious Dr George Berkeley,
who held the see from 1734 to 1753. Opposite the cathedral
is a very fine round tower 100 ft. in height, though the conical
roof has long been destroyed. The Roman Catholic church is a
spacious building of the early i9th century. The town was
several times plundered by the Danes in the 9th century; it
was laid waste by Dermot O'Brien in 1071, and was burned in
1137. In 1430 the bishopric was united to that of Cork; in
1638 it again became independent, and hi 1660 it was again
united to Cork and Ross. In 1678 it was once more declared
independent, and so continued till 1835. The name, Cluain-
Uamha, signifies " the meadow of the cave," from the curious
limestone caves in the vicinity. The Pipe Roll of Cloyne,
compiled by Bishop Swaffham in 1364, is a remarkable record
embracing a full account of the feudal tenures of the see, the
nature of the impositions, and the duties the puri homines Sancti
Colmani were bound to perform at a very early period. The
roll is preserved in the record office, Dublin. It was edited by
Richard Caulfield in 1859.

CLUB (connected with " clump "),(i) a thick stick, used as a
weapon, or heavy implement for athletic exercises (" Indian
club," &c.); (2) one of the four suits of playing-cards, the
translation of the Spanish basto represented by a black trefoil

(taken from the French, in which language it is trifle); (3) a
term given to a particular form of association of persons. It is
to this third sense that this article is devoted.

By the term " club," the most general word for which is in
Gr. traipia, hi Lat. sodalitas, is here meant an association within
the state of persons not united together by any natural ties of
kinship, real or supposed. Modern clubs are dealt with below,
and we begin with an account of Greek and Roman clubs. Such
clubs are found in all ancient states of which we have any
detailed knowledge, and seem to have dated in one form or
another from a very early period. It is not unreasonable to
suppose, in the absense of certain information, that the rigid
system of groups of kin, i.e. family, gens, phralria, &c., affording
no principle of association beyond the maintenance of society
as it then existed, may itself have suggested the formation of
groups of a more elastic and expansive nature; in other words,
that clubs were an expedient for the deliverance of society from
a too rigid and conservative principle of crystallization.

Greek. The most comprehensive statement we possess as to
the various kinds of clubs which might exist in a single Greek
state is contained in a law of Solon quoted incidentally in the
Digest of Justinian (47-22), which guaranteed the administrative
independence of these associations provided they kept within
the bounds of the law. Those mentioned (apart from demes
and phratries, which were not clubs as here understood) are
associations for religious purposes, for burial, for trade, for
privateering (tiri Xeicw), and for the anjoyment of common
meals. Of these by far the most important are the religious
clubs, about which we have a great deal of information, chiefly
from inscriptions; and these may be taken as covering those
for burial purposes and for common meals, for there can be no
doubt that all such unions had originally a religious object of
some kind. But we have to add to Solon's list the political
irtuplcu. which we meet with in Athenian history, which do not
seem to have always had a religious object, whatever their origin
may have been; and it may be convenient to clear the ground
by considering these first.

In the period between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars
we hear of hetairies within the two political parties, oligarchic
and democratic; Themistocles is said (Plut. Aristides, 2) to have
belonged to one, Pericles' supporters seem to have been thus
organized (Plut. Per. 7 and 13), and Cimon had a hundred
hetairoi devoted to him (Plut. dm. 1 7). These associations were
used, like the collegia sodalicia at Rome (see below), for securing
certain results at elections and in the law-courts (Thuc. viii. 54),
and were not regarded as harmful or illegal. But the bitterness
of party struggles in Greece during the Peloponnesian War
changed them hi many states into political engines dangerous
to the constitution, and especially to" democratic institutions;
Aristotle mentions (Politics, p. 1310 a) a secret oath taken by the
members of oligarchic clubs, containing the promise, " I will be
an enemy to the people, and will devise all the harm I can
against them." At Athens in 413 B.C. the conspiracy against
the democracy was engineered by means of these clubs, which
existed not only there but in the other cities of the empire
(Thuc. viii. 48 and 54), and had now become secret conspiracies
(ffww/xooieu) of a wholly unconstitutional kind. On this
subject see Grote, Hist, of Greece, v. 360; A. H. J. Greenidge,
Handbook of Greek Constitutional History, 208 foil.

Passing over the clubs for trade or plunder mentioned in
Solon's law, of which we have no detailed knowledge, we come
to the religious associations. These were known by several
names, especially thiasi, eranoi and orgeones, and it is not possible
to distinguish these from each other hi historical times, though
they may have had different origins. They had the common
object of sacrifice to a particular deity; the thiasi and orgeones
seem to be connected more especially with foreign deities whose
rites were of an orgiastic character. The organization of these
societies is the subject of an excellent treatise by Paul Foucart
(Les Associations religieuses chez les Grecs, Paris, 1873), still
indispensable, from which the following particulars are chiefly
drawn. For the greater part of them the evidence consists of

CLUB

565

inscriptions from various parts of Greece, many of which were
published for the first time by Foucart, and will be found at the
end of his book.

The first striking point is that the object of all these associa-
tions is to maintain the worship of some foreign deity, i.e. of
some deity who was not one of those admitted and guaranteed
by the state the divine inhabitants of the city, as they may be
called. For all these the state made provision of priests, temples,
sacrifices, &c.; but for all others these necessaries had to be
looked after by private individuals associated for the purpose.
The state, as we see from the law of Solon quoted above, made no
difficulty about the introduction of foreign worships, provided
they did not infringe the law and were not morally unwholesome,
and regarded these associations as having all the rights of legal
corporations. So we find the cult of deities such as Sabazius,
Mater Magna (see GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS) and Attis,
Adonis, Isis, Serapis, Men Tyrannos, carried on in Greek states,
and especially in seaports like the Peiraeus, Rhodes, Smyrna,
without protest, but almost certainly without moral benefit to
the worshippers. The famous passage in Demosthenes (de
Corona, sect. 259 foil.) shows, however, that the initiation at an
early age in the rites of Sabazius did not gain credit for Aeschines
in the eyes of the best men. We are not surprised to find that,
in accordance with the foreign character of the cults thus main-
tained, the members of the associations are rarely citizens by
birth, but women, freedmen, foreigners and even slaves. Thus
in an inscription found by Sir C. Newton at Cnidus, which
contains a mutilated list of members of a thiasos, one only out
of twelve appears to be a Cnidian citizen, four are slaves, seven
are probably foreigners. Hence we may conclude that these
associations were of importance, whether for good or for evil, in
organizing and encouraging the foreign population in the cities
of Greece.

The next striking fact is that these associations were organized,
as we shall also find them at Rome, in imitation of the con-
stitution of the city itself. Each had its law, its assembly, its
magistrates or officers (i.e. secretary, treasurer) as well as
priests or priestesses, and its finance. The law regulated the
conditions of admission, which involved an entrance fee and an
examination (SoKtuaaia.) as to character; the contributions,
which had to be paid by the month, and the steps to be taken
to enforce payment, e.g. exclusion in case of persistent neglect
of this duty; the use to be made of the revenues, such as the
building or maintenance of temple or club-house, and the cost
of crowns or other honours voted by the assembly to its officers.
This assembly, in accordance with the law, elected its officers
once a year, and these, like those of the state itself, took an oath
on entering office, and gave an account of their stewardship at
the end of the year. Further details on these points of internal
government will be found in Foucart's work (pp. 20 foil.), chiefly
derived from inscriptions of the orgeones engaged in the cult
of the Mother of the Gods at the Peiraeus. The important
question whether these religious associations were in any sense
benefit clubs, or relieved the sick and needy, is answered by him
emphatically in the negative.

As might naturally be supposed, the religious clubs increased
rather than diminished in number and importance in the later
periods of Greek history, and a large proportion of the inscrip-
tions relating to them belong to the Macedonian and Roman
empires. One of the most interesting, found in 1868, belongs
to the 2nd century A.D., viz. that which reveals the worship
of Men Tyrannos at Laurium (Foucart, pp. 119 foil.). This
Phrygian deity was introduced into Attica by a Lycian slave,
employed by a Roman in working the mines at Laurium. He
founded the cult and the eranos which was to maintain it, and
seems also to have drawn up the law regulating its ritual and
government. This may help us to understand the way in which
similar associations of an earlier age were instituted.

Roman. At Rome the principle of private association was
recognized very early by the state; sodalitates for religious
purposes are mentioned in the XII. Tables (Gaius in Digest,
47. 22. 4), and collegia opificum, or trade gilds, were believed

to have been instituted by Numa, which probably means that
they were regulated by the jus divinum as being associated
with particular worships. It is difficult to distinguish between
the two words collegium and sodalitas; but collegium is the
wider of the two in meaning, and may be used for associations
of all kinds, public and private, while sodalitas is more especially
a union for the purpose of maintaining a cult. Both words
indicate the permanence of the object undertaken by the associa-
tion, while a societas is a temporary combination without strictly
permanent duties. With the societates publicanorum and other
contracting bodies of which money-making was the main object,
we are not here concerned.

The collegia opificum ascribed to Numa (Plut. Numa, 17)
include gilds of weavers, fullers, dyers, shoemakers, doctors,
teachers, painters, &c., as we learn from Ovid, Fasti, iii. 819 foil.,
where they are described as associated with the cult of Minerva,
the deity of handiwork; Plutarch also mentions flute-players,
who were connected with the cult of Jupiter on the Capitol,
and smiths, goldsmiths, tanners, &c. It would seem that, though
these gilds may not have had a religious origin as some have
thought, they were from the beginning, like all early institutions,
associated with some cult; and hi most cases this was the cult
of Minerva. In her temple on the Aventine almost all these
collegia had at once their religious centre and their business
headquarters. When during the Second Punic War a gild of
poets was instituted, this too had its meeting-place in the same
temple. The object of the gild in each case was no doubt to
protect and advance the interests of the trade, but on this point
we have no sufficient evidence, and can only follow the analogy
of similar institutions in other countries and ages. We lose
sight of them almost entirely until the age of Cicero, when they
reappear in the form of political clubs (collegia sodalicia or
compitalicia) chiefly with the object of securing the election of
candidates fof magistracies by fair or foul means usually the
latter (see esp. Cic. pro Plancio, passim). These were suppressed
by a senatusconsultum in 64 B.C., revived by Clodius six years
later, and finally abolished by Julius Caesar, as dangerous to
pubh'c order. Probably the old trade gilds had been swamped in
the vast and growing population of the city, and these, inferior
and degraded both in personnel and objects, had taken their
place. But the principle of the trade gild reasserts itself under
the Empire, and is found at work in Rome and in every municipal
town, attested abundantly by the evidence of inscriptions.
Though the right of permitting such associations belonged to
the government alone, these trade gilds were recognized by the
state as being instituted " ut necessariam operam publicis utili-
tatibus exhiberent " (Digest, 50. 6. 6). Every kind of trade and
business throughout the Empire seems to have had its collegium,
as is shown by the inscriptions in the Corpus from any Roman
municipal town; and the life and work of the lower orders of
the municipales are shadowed forth hi these interesting survivals.
The primary object was no doubt still to protect the trade;
but as time went on they tended to become associations for
feasting and enjoyment, and more and more to depend on the
munificence of patrons elected with the object of eliciting it.
Fuller information about them will be found hi G. Boissier,
La Religion romaine d'Auguste aux Antonins, ii. 286 foil., and
S. Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius, pp. 264 foil.
How far they formed a basis or example for the gilds of the
early middle ages is a difficult question which cannot be answered
here (see GILDS); it is, however, probable that they gradually
lost then" original business character, and became more and more
associations for procuring the individual, lost as he was in the
vast desert of the empire, some little society and enjoyment in
life, and the certainty of funeral rites and a permanent memorial
after death.

We may now return to the associations formed for the main-
tenance of cults, which were usually called sodalitates, though
the word collegium was also used for them, as in the case of the
college of the Arval Brothers (q.v.). Of the ancient Sodales
Titii nothing is known until they were revived by Augustus;
but it seems probable that when a gens or family charged with

5 66

CLUB

the maintenance of a particular cult had died out, its place was
supplied by a sodalitas (Marquardt, Staatsverwaltung, iii. 134).
The introduction of new cults also led to the institution of new
associations; thus in 495 B.C. when the worship of Minerva was
introduced, a collegium mercatorum was founded to maintain it,
which held its feast on the dies natalis (dedication day) of the
temple (Liv. ii. 27. 5); and in 387 the ludi Capilolini were
placed under the care of a similar association of dwellers on the
Capitoline hill. In 204 B.C. when the Mater Magna was intro-
duced from Pessinus (see GREAT MOTHER or THE GODS) a
sodalitas (or sodalitates) was instituted which, as Cicero tells
us (de Senect. 13. 45) used to feast together during the ludi
Megalenses. All such associations were duly licensed by the
state, which at all times was vigilant in forbidding the main-
tenance of any which it deemed dangerous for religious or political
reasons; thus in 186 B.C. the senate, by a decree of which part
is preserved (C.I.L. i. 43), made all combination for promoting
the Bacchic religious rites strictly illegal. But legalized sodali-
tales are frequent later; the temple of Venus Genetrix, begun
by Julius and finished by Augustus, had its collegium (Pliny,
N.H. ii. 93), and sodalitates were instituted for the cult of the
deified emperors Augustus, Claudius, &c.

We thus arrive by a second channel at the collegia of the
empire. Both the history of the trade gilds and that of the
religious collegia or sodalitates conduct us by a course of natural
development to that extraordinary system of private association
with which the empire was honeycombed.

As has been already said of the trade gilds, the main objects
of association seem to have been to make life more enjoyable
and to secure a permanent burial-place; and of these the latter
was probably the primary or original one. It was a natural
instinct in the classical as in the pre-classical world to wish
to rest securely after death, to escape neglect and oblivion.
This is not the place to explain the difficulties which the poorer
classes in the Roman empire had to face in satisfying this instinct;
but since the publication of the Corpus Inscriptionum has made
us familiar with the conditions of the life of these classes, there
can be no doubt that this was always a leading motive in their
passion for association. In the yeir A.D. 133 under Hadrian
this instinct was recognized by law, i.e. by a senatusconsultum
which has fortunately come down to us. It was engraved at the
head of their own regulations by a collegium instituted for the
worship of Diana and Antinous at Lanuvium, and runs thus:
" Qui stipem menstruam conferre volent in funera, in id collegium
coeanl, neque sub specie ejus collegii nisi semel in mense coeant
conferendi causa unde defuncti sepeliantur" (C.I.L. xiv. 2112).
From the Dfgesl, 47. 22. i, the locus classicus on this subject,
we learn that this was a general law allowing the founding of
funerary associations, provided that the law against illicit
collegia were complied with, and it was natural that from that
time onwards such collegia should spring up in every direction.
The inscription of Lanuvium, together with many others (for
which see the works of Boissier and Dill already cited), has
given us a clear idea of the constitution of these colleges. Their
members were as a rule of the humblest classes of society, and
often included slaves; from each was due an entrance fee and
a monthly subscription, and a funeral grant was made to the
heir of each member at his death in order to bury him in the
burying-place of the college, or if they were too poor to construct
one of their own, to secure burial in a public columbarium.
The instinct of the Roman for organization is well illustrated
in the government of these colleges. They were organized on
exactly the same lines as the municipal towns of the empire;
their officers were elected, usually for a year, or in the case of
honorary distinctions, for life; as in a municipal town, they
were called quinquennales, curatores, praefecli, &c., and quaestors
superintended the finances of the association. Their place of
meeting, if they were rich enough to have one, was called schola
and answered the purpose of a club-house; the site or the building
was often given them by some rich patron, who was pleased to
see his name engraved over its doorway. Here we come upon
one of those defects in the society of the empire which seem

gradually to have sapped the virility of the population the
desire to get others to do for you what you are unwilling or
unable to do for yourself. The patroni increased in number,
and more and more the colleges acquired the habit of depending
on their benefactions, while at the same time it would seem that
the primary object of burial became subordinate to the claims
of the common weal. It may also be asserted with confidence,
as of the Greek clubs, that these collegia rarely or never did the
work of our benefit clubs, by assisting sick or infirm members;
such objects at any rate do not appear in the inscriptions. The
only exceptions seem to be the military collegia, which, though
strictly forbidden as dangerous to discipline, continued to
increase in number in spite of the law. The great legionary
camps of the Roman province of Africa (Cagnat, L'Armfe
romaine, 457 foil.) have left us inscriptions which show not only
the existence of these clubs, but the way in which their funds
were spent; and it appears that they were applied to useful
purposes in the life of a member as well as for his burial, e.g. to
travelling expenses, or to his support after his discharge (see
especially C.I.L. viii. 2552 foil.).

As the Roman empire became gradually impoverished and
depopulated, and as the difficulty of defending its frontiers
increased, these associations must have been slowly extinguished,
and the living and the dead citizen alike ceased to be the object
of care and contribution. The sudden invasion of Dacia by
barbarians in A.D. 166 was followed by the extinction of one
collegium which has left a record of the fact, and probably by
many others. The master of the college of Jupiter Cernenius,
with the two quaestors and seven witnesses, attest the fact that
the college has ceased to exist. " The accounts have been
wound up, and no balance is left in the chest. For a long time
no member has attended on the days fixed for meetings, and
no subscriptions have been paid " (Dill, op. cit. p. 285). The
record of similar extinctions in the centuries that followed,
were they extant, would show us how this interesting form of
crystallization, in which the well-drilled people of the empire
displayed an unusual spontaneity, gradually melted away and
disappeared (see further GILDS and CHARITY AND CHARITIES).

Besides the works already cited may be mentioned Mommsen,
de Collegiis et Sodaliciis (1843), which laid the foundation of ajl
subsequent study of the subject; Marquardt, Staatsverwaltung, iii.
134 foil.; de Marchi, // Culto pjivato di Roma antica, ii. 75 foil.;
Kornemann, s. v. " Collegium " in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencydopadie.

(W. W. F.*)

Modern Clubs. The word " club," in its modern sense of an
association to promote good-fellowship and social intercourse,
is not very old, only becoming common in England at the time
of The Taller and The Spectator (1709-1712). It is doubtful
whether its use originated in its meaning of a knot of people,
or from the fact that the members " clubbed " together to pay
the expenses of their meetings. The oldest English clubs were
merely informal periodic gatherings of friends for the purpose
of dining or drinking together. Thomas Occleve (temp. Henry
IV.) mentions such a club called La Court de Bone Compaignie, of
which he was a member. John Aubrey (writing in 1659) says:
" We now use the word clubbe for a sodality in a tavern." Of
these early clubs the most famous was the Bread Street or Friday
Street Club, originated by Sir Walter Raleigh, and meeting at
the Mermaid Tavern. Shakespeare, Beaumont, Fletcher, Selden
and Donne were among the members. Another such club was
that which met at the Devil Tavern near Temple Bar; and of
this Ben Jonson is supposed to have been the founder.

With the introduction of coffee-drinking in the middle of the
1 7th century, clubs entered on a more permanent phase. The
coffee-houses of the later Stuart period are the real originals of
the modern club-house. The clubs of the late i7th and early
1 8th century type resembled their Tudor forerunners in being
oftenest associations solely for conviviality or literary coteries.
But many were confessedly political, e.g. The Rota, or Coffee
Club (1659), a debating society for the spread of republican ideas,
broken up at the Restoration, the Calves Head Club (c. 1693)
and the Green Ribbon Club (1675) (q.v.). The characteristics
of all these dubs were: (i) no permanent financial bond between

CLUB

the members, each man's liability ending for the time being
when he had paid his " score " after the meal; (2) no permanent
club-house, though each clique tended to make some special
coffee-house or tavern their headquarters. These coffee-house
clubs soon became hotbeds of political scandal-mongering and
intriguing, and in 1675 Charles II. issued a proclamation which
ran, " His Majesty hath thought fit and necessary that coffee
houses be (for the future) put down and suppressed," owing to
the fact " that in such houses divers false, malitious and scandal-
ous reports are devised and spread abroad to the Defamation
of his Majesty's Government and to the Disturbance of Peace
and Quiet of the Realm." So unpopular was this proclamation
that it was almost instantly found necessary to withdraw it,
and by Anne's reign the coffee-house club was a feature of
England's social life.
From the 18th-century clubs two types have been evolved.

(1) The social and dining clubs, permanent institutions with
fixed club-house. The London coffee-house clubs in- increasing
their members absorbed the whole accommodation of the coffee-
house or tavern where they held their meetings, and this became
the club-house, often retaining the name of the original keeper,
e.g. White's, Brooks's, Arthur's, Boodle's. The modern club,
sometimes proprietary, i.e. owned by an individual or private
syndicate, but more frequently owned by the members who
delegate to a committee the management of its affairs, first
reached its highest development in London, where the district
of St James's has long been known as " Clubland "; but the
institution has spread all over the English-speaking world.

(2) Those dubs which have but occasional or periodic meetings
and often possess no club-house, but exist primarily for some
specific object. Such are the many purely athletic, sports and
pastimes clubs, the Jockey Club, the Alpine, chess, yacht and
motor clubs. Then there are literary clubs, musical and art
clubs, publishing clubs; and the name of " club " has been
annexed by a large group of associations which fall between the
club proper and mere friendly societies, of a purely periodic
and temporary nature, such as slate, goose and Christmas clubs,
which are not required to be registered under the Friendly
Societies Act.

Thus it is seen that the modern club has little in common
with its prototypes in the i8th century. Of those which survive
in London the following may be mentioned: White's, originally
established in 1698 as White's Chocolate House, became the
headquarters of the Tory party, but is to-day no longer political.
Brooks's (1764), originally the resort of the Whigs, is no longer
strictly associated with Liberalism. Boodle's (1762) had a
tradition of being the resort of country gentlemen, and especially
of masters of foxhounds. Arthur's (1765), originally an offshoot
of White's, has always been purely social. The Cocoa Tree
(1746) also survives as a social resort. Social clubs, without
club-houses, are represented by the Literary Club (" The Club "),
founded in 1764 by Sir Joshua Reynolds and Dr Johnson, and
such recent institutions as the Johnson Club, Ye Sette of Odd
Volumes (founded by Bernard Quaritch) and many others.

The number of regularly established clubs in London is now
upwards of a hundred. Of these the more important, with the
dates of their establishment, are: Army and Navy (1837);
Athenaeum (1824), founded by Sir Walter Scott and Thomas
Moore " for the association of individuals known for their
scientific or literary attainments, artists of eminence in any
class of the fine arts, and noblemen and gentlemen distinguished
as liberal patrons of science, literature or the arts " ; Bachelors'
(1881); Carl ton (1832), the chief Conservative club; City
Carlton (1868); Conservative (1840); Constitutional (1883);
Devonshire (1875); East India United Service (1849); Garrick
(1831), " for the general patronage of the drama, for bringing
together the supporters of the drama, and for the formation of
a theatrical library with works on costume "; Guards (1813);
Junior Athenaeum (1864); Junior Carlton (1864); Marlborough
(1869); National Liberal (1882); Oriental (1824); Oxford
and Cambridge (1830); Reform (1837), formerly the Liberal
headquarters; Savage (1857); St James's (1857), diplomatic;

Travellers' (1819), for which a candidate must have " travelled
out of the British Islands to a distance of at least 500 m. from
London in a direct line "; Turf (1868); Union (1822); United
Service (1815); Wellington (1885); Windham (1828). Almost
every interest, rank and profession has its club. Thus there is a
Press Club, a Fly-Fishers' Club, a Gun Club, an Authors', a
Farmers', a Lawyers' (the Eldon) and a Bath Club. Of the
purely women's clubs the most important are the Alexandra
(1884), the Empress (1897), Lyceum (1904) and Ladies' Army
& Navy (1904); while the Albemarle and the Sesame have a
leading place among clubs for men and women. Of political
clubs having no club-house, the best known are the Cobden
(Free Trade, 1866); the Eighty (Liberal, 1880) and the United
(Unionist, 1886). There are clubs in all important provincial
towns, and at Edinburgh the New Club (1787), and in Dublin
the Kildare Street (1700), rival those of London.

The mode of election of members varies. In some clubs
the committee alone have the power of choosing new members.
In others the election is by ballot of the whole club, one black
ball in ten ordinarily excluding. In the Athenaeum, whilst the
principle of election by ballot of the whole club obtains, the duty
is also cast upon the committee of annually selecting nine
members who are to be " of distinguished eminence in science,
literature or the arts, or for public services," and the rule makes
stringent provision for the conduct of these elections. On the
committee of the same club is likewise conferred power to elect
without ballot princes of the blood royal, cabinet ministers,
bishops, the speaker of the House of Commons, judges, &c.

The affairs of clubs are managed by committees constituted
of the trustees, who are usually permanent members, and of
ordinarily twenty-four other members, chosen by the club at
large, one-third of whom go out of office annually. These
committees have plenary powers to deal with the affairs of the
club committed to their charge, assembling weekly to transact
current business and audit the accounts. Once a year a meeting
of the whole club is held, before which a report is laid, and any
action taken thereupon which may be necessary. (See J.
Wertheimer, The Law relating to Clubs, 1903; and Sir E. Carson
on Club law, in vol. iii. of The Laws of England, 1009.)

Previous to 1902 clubs in England had not come within the
purview of the licensing system. The Licensing Act of 1902,
however, remedied that defect, and although it was passed
principally to check the abuse of " clubs " being formed solely
to sell intoxicating liquors free from the restrictions of the
licensing acts, it applied to all clubs in England and Wales, of
whatever kind, from the humblest to the most exalted Pall
Mall club. The act required the registration of every club
which occupied any premises habitually used for the purposes
of a club and in which intoxicating liquor was supplied to
members or their guests. The secretary of every club was
required to furnish to the clerk to the justices of the petty
sessional division a return giving (a) the name and objects of
the club; (b) the address of the club; (c) the name of the
secretary; (d) the number of members; (e) the rules of the
club relating to (i.) the election of members and the admission
of temporary and honorary members and of guests; (ii.) the
terms of subscription and entrance fee, if any; (iii.) the cessation
of membership; (iv.) the hours of opening and closing; and
(v.) the mode of altering the rules. The same particulars must
be furnished by a secretary before the opening of a new club.
The act imposed heavy penalties for supplying and keeping
liquor in an unregistered club. The act gave power to a court
of summary jurisdiction to strike a club off the register on
complaint in writing by any person on any of various grounds,
e.g. if its members numbered less than twenty-five; if there
was frequent drunkenness on the premises; if persons were
habitually admitted as members without forty-eight hours'
interval between nomination and admission; if the supply
of liquor was not under the control of the members or the com-
mittee, &c. The Licensing (Scotland) Act 1903 made Scottish
clubs liable to registration in a similar manner.

In no other country did club-life attain such an early perfection

5 68

CLUB-FOOT CLUENTIUS HABITUS

as in England. The earliest clubs on the European continent
were of a political nature. These in 1848 were repressed in
'Austria and Germany, and the modern clubs of Berlin and
Vienna are mere replicas of their English prototypes. In France,
where the term cercle is most usual, the first was Le Club Politique
(1782), and during the Revolution such associations proved
important political forces (see JACOBINS, FEUILLANTS, CORDE-
LIERS). Of the modern purely social clubs in Paris the most
notable are The Jockey Club (1833) and the Cercle de la Rue
Royale.

In the United States clubs were first established after the
War of Independence. One of the first in date was the Hoboken
Turtle Club (1797), which still survives. Of the modern clubs
in New York the Union (1836) is the earliest, and other important
ones are the Century (1847), Union League (1863), University
(1865) Knickerbocker (1871), Lotus(i87o), Man hattan(i865),and
Metropolitan (1891). But club-life in American cities has grown
to enormous proportions; the number of excellent clubs is now
legion, and their hospitality has become proverbial. The chief
clubs in each city are referred to in the topographical articles.

Walter Arnold, Life and Death of the Sublime Society of Beefsteaks
(1871) ; John Aubrey, Letters of Eminent Persons (2 vofs.) ; C. Marsh,
Clubs of London, with Anecdotes of their Members, Sketches of Character
and Conversation (2 vols., 1832) ; Notes and Queries, trd series,
vols. i, 9, 10; W. H. Pyne, Wine and Walnuts (2 vols., 1823);
Admiral Smyth, Sketch of the Use and Progress of the Royal Society
Club (1860) ; John Timbs, Club Life of London, with Anecdotes of
Clubs, Coffee-Houses and Taverns (2 vols., 1866), and History of
Clubs and Club L^fe (1872) ; Th. Walker, The Original, fifth edition,
by W. A. Guy (1875) ; The Secret History of Clubs of all Descriptions
by Ned Ward (1709); Complete and Humourous Account of all the
Remarkable Clubs and Societies in the Cities of London and Westminster,
by Ned Ward (7th edition, 1756); The London Clubs; their Anec-
dotes, History, Private Rules and Regulations (izmo, 1853) i Rev. A.
Hume, Learned Societies and Printing Clubs (1847); J. Strang,
Glasgow and its Clubs (1857); A. F. Leach, Club Cases (1879); Col.
G. J. Ivey, Clubs of the World (1880); J. Wertheimer, Law relating
to Clubs (1885); L. Fagan, The Reform Club (1887); F. G. Waugh,
Members of the Athenaeum Club (privately printed 1888).

CLUB-FOOT (talipes), the name given to deformities of the
foot, some of which are congenital, others acquired the latter
being chiefly due to infantile paralysis. Talipes equinus is that
form in which the heel does not touch the ground, the child
resting on the toes. In talipes varus the foot is turned inwards
and shortened, the inner edge of the foot is raised, and the
child walks on the outer edge. These two conditions are often
combined, the heel being drawn up and the foot twisted inward;
the name given to the twofold deformity is talipes equino-varus.
It is the most usual congenital form. In talipes calcaneus the
toes are pointed upwards and the foot rests on the heel. This
is always an acquired (paralytic) deformity.

The treatment of congenital club-foot, which is almost in-
variably varus or equino-varus, should be begun as soon as ever
the abnormal condition of the foot is recognized. The nurse
should be shown how to twist and coax the foot into the improved
position, and should so hold it in her hand many times a day.
And thus by daily, or, one might almost say, hourly manipula-
tions, much good may be accomplished without distress to the
infant. If after weeks or months of these measures insufficient
progress has been made, the subcutaneous division of a tendon
or two, or of some tendons and ligaments may be necessary, the
foot being subsequently fixed up in the improved position in
plaster of Paris. If these subcutaneous operations also prove
disappointing, or if after their apparently successful employment
the foot constantly relapses into the old position, a more radical
procedure will be required. Of the many procedures which
have been adopted there is, probably, none equal to that of free
transverse incision introduced by the late Dr A. M. Phelps of
New York. By this " open method " the surgeon sees exactly
what structures are at fault and in need of division skin,
fasciae tendons, ligaments; everything, in short, which pre-
vented the easy rectification of the deformity. After the opera-
tion, the foot is fixed, without any strain, in an over-corrected
position, between plaster of Paris splints. By the adoption
of this method the old instrument of torture known as " Scarpa's

shoe " has become obsolete, as have also some of those operations
which effected improvement of the foot by the removal of
portions of the bony arch. Phelps's operation removes the
deformity by increasing the length of the concave border of the
foot rather than by shortening the convex borders as in cuneiform
osteotomy; it is a levelling up, not a levelling down.

Talipes valgtis is very rare as a congenital defect, but is common
enough as a result of infantile paralysis and as such is apt to be
combined with the calcanean variety. " Flat-foot " is some-
times spoken of as spurious talipes valgus; it is due to the bony
arches of the foot being called upon to support a weight beyond
their power. The giving way of the arches may be due to
weakness of the muscles, tendons or ligaments probably of all
three. It is often met with in feeble and flabby children, and
in nurses, waiters, policemen and others whose feet grow tired
from much standing. Exercises on tip-toe, especially with a
skipping rope, massage, rest and tonic treatment will give
relief, and shoes or boots may be supplied with the heel and sole
thickened along the inner borders so that the weight may be
received along the strong outer border of the foot. When the
flat-footed individual stands it should be upon the outer borders
of his feet, or better still, when convenient, on tip-toe, as this
posture strengthens those muscles of the leg which run into the
sole of the foot and hold up the bony arches. In certain extreme
cases the surgeon wrenches the splay feet into an inverted
position and fixes them in plaster of Paris, taking off the casing
every day for the purpose of massage and exercises.

Flat-foot is often associated with knock-knee in children
and young adults who are the subject of rickets.

Morton's Disease. In some cases of flat-foot the life of the
individual is made miserable by neuralgia at the root of the toes,
which comes on after much standing or walking, the distress
being so great that, almost regardless of propriety, he is com-
pelled to take off his boot. The condition is known as Morton's
disease or metatarsalgia. The pain is due to the nerves of the
toes (which come from the sole of the foot) being pressed upon
by the rounded ends of the long bones of the foot near the web of
the toes. It does not generally yield to palliative measures
(though rest of the foot and a change to broad-toed, easy boots
may be helpful), and the only effectual remedy is resection of
the head of one of the metatarsal bones, after which relief is
complete and permanent.

For paralytic club-foot, in which distressing corns have been
developed over the unnatural prominences upon which the
sufferer has been accustomed to walk, the adoption of the most
promising conservative measures are usually disappointing,
and relief and happiness may be obtainable only after the
performance of Syme's amputation through the ankle-joint.

CLUE, or CLEW (O. Eng. cluive), originally a ball of thread or
wool, the thread of life, which, according to the fable, the Fates
spin for every man. The ordinary figurative meaning, a piece
of evidence leading to discovery, or a sign pointing to the right
track, is derived from the story of Theseus, who was guided
through the labyrinth by the ball of thread held by Ariadne.

CLUENTIUS HABITUS, AULUS, of Larinum in Samnium, the
hero of a Roman cause cflebre. In 74 B.C. he accused his step-
father Statius Albius Oppianicus of an attempt to poison him;
had it been successful, the property of Cluentius would have
fallen to his mother Sassia. Oppianicus and two others were
condemned, and some years later Oppianicus died in exile.
But the verdict was looked upon with suspicion, and it was
known for a fact that one of the jurymen had received a large
sum of money for distribution amongst his colleagues. The
result was the degradation of Cluentius himself and several
of the jurymen. In 66, Sassia induced her stepson Oppianicus
to charge Cluentius with having caused the elder Oppianicus
to be poisoned while in exile. On this occasion the defence was
undertaken by Cicero in the extant speech Pro Cluentio. In the
end Cluentius was acquitted. Cicero afterwards boasted openly
that he had thrown dust in the eyes of the jury (Quintilian,
Instil, ii. 17. 21, who quotes this speech more than any other).
His efforts are chiefly devoted to proving that the condemnation

CLUMP CLUNY

569

of the elder Oppianicus was just and in no way the result of
the jury having been bribed by Cluentius; only a small portion
of the end of the speech deals with the specific charge. It was
generally believed that the verdict in the former trial was an
unfair one; and this opinion was most prejudicial to Cluentius.
But even if it could be shown that Cluentius had bribed the jury-
men, this did not prove that he had poisoned Oppianicus,
although it supplied a sufficient reason for wishing to get him
out of the way. The speech delivered by Cicero on this occasion
is considered one of his best.

Editions of the speech by W. Y. Fausset (1887), W. Ramsay
(1883); see also H. Nettleship, Lectures and Essays (1885).

CLUMP, a word common to Teutonic languages, meaning
a mass, lump, group or duster of indefinite form, as a clump
of grass or trees. The word is used of a wooden and clumsy
shoe, made out of one piece of wood, worn by German peasants,
and by transference is applied to the thick extra sole added to
heavy boots for rough wear. Shoemakers speak of " clumping "
a boot when it is mended by having a new sole fastened by nails
and not sewn by hand to the old sole.

CLUNES, a borough of Talbot county, Victoria, Australia,
97$ m. by rail N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 2426. It is the
centre of an agricultural, pastoral and mining district, in which
gold was first discovered in 1851. It lies in a healthy and
picturesque situation at an elevation of 1081 ft. An annual
agricultural exhibition and large weekly cattle sales are held
in the town.

. CLUNY, or CLUGNY, a town of east central France, in the
department of Sa6ne-et-Loire, on the left bank of the Grosne,
14 m. N.W. of Macon by road. Pop. (1006) 3105. The interest
of the town lies in its specimens of medieval architecture, which
include, besides its celebrated abbey, the Gothic church of
Notre-Dame, the church of St Marcel with its beautiful Roman-
esque spire, portions of the ancient fortifications, and a number
of picturesque houses belonging to the Romanesque, Gothic
and Renaissance periods. The chief remains of the abbey (see
ABBEY) are the ruins of the basilica of St Peter and the abbot's
palace. The church was a Romanesque building, completed
early in the 12th century, and until the erection of St Peter
at Rome was the largest ecclesiastical building in Europe.
It was in great part demolished under the First Empire, but
the south transept, a high octagonal tower, the chapel of Bourbon
(iSth century), and the ruins of the apse still remain. In 1750
the abbey buildings were largely rebuilt and now contain a
technical school. Part of the site of the church is given up to
the stabling of a government stud. The abbot's palace, which
belongs to the end of the isth century, serves as h6tel-de-ville,
library and museum. The town has quarries of limestone and
building-stone, and manufactures pottery, leather and paper.

A mere village at the time when the abbey was founded (910),
Cluny gradually increased in importance with the development
of the religious fraternity, and in 1090 received a communal
charter from the abbot St Hugh. In 1471 the town was taken
by the troops of Louis XI. In 1529 the abbey was given " in
commendam " to the family of Guise, four members of which
held the office of abbot during the next hundred years. The
town and abbey suffered during the Wars of Religion of the
i6th century, and the abbey was closed in 1790. The residence
erected in Paris at the end of the isth century by the abbots
Jean de Bourbon and Jacques d'Amboise, and known as the
H&tel de Cluny (see HOUSE, Plate I., fig. 6), is occupied by the
du Sommerard collection; but the College de Cluny founded
in 1269 by the abbot Yves de Vergy, as a theological school for
the order, is no longer in existence.

The Order of Cluniac Benedictines. The Monastery of Cluny
was founded in 910 by William I. the Pious, count of Auvergne
and duke of Guienne (Aquitaine). The first abbot was Berno,
who had under his rule two monasteries in the neighbourhood.
Before his death in 927 two or three more came under his control,
o that he bequeathed to his successor the government of a
little group of five or six houses, which became the nucleus of
the order of Cluny. Berno 's successor was Odo: armed with

papal privileges he set to work to make Cluny the centre of a
revival and reform among the monasteries of France; he also
journeyed to Italy, and induced some of the great Benedictine
houses, and among them St Benedict's own monasteries of
Subiaco and Monte Cassino, to receive the reform and adopt
the Cluny manner of life. The process of extension, partly by
founding new houses, partly by incorporating old ones, went
on under Odo's successors, so that by the middle of the izth
century Cluny had become the centre and head of a great
order embracing 314 monasteries the number 2000, sometimes
given, is an exaggeration in all parts of Europe, in France,
Italy, the Empire, Lorraine, Spain, England, Scotland, Poland,
and even in the Holy Land. And the influence of Cluny extended
far beyond the actual order: many monasteries besides Monte
Cassino and Subiaco adopted its customs and manner of life
without subjecting themselves to its sway; and of these, many
in turn became the centres of reforms which extended Cluny
ideas and influences over still wider circles: Fleury and Hirsau
may be mentioned as conspicuous examples. The gradual
stages in the growth of the Cluny sphere of influence is exhibited
in a map [VI. C.] in Heussi and Mulert's Handatlas zur Kircken-
geschichte, 1905.

When we turn to the inner life of Cluny, we find that the
decrees of Aix-la-Chapelle, which summed up the Carolingian
movement for reform (see BENEDICTINES), were taken as the
basis of the observance. Field work and manual labour were
given up; and in compensation the tendency initiated by
Benedict of Aniane, to prolong and multiply the church services
far beyond the canonical office contemplated by St Benedict,
was carried to still greater extremes, so that the services came
to occupy nearly the whole day. The lessons at the night office
became so lengthy that, e.g., the Book of Genesis was read
through in a week; and the daily psalmody, between canonical
office and extra devotions, exceeded a hundred psalms (see
Edm. Bishop, Origin of the Primer, Early English Text Soc.,
Original Series, No. 109).

If its influence on the subsequent history of monastic and
religious life and organization be considered, the most noteworthy
feature of the Cluny system was its external polity, which con-
stituted it a veritable " order " in the modern sense of the word,
the first that had existed since that of Pachomius (see MON-
ASTICISM). All the houses that belonged, either by foundation
or incorporation, to the Cluny system were absolutely subject
to Cluny and its abbot, who was " general " in the same sense
as the general of the Jesuits or Dominicans, the practically
absolute ruler of the whole system. The superiors of all the
subject houses (usually priors, not abbots) were his nominees;
every member of the order was professed by his permission,
and had to pass some of the early years of his monastic life
at Cluny itself; the abbot of Cluny had entire control over
every one of the monks some 10,000, it is said; it even came
about that he had the practical appointment of his successor.
For a description and criticism of the system, see F. A. Gasquet,
Sketch of Monastic Constitutional History, pp. xxxii-xxxv (the
Introduction to 2nd ed. (1895) of the English trans, of the
Monks of the West) ; here it must suffice to say that it is the very
antithesis of the Benedictine polity (see BENEDICTINES).

The greatness of Cluny is really the greatness of its early
abbots. If the short reign of the unworthy Pontius be excepted,
Cluny was ruled during a period of about 250 years (910-1157)
by a succession of seven great abbots, who combined those
high qualities of character, ability and religion that were
necessary for so commanding a position; they were Berno,
Odo, Aymard, Majolus (Maieul), Odilo, Hugh, Peter the Vener-
able. Sprung from noble families of the neighbourhood;
educated to the highest level of the culture of those times;
endowed with conspicuous ability and prudence in the conduct
of affairs; enjoying the consideration and confidence of popes
and sovereigns; employed again and again as papal legates and
imperial ambassadors; taking part in all great movements of
ecclesiastical and temporal politics; refusing the first sees in
Western Christendom, the cardinalate, and the papacy itself:

CLUSERET CLUSIUM

they ever remained true to their state as monks, without loss
of piety or religion. Four of them, indeed, Odo, Maieul, Odilo
and Hugh, are venerated as saints.

In the movement associated with the name of Hildebrand
the influence of Cluny was thrown strongly on the side of religious
and ecclesiastical reform, as in the suppression of simony and
the enforcing of clerical celibacy; but in the struggle between
the Papacy and the Empire the abbots of Cluny seem to have
steered a middle course between Guelfs and Ghibellines, and to
have exercised a moderating influence; St Hugh maintained
relations with Henry IV. after his excommunication, and
probably influenced him to go to Canossa. Hildebrand himself,
though probably not a monk of Cluny, was a monk of a Cluniac
monastery in Rome; his successor, Urban II., was actually
a Cluny monk, as was Paschal II. It may safely be said that
from the middle. of the loth century until the middle of the
1 2th, Cluny was the chief centre of religious influence throughout
Western Europe, and the abbot of Cluny, next to the pope,
the most important and powerful ecclesiastic in the Latin
Church. i

Everything at Cluny was on a scale worthy of so great a
position. The basilica, begun 1089 and dedicated 1131, was,
until the building of the present St Peter's, the largest church
in Christendom, and was both in structure and ornamenta-
tion of unparalleled magnificence. The monastic buildings were
gigantic.

During the abbacy of Peter the Venerable (1122-1157) it
became clear that, after a lapse of two centuries, a renewal of
the framework of the life and a revival of its spirit had become
necessary. Accordingly he summoned a great chapter of the
whole order whereat the priors and representatives of the
subject houses attended in such numbers that, along with the
Cluny community, the assembly consisted of 1200 monks.
This chapter drew up the 76 statutes associated with Peter's
name, regulating the whole range of claustral life, and solemnly
promulgated as binding on the whole Cluniac obedience. But
these measures did not succeed in saving Cluny from a rapid
decline that set in immediately after Peter's death. The
monarchical status of the abbot was gradually curtailed by
the holding of general chapters at fixed periods and the appoint-
ment of a board of definitors, elected by the chapter, as a per-
manent council for the abbot. Owing to these restrictions and
still more to the fact that the later abbots were not of the same
calibre as the early ones, their power and influence waned, until
in 1528 (if not in 1456) the abbey fell into " commendam."
The rise of the Cistercians and the mendicant orders were
contributory Causes, and also the difficulties experienced in
keeping houses in other countries subject to a French superior.
And so the great system gradually became a mere congregation
of French houses. Of the commendatory abbots the most
remarkable were Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin, who both
initiated attempts to introduce reforms into the Cluny congrega-
tion, the former trying to amalgamate it with the reformed
congregation of St Maur, but without effect. Martene tells
us that in the early years of the i8th century in the monastery
of Baume, one of Berno's original group of Cluny houses indeed
the parent house of Cluny itself no one was admitted as a
monk who had not sixteen quarterings in his coat of arms.
A reform movement took root in the Cluny congregation, and
during the last century of its existence the monks were divided
into two groups, the Reformed and the Unreformed, living
according to different laws and rules, with different superiors,
and sometimes independent, and even rival, general chapters.
This most unhappy arrangement hopelessly impaired the
vitality and work of the congregation, which was finally dissolved
and suppressed in 1790, the church being deliberately destroyed.

Cluniac houses were introduced into England under the
Conqueror. The first foundation was at Barnstaple; the second
at Lewes by William de Warenne, in 1077, and it counted as
one of the " Five Daughters of Cluny." In quick succession
followed Thetford, Montacute, Wenlock, Bermondsey, and in
Scotland, Paisley; a number of lesser foundations were made,

and offshoots from the English houses; so that the English
Cluniac dependencies in the I3th century amounted to 40.
It is said that in the reign of Edward III. they transmitted
to Cluny annually the sum of 2000, equivalent to 60,000 of
our money. Such a drain on the country was naturally looked
on with disfavour, especially during the French wars; and so
it came about that as " alien priories " they were frequently
sequestered by the crown. As the communities came to be
composed more and more of English subjects, they tended to
grow impatient of their subjection to a foreign house, and began
to petition parliament to be naturalized and to become denizen.
In 1351 Lewes was actually naturalized, but a century later
the prior of Lewes appears still as the abbot of Cluny's vicar
in England. Though the bonds with Cluny seem to have been
much relaxed if not wholly broken, the Cluniac houses continued
as a separate group up to the dissolution, never taking part in
the chapters of the English Benedictines. At the end there
were eight greater and nearly thirty lesser Cluniac houses: for
list see Table in F. A. Gasquet's English Monastic Life; and
Catholic Dictionary, art. " Cluny."

The history of Cluny up to the death of Peter the Venerable may
be extracted out of Mabillon's Annales by means of the Index; the
story is told in Helyot, Hist, des ordres rehgieux (1792), v. cc. 18, 19.
Abridged accounts, with references to the most recent literature,
may be found in Max Heimbucher, Orden vnd Kongregationen (1896),
i. 20; Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie (ed. 3), art. " Cluni "
(Grutzmacher) ; and Wetzer.und Welte, Kirchenlexikon (ed. 2), art.
" Clugny " (Hefele). The best modern monograph is by E. Sackur,
Die Ciuniacenser (1891-1894). In English a good account is given
in Maitland, Dark Ages, xviii.-xxvi. ; the Introduction to G. F.
Duckett's Charters and Records of Cluni (1890) contains, besides
general information, a description of the church and the buildings,
and a list of the chief Cluniac houses in all countries. The story of
the English houses is briefly sketched in the second chapter of F. A.
Gasquet's Henry VIII. and the English Monasteries (the larger ed.,
1886). ... . (E. C. B.)

CLDSERET, GUSTAVE PAUL (1823-1900), French soldier
and politician, was born at Paris. He was an officer in the
garde mobile duririg the revolution of 1848. He took part in
several expeditions in Algeria, joined Garibaldi's volunteers
in 1860, and in 1861 resigned his commission to take part in
the Civil War in America. He served under Fremont and
McClellan, and rose to the rank of general. Then, joining a
band of Irish adventurers, he went secretly to Ireland, and
participated in the Fenian insurrection (1866-67). He escaped
arrest on the collapse of the movement, but was condemned to
death in his absence. On his return to France he proclaimed
himself a Socialist, opposed militarism, and became a member
of the Association internationale des traiiailleurs, a cosmopolitan
Socialist organization, known as the " Internationale." On the
proclamation of the Third Republic in 1871 he set to work to
organize the social revolution, first at Lyons and afterwards at
Marseilles. His energy, his oratorical gifts, and his military
experience gave him great influence among the working classes.
On the news of the communist rising of the i8th of March 1871
he hastened to Paris, and on the i6th of April was elected a
member of the commune. Disagreements with the other com-
munist leaders led to his arrest on the ist of May, on a false
charge of betraying the cause. On the 24th of the same month
the occupation of Paris by the Versailles troops restored him to
liberty, and he succeeded in escaping from France. He did not
return to the country till 1884. ID 1888 and 1889 he was returned
as a deputy to the chamber by Toulon. He died in 1900.
Cluseret published his Mimoires (of the Commune) at Paris
in 1887-1888.

CLUSIUM (mod. Chiusi, q.v.), an ancient town of Italy, one
of the twelve cities of Etruria, situated on an isolated hill at
the S. end of the valley of the Clanis (China). It was according
to Roman tradition one of the oldest cities of Etruria and indeed
of all Italy, and, if Camars (the original name of the town,
according to Livy) is rightly connected with the Camertes
Umbri, its foundation would go back to pre-Etruscan times.
It first appears in Roman history at the end of the 7th century
B.C., when it joined the other Etruscan towns against Tarquinius
Priscus, and at the end of the 6th century B.C. it placed itself,

CLUWER CLYDE, LORD

under its king Lars Porsena, at the head of the attempt to
re-establish the Tarquins in Rome. At the time of the invasion
of the Gauls in 391 B.C., on the other hand, Clusium was on
friendly terms with Rome; indeed, it was the action of the
Roman envoys who had come to intercede for the people of
Clusium with the Gauls, and then, contrary to international law,
took part in the battle which followed, which determined the
Gauls to march on Rome. Near Clusium too, according to Livy
(according to Polybius ii. 19. 5, kv rtf Kanepribiv x<*W> *'' ' n
Umbria near Camerinum), a battle occurred in 296 B.C. between
the Gauls and Samnites combined, and the Romans; a little
later the united forces of Clusium and Perusia were defeated
by the Romans. The precise period at which Clusium came under
Roman supremacy is, however, uncertain, though this must
have happened before 225 B.C., when the Gauls advanced as far
as Clusium. In 205 B.C. in the Second Punic War we hear that
they promised ship timber and corn to Scipio. The Via Cassia,
constructed after 187 B.C., passed just below the town. In the
first civil war, Papirius Carbo took up his position here, and
two battles occurred in the neighbourhood. Sulla appears to
have increased the number of colonists, and a statue was certainly
erected in his honour here. In imperial times we hear little
of it, though its grain and grapes were famous. Christianity
found its way into Clusium as early as the 3rd century, and the
tombstone of a bishop of A.D. 322 exists. In A.D. 540 it is named
as a strong place to which Vitiges sent a garrison of a thousand
men.

Of pre-Roman or Roman buildings in the town itself there
are few remains, except for some fragments of the Etruscan
town walls composed of rather small rectangular blocks of
travertine, built into the medieval fortifications. Under it,
however, extends an elaborate system of rock-cut passages,
probably drains. The chief interest of the place lies in its
extensive necropolis, which surrounds the city on all sides.
The earliest tombs (tombe a pozzo, shaft tombs) are previous
to the beginning of Greek importation. Of tombe a fosso there
are none, and the next stage is marked by the so-called tombe
a eiro, in which the cinerary urn (often with a human head)
is placed in a large clay jar (ziro, Lat. dolium). These belong
to the yth century B.C., and are followed by the tombe a camera,
in which the tomb is a chamber hewn in the rock, and which
can be traced back to the beginning of the 6th century B.C.
From one of the earliest of these came the famous Francois
vase; another is the tomb of Poggio Renzo, or della Scimmia
(the monkey), with several chambers decorated with archaic
paintings. The most remarkable group of tombs is, however,
that of Poggio Gaiella, 3 m. to the N., where the hill is honey-
combed with chambers in three storeys (now, however, much
ruined and inaccessible), partly connected by a system of
passages, and supported at the base by a stone wall which forms
a circle and not a square a fact which renders impossible
its identification with the tomb of Porsena, the description of
which Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxxvi. 91) has copied from Varro.
Other noteworthy tombs are those of the Granduca, with a
single subterranean chamber carefully constructed in travertine,
and containing eight sarcophagi of the same material; of
Vigna Grande, very similar to this; of Colle Casuccini (the
ancient stone door of which is still in working order) , with two
chambers, containing paintings representing funeral rites;
of Poggio Moro and Valdacqua, in the former of which the
paintingsare almost destroyed, while the latter is now inaccessible.

A conception of the size of the whole necropolis may be
gathered from the fact that nearly three thousand Etruscan
inscriptions have come to light from Clusium and its district
alone, while the part of Etruria north of it as far as the Arno
has produced barely five hundred. Among the later tombs
bilingual inscriptions are by no means rare, and both Etruscan
and Latin inscriptions are often found in the same cemeteries,
showing that the use of the Etruscan language only died out
gradually. A large number of the inscriptions are painted
upon the tiles which closed the niches containing the cinerary
urns. The urns themselves are small, often of terra-cotta,

originally painted, though the majority of them have lost their
colour, and rectangular in shape. This style of burial seems
peculiar to a district which E. Bormann (Corp. Inscr. Lat. xi.,
Berlin, 1887, p. 373) defines as a triangle formed by the Clanis
(with the lakes of Chiusi and Montepulciano, both small, shallow
and fever-breeding), on the E., the villages of Cetona, Sarteano,
Castelluccio and Monticchiello on the W., and Montepulciano
and Acquaviva on the N. In Roman times the territory of
Clusium seems to have extended as far as Lake Trasimene.
The local museum contains a valuable and important collection
of objects from the necropolis, including some specially fine
bucchero, sepulchral urns of travertine, alabaster and terra-cotta,
painted vases, stone cippi with reliefs, &c.

Two Christian catacombs have been found near Clusium, one
in the hill of S. Caterina near the railway station, the inscriptions
of which seem to go back to the 3rd century, another i m. to the
E. in a hill on which a church and monastery of S. Mustiola
stood, which goes back to the 4th century, including among its
inscriptions one bearing the date A.D. 303, and the tombstone
of L. Petronius Dexter, bishop of Clusium, who died in A.D. 322.
The total number of inscriptions known in Clusium is nearly
3000 Etruscan (Corp. Inscr. Elrusc., Berlin, 475-3306) and 500
Latin (Corp. Inscr. Lat. xi. 2090-2593). To the W. and N.W.
of Chiusi at Cetona, Sarteano, Chianciano and Montepulciano
Etruscan cemeteries have been discovered; the objects from
them formed, in the latter half of the I9th century, interesting
local collections described by Dennis, which have since mostly
passed to larger museums or been dispersed.

See G. Dennis, .Cities and Cemeteries o/E/rttna(London,l883),ii.29O
seq. ; L. Giometti, Cuida di Chiusi (Poggibonsi, 1904). _ (T. As.)

CLUWER (CLUVER, CLUVIER, CLUVERIUS), PHILIP (1580-
1623), German geographer and historian, was born at Danzig
in 1580. After travelling in Germany and Poland (where he
learnt Polish), he began the study of law at Leiden, but he soon
turned his attention to history and geography, which were
then taught there by Joseph Scaliger. After campaigning in
Bohemia and Hungary, suffering imprisonment, and travelling
in England, Scotland and France, he finally settled in Holland,
where (after 1616) he received a regular pension from Leiden
Academy. In 161 1 he began to publish his works. He died at
Leiden in 1623. His principal writings are: Germania Antiqua
(1616), SicUiae Anliquae libri duo, Sardinia et Corsica Antiqua
(1619), and the posthumous Italia Antiqua (1624) and Intro-
duclio in Universam Geographiam (1629).

CLYDE, COLIN CAMPBELL, BARON (1792-1863), British
soldier, was born at Glasgow on the 2oth of October 1792. He
received his education at the Glasgow high school, and when
only sixteen years of age obtained an ensigncy in the 9th foot,
through the influence of Colonel Campbell, his maternal uncle.
The youthful officer had an early opportunity of engaging in
active service. He fought under Sir Arthur Wellesley at Vimiera,
took part in the retreat of Sir John Moore, and was present
at the battle of Corunna. He shared in all the fighting of the
Peninsular campaigns, and was severely wounded while leading
a storming-party at the attack on San Sebastian. He was again
wounded at the passage of the Bidassoa, and compelled to return
to England, when his conspicuous gallantry was rewarded by
promotion without purchase. Campbell held a command in the
American expedition of 1814; and after the peace of the following
year he devoted himself to studying the theoretical branches
of his profession. In 1823 he quelled the negro insurrection
in Demerara, and two years later obtained his majority by
purchase. In 1832 he became lieutenant-colonel of the gSth
foot, and with that regiment rendered distinguished service
in the Chinese War of 1842. Campbell was next employed in
the Sikh War of 1848-49, under Lord Gough. At Chillianwalla,
where he was wounded, and at the decisive victory of Gujrat,
his skill and valour largely contributed to the success of the
British arms; and his " steady coolness and military precision "
were highly praised in official despatches. He was made a
K.C.B. in 1849, an d specially named in the thanks of parliament.

After rendering important services in India Sir Colin Campbell

572

CLYDE CLYDEBANK

returned home in 1853. Next year the Crimean War broke out,
and he accepted the command of the Highland brigade, which
formed part of the duke of Cambridge's division. The brigade
and its leader distinguished themselves very greatly at the Alma;
and with his " thin red line " of Highlanders he repulsed the
Russian attack on Balaklava. At the close of the war Sir Colin
was promoted to be knight grand cross of the Bath, and elected
honorary D.C.L. of Oxford. His military services, however,
had as yet met with tardy recognition; but, when the crisis
came, his true worth was appreciated. The outbreak of the
Indian Mutiny (q.v.) called for a general of tried experience;
and on the nth of July 1857 the command was offered to him
by Lord Palmerston. On being asked when he would be ready
to set out, the veteran replied, " Within twenty-four hours."
He was as good as his word; he left England the next evening,
and reached Calcutta on the I3th of August. After spending
upwards of two months in the capital to organize his resources,
he started for the front on the 2 7th of October, and on the 1 7th of
November relieved Lucknow for the second time. Sir Colin,
however, considered Lucknow a false position, and once more
abandoned it to the rebels, retaking it in March 1858. He
continued in charge of the operations in Oudh until the embers
of the revolt had died away. For these services he was raised
to the peerage, in 1858, as Lord Clyde; and, returning to
England in the next year, he received the thanks of both Houses
of Parliament and a pension of 200x3 a year. He died on the
I4th of August 1863.

Though not a great general, and lacking in the dash which
won England so many victories in India, Lord Clyde was at
once a brave soldier and a careful and prudent leader. The
soldiers whom he led were devotedly attached to him; and his
courteous demeanour and manly independence of character
won him unvarying respect.

See Sir Owen Tudor Burne, Clyde and Strathnairn (" Rulers of
India " series, 1891) ; and L. Shadwell, Life of Colin Campbell, Lord
Clyde (1881).

CLYDE (Welsh, Clwyd, "far heard," "strong," the Glotta
of Tacitus), the principal river of Lanarkshire, Scotland. It is
also the name of the estuary which forms the largest and finest
firth on the west coast.

i. The River. Daer Water, rising in Gana Hill (2190 ft.)
on the borders of Lanarkshire and Dumfriesshire, after a course
of 105 m., and Potrail Water, rising 3 m. farther W. in the same
hilly country (1928 ft.), after running N.N.E. for 7 m., unite
35 m. S. of Elvanfoot to form the Clyde, of which they are the
principal headstreams, though many mountain bums in these
upland regions are also contributory. The old rhyme that
" Annan, Tweed and Clyde rise a' out o' ae hillside " is not true,
for Little Clyde Burn here referred to, rising in Clyde Law
(2 190 ft.), is only an affluent and not a parent stream. From the
junction of the Daer and Potrail the river pursues a direction
mainly northwards for several miles, winding eastwards around
Tinto Hill, somewhat north-westerly to near Carstairs, where
it follows a serpentine course westwards and then southwards.
From Harperfield, a point about 4 m. above Lanark, it assumes
a north-westerly direction, which, roughly, it maintains for the
rest of its course as a river, which is generally held to end at
Dumbarton, where it merges in the Firth. Its principal tribu-
taries on the right are the Medwin (16 m. long), entering near
Carnwath, the Mouse (15 m.), joining it at Lanark, the South
Calder (16 m.) above Bothwell, the North Calder (12 m.) below
Uddingston, the Kelvin (21 m.) at Glasgow, and the Leven (7 m.)
at Dumbarton. The chief left-hand affluents are the Elvan
(8 m.), entering at Elvanfoot, the Duneaton (19 m.), joining a
few miles above Roberton, the Garf (6 m.) below Lamington,
the Douglas (20 m.) above Bonnington, the.Nethan (12 m.)
at Crossford, the Avon (28 m.) at Hamilton, the Rotten Calder
(10 m.) near Newton, and the Cart (i m.), formed by the junction
of the Black Cart (9 m.) and the White Cart (19 m.), below
Renfrew.

The total length of the Clyde from the head of the Daer to
Dumbarton is 106 m., and it drains an area estimated at 1481

sq. m. It is thus the third longest river in Scotland (being
exceeded by the Spey and Tay), but in respect of the industries
on its lower banks, and its sea-borne commerce, it is one of the
most important rivers in the world. Near Lanark it is broken
by the celebrated Falls, four in number, which are all found
within a distance of 3! m. Bonnington Linn, the most graceful,
2 m. above Lanark, is divided into two parts by a mass of tree-
clad rocks in mid-stream, and has a height of 30 ft. From this
spot the river runs for half a mile through a rugged, red sand-
stone gorge till it reaches Corra Linn, the grandest of the Falls,
where in three leaps, giving it the aspect of a splendid cascade,
it makes a descent of 84 ft., which, however, it accomplishes
during flood at a single bound. Almost } m. below Corra Linn,
Dundaff Linn is reached, a fall of only 10 ft. Farther down,
if m. below Lanark, at Stonebyres Linn, reproducing the
characteristic features of Corra Linn, the river descends in
ordinary water in three leaps, and in flood in one bold drop of 80
ft. Within this space of 3! m. the river effects a total fall of
230 ft., or 6iJ ft. in the mile. From Stonebyres Linn to the sea
the fall is practically 4 ft. hi every mile. The chief villages and
towns on or close to the river between its source and Glasgow
are Crawford, Lamington, New Lanark, Lanark, Hamilton,
Bothwell, Blantyre and Uddingston. At Bowling (pop. 1018)
the point of transhipment for the Forth and Clyde Canal the
river widens decidedly, the fairway being indicated by a stone
wall continued seawards as far as Dumbarton. Dunglass Point,
near Bowling, is the western terminus of the wall of Antoninus,
or Grim's Dyke; and in the grounds of Dunglass Castle, now a
picturesque fragment, stands an obelisk to Henry Bell (1767-
1830), the pioneer of steam navigation in Europe.

As far down as the falls the Clyde remains a pure fishing stream,
but from the point at which it begins to receive the varied tribute
of industry, its water grows more and more contaminated, and
at Glasgow the work of pollution is completed. Towards the
end of the i8th century the river was yet fordable at the Broomie-
law in the heart of Glasgow, but since that period, by unexampled
enterprise and unstinted expenditure of money, the stream has
been converted into a waterway deep enough to allow liners and
battleships to anchor in the harbour (see GLASGOW).

Clydesdale, as the valley of the upper Clyde is called, begins
in the district watered by headstreams of the river, the course
of which in effect it follows as far as Bothwell, a distance of 50 m.
It is renowned for its breed of cart-horses (specifically known as
Clydesdales), its orchards, fruit fields and market gardens, its
coal and iron mines.

2. The Firth. From Dumbarton, where the firth is commonly
considered to begin, to Ailsa Craig, where it ends, the fairway
measures 64 m. Its width varies from i m. at Dumbarton to
37 m. from Girvan to the MuB of Kin tyre. The depth varies
from a low-tide minimum of 22 ft. in the navigable channel at
Dumbarton to nearly 100 fathoms in the Sound of Bute and at
other points. The Cumbraes, Bute and Arran are the principal
islands in its waters. The sea lochs all lie on the Highland shore,
and comprise Gare Loch, Loch Long, Loch Goil, Holy Loch,
Loch Striven, Loch Riddon and Loch Fyne. The only rivers
of any importance feeding the Firth are the Ayrshire streams, of
which the chief are the Garnock, Irvine, Ayr, Doon and Girvan.
The tide ascends above Glasgow, where its farther rise is barred
by a weir. The head-ports are Glasgow, Port Glasgow, Greenock,
Ardrossan, Irvine, Troon, Ayr and Campbeltown. In addition
to harbour lights, beacons on rocks, and light-ships, there are
lighthouses on Ailsa Craig, Sanda, Davaar, Pladda, Holy Isle,
and Little Cumbrae, and at Turnberry Point, Cloch Point and
Toward Point. The health and holiday resorts on the lochs,'
islands and mainland coast are numerous.

CLYDEBANK, a police burgh of Dumbartonshire, Scotland,
on the right bank of the Clyde, 6 m. from Glasgow. Pop. (1891)
10,014 ; (1901) 21,591. There are stations at Yoker, Clydebank,
Kilbowie and Dalmuir, all comprised within the burgh since
1886, served by both the North British and the Caledonian
railways. In 1875 the district was almost purely rural, but since
that date flourishing industries have been planted in the different

CNIDUS CNOSSUS

573

parts. At Clydebank are large shipbuilding yards and engineer-
ing works; at Yoker there is some shipbuilding and a distillery;
at Kilbowie the Singer Manufacturing Company have an immense
factory, covering nearly 50 acres and giving employment to
many thousands of operatives; at Dalmuir are the building
and repairing yards of the Clyde Navigation Trust. The import-
ant Rothesay Dock, under this trust, was opened by the prince
and princess of Wales in April 1907. The municipality owns
a fine town hall and buildings. Part of the parish extends
across the Clyde into the shire of Renfrew.

CNIDUS (mod. Tekir), an ancient city of Caria in Asia Minor,
situated at the extremity of the long peninsula that forms the
southern side of the Sinus Ceramicus or Gulf of Cos. It was
built partly on the mainland and partly on the Island of Triopion
or Cape Krio, which anciently communicated with the continent
by a causeway and bridge, and now by a narrow sandy isthmus.
By means of the causeway the channel between island and
mainland was formed into two harbours, of which the larger,
or southern, now known as Port Freano, was further enclosed
by two strongly-built moles that are still in good part entire.
The extreme length of the city was little less than a mile, and the
whole intramural area is still thickly strewn with architectural
remains. The walls, both insular and continental, can be traced
throughout their whole circuit; and in many places, especially
round the acropolis, at the N.E. corner of the city, they are
remarkably perfect. Our knowledge of the site is largely due
to the mission of the Dilettanti Society in 1812, and the excava-
tions executed by C. T. Newton in 1857-1858; but of recent
years it has become a frequent calling station of touring steamers,
which can still lie safely in the southern harbour. The agora,
the theatre, an odeum, a temple of Dionysus, a temple of the
Muses, a temple of Aphrodite and a great number of minor
buildings have been identified, and the general plan of the city
has been very clearly made out. The most famous statue by
the elder Praxiteles, the Aphrodite, was made for Cnidus. It
has perished, but late copies exist, of which the most faithful
is in the Vatican gallery. In a temple-enclosure C. T. Newton
discovered a fine seated statue of Demeter, which now adorns
the British Museum; and about 3 m. south-east of the city he
came upon the ruins of a splendid tomb, and a colossal figure
of a lion carved out of one block of Pentelic marble, 10 ft. in
length and 6 in height, which has been supposed to commemorate
the great naval victory of Conon over the Lacedaemonians in
394 B.C. Among the minor antiquities obtained from the city
itself, or the great necropolis to the east, perhaps the most
interesting are the leaden KardSw/wii, or imprecationary tablets,
found in the temple of Demeter, and copied in facsimile in the
appendix to the second volume of Newton's work. Peasants
still find numerous antiquities, and the site would certainly
repay more thorough excavation.

Cnidus was a city of high antiquity and probably of Lacedae-
monian colonization. Along with Halicarnassus and Cos, and
the Rhodian cities of Lindus, Camirus and lalysus it formed
the Dorian Hexapolis, which held its confederate assemblies
on the Triopian headland, and there celebrated games in honour
of Apollo, Poseidon and the nymphs. The city was at first
governed by an oligarchic senate, composed of sixty members,
known as d/u^/ioves, and presided over by a magistrate called
an dpecmjp; but, though it is proved by inscriptions that the
old names continued to a very late period, the constitution
underwent a popular transformation. The situation of the city
was favourable for commerce, and the Cnidians acquired consider-
able wealth, and were able to colonize the island of Lipara, and
founded the city of Corcyra Nigra in the Adriatic. They ulti-
mately submitted to Cyrus, and from the battle of Eurymedon
to the latter part of the Peloponnesian War they were subject
to Athens. In 394 B.C. Conon fought off the port the battle
which destroyed Spartan hegemony. The Romans easily
obtained their allegiance, and rewarded them for help given
against Antiochus by leaving them the freedom of their city.
During the Byzantine period there must still have been a con-
siderable population; for the ruins contain a large number of

Buildings belonging to the Byzantine style, and Christian
sepulchres are common in the neighbourhood. Eudoxus, the
astronomer, Ctesias, the writer on Persian history, and Sostratus,
the builder of the celebrated Pharos at Alexandria, are the most
remarkable of the Cnidians mentioned in history.

See C. T. Newton and R. P. Pullen, Hist, of Discoveries at Halicar-
nassus, Cnidus, &c. (1863).

CNOSSUS, KNOSSOS, or GNOSSUS, an ancient city of Crete,
on the left bank of the Caeratus, a small stream which falls into
the sea on the north side of the island. The city was situated
about 3 m. from the coast, and, according to the old traditions,
was founded by Minos, king of Crete. The locality was associated
with a number of the most interesting legends of Greek mythology,
particularly with those which related to Jupiter, who was said
to have been born, to have been married, and to have been
buried in the vicinity. Cnossus was also assigned as the site
of the labyrinth in which the Minotaur was confined. The
truth behind these legends has been revealed in recent years by
the excavations of Dr Evans. As the historical city was peopled
by Dorians, the manners, customs and political institutions
of its inhabitants were all Dorian. Along with Gortyna and
Cydonia, it held for many years the supremacy over the whole
of Crete; and it always took a prominent part in the civil wars
which from time to time desolated the island. When the rest
of Crete fell under the Roman dominion, Cnossus shared the
same fate, and became a Roman colony. Aenesidemus, the
sceptic philosopher, and Chersiphron, the architect of the
temple of Diana at Ephesus, were natives of Cnossus.

The Site. As the excavations at Cnossus are discussed at
length in the article CRETE, it must suffice here briefly to enumer-
ate the more important. The chief building is the Great Palace,
the so-called " House of Minos," the excavation of which by
Arthur Evans dates from 1900: a number of rooms lying round
the central paved court, oriented north and south, have been
identified, among them being the throne-room with some well-
preserved wall paintings and a small bathroom attached, in the
north-west quarter a larger bathroom and a shrine, and residential
chambers in the south and east. The latter part of the palace
is composed of a number of private rooms and halls, and is
especially remarkable for its skilful drainage and water-supply
systems.

In 1907 excavations on the south side of the palace showed
that the plan was still incomplete, and a southern cryptoporticus,
and outside it a large south-west building, probably an official
residence, were discovered. Of special interest was a huge
circular cavity under the southern porch into which the sub-
structures of the palace had been sunk. This cavity was filled
with rubbish, sherds, &c., the latest of which was found to
date as far back as the beginning of the Middle Minoan age, and
the later work of 1908 only proved (by means of a small shaft
sunk through the d6bris) that the rock floor was 52 ft. below
the surface. The first attempt to reach the floor by a cutting
in the hill-side proved abortive, but the operations of 1910 led to
a successful result. The cavity proved to be a great reservoir
approached by a rock-cut staircase and of Early Minoan date.

In 1904-1905 a paved way running due west from the middle
of the palace was excavated, and found to lead to another build-
ing described as the "Little Palace" largely buried under an
olive grove. The first excavations showed that this building
was on the same general plan and belonged to the same period
as the " House of Minos," though somewhat later in actual date
(i7th century B.C.). Large halls, which had subsequently been
broken up into smaller apartments, were found, and among a
great number of other artistic remains one seal-impression of
special interest showing a one-masted ship carrying a thorough-
bred horse perhaps representing the first importation of horses
into Crete. A remarkable shrine with fetish idols was also dis-
covered. The sacred Double-Axe symbol is prominent, as in
the greater palace. By the end of 1910 the excavation of this
smaller palace was practically completed. It was found to cover
an area of more than 9400 ft. with a frontage of more than 130 ft.,
and had five stone staircases. One object of special interest found

574

COACH COAHUILA

in the course of excavation is a black steatite vessel in the form
of a bull's head. The modelling is of a very high order, and the
one eye which remains perfect is cut out of rock crystal, with
the pupil and iris marked by colours applied to the lower face
of the crystal.

The work of excavation in the palace has been complicated by
the necessity of propping up walls, floors and staircases. In some
instances it has been found necessary to replace the original
wooden pillars by pillars of stone. Again in the " Queen's
Megaron " in the east wing of the Great Palace it was found
that the exposure of the remains to the violent extremes of
Cretan weather must soon prove fatal to them. It was therefore
decided to restore the columns and part of the wall, and to roof
over the whole area.

For recent excavations see R. M. Burrows, The Discoveries in
Crete (1907); A. Mosso, The Palaces of Crete (1907); Lagrange,
La Crete ancienne (1908) ; Dr. Evans's reports in The Times, Oct. 31,
1905, July 15, 1907, Aug. 27,_i9o8, and 1909 (Index); D. Mackenzie,
Cretan Palaces.

COACH (through the Fr. cache, originally from the Magyar
kocsi, an adjective from the Hungarian place named Kocs,
between Raab and Buda, i.e. the sort of vehicle used there in
the isth century), a large kind of carriage for passengers (see
CARRIAGE). As a general term it is used (as in " coach-building ")
for all carriages, and also in combination with qualifying attributes
for particular forms (stage-coach, mail-coach, mourning-coach,
hackney-coach, &c.) ; but the typical coach involves four wheels,
springs and a roof. The stage-coach, with seats outside and in,
was a public conveyance which was known in England from the
i6th century, and before railways the stage-coaches had regular
routes (stages) all over the country; through their carrying
the mails (from 1784) the term "mail-coach" arose. Similar
vehicles were used in America and on the European continent.
The diligence, though not invariably with four horses, was the
Continental analogue for public conveyance, with other minor
varieties such as the Stellwagen and Eilwagen.

The driving of coaches with four horses was a task in which
a considerable amount of skill was required, 1 and English
literature is full of the difficulties and humours of " the road "
in old days. A form of sport thus arose for enterprising members
of the nobility and gentry, and after the introduction of railways
made the mail-coach obsolete as a matter of necessity, the old
sport of coaching for pleasure still survived, though only to a
limited extent. The Four-in-hand Club was started in England
in 1856 and the Coaching Club in 1870, as the successors of the
old Bensington Driving Club (1807-1852), and Four-Horse
Club (1808-1829); an d in America the New York Coaching
Club was founded in 1875. But coaching remains the sport of
the wealthier classes, although in various parts of England
(e.g. London to Brighton, and in the Lake district), in America,
and in Europe, public coaches still have their regular times and
routes for those who enjoy this form of travel. The earliest
railway vehicles for passengers were merely the road coaches
of the period adapted to run on rails, and the expression " coach-
ing traffic " is still used in England to denote traffic carried in
passenger trains.

Of coaches possessing a history the two best known in the
United Kingdom are the king's state coach, and that of the
lord mayor of London. The latter is the oldest, having been
built, or at least first used, for the procession of Sir Charles Asgil,
lord mayor elect, in November 1757. The body of this vehicle
is not supported by springs, but hung on leather straps; and
the whole structure is very richly loaded with ornamental
carving, gilding and paint-work. The different panels and the
doors contain various allegorical groups of figures representing
suitable subjects, and heraldic devices painted in a spirited
manner. The royal state coach, which is described as " the
most superb carriage ever built," was designed by Sir William
Chambers, the paintings on it were executed by Cipriani, and

1 The idea of " driving " was responsible for the use of the term
" coach " and " coaching " to mean a tutor or trainer, for examin-
ations or athletic contests.

the work was completed in 1761. During the later part of Queen
Victoria's reign it was hardly ever seen, but on the accession
of Edward VII. the coach was once more put in order for
use on state occasions. The following is an official description
of this famous coach:

" The whole of the carriage and body is richly ornamented with
laurel and carved work, beautifully gilt. The length, 24 ft.; width,
8 ft. 3 in.; height, 12 ft.; length of pole, 12 ft. 4 in.; weight, 4 tons.
The carriage and body of the coach is composed as follows : Of four
large tritons, who support the body by four braces, covered with
reef morocco leather, and ornamented with gilt buckles, the two
figures placed in front of the carriage bear the driver, and are repre-
sented in the action of drawing by cables extending round their
shoulders, and the cranes and sounding shells to announce the
approach of the monarch of the ocean ; and those at the back carry
the imperial fasces, topped with tridents. The driver's foot-board is
a large scallop shell, ornamented with bunches of reeds and other
marine plants. The pole represents a bundle of lances ; the splinter
bar is composed of a rich moulding, issuing from beneath a voluted
shell, and each end terminating in the head of a dolphin; and the
wheels are imitated from those of the ancient triumphal chariot. The
body of the coach is composed of eight palm-trees, which, branching
out at the top, sustain the roof; and four angular trees are loaded
with trophies allusive to the victories obtained by Great Britain
during the late glorious war, supported by four lions heads. On the
centre of the roof stand three boys, representing the genii of England,
Scotland and Ireland, supporting the imperial crown of Great Britain,
and holding in their hands the sceptre, sword of state, and ensigns
of knighthood; their bodies are adorned with festoons of laurel,
which fall from thence towards the four corners. The panels and
doors are painted with appropriate emblematical devices, and the
linings are of scarlet velvet richly embossed with national emblems."

See the Badminton Driving, by the duke of Beaufort (1888);
Rogers's Manual of Driving (Philadelphia, 1900) ; and " Nimrod's "
Essays on (he Road (1876).

COAHUILA, a northern frontier state of Mexico, bounded
N. and N.E. by Texas, U.S.A., E. by Nuevo Le6n, S. by San
Luis Potosi and Zacatecas, and W. by Durango and Chihuahua.
Area, 63,569 sq. m.; pop. (1895) 237,815; (1900) 296,938.
Its surface is a roughly broken plateau, traversed N.W. to S.E.
by several ranges of mountains and sloping gently toward the
Rio Grande. The only level tract of any size in the state is the
Bols6n de Mapimi, a great depression on the western side which
was long considered barren and uninhabitable. It is a region
of lakes and morasses, of arid plains and high temperatures,
but experiments with irrigation toward the end of the igth
century were highly successful and considerable tracts have
since been brought under cultivation. In general the state is
insufficiently watered, the rainfall being light and the rivers
small. The rivers flow eastward to the Rio Grande. The
climate is hot and dry, and generally healthy. Stock-raising
was for a time the principal industry, but agriculture has been
largely developed in several localities, among the chief products
of which are cotton Coahuila is the principal cotton-producing
state in Mexico Indian corn, wheat, beans, sugar and grapes.
The Parras district in the southern part of the state has long been
celebrated for its wines and brandies. The mineral wealth of
the state is very great, and the mining industries, largely operated
with foreign capital, are important. The mineral products
include silver, lead, coal, copper, and iron. The mining opera-
tions are chiefly centred in the Sierra Mojada, Sierra Carmen,
and in the Santa Rosa valley. The modern industrial develop-
ment of the state is due to the railway lines constructed across
it during the last quarter of the I9th century, and to the invest-
ment of foreign capital in local enterprises. The first Spanish
settlement in the region now called Coahuila was at Saltillo
in 1586, when it formed part of the province of Nueva Viscaya.
Later it became the province of Nueva Estremadura under the
Spanish regime, and in 1824, under the new republican organiza-
tion, it became the state of Coahuila and included Texas and
Nuevo Le6n. Later in the same year Nuevo Leon was detached,
but Texas remained a part of the state until 1835. The capital
of the state is Saltillo; Monclova was the capital from 1833 to
1835. Among the more important towns are Parras (pop. 6476
in 1900), 98 m. W. by N. of Saltillo in a rich grape-producing dis-
trict, Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, and Monclova (pop. 6684 in 1900), 105
m. N. by W. of Saltillo, on the Mexican International railway.

COAL

575

COAL. In its most general sense the term "coal" includes
all varieties of carbonaceous minerals used as fuel, but it is now
usual in England to restrict it to the particular varieties of such
minerals occurring in the older Carboniferous formations.
On the continent of Europe it is customary to consider coal
as divisible into two great classes, depending upon differences
of colour, namely, brown coal, corresponding to the term "lignite"
used in England and France, and black or stone coal, which is
equivalent to coal as understood in England. Stone coal is
also a local English term, but with a signification restricted to
the substance known by mineralogists as anthracite. In old
English writings the terms pit-coal and sea-coal are commonly
used. These have reference to the mode in which the mineral
is obtained, and the manner in which it is transported to market.

The root kol is common to all the Teutonic nations, while in
French and other Romance languages derivatives of the Latin
carbo are used, e.g. charbon de terre. In France and Belgium,
however, a peculiar word, houille, is generally used to signify
mineral coal. This word is supposed to be derived from the
Walloon hoie, corresponding to the medieval Latin hullae
Littr6 suggests that it may be related to the Gothic haurja, coal.
Anthracite is from the Greek avOpat;, and the term lithanthrax,
stone coal, still survives, with the same meaning, in the Italian
litantrace.

It must be borne in mind that the signification now attached
to the word coal is different from that which formerly obtained
when wood was the only fuel in general use. Coal then meant
the carbonaceous residue obtained in the destructive distillation
of wood, or what is known as charcoal, and the name collier was
applied indifferently to both coal-miners and charcoal-burners.

The spelling " cole " was generally used up to the middle of
the 1 7th century, when it was gradually superseded by the
modern form, " coal." The plural, coals, seems to have been
used from a very early period to signify the broken fragments
of the mineral as prepared for use.

Coal is an amorphous substance of variable composition,
and therefore cannot be as strictly defined as a crystallized or
definite mineral can. It varies in colour from a light
P m-' C " 1 brown in the newest lignites to a pure black, often with
pe'rties. a bluish or yellowish tint in the more compact an-
thracite of the older formations. It is opaque, except
in exceedingly thin slices, such as made for microscopic in-
vestigation, which are imperfectly transparent, and of a dark
brown colour by transmitted light. The streak is black in
anthracite, but more or less brown in the softer varieties. The
maximum hardness is from 2-5 to 3 in anthracite and hard
bituminous coals, but considerably less in lignites, which are
nearly as soft as rotten wood. A greater hardness is due to the
presence of earthy impurities. The densest anthracite is often
of a semi-metallic lustre, resembling somewhat that of graphite.
Bright, glance or pitch coal is another brilliant variety, brittle,
and breaking into regular fragments of a black colour and pitchy
lustre. Lignite and cannel are usually dull and earthy, and of
an irregular fracture, the latter being much tougher than the
black coal. Some lignites are, however, quite as brilliant as
anthracite; cannel and jet may be turned in the lathe, and are
susceptible of taking a brilliant polish. The specific gravity
is highest in anthracite and lowest in lignite, bituminous coals
giving intermediate values (see Table I.). As a rule, the density
increases with the amount of carbon, but in some instances a
very high specific gravity is due to' intermixed earthy matters,
which are always denser than even the densest form of coal
substance.

Coal is never definitely crystalline, the nearest approach to
such a structure being a compound fibrous grouping resembling
that of gypsum or arragonite, which occurs in some of the steam
coals of South Wales, and is locally known as " cone in cone,"
but no definite form or arrangement can be made out of the fibres.
Usually it occurs in compact beds of alternating bright and dark
bands in which impressions of leaves, woody fibre and other
vegetable remains are commonly found. There is generally
a tendency in coals towards cleaving into cubical or prismatic

blocks, but sometimes the cohesion between the particles is so
feeble that the mass breaks up into dust when struck. These
peculiarities of structure may vary very considerably within
small areas; and the position of the divisional planes or cleats
with reference to the mass, and the proportion of small coal
or slack to the larger fragments when the coal is broken up by
cutting-tools, are points of great importance in the working of
coal on a large scale.

The divisional planes often contain small films of other
minerals, the commonest being calcite, gypsum and iron pyrites,
but in some cases zeolitic minerals and galena have been observed.
Salt, in the form of brine, is sometimes present in coal. Hydro-
carbons, such as petroleum, bitumen, paraffin, &c., are also
found occasionally in coal, but more generally in the associated
sandstones and limestones of the Carboniferous formation.
Gases, consisting principally of light carburetted hydrogen or
marsh gas, are often present in considerable quantity in coal, in a
dissolved or occluded state, and the evolution of these upon
exposure to the air, especially when a sudden diminution of
atmospheric pressure takes place, constitutes one of the most
formidable dangers that the coal miner has to encounter.

The classification of the different kinds of coal may be con-
sidered from yarious points of view, such as their chemical
composition, their behaviour when subjected to heat
or when burnt, and their geological position and u *^
origin. They all contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
and nitrogen, forming the carbonaceous or combustible portion,
and some quantity of mineral matter, which remains after
combustion as a residue or " ash." As the amount of ash
varies very considerably in different coals, and stands in no rela-
tion to the proportion of the other constituents, it is necessary in
forming a chemical classification to compute the results of
analysis after deduction of the ash and hygroscopic water.
Examples of analyses treated in this manner are furnished in the
last column of Table I., from which it will be seen that the
nearest approach to pure carbon is furnished by
anthracite, which contains above 90%. This class of
coal burns with a very small amount of flame, produc-
ing intense local heat and no smoke. It is especially used for
drying hops and malt, and in blast furnaces where a high tempera-
ture is required, but it is not suited for reverberatory furnaces.

The most important class of coals is that generally known
as bituminous, from their property of softening or undergoing an
apparent fusion when heated to a temperature far Bltamla .
below that at which actual combustion takes place. ous coals.
This term is founded on a misapprehension of the nature
of the occurrence, since, although the softening takes place at a
low temperature, still it marks the point at which destructive
distillation commences, and hydrocarbons both of a solid and
gaseous character are formed. That nothing analogous to
bitumen exists in coals is proved by the fact that the ordinary
solvents for bituminous substances, such as bisulphide of
carbon and benzol, have, no effect upon them, as would be
the case if they contained bitumen soluble in these re-agents.
The term is, however, a convenient one, and one whose use
is almost a necessity, from its having an almost universal
currency among coal miners. The proportion of carbon in
bituminous coals may vary from 80 to 90% the amount being
highest as they approach the character of anthracite, and least in
those which are nearest to lignites. The amount of hydrogen is
from 4! to 6%, while the oxygen may vary within much wider
limits, or from about 3 to 14%. These variations in composition
are attended with corresponding differences in qualities, which
are distinguished by special names. Thus the semi-anthracitic
coals of South Wales are known as " dry " or " steam coals,"
being especially valuable for use in marine steam-boilers, as they
burn more readily than anthracite and with a larger amount of
flame, while giving out a great amount of heat, and practically
without producing smoke. Coals richer in hydrogen, on the other
hand, are more useful for burning in open fires smiths' forges
and furnaces where a long flame is required.

The excess of hydrogen in a coal, above the amount necessary

r "~

COAL

to combine with its oxygen to form water, is known as " dis-
posable " hydrogen, and is a measure of the fitness of the coal
for use in gas-making. This excess is greatest in what is
am* coal. j [nown as canne i coa^ the Lancashire kennel or candle
coal, so named from the bright light it gives out when burning.
This, although of very small value as fuel, commands a specially
high price for gas-making. Cannei is more compact and duller
than ordinary coal, and can be wrought in the lathe and polished.

oxygen and hygroscopic water are much higher than in true coals.
The property of caking or yielding a coherent coke is usually
absent, and the ash is often very high. The specific gravity is low
when not brought up by an excessive amount of earthy matter.
Sometimes it is almost pasty, and crumbles to powder when dried,
so as to be susceptible of use as a pigment, forming the colour
known as Cologne earth, which resembles umber or sepia. In
Nassau and Bavaria woody structure is very common, and it is

TABLE I. Elementary Composition of Coal (the figures denote the amounts per cent).

Composition
calculated exclusive of
Water, Sulphur and Ash.

Localities.

Specific
Gravity.

Carbon.

Hydro-
gen.

Oxygen.

Nitro-
gen.

Sulphur.

Ash.

Water.

Carbon.

Hydro-
gen.

O.andN.

Anthracite.

i. South Wales . . .

1-392

90-39

3-28

2-98

0-83

0-91

1-61

2-OO

93-54

3-39

3-82

2. Pennsylvania

1-462

90-45

2-43

2-45

4-67

94-89

2-54

2-57

3. Peru

82-70

1-41

0-85

10-35

3-75

0-94

97-34

1-66

I -00

Bituminous Steam and

Coking Coal.

4. Risca, South Wales

75-49

4-73

6-78

I-2I

10-67

I-I2

86-78

5-43

7-79

5. Aberdare,

86-80

. 4-25

3-06

0-83

4-40

0-66

92-24

4-5'

3 25

6. Hartley, Northumberl'd

78-65

4-65

1336

o-55

2-49

80-67

4-76

H-S

7. Dudley, Staffordshire .

1-278

78-57

5-29

12-88

1-84

o-39

1-03

I-I3

79-70

5-37

14-9

8. Stranitzen, Styria

79-90

4-85

12-75

0-64

O-2O

1-66

81-45

4-92

13-63

Cannei or Gas Coal.

9. Wigan, Lancashire .

1-276

80-07

5-53

8-08

2-12

1-50

2-70

0-91

85-48

5-90

8-62

10. Boghead, Scotland

63-10

8-91

7-25

0-96

19-78

79-61

11-24

9-15

11. (Albertite) Nova Scotia

82-67

9-14

8-19

82-67

9-14

8-19

12. (Tasmanite) Tasmania

1-18

79-34

10-41

4-93

5-32

83-80

10-99

5-21

Lignite and Brown Coal.

13. Cologne ....

I-IOO

63-29

4.98

26-24

8-49

66-97

5-27

27-76

14. Bovey Tracy, Devon-

shire

66-31

5-63

22-86

o-57

2-36

69-53

5-90

24-57

15. Trifail, Styria . . .

50-72

5-34

33-18

2-80

0-90

7-86

55-n

5-80

39-09

Caking
coals.

These properties are most highly developed in the substance
known as jet, which is a variety of cannei found in the lower
oolitic strata of Yorkshire, and is almost entirely used for
ornamental purposes, the whole quantity produced near Whitby,
together with a further supply from Spain, being manufactured
into articles of jewellery at that town.

When coal is heated to redness out of contact with the air,
the more volatile constituents, water, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen are in great part expelled, a portion of the
carbon being also volatilized in the form of hydro-
carbons and carbonic oxide, the greater part, how-
ever, remaining behind, together with all the mineral matter or
ash, in the form of coke, or, as it is also called, " fixed carbon."
The proportion of this residue is greatest in the more anthracitic
or drier coals, but a more valuable product is yielded by those
richer in hydrogen. Very important distinctions those of
caking or non-caking are founded on the behaviour of coals
when subjected to the process of coking. The former class
undergo an incipient fusion or softening when heated, so that the
fragments coalesce and yield a compact coke, while the latter
(also called free-burning) preserve their form, producing a coke
which is only serviceable when made from large pieces of coal, the
smaller pieces being incoherent and of no value. The caking
property is best developed in coals low in oxygen with 25 to 30%
of volatile matters. As a matter of experience, it is found that
caking coals lose that property when exposed to the action of the
air for a lengthened period, or by heating to about 300 C., and
that the dust or slack of non-caking coal may, in some instances,
be converted into a coherent coke by exposing it suddenly to a
very high temperature, or compressing it strongly before charging
it into the oven.

Lignite or brown coal includes all varieties which are inter-
mediate in properties between wood and coals of the older

formations. A coal of this kind is generally to be
Lignite. j . i i i . .

distinguished by its brown colour, either in mass or in

the blacker varieties in the streak. The proportion of carbon
is comparatively low, usually not exceeding 70%, while the

Ash of
coal.

from this circumstance that the term lignite is derived. The best
varieties are black and pitchy in lustre, or even bright and
scarcely to be distinguished from true coals. These kinds are
most common in Eastern Europe. Lignites, as a rule, are
generally found in strata of a newer geological age, but there are
many instances of perfect coals being found in such strata.

By the term " ash " is understood the mineral matter re-
maining unconsumed after the complete combustion of the
carbonaceous portion of a coal. According to Couriot
(Annales de la sociiti gfologique de Belgique, vol. xxiii.
p. 105) the stratified character of the ash may be
rendered apparent in an X-ray photograph of a piece of coal
about an inch thick, when it appears in thin parallel bands,
the combustible portion remaining transparent. It may also be
rendered visible if a smooth block of free-burning coal is allowed
to burn away quickly in an open fire, when the ash remains in
thin grey or yellow bands on the surface of the block. The
composition of the ashes of different coals is subject to consider-
able variation, as will be seen by Table II.

The composition of the ash of true coal approximates to that
of a fire-clay, allowance being made for lime, which may be
present either as carbonate or sulphate, and for
sulphuric acid. Sulphur is derived mainly from iron
pyrites, which yields sulphates by combustion. An
indication of the character of the ash of a coal is afforded by its
colour, white ash coals being generally freer from sulphur than
those containing iron pyrites, which yield a red ash. There are,
however, several striking exceptions, as for instance in the
anthracite from Peru, given in Table I., which contains more
than 10% of sulphur, and yields but a very small percentage of a
white ash. In this coal, as well as in the lignite of Tasmania,
known as white coal or Tasmanite, the sulphur occurs in organic
combination, but is so firmly held that it can only be very
partially expelled, even by exposure to a very high and continued
heating out of contact with the air. An anthracite occurring in
connexion with the old volcanic rocks of Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh,
which contains a large amount of sulphur in proportion to the

Sulphur
la coal.

COAL

TABLE II. Composition of the Ashes of Coals.

577

Silica.

Alumina.

Ferric
Oxide.

Lime.

Magnesia.

Potash.

Sulphuric
Acid.

Phosphoric
Acid.

Total.

True Coals.
Dowlais, South Wales .
Ebbw Vale,
Konigsgrube, Silesia
Ohio

39-64
53-oo

55-41

J.J. -60

39-2
35-01
18-95

4.1 in

11-84
16-06

7-dO

1-81

3-94
3-21
V6l

2-58

2-2O
I-8 7
1-28

2-05
1-82

4-89
1-73

3-oi
0-88
0-36

98-08
99-92
99-64

Lignites.
Helmstadt, Saxony
Edeleney, Hungary

17-27
36-01

"57

23-07

5-57
5-05

23-67
15-62

2-58

3-64

2-64
2-38

33-83
12-35

97'3
98-12

Water la
coal.

ash, has been found to behave in a similar manner. Under
ordinary conditions, from J to J of the whole amount of sulphur
in a coal is volatilized during combustion, the remaining J to 5
being found in the ash.

The amount of water present in freshly raised coals varies very
considerably. It is generally largest in lignites, which may
sometimes contain 30% or even more, while in the
coals of the coal measures it does not usually exceed
from 5 to 10%. The loss of weight by exposure to the
atmosphere from drying may be from J to } of the total amount of
water contained.

Coal is the result of the transformation of woody fibre and
other vegetable matter by the elimination of oxygen and
hydrogen in proportionally larger quantity than
Coal" ' carbon, so that the percentage of the latter element
is increased in the manner shown in Table III., given
by J. Percy, the mineral matter being also changed by the re-
moval of silica and alkalis and the substitution of substances
analogous in composition to fire-clay. The causes and methods
of these changes are, however, not very exactly defined. Accord-

TABLE III. Composition of Fuels (assuming Carbon 100).

Carbon.

Hydro-
gen.

Oxygen.

Disposable
Hydrogen.

Wood
Peat

IOO
IOO

12-18
<3-8s

83-07

cc.67

I -80
2-80

Lignite ....
Thick Coal, S.Stafford-
shire
Hartley Steam Coal .
South Wales Steam
Coal
American Anthracite .

too

IOO
IOO

8-37

6-12

5-91

4-75
2-84

42-42

21-23
18-32

5-28
1-74

3-07

3-47
3-62

4-09
2-63

ing to the elaborate researches of B. Renault (Bulletin de la
SocietS de I' Industrie miner ale, 3 ser. vol. xiii. p. 865), the agents
of the transformation of cellulose into peaty substances are
saprophytic fungi and bacterial ferments. As the former are
only active in the air while the latter are anaerobic, the activity
of either agent is conditioned by variation in the water level
of the bog. The ultimate term of bacterial activity seems to
be the production of ulmic acid, containing carbon 65-31 and
hydrogen 3-85%, which is a powerful antiseptic. By the pro-
gressive elimination of oxygen and hydrogen, partly as water
and partly as carbon dioxide and marsh gas, the ratios of carbon
to oxygen and hydrogen in the rendered product increase in
the following manner:

C :H

Cellulose 7-2

Peat . . 9-8

Lignite, imperfect 12-2

,, perfect ...... 12-6

C :0
0-9
1-8
2-4
3-6

The resulting product is a brown pasty or gelatinous substance
which binds the more resisting parts of the plants into a compact
mass. The same observer considers Boghead coal, kerosene
shale and similar substances used for the production of mineral
oils to be mainly alteration products of gelatinous fresh water
algae, which by a nearly complete elimination of oxygen have
been changed to substances approximating in composition to
VL 19

C 2 H 3 and C 3 H 5 , where C:H = 7-o8 and C:O+N = 4 6-3. In
cannel coals the prevailing constituents are the spores of crypto-
gamic plants, algae being rare or in many cases absent. By
making very thin sections and employing high magnification
(1000-1200 diameters), Renault has been enabled to detect
numerous forms of bacilli in the woody parts preserved in coal,
one of which, Micrococcus carbo, bears a strong resemblance to
the living Cladothrix found in trees buried in peat bogs. Clearer
evidence of their occurrence has, however, been found in frag-
ments of wood fossilized by silica or carbonate of lime which are
sometimes met with in coal seams.

The subsequent change of peaty substance into coal is probably
due to geological causes, i.e. chemical and physical processes
similar to those that have converted ordinary sediments into rock
masses. Such changes seem, however, to have been very
rapidly accomplished, as pebbles of completely formed coal are
commonly found in the sandstones and coarser sedimentary
strata alternating with the coal seams in many coalfields.

The variation in the composition of coal seams in different
parts of the same basin is a difficult matter to explain. It has
been variously attributed to metamorphism, consequent upon
igneous intrusion, earth movements and other kinds of geo-
thermic action, greater or less loss of volatile constituents during
the period of coaly transformation, conditioned by differences
of permeability in the enclosing rocks, which is greater for
sandstones than for argillaceous strata, and other causes; but
none of these appears to be applicable over more than limited
areas. According to L. Lemiere, who has very fully reviewed
the relation of composition to origin in coal seams (Bulletin de
la Societ& de I'lndustrie minerale, 4 ser. vol. iv. pp. 851 and
1299, vol. v. p. 273), differences in composition are mainly
original, the denser and more anthracitic ' arieties representing
plant substance which has been more completely macerated
and deprived of its putrescible constituents before submergence,
or of which the deposition had taken place in shallow water,
more readily accessible to atmospheric oxidizing influences than
the deeper areas where conditions favourable to the elaboration
of compounds richer in hydrogen prevailed.

The conditions favourable to the production of coal seem
therefore to have been forest growth in swampy ground about
the mouths of rivers, and rapid oscillation of level, the coal
produced during subsidence being covered up by the sediment
brought down by the river forming beds of sand or clay, which,
on re-elevation, formed the soil for fresh growths, the alternation
being occasionally broken by the deposit of purely marine beds.
We might therefore expect to find coal wherever strata of
estuarine origin are developed in great mass. This is actually
the case; the Carboniferous, Cretaceous and Jurassic systems
(qq.v.) contain coal-bearing strata though in unequal degrees,
the first being known as the Coal Measures proper, while the
others are of small economic value in Great Britain, though
more productive in workable coals on the continent of Europe.
The Coal Measures which form part of the Palaeozoic or oldest
of the three great geological divisions are mainly confined to
the countries north of the equator. Mesozoic coals are more
abundant in the southern hemisphere, while Tertiary coals
seem to be tolerably uniformly distributed irrespective of
latitude.

The nature of the Coal Measures will be best understood bv

57 8

COAL

considering in detail the areas within which they occur in Britain,
together with the rocks with which they are most intimately
associated. The commencement of the Carboniferous period is
marked by a mass of limestones known as the Carboniferous or
Sequence* Mountain Limestone, which contains a large assemblage
at carbon- of marine fossils, and has a maximum thickness in
iferou* s.W. England and Wales of about 2000 ft. The
upper portion of this group consists of shales and sand-
stones, known as the Yoredale Rocks, which are highly developed
in the moorland region between Lancashire and the north
side of Yorkshire. These are also called the Upper Limestone
Shale, a similar group being found in places below the limestone,
and called the Lower Limestone Shale, or, in the north of England,
the Tuedian group. Going northward the beds of limestone
diminish in thickness, with a proportional increase in the inter-
calated sandstones and shales, until in Scotland they are entirely
subordinate to a mass of coal-bearing strata, which forms
the most productive members of the Scotch coalfields. The
next member of the series is a mass of coarse sandstones,
with some slates and a few thin coals, known as the Mill-
stone Grit, which is about equally developed in England and
in Scotland. In the southern coalfields it is usually known
by the miners' name of " Farewell rock," from its marking the
lower limit of possible coal working. The Coal Measures, forming
the third great member of the Carboniferous series, consist of
alternations of shales and sandstones, with beds of coal and
nodular ironstones, which together make up a thickness of many
thousands of feet from 12,000 to 14,000 ft. when at the maxi-
mum of development. They are divisible into three parts, the
Lower Coal Measures, the middle or Pennant, a mass of sandstone
containing some coals, and the Upper Coal Measures, also con-
taining workable coal. The latter member is marked by a thin
limestone band near the top, containing Spirorbis carbonarius,
a small marine univalve.

The uppermost portion of the Coal Measures consists of red
sandstone so closely resembling that of the Permian group,
which are next in geological sequence, that it is often difficult
to decide upon the true line of demarcation between the two
formations. These are not, however, always found together,
the Coal Measures being often covered by strata belonging to
the Trias or Upper New Red Sandstone series.

The areas containing productive coal measures are usually
known as coalfields or basins, within which coal occurs in more
or less regular beds, also called seams or veins, which can often
be followed over a considerable length of country without change
of character, although, like all stratified rocks, their continuity
may be interrupted by faults or dislocations, also known as slips,
hitches, heaves or troubles.

The thickness of coal seams varies in Great Britain from a
mere film to 35 or 40 ft. ; but in the south of France and in India
masses of coal are known up to 200 ft. in thickness. These very
thick seams are, however, rarely constant in character for any
great distance, being found commonly to degenerate into
carbonaceous shales, or to split up into thinner beds by the
intercalation of shale bands or partings. One of the most striking
examples of this is afforded by the thick or ten-yard seam of
South Staffordshire, which is from 30 to 45 ft. thick in one con-
nected mass in the neighbourhood of Dudley, but splits up into
eight seams, which, with the intermediate shales and sandstones,
are of a total thickness of 400 ft. in the northern part of the coal-
field in Cannock Chase. Seams of a medium thickness of 3 to 7
ft. are usually the most regular and continuous in character.
Cannel coals are generally variable in quality, being liable to
change into shales or black-band ironstones within very short
horizontal limits. In some instances the coal seams may be
changed as a whole, as for instance in South Wales, where the
coking coals of the eastern side of the basin pass through the
state of dry steam coal in the centre, and become anthracite in
the western side. (H. B.)

The most important European coalfields are in Great Britain,
Belgium and Germany. In Great Britain there is the South
Welsh field, extending westward from the march of Monmouth-

shire to Kidwelly, and northward to Merthyr Tydfil. A midland
group of coalfields extends from south Lancashire to the West
Riding of Yorkshire, the two greatest industrial districts
the country, southward to Warwickshire and

graphical
distribu-
tion of
coal-
field*.

Staffordshire, and from Nottinghamshire on the east to
Flintshire on the west. In the north of England are
the rich field of Northumberland and Durham, and
a lesser field on the coast of Cumberland (White-
haven, &c.). Smaller isolated fields are those of the Forest of
Dean (Gloucestershire) and the field on either side of the Avon
above Bristol. Coal has also been found in Kent, in the
neighbourhood of Dover. In Scotland coal is worked at various
points (principally in the west) in the Clyde-Forth lowlands.
In Belgium the chief coal-basins are those of Hainaut and Lifige.
Coal has also been found in an extension northward from this
field towards Antwerp, while westward the same field extends
into north-eastern France. Coal is widely distributed in Germany.
The principal field is that of the lower Rhine and Westphalia,
which centres in the industrial region of the basin of the Ruhr,
a right-bank tributary of the Rhine. In the other chief industrial
region of Germany, in Saxony, Zwickau and Lugau, are important
mining centres. In German Silesia there is a third rich field,
which extends into Austria (Austrian Silesia and Galicia), for
which country it forms the chief home source of supply (apart
from lignite). Part of the same field also lies within Russian
territory (Poland) near the point where the frontiers of the three
powers meet. Both in Germany and in Austria-Hungary the
production of lignite is large in the first-named especially in
the districts about Halle and Cologne; in the second in north-
western Bohemia, Styria and Carniola. In France the principal
coalfield is that in the north-east, already mentioned; another
of importance is the central (Le Creusot, &c.) and a third, the
southern, about the lower course of the Rhone. Coal is pretty
widely distributed in Spain, and occurs in several districts in the
Balkan peninsula. In Russia, besides the Polish field, there is
an important one south of Moscow, and another in the lower
valley of the Donetz, north of the Sea of Azov. The European
region poorest in coal (proportionately to area) is Scandinavia,
where there is only one field of economic value a small one in
the extreme south of Sweden.

In Asia the Chinese coalfields are of peculiar interest. They
are widely distributed throughout China Proper, but those of
the province of Shansi appear to be the richest. Proportionately
to their vast extent they have been little worked. In a modified
degree the same is true of the Indian fields; large supplies are
unworked, but in several districts, especially about Raniganj
and elsewhere in Bengal, workings are fully developed. Similarly
in Siberia and Japan there are extensive supplies unworked or
only partially exploited. Tkose in the neighbourhood of Semi-
palatinsk may be instanced in the first case and those in the
island of Yezo in the second. In Japan, however, several smaller
fields (e.g. in the island of Kiushiu) are more fully developed.
Coal is worked to some extent in Sumatra, British North Borneo,
and the Philippine Islands.

In the United States of America the Appalachian mountain
system, from Pennsylvania southward, roughly marks the Jine
of the chief coal-producing region. This group of fields is followed
in importance by the " Eastern Interior " group in Indiana,
Illinois and Kentucky, and the " Western Interior " group in
Iowa, Missouri and Kansas. In Arkansas, Oklahoma and
Texas, and along the line of the Rocky Mountains, extensive
fields occur, producing lignite and bituminous coal. The last-
named fields are continued northward in Canada (Crow's Nest
Pass field, Vancouver Island, &c.). There is also a group of
coalfields on the Atlantic seaboard of the Dominion, principally
in Nova Scotia. Coal is known at several points in Alaska, and
there are rich but little worked deposits in Mexico.

In the southern countries coal-production is insignificant
compared with that in the northern hemisphere. In South
America coal is known in Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, northern
Chile, Brazil (chiefly in the south), and Argentina (Parana, the
extreme south of Patagonia, and Tierra del Fuego), but in no

COAL

579

country are the workings extensive. Africa is apparently the
continent poorest in coal, though valuable workings have been
developed at various points in British South Africa, e.g. at
Kronstad, &c., in Cape Colony, at Vereeniging, Boksburg and
elsewhere in the Transvaal, in Natal and in Swaziland. Australia
possesses fields of great value, principally in the south-east (New
South Wales and Victoria), and in New Zealand considerable
quantities of coal and lignite are raised, chiefly in South Island.
The following table, based on figures given in the Journal of
the Iron and Steel Institute, vol. 72, will give an idea of the
coal production of the world:

TABLE IV.

Europe:
United Kingdom

1905

Tons.
236,128,936

Germany, coal ....

121,298,167

,, lignite

52,498,507

France

(

35,869,497

Belgium

21,775,280

Austria, coal ....

12,585,263

,, lignite ....

22,692,076

Hungary, coal ....

1904

1,031,501

lignite

5,447,283

Spain

1905

3,202,911

Russia

1904

19,318,000

Holland

466,997

Bosnia, lignite ....

1905

540.237

Rumania

1903

110,000

Servia

1904

183,204

Italy, coal and lignite

1905

412,916

Sweden

322,384

Greece, lignite ....

1904

466,997

Asia :

India

1905

8,417.739

Japan

1903

10,088,845

Sumatra

1904

207,280

Africa :

Transvaal

1904

2,409,033

Natal

1905

1,129,407

Cape Colony ....

1904

154.272

America :

United States ....

1905

350,821,000

Canada

1904

7,509,860

Mexico

700,000

Peru

1905

72,665

Australasia :

New South Wales .

1905

6,632,138

Queensland . . .

529,326

Victoria

153,135

Western Australia

, (

127,364

Tasmania

51-993

New Zealand

1,585,756

The questions, what is the total amount of available coal in
the coalfields of Great Britain and Ireland, and how long it may
Coal be expected to last, have frequently been discussed

resources since the early part of the igth century, and particular
ofOnat attention was directed to them after the publication
Britain. of Stan i ey j ev ons's book on The Cool Question in 1865.
In 1866 a royal commission was appointed to inquire into the
subject, and in its report, issued in 1871, estimated that the

TABLE V.

District.

Coalfield.

II.

III.

f South Wales and Monmouthshire

33,443,000,339

6,972,003,760

26,470,996,579

J Somersetshire and part of Glou-

| cestershire ... . .

No details

4,198,301,099

iForest of Dean . . . .

305,928,137

47,394,690

258,533.44?

'North Stafford . . . .

5-267,833,074

899,782,727

4.368,050,347

South Stafford . . . .

1,953-627,435

538,179,363

1,415,448,072

Warwickshire ... . .

1,448,804,556

321,822,653

1,126,981,903

Leicestershire ... .

2,467,583.205

642,124,654

1,825,458,551

.Shropshire ... . .

369,174,620

48,180,921

320,993,699

Lancashire .... . .

5,349,554,437

1,111,046,710

4.238,507.727

" Cheshire .... . .

358,998,172

67,165,901

291,832,271

.North Wales
/Yorkshire .... . .

2,513,026,200
No details

776,558.371
No details

1,736,467,829
19,138,006,395

\ Derby and Notts.

No details

7,360,725,100

("Northumberland . . . .

7,040,348,127

1,530,722,486

5,509,625,641

s Cumberland ... .

2,188,938,830

661,230,025

1,527,708,805

[Durham .... ...

6,607,700,522

i -336,584-! 76

5,271,116,346

F.
G.

Scotland .... . .
Ireland . .

21,259,767,661
No details

5,579.311.305
No details

15,681,456,356
174,458,000

coal resources of the country, in seams of i ft. thick and
upwards situated within 4000 ft. of the surface, amounted to
90,207,285,398 tons. A second commission, which was appointed
in 1901 and issued its final report in 1905, taking 4000 ft. as the
limit of practicable depth in working and i ft. as the minimum
workable thickness, and after making all necessary deductions,
estimated the available quantity of coal in the proved coalfields
of the United Kingdom as 100,914,668,167 tons. Although in
the years 1870-1903 the amount raised was 5,694,928,507 tons,
this later estimate was higher by 10,707,382,769 tons than that
of the previous commission, the excess being accounted for
partly by the difference in the areas regarded as productive by
the two commissions, and partly by new discoveries and more
accurate knowledge of the coal seams. In addition it was
estimated that in the proved coalfields at depths greater than
4000 ft. there were 5,239,433,980 tons, and that in concealed
and unproved fields, at depths less than 4000 ft. there were
39,483,844,000 tons, together with 854,608,307 tons in that part
of the Cumberland coalfield beyond 5 m. and within 12 m. of
high-water mark, and 383,024,000 tons in the South Wales coal-
field under the sea in St Bride's Bay and part of Carmarthen Bay.

In Table V. below column I. shows the quantity of coal still
remaining unworked in the different coalfields at depths not
exceeding 4000 ft. and in seams not less than i ft. thick, as
estimated by seven district commissioners; column II. the total
estimated reductions on account of loss in working due to faults
and other natural causes in seams and of coal required to be left
for barriers, support of surface buildings, &c. ; and column III.
the estimated net available amount remaining unworked.

As regards the duration of British coal resources; the com-
missioners reported (1905):

" This question turns chiefly upon the maintenance or the varia-
tion of the annual output. The calculations of the last Coal Com-
mission as to the future exports and of Mr Jevons as to the future
annual consumption make us hesitate to prophesy how long our
coal resources are likely to last. The present annual output is in
round numbers 230 million tons, and the calculated available
resources in the proved coalfields are in round numbers 100,000
million tons, exclusive of the 40,000 million tons in the unproved
coalfields, which we have thought best to regard only as probable
or speculative. For the last thirty years the average increase in the
output has been 2j% per annum, and that in the exports (including
bunkers) 4^ % per annum. It is the general opinion of the Dis-
trict Commissioners that owing to physical considerations it is highly
probable that the present rate of increase of the putput of coal
can long continue indeed, they think that some districts have
already attained their maximum output, but that on the other
hand the developments in the newer coalfields will possibly increase
the total output for some years.

In view of this opinion and of the exhaustion of the shallower
collieries we look forward to a time, not far distant, when the rate
of increase of output will be slower, to be followed by a period of
stationary output, and then a gradual decline."

According to a calculation made by P. Freeh in 1900, on the
basis of the then rate of production, the coalfields of central
France, central Bohemia, the kingdom of Saxony, the Prussian

province of Saxony and the north
of England, would be exhausted in
loo to 200 years, the other British
coalfields, the Waldenburg-Schatz-
lar and that of the north of France
in 250 years, those of Saarbriicken,
Belgium, Aachen and Westphalia
in 600 to 800 years, and those of
Upper Silesia in more than 1000
years. (O. J. R. H.; H. M. R.)

Cod-Mining.

The opening and laying out, or,
as it is generally called, "winning,"
of new collieries is rarely pnu^a.
undertaken without a mry trial
preliminary examination otcoai-
of the character of the '
strata by means of borings, either
for the purpose of determining the

5 8

COAL

number and nature of the coal seams in new ground, or the
position of the particular seam or seams which it is proposed to
work in extensions of known coalfields.

The principle of proving a mineral field by boring is illustrated
by fig. i, which represents a line direct from the dip to the rise
of the field, the inclination of the strata being one in eight.
No. i bore is commenced at the dip, and reaches a seam of coal
A, at 40 fathoms; at this depth it is considered proper to remove
nearer to the outcrop so that lower strata may be bored into
at a less depth, and a second bore is commenced. To find the
position of No. 2, so as to form a continuous section, it is necessary
to reckon the inclination of the strata, which is i in 8; and as

At. 2

FIG. I. Proving by Boreholes.

bore No. i was 40 fathoms in depth, we multiply the depth by
the rate of inclination, 40X8 = 320 fathoms, which gives the point
at which the coal seam A should reach the surface. But there is
generally a certain depth of alluvial cover which requires to be
deducted, and which we call 3 fathoms, then (40 3 = 37) X8 = 296
fathoms; or say 286 fathoms is the distance that the second
bore should be placed to the rise of the first, so as to have, for
certain, the seam of coal A in clear connexion with the seam
of coal B. In bore No. 3, where the seam B, according to the
same system of arrangement, should have been found at or near
the surface, another seam C is proved at a considerable depth,
differing in character and thickness from either of the preceding.
This derangement being carefully noted, another bore to the
outcrop on the same principle is put down for the purpose of
proving the seam C ; the nature of the strata at first is found
to agree with the latter part of that bored through in No. 3,
but immediately on crossing the dislocation seen in the figure
it is changed and the deeper seam D is found.

The evidence therefore of these bores (3 and 4) indicates some
material derangement, which is then proved by other bores,
either towards the dip or the outcrop, according to the judgment
of the borer, so as to ascertain the best position for sinking pits.
(For the methods of boring see BORING.)

The working of coal may be conducted either by means of
levels or galleries driven from the outcrop in a valley, or by
shafts or pits sunk from the surface. In the early
Methods fay & o { coa i. m i n i n g j open working, or quarrying from
working, the outcrop of the seams, was practised to a consider-
able extent; but there are now few if any places in
England where this can be done. In 1873 there could be seen,
in the thick coal seams of Bengal, near Raniganj, a seam about
50 ft. thick laid bare, over an area of several acres, by stripping
off a superficial covering varying from 10 to 30 ft., in order to
remove the whole of the coal without loss by pillars. Such a
case, however, is quite exceptional. The operations by which
the. coal is reached and laid out for removal are known as " win-
ning," the actual working or extraction of the coal being termed
" getting." In fig. 2 A B is a cross cut level, by which the seams
of coal i and 2 are won, and C D a vertical shaft by which the
seams i, 2 and 3 are won. When the field is won by the former
method, the coal lying above the level is said to be " level-free."
The mode of winning by level is of less general application than
that by shafts, as the capacity for production is less, owing to the
smaller size of roadways by which the coal must be brought to
the surface, levels of large section being expensive and difficult
to keep open when the mine has been for some time at
work. Shafts, on the other hand, may be made of almost any
capacity, owing to the high speed in drawing which is attainable

with proper mechanism, and allow of the use of more perfect
arrangements at the surface than can usually be adopted at
the mouth of a level on a hill-side. A more cogent reason, how-
ever, is to be found in the fact that the principal coalfields are in
flat countries, where the coal can only be reached by vertical
sinking.

The methods adopted in driving levels for collieries are
generally similar to those adopted in other mines. The ground
is secured by timbering, or more usually by arching in masonry
or brick-work. Levels like that in fig. 2, which are driven
across the stratification, or generally anywhere not in coal, are
known as " stone drifts." The sinking of colliery shafts, how-
ever, differs considerably from that of other mines,
owing to their generally large size, and the difficulties
that are often encountered from water during the
sinking. The actual coal measure strata, consisting mainly of
shales and clays, are generally impervious to water, but when
strata of a permeable character are sunk through, such as the
magnesian limestone of the north of England, the Permian
sandstones of the central counties, or the chalk and greensand in
the north of France and Westphalia, special methods are required
in order to pass the water-bearing beds, and to protect the shaft
and workings from the influx of water subsequently. Of these
methods one of the chief is the plan of tubbing, or b'ning
the excavation with an impermeable casing of wood or
iron, generally the latter, built up in segments forming rings,
which are piled upon each other throughout the whole depth of
the water-bearing strata. This method necessitates the use of
very considerable pumping power during the sinking, as the
water has to be kept down in order to allow the sinkers to reach
a water-tight stratum upon which the foundation of the tubbing

FIG. 2. Shaft and Level.

can be placed. This consists of a heavy cast iron ring, known as
a wedging crib, or curb, also fitted together in segments, which is
lodged in a square-edged groove cut for its reception, tightly
caulked with moss, and wedged into position. Upon this the
tubbing is built up in segments, of which usually from 10 to 12
are required for the entire circumference, the edges being made
perfectly true. The thickness varies according to the pressure
expected, but may be taken at from J to 15 in. The inner face
is smooth, but the back is strengthened with angle brackets
at the corners. A small hole is left in the centre of each segment,
which is kept open during the fitting to prevent undue pressure
upon any one, but is stopped as soon as the circle is completed.
In the north of France and Belgium wooden tubbings, built of
polygonal rings, were at one time in general use. The polygons
adopted were of 20 or more sides approximating to a circular
form.

The second principal method of sinking through water-bearing
ground is by compressed air. The shaft is lined with a cylinder
of wrought iron, within which a tubular chamber,
provided with doors above and below, known as an
air-lock, is fitted by a telescopic joint, which is tightly
packed so as to close the top of the shaft air-tight. Air is then
forced into the inclosed space by means of a compressing engine,
until the pressure is sufficient to oppose the flow of water into
the excavation, and to drive out any that may collect in the
bottom of the shaft through a pipe which is carried through the
air-sluice to the surface. The miners work in the bottom in
the same manner as divers in an ordinary diving-bell. Access to
the surface is obtained through the double doors of the air-sluice,

COAL

581

Shaft
boring.

the pressure being reduced to that of the external atmosphere
when it is desired to open the upper door, and increased to that
of the working space below when it is intended to communicate
with the sinkers, or to raise the stuff broken in the bottom. This
method has been adopted in various sinkings on the continent
of Europe.

The third method of sinking through water-bearing strata is
that of boring, adopted by Messrs Kind & Chaudron in Belgium
and Germany. For this purpose a horizontal bar
armed with vertical cutting chisels is used, which cuts
out the whole section of the shaft simultaneously. In
the first instance, a smaller cutting frame is used, boring a hole
from 3 to 5 ft. in diameter, which is kept some 50 or 60 ft. in
advance, so as to receive the detritus, which is removed by a
shell pump of large size. The large trepan or cutter weighs about
16 tons, and cuts a hole of from 9 to 15 ft. in diameter. The
water-tight lining may be either a wrought iron tube, which is
pressed down by jack screws as the borehole advances, or cast
iron tubbing put together in short complete rings, in contra-
distinction to the old plan of building them up of segments.
The tubbing, which is considerably less in diameter than the
borehole, is suspended by rods from the surface until a bed
suitable for a foundation is reached, upon which a sliding length
of tube, known as the moss box, bearing a shoulder, which is
filled with dried moss, is placed. The whole weight of the tubbing
is made to bear on the moss, which squeezes outwards, forming
a completely water-tight joint. The interval between the back
of the tubbing and the sides of the borehole is then filled up with
concrete, which on setting fixes the tubbing firmly in position.
With increase in depth, however, the thickness and weight of the
cast iron tubbing in a large shaft become almost unmanageable;
in one instance, at a depth of 1215 ft., the bottom rings in a
shaft 145 ft. in diameter are about 4 in. thick, which is about
the limit for sound castings. It has therefore been proposed,
for greater depths, to put four columns of tubbings of smaller
diameters, 8 j and 55 ft., in the shaft, and fill up the remainder
of the boring with concrete, so that with thinner and lighter
castings a greater depth may be reached. This, however, has
not as yet been tried. Another extremely useful method of
sinking through water-bearing ground, introduced by Messrs
A. & H. T. Poetsch in 1883, and originally applied to shafts
passing through quicksands above brown coal seams, has been
applied with advantage in opening new pits through the secondary
and tertiary strata above the coal measures in the north of
France and Belgium, some of the most successful examples being
those at Lens, Anzin and Vicq, in the north of France basin. In
this system the soft ground or fissured water-bearing rock is
rendered temporarily solid by freezing the contained water
within a surface a few feet larger in diameter than the size of the
finished shaft, so that the ground may be broken either by hand
tools or blasting in the same manner as hard rock. The miners
are protected by the frozen wall, which may be 4 or 5 ft. thick.
The freezing is effected by circulating brine (calcium chloride
solution) cooled to 5 F. through a series of vertical pipes closed
at the bottom, contained in boreholes arranged at equal distances
apart around the space to be frozen, and carried down to a short
distance below the bottom of the ground to be secured. The
chilled brine enters through a central tube of small diameter,
passes to the bottom of the outer one and rises through the latter
to the surface, each system of tubes being connected above by a
ring main with the circulating pumps. The brine is cooled in a
tank filled with spiral pipes, in which anhydrous ammonia,
previously liquefied by compression, is vaporized in vocuo at the
atmospheric temperature by the sensible heat of the return-
current of brine, whose temperature has been slightly raised in
its passage through the circulating tubes. When hard ground
is reached, a seat is formed for the cast iron tubbing, which is
built up in the usual way and concreted at the back, a small
quantity of caustic soda being sometimes used in mixing the
concrete to prevent freezing. In an application of this method
at Vicq , two shafts of 12 and 16-4 ft. diameter, in a covering of
cretaceous strata, were frozen to a depth of 300 ft. in fifty days,

the actual sinking and lining operations requiring ninety days
more. The freezing machines were kept at work for 200 days,
and 2191 tons of coal were consumed in supplying steam for the
compressors and circulating pumps.

The introduction of these special methods has considerably
simplified the problem of sinking through water-bearing strata.
Some of the earlier sinkings of this kind, when pumps had to be
depended on for keeping down the water, were conducted at
great cost, as, for instance, at South Helton, and more recently
Ryhope, near Sunderland, through the magnesian limestone
of Durham.

The size and form of colliery shafts vary in different districts.
In the United States and Scotland rectangular pits secured by
timber framings are still common, but the tendency
is now generally to make them round, 20 ft. being about ta att*.
the largest diameter employed. In the Midland
counties, from 7 to 9 ft. is a very common size, but larger dimen-
sions are adopted where a large production is required. Since
the accident at Hartley colliery in 1862, caused by the breaking
of the pumping-engine beam, which fell into the shaft and
blocked it up, whereby the whole of the men then at work in the
mine were starved to death, it has been made compulsory upon
mine-owners in the United Kingdom to have two pits for each
working, in place of the single one divided by walls or brattices
which was formerly thought sufficient. The use of two inde-
pendent connexions whether separate pits or sections of the
same pit, between the surface and the workings is necessary
for the service of the ventilation, fresh air from the surface being
carried down one, known as the " downcast," while the foul or
return air of the mine rises through the other or " upcast " pit
back to the surface. In a heavily-watered mine it is often
necessary to establish a special engine-pit, with pumps per-
manently fixed, or a division of one of the pits may be devoted
to this purpose. The pumps, placed close to the point where the
water accumulates, may be worked by an engine on the surface
by means of heavy reciprocating rods which pass down the shaft,
or by underground motors driven by steam, compressed air or
electricity.

Where the water does not accumulate very rapidly it is a
common practice to allow it to collect in a pit or sump below the
working bottom of the shaft, and to draw it off in a water tub
or " hoppet " by the main engine, when the latter is not employed
in raising coal.

The laying out of a colliery, after the coal has been won, by
sinkings or levels, may be accomplished in various ways, accord-
ing to the nature of the coal, its thickness and dip, and
the extent of ground to be worked. In the South *t"
Staffordshire and other Midland coalfields, where only working*.
shallow pits are required, and the coals are thick, a
pair of pits may be sunk for a very few acres, while in the North
of England, on the other hand, where sinking is expensive, an
area of some thousands of acres may be commanded from the
same number of pits. In the latter oase, which represents the
most approved practice, the sinking is usually placed about the
centre of the ground, so that the workings may radiate in every
direction from the pit bottom, with the view of employing the
greatest number of hands to advantage. Where a large area
cannot be commanded, it is best to sink to the lowest point of
the field for the convenience of drawing the coal and water which
become level-free in regard to the pit. Where properties are much
divided, it is always necessary to maintain a thick barrier of
unwrought coal between the boundary of the mine and the
neighbouring workings, especially if the latter are to the dip.
If a prominent line of fault crosses the area it may usually be
a convenient division of the fields into sections or districts. The
first process in laying out the workings consists in driving a
gallery on the level along the course of the coal seam, which is
known as a " dip head level," and a lower parallel one, in which
the water collects, known as a " lodgment level." Galleries
driven at right angles to these are known as a " dip " or " rise
headings," according to their position above or belcw the pit
bottom. In Staffordshire the main levels are also known as

5 8 2

COAL

" gate roads." To secure the perpendicularity of the shaft, it
is necessary to leave a large mass or pillar of the seam untouched
around the pit bottom. This pillar is known in Scotland as the
" pit bottom stoop." The junction of the levels with the pit is
known as the " pit eye "; it is usually of an enlarged section,
and lined with masonry or brick-work, so as to afford room for
handling the wagons or trams of coal brought from the working
faces. In this portion of the pit are generally placed the furnaces
for ventilation, and the boilers required for working steam engines
underground, as well as the stables and lamp cabin.

The removal of the coal after the roads have been driven may
be effected in many different ways, according to the custom of

the district. These may, however,
workim? a ^ ^ e considered as modifications
coal. ' of two systems, viz. pillar work

and long-wall work. In the former,
which is also known as "post and stall" or
" bord and pillar " in the north of England,
" pillar and stall " in South Wales, and
" stoop and room " in Scotland, the field
is divided into strips by numerous openings
driven parallel to the main rise headings,
called " bords " or " bord gates," which are
again divided by cutting through them at

intervals, so as to leave a series of

pillars arranged chequer-wise over

the entire area. These pillars are
left for the support of the roof as the work-
ings advance, so as to keep the mine open
and free from waste. In the oldest form of
this class of working, where the size of the
pillar is equal to the width of the stall or
excavation, about f of the whole seam will
be removed, the remainder being left in the
pillars. A portion of this may be got by the
process known as robbing the pillars, but the coal so obtained
is liable to be very much crushed from the pressure of the
superincumbent strata. This crushing may take place either from
above or below, producing what are known as " creeps " or
" sits."

A coal seam with a soft pavement and a hard roof is the most
subject to a " creep." The first indication is a dull hollow sound
heard when treading on the pavement orfloor, probably occasioned

however, are so difficult to support that sits take place where
the half of the coal is left in pillars. Fig. 4 will convey a general
idea of the appearance of sits, k, m, n showing different stages.

The modern method of pillar working is shown in fig. 5. In
the Northumberland steam coal district, where it is carried out
in the most perfect manner, the bords are 5 to 6 yds. in width,
while the pillars are 22 yds. broad and 30 yds. long, which are
subsequently got out on coming back. In the same figure is
also shown the method of working whole coal and pillars at the
same time, a barrier of two or three ranges of pillars or a rib of
solid coal being left between the working in the solid and those
in the pillars. The space from which the entire quantity of coal

Reference

Direction of air currtlit

Pillar
working.

aeeooaajQi-tid

i-r- Doort
^Atnpllt
=E= Stopping*
=^i ./_.

FIG. 3. " Creeps " in Coal-Mines.

by some of the individual layers parting from each other as
shown at a fig. 3; the succeeding stages of creep are shown at
b, c, d, f, and g, in the same figure; the last being the final stage,
when the coal begins to sustain the pressure from the overlying
strata, in common with the disturbed pavement.

FlG. 4. " Sits " in Mines.

" Sits " are the reverse of creeps; in the one case the pavement
is forced up, and in the other the roof is forced or falls down, for
want of proper support or tenacity in itself. This accident
generally arises from an improper size of pillars; some roofs,

FIG. 5. Pillar Working.

has been removed is known in different districts as the " goaf,"
" gob," or " waste."

Fig. 6 represents the Lancashire system of pillar working.
The area is laid out by two pairs of level drifts, parallel to each
other, about 150 yds. apart, which are carried to the boundary.
About loo yds. back from the boundary a communication is
made between these levels, from which other levels are driven
forward, dividing the coal into ribs of about 25 or 30 yds. wide,
which are then cut back by taking off the coal in slices from

FlG. 6. Lancashire method of working Coal.

the level towards the rise in breadths of about 6 yds. By this
method the whole of the coal is got backwards, the main roads
being kept in solid coal; the intermediate levels not being driven
till they are wanted, a greater amount of support is given, and
the pillars are less crushed than is usual in pillar working.

In the South Wales system of working, cross headings are
driven from the main roads obliquely across the rise to get
a sufficiently easy gradient for horse roads, and from these
the stalls are opened out with a narrow entrance, in order to

COAL

583

leave support on either side of the road, but afterwards widening
to as great a breadth as the seam will allow, leaving pillars of
a minimum thickness. The character of such workings is very
irregular in plan, and as the ventilation is attended with con-
siderable difficulty, it is now becoming generally superseded
by more improved methods.

The second great principle of working is that known as long-
wall or long-work, in which the coal is taken away either in broad
faces from roads about 40 or 50 yds. apart and parallel
working. to eacn otner > or along curved faces between roads
radiating from the pit bottom the essential feature
in both cases being the removal of the whole of the coal at once,
without first sub-dividing it into pillars, to be taken away at a

FIG. 7. Long-wall method of working Coal in Derbyshire.

second working. The roof is temporarily supported by wooden
props or pack walling of stone, for a sufficient breadth along the
face to protect the workmen, and allow them to work together
behind. The general character of a long-wall working is shown
in fig. 7, which represents an area of about 500 acres of the bottom
hard steam coal at Shipley in Derbyshire. The principal road
extends from the shafts southward; and on both sides of it
the coal has been removed from the light-shaded area by cutting
it back perpendicularly towards the boundaries, along faces
about 50 yds. in length, those nearest to the shaft being kept
in advance of those farther away, producing a step-shaped
outline to the face of the whole coal. It will be aeen that by this
method the whole of the seam, with the exception of the pillars
left to protect the main roadways, is removed. The roads for
drawing the coal from the working faces to the shaft are kept
open by walling through the waste or goaf produced by the fall
of the unsupported roof. The straight roads are the air-ways
for carrying pure air from the down-cast shaft to the working
faces, while the return air passes along the faces and back to
the up-cast by the curved road. The above is the method of
working long-wall forward, i.e. taking the coal in advance from
the pit towards the boundary, with roads kept open through the
gob. Another method consists in driving towards the boundary,
and taking the coal backward towards the shafts, or working
homeward, allowing the waste to close up without roads having
to be kept open through it. This is of course preferable, but is
only applicable where the owner of the mine can afford to
expend the capital required to reach the limit of the field in
excess of that necessary when the raising of coal proceeds part
passu with the extension of the main roads. Fig. 6 is sub-
stantially a modification of this kind of long-wall work.
Yorkshire ^' ^ represents a method of working practised in
method. the South Yorkshire district, known as bords and
banks. The field is divided by levels and headings into
rectangular banks, while from the main levels bords or wickets
about 30 yds. wide, separated from each other by banks of about
the same width, are carried forward in long-wall work, as shown
on the left side of the figure, the waste being carefully packed
behind so as to secure the ventilation. When these have been
worked up to the extremity, as shown on the right side, the inter-
mediate bank is removed by working backward towards the
level. This system, therefore, combines both methods of long-
wall working, but it is not generally applicable, owing to the

difficulty of ventilation, due to the great length of air-way that
has to be kept open around the waste on each bank.

The relative advantages of the different methods may be
generally stated as follows. Long-wall work is best suited for
thin coals, and those having a good roof, i.e. one that gives way
gradually and fills up the excavation made by removing the coal
without scaling off suddenly and falling into the working faces,
when practically the whole of the coal may be removed. Against
these advantages must be placed the difficulties attending the
maintenance of roads through the goaves, and in some cases
the large proportion of slack to round or large coal obtained.
Pillar working, in the whole coal, is generally reputed to give a
more advantageous proportion of round coal to slack, the latter
being more abundantly produced on the removal of the pillars,
but as these form only a small portion of the whole seam, the
general yield is more advantageous than in the former method.
The ventilation of pillar working is often attended with difficulty,
and the coal is longer exposed to the influence of the air, a point
of importance in some coals, which deteriorate in quality when
exposed to a hot damp atmosphere. The great increase in the
size of the pillars in the best modern collieries worked upon this
principle has, however, done much to approximate the two
systems to an equality in other respects.

Where the whole of the coal is removed at once there is less
chance of surface damage, when the mines are deep, than with
pillar workings. A notable instance of this was afforded at
Newstaad, Notts, where the ruined front of Newstead Abbey was
lowered several feet without any injury to the structure.

The working of very thick seams presents certain special
peculiarities, owing to the difficulties of supporting the roof in
the excavated portions, and supplying fresh air to the
workings. The most typical example of this kind of
working in England is afforded by the thick coal
of South Staffordshire, which consists of a series of
closely associated coal seams, varying from 8 to 12 or 13, divided

Reference

1 Doors

' Stoppings
} f Kir crossing
*- Direction of current

FIG. 8. Bords and Banks.

from each other by their partings, but making together one great
bed of from 25 to 40 ft. or more in thickness. The partings
together do not amount to more than 2 or 3 ft. The method of
working which has been long in use is represented in fig. 9. The
main level or gate road is driven in the benches coal, or lower part
of the seam, while a smaller drift for ventilation, called an air
heading, is carried above it in one of the upper beds called the
slipper coal. From the gate road a heading called a bolt-hole is
opened, and extended into a large rectangular chamber, known
as a " side of work," large pillars being left at regular intervals,
besides smaller ones or cogs. The order in which the coal is cut
is shown in the dotted and numbered squares in the figure.
The coal is first cut to the top of the' slipper coal from below, after
which the upper portion is either broken down by wedging or
falls of itself. The working of these upper portions is exceedingly

5 8 4

COAL

dangerous, owing to the great height of the excavations, and
fatal accidents from falls of roof are in consequence more common
in South Staffordshire than in any other coalfield in this country.
The air from the down-cast shaft enters from the gate road, and
passes to the up-cast through the air heading above. About one-
half of the total coal (or less) is obtained in the first working;
the roof is then allowed to fall, and when the gob is sufficiently
consolidated, fresh roads are driven through it to obtain the ribs
and pillars left behind by a second or even, in some cases, a third

FIG. 9. South Staffordshire method of working Thick Coal.

working. The loss of coal by this method is very considerable,
besides great risk to life and danger from fire. It has, therefore,
been to some extent superseded by the long-wall method, the
upper half being taken at the first working, and removed as
completely as possible, working backwards from the boundaries
to the shaft. The lower half is then taken in the same manner,
after the fallen roof has become sufficiently consolidated to allow
the mine to be re-opened.

In the working of thick seams inclined at a high angle, such as
those in the south of France, and in the lignite mines of Styria
and Bohemia, the method of working in horizontal slices, about
12 or 15 ft. thick, and filling up the excavation with broken rock
and earth from the surface, is now generally adopted in pre-
ference to the systems formerly used. At Monceaux les Mines,
in France, a seam 40 ft. thick, and dipping at an angle of 20, is
worked in the following manner. A level is driven in a sandstone
forming the floor, along the course of the coal, into which com-
munications are made by cross cuts at intervals of 16 yds., which
are driven across to the roof , dividing up the area to be worked
into panels. These are worked backwards, the coal being taken
to a height of 20 ft., the opening being packed up with stone sent
down from the surface. As each stage is worked out, the floor level
is connected with that next below it by means of an incline, which
facilitates the introduction of the packing material. Stuff contain-
ing a considerable amount of clay is found to be the best suited
for the purpose of filling, as it consolidates readily under pressure.

In France and Germany the method of filling the space left
by the removal of the coal with waste rock, quarried under-
ground or sent down from the surface, which was originally used
in connexion with the working of thick inclined seams by the
method of horizontal slices, is now largely extended to long-wall
workings on thin seams, and in Westphalia is made compulsory
where workings extend below surface buildings, and safety pillars
of unwrought coal are found to be insufficient. With careful
packing it is estimated that the surface subsidence will not exceed
40% of the thickness of the seam removed, and will usually
be considerably less. The material for filling may be the waste
from earlier workings stored in the spoil banks at the surface;
where there are blast furnaces in the neighbourhood, granulated
slag mixed with earth affords excellent packing. In thick seams
packing adds about sd. per ton to the cost of the coal, but in
thinner seams the advantage is on the other side.

In some anthracite collieries in America the small coal or culm
and other waste are washed into the exhausted workings by
water which gives a compact mass filling the excavation when the
water has drained away. A modification of this method, which
originated in Silesia, is now becoming of importance in many
European coalfields. In this the filling material, preferably
sand, is sent down from the surface through a vertical steel pipe
mixed with sufficient water to allow it to flow freely through
distributing pipes in the levels commanding the excavations to
be filled; these are closed at the bottom by screens of boards
sufficiently close to retain the packing material while allowing
the water to pass by the lower level to the pumping-engine which
returns it to the surface.

The actual cutting of the coal is chiefly performed by manual
labour, the tool employed being a sharp-pointed double-armed
pick, which is nearly straight, except when required
for use in hard rock, when the arms are made with an
inclination or " anchored." The terms pike, pick,
mandril and slitter are applied to the collier's pick in
different districts, the men being known as pikemen or hewers.
In driving levels it is necessary to cut grooves vertically parallel
to the walls, a process known as shearing; but the most import-
ant operation is that known as holing or kirving, which consists
in cutting a notch or groove in the floor of the seam to a depth
of about 3 ft., measured back from the face, so as to leave the
overhanging part unsupported, which then either falls of its own
accord within a few hours, or is brought down either by driving
wedges along the top, or by blasting. The process of holing in
coal is one of the severest kinds of human labour. It has to
be performed in a constrained position, and the miner lying on
his side has to cut to a much greater height, in order to get room
to carry the groove in to a sufficient depth, than is required to
bring the coal down,
giving rise to a great
waste in slack as com-
pared with machine
work. This is some-
times obviated by
holing in the beds
below the coal, or in
any portion of a seam
of inferior quality that
may not be worth
working. This loss is
proportionately greater
in thin than in thick
seams, the same
quantity being cut to
waste in either case.
The method of cutting
coal on the long-wall
system is seen in fig. 10,
representing the work-
ing at the Shipley col-
liery. The coal is 40 in.
thick, with a seam of
fire-clay and a roof of
black shale; about 6
in. of the upper part,
known as the roof coal,
not being worth work-
ing, is left behind. A
groove of triangular

FIG. 10. Long-wall working-face
Plan and Section.

section of 30 in. base and 9 in. high is cut along the face,
inclined timber props being placed at intervals to support
the overhanging portion until the required length is cut. These
are then removed, and the coal is allowed to fall, wedges
or blasting being employed when necessary. The roof of the
excavation is supported as the coal is removed, by packing up
the waste material, and by a double row of props, 2 ft. from each
other, placed temporarily along the face. These are placed 5 ft.
apart, the props of the back row alternating with those in front.

COAL

The props used are preferably of small oak or English larch,
but large quantities of fir props, cut to the right length, are
also imported from the north of Europe. As the work proceeds
onwards, the props are withdrawn and replaced in advance,
except those that may be crushed by the pressure or buried by
sudden falls of the roof.

In Yorkshire hollow square pillars, formed by piling up short
blocks of wood or chocks, are often used instead of props formed
of a single stem.

In securing the roof and sides of coal workings, malleable iron
and steel are now used to some extent instead of timber, although
the consumption of the latter material is extremely large. As
a substitute for timber props at the face, pieces of steel joists,
with the web cut out for a short distance on either end, with the
flanges turned back to give a square bearing surface, have been
introduced. In large levels only the cap pieces for the roof are
made of steel joists, but in smaller ones complete arches made
of pieces of rails fish-jointed at the crown are used. In another
system introduced by the Mannesmann Tube Company the
prop is made up of weldless steel tubes sliding telescopically
one within the other, which are fixed at the right height by a
screw clamp capable of carrying a load of 15 to 16 tons. These
can be most advantageously used on thick seams 6 to 10 ft. or
upwards. For shaft linings steel rings of H or channel section
supported by intermediate struts are also used, and cross-bearers
or bunions of steel joists and rail guides are now generally
substituted for wood.

When the coal has been under-cut for a sufficient length,
the struts are withdrawn, and the overhanging mass is allowed
to fall during the time that the workmen are out of the pit, or it
may be brought down by driving wedges, or if it be of a com-
pact character a blast in a borehole near the roof may be
required. Sometimes, but rarely, it happens that it is necessary
to cut vertical grooves in the face to determine the limit of
the fall, such limits being usually dependent upon the elect or
divisional planes in the coal, especially when the work is carried
perpendicular to them or on the end.

The substitution of machinery for hand labour in cutting coal
has long been a favourite problem with inventors, the earliest
plan being that of Michael Meinzies, in 1761, who
cutting proposed to work a heavy pick underground by power
machines, transmitted from an engine at the surface, through
the agencies of spear-rods and chains passing over
pulleys; but none of the methods suggested proved to be prac-
tically successful until the general introduction of compressed
air into mines furnished a convenient motive power, susceptible
of being carried to considerable distances without any great loss
of pressure. This agent has been applied in various ways, in
machines which either imitate the action of the collier by cutting
with a pick or make a groove by rotating cutters attached to an
endless chain or a revolving disk or wheel. The most successful
of the first class, or pick machines, that of William Firth of
Sheffield, consists essentially of a horizontal pick with two
cutting arms placed one slightly in advance of the other, which
is swung backwards and forwards by a pair of bell crank levers
actuated by a horizontal cylinder engine mounted on a railway
truck. The weight is about 15 cwt. At a working speed of 60
yds. per shift of 6 hours, the work done corresponds to that of
twelve average men. The width of the groove cut is from 2 to
3 in. at the face, diminishing to i| in. at the back, the pro-
portion of waste being very considerably diminished as com-
pared with the system of holing by hand. The use of this
machine has allowed a thin seam of cannel, from 10 to 14 in. in
thickness, to be worked at a profit, which had formerly been

Iibandoned as too hard to be worked by hand-labour. Pick
nachines have also been introduced by Jones and Levick, Bidder,
tnd other inventors, but their use is now mostly abandoned in
'avour of those working continuously.
In the Gartsherrie machine of Messrs Baird, the earliest of the
lexible chain cutter type, the chain of cutters works round a
ixed frame or jib projecting at right angles from the engine
:arriage, an arrangement which makes it necessary to cut from

the end of the block of coal to the full depth, instead of holing
into it from the face. The forward feed is given by a chain
winding upon a drum, which hauls upon a pulley fixed to a prop
about 30 yds. in advance. This is one of the most compact forms
of machine, the smaller size being only 20 in. high. With an air
pressure of from 35 to 40 ft), per sq. in., a length of from 300 to
350 ft. of coal is holed, 2 ft. 9 in. deep, in the shift of from 8 to
10 hours. The chain machine has been largely developed in
America in the Jeffrey, Link Bell, and Morgan Gardner coal
cutters. These are similar in principle to the Baird machine,
the cutting agent being a flat link chain carrying a double set
of chisel points, which are drawn across the coal face at the rate
of about 5 ft. per second ; but, unlike the older machines, in
which the cutting is done in a fixed plane, the chain with its
motor is made movable, and is fed forward by a rack-and-pinion
motion as the cutting advances, so that the cut is limited in
breadth (3$ to 4 ft.), while its depth may be varied up to the
maximum travel (8 ft.) of the cutting frame. The carrying
frame, while the work is going on, is fixed in position by jack-
screws bearing against the roof of the seam, which, when the
cut is completed, are withdrawn, and the machine shifted
laterally through a distance equal to the breadth of the cut and
fixed in position again. The whole operation requires from
8 to 10 minutes, giving a cutting speed of 120 to 150 sq. ft. per
hour. These machines weigh from 20 to 22 cwt., and are mostly
driven by electric motors of 25 up to 35 h.p. as a maximum.
By reason of their intermittent action they are only suited for
use in driving galleries or in pillar-and-stall workings.

A simple form of the saw or spur wheel coal-cutting machine
is that of Messrs Winstanly & Barker (fig. n), which is driven

FIG. II. Winstanly & Barker's Coal-cutting Machine Plan.

by a pair of oscillating engines placed on a frame running on
rails in the usual way. The crank shaft carries a pinion which
gears into a toothed wheel of a coarse pitch, carrying cutters at
the ends of the teeth. This wheel is mounted on a carrier which,
being movable about its centre by a screw gearing worked by
hand, gives a radial sweep to the cutting edges. When at work
it is slowly turned until the carrier is at right angles to the frame,
when the cut has attained the full depth. The forward motion
is given by a chain winding upon a crab placed in front, by which
it is hauled slowly forward. With 25 Ib pressure it will hole
3 ft. deep, at the rate of 30 yds. per hour, the cut being only
2j in. high, but it will only work on one side of the carriage.
This type has been greatly improved and now is the most popular
machine in Great Britain, especially in long-wall workings.
W. E. Garforth's Diamond coal cutter, one of the best known,
undercuts from 5$ to 6 ft. In some instances electric motors
have been substituted for compressed-air engines in such
machines.

Another class of percussive coal-cutters of American origin
is represented by the Harrison, Sullivan and Ingersoll-Sergeant
machines, which are essentially large rock-drills without turning
gear for the cutting tool, and mounted upon a pair of wheels
placed so as to allow the tool to work on a forward slope. When
in use the machine is placed upon a wooden platform inclining

5 86

COAL

towards the face, upon which the miner lies and controls the
direction of the blow by a pair of handles at the back of the
machine, which is kept stationary by wedging the wheels against
a stop on the platform. These machines, which are driven by
compressed air, are very handy in use, as the height and direction
of the cut may be readily varied; but the work is rather severe
to the driver on account of the recoil shock of the piston, and an
assistant is necessary to clear out the small coal from the cut,
which limits the rate of cutting to about 125 sq.ft. per hour.

Another kind of application of machinery to coal mining is
that of Messrs Bidder & Jones, which is intended to replace the

use of blasting for bringing down the coal. It consists
Hedging * a sma M hydraulic press, which forces a set of expand-
machiaes. ing bits or wedges into a bore-hole previously bored

by a long screw augur or drill, worked by hand, the
action of the press being continued until a sufficient strain is
obtained to bring down the coal. The arrangement is, in fact,
a modification of the plug and feather system used in stone
quarrying for obtaining large blocks, but with the substitution
of the powerful rending force of the hydraulic press for hand-
power in driving up the wedges. This apparatus has been used
at Harecastle in North Staffordshire, and found to work well,
but with the disadvantage of bringing down the coal in un-
manageably large masses. A method of wedging down coal
sufficiently perfected to be of general application would add
greatly to the security of colliers.

The removal of the coal broken at the working face to the pit
bottom may in small mines be effected by hand labour, but more
Under- generally it is done by horse or mechanical traction,
ground upon railways, the " trams " or " tubs," as the pit
convey- wagons are called, being where possible brought up to

the face. In steeply inclined seams passes or shoots
leading to the main level below are sometimes used, and in
Belgium iron plates are sometimes laid in the excavated ground
to form a slide for the coal down to the loading place. In some
instances travelling belts or creepers have been adopted, which
deliver the coal with a reduced amount of breakage, but this
application is not common. The capacity of the trams varies
with the size of the workings and the shaft. From 5 to 7 cwt. are
common sizes, but in South Wales they are larger, carrying up to
one ton or more. The rails used are of flat bottomed or bridge
section varying in weight from 15 to 25 Ib to the yd.; they are
laid upon cross sleepers in a temporary manner, so that they can
be easily shifted along the working faces, but are carefully
secured along main roads intended to carry traffic continuously
for some time. The arrangement of the roads at the face is
shown in the plan, fig. 10. In the main roads to the pit when the
distance is not considerable horse traction may be used, a train
of 6 to 1 5 vehicles being drawn by one horse, but more generally
the hauling or, as it is called in the north of England, the leading
of the trains of tubs is effected by mechanical traction.

In a large colliery where the shafts are situated near the centre of
the field, and the workings extend on all sides, both to the dip and
rise, the drawing roads for the coal may be of three different kinds
(i) levels driven at right angles to the dip, suitable for horse
roads, (2) rise ways, known as jinny roads, jig-brows, or up-brows,
which, when of sufficient slope, may be used as self-acting planes,
i.e. the loaded waggons may be made to pull back the empty
ones to the working faces, and (3) dip or down-brows, requiring
engine power. A road may be used as a self-acting or gravitating
incline when the gradient is i in 30 or steeper, in which case the
train is lowered by a rope passing over a pulley or brake drum
at the upper end, the return empty train being attached to the
opposite end of the rope and hauled up by the descending load.
The arrangements for this purpose vary, of course, with the
amount of work to be done with one fixing of the machinery;
where it is likely to be used for a considerable time, the drum and
brake are solidly constructed, and the ropes of steel or iron wire
carefully guided over friction rollers, placed at intervals between
the rails to prevent them from chafing and wearing out on the
ground. Where the load has to be hauled up a rising gradient,
underground engines, driven by steam or compressed air or

electric motors, are used. In some cases steam generated in
boilers at the surface is carried in pipes to the engines below, but
there is less loss of power when compressed air is sent down in the
same way. Underground boilers placed near the up-cast pit so
that the smoke and gases help the ventilating furnace have been
largely used but are now less favourably regarded than formerly.
Water-pressure engines, driven by a column of water equal to the
depth of the pit, have also been employed for hauling. These
can, however, only be used advantageously where there are fixed
pumps, the fall of water generating the power resulting in a
load to be removed by the expenditure of an equivalent amount
of power in the pumping engine above that necessary for keeping
down the mine water.

The principal methods in which power can be applied to
underground traction are as follows:

1. Tail rope system.

2. Endless chain system.

3. Endless rope system on the ground.

4. Endless rope system overhead.

The three last may be considered as modifications of the same
principle. In the first, which is that generally used in Northum-
berland and Durham, a single line of rails is used, the loaded
tubs being drawn " out bye," i.e. towards the shaft, and the
empty ones returned " in bye," or towards the working faces,
by reversing the engine; while in the other systems, double
lines, with the rope travelling continuously in the same direction,
are the rule. On the tail rope plan the engine has two drums
worked by spur gearing, which can be connected with, or cast
loose from, the driving shaft at pleasure. The main rope, which
draws out the loaded tubs, coils upon one drum, and passes near
the floor over guide sheaves placed about 20 ft. apart. The tail
rope, which is of lighter section than the main one, is coiled on the
second drum, passes over similar guide sheaves placed near the
roof or side of the gallery round a pulley at the bottom of the
plane, and is fixed to the end of the train or set of tubs. When
the load is being drawn out, the engine pulls directly on the
main rope, coiling it on to its own drum, while the tail drum runs
loose paying out its rope, a slight brake pressure being used to
prevent its running out too fast. When the set arrives out bye,
the main rope will be wound up, and the tail rope pass out from
the drum to the end and back, i.e. twice the length of the way;
the set is returned in bye, by reversing the engine, casting loose
the main, and coupling up the tail drum, so that the tail rope is
wound up and the main rope paid out. This method, which is
the oldest, is best adapted for ways that are nearly level, or
when many branches are intended to be worked from one engine,
and can be carried round curves of small radius without deranging
the trains; but as it- is intermittent in action, considerable
engine-power is required in order to get up the required speed,
which is from 8 to 10 m. per hour. From 8 to 10 tubs are usually
drawn in a set, the way t s being often from 2000 to 3000 yds. long.
In dip workings the tail rope is often made to work a pump
connected with the bottom pulley, which forces the water back
to the cistern of the main pumping engine in the pit.

For the endless chain system, which is much used in the Wigan
district, a 'double line of way is necessary, one line for full and the
other for empty tubs. The chain passes over a pulley driven
by the engine, placed at such a height as to allow it to rest upon
the tops of the tubs, and round a similar pulley at the far end of
the plane. The forward edge of the tub carries a projecting
pin or horn, with a notch into which the chain falls which drags
the tub forward. The road at the outer end is made of a less
slope than the chain, so that on arrival the tub is lowered, clears
the pin, and so becomes detached from the chain. The tubs are
placed on at intervals of about 20 yds., the chain moving con-
tinuously at a speed of from 25 to 4m. per hour. This system
presents the greatest advantages in point of economy of driving
power, especially where the gradients are variable, but is ex-
pensive in first cost, and is not well suited for curves, and branch
roads cannot be worked continuously, as a fresh set of pulleys
worked by bevel gearing is required for each branch.

The endless rope system may be used with either a single or

COAL

587

double line of way, but the latter is more generally advantageous.
The rope, which is guided upon sheaves between the rails, is
taken twice round the head pulley. It is also customary to use
a stretching pulley to keep the rope strained when the pull of
the load diminishes. This is done by passing a loop at the upper
end round a pulley mounted in a travelling frame, to which
is attached a weight of about 15 cwt. hanging by a chain. This
weight pulls directly against the rope; so if the latter slacks,
the weight pulls out the pulley frame and tightens it up again.
The tubs are usually formed into sets of from 2 to 12, the front
one being coupled up by a short length of chain to a clamping
hook formed of two jaws moulded to the curve of the rope which
are attached by the " run rider," as the driver accompanying
the train is called. This system in many respects resembles
the tail rope, but has the advantage of working with one-third
less length of rope for the same length of way.

The endless rope system overhead is substantially similar to
the endless chain. The wagons are attached at intervals by
short lengths of chain lapped twice round the rope and hooked
into one of the links, or in some cases the chains are hooked
into hempen loops on the main rope. In mines that are worked
from the outcrop by adits or day levels traction by locomotives
driven by steam, compressed air or electricity is used to some
extent. The most numerous applications are in America.

One of the most important branches of colliery work is the
management of the ventilation, involving as it does the supply
of fresh air to the men working in the pit, as well as
tton. tne removal of inflammable gases that may be given

off by the coal. This is effected by carrying through
the workings a large volume of air which is kept continually
moving in the same direction, descending from the surface by
one or more pits known as intake or downcast pits, and leaving
the mine by a return or upcast pit. Such a circulation of air
can only be effected by mechanical means when the workings
are of any extent, the methods actually adopted being (i) The
rarefaction of the air in the upcast pit by a furnace placed at the
bottom; and (2) Exhaustion by machinery at the surface. The
former plan, being the older, has been most largely used, but is
becoming replaced by some form of machine.

The usual form of ventilating furnace is a plain fire grate
placed under an arch, and communicating with the upcast shaft
by an inclined drift. It is separated from the coal by a narrow
passage walled and arched in brickwork on both sides. The
size of the grate varies with the requirements of the ventilation,
but from 6 to 10 ft. broad and from 6 to 8 ft. long are usual
dimensions. The fire should be kept as thin and bright as possible,
to reduce the amount of smoke in the upcast. When the mine
is free from gas, the furnace may be worked by the return air,
but it is better to take fresh air directly from the downcast by
a scale, or split, from the main current. The return air from
fiery workings is never allowed to approach the furnace, but is
carried into the upcast by a special channel, called a dumb
drift, some distance above the furnace drift, so as not to come
in contact with the products of combustion until they have been
cooled below the igniting point of fire-damp. Where the upcast
pit is used for drawing coal, it is usual to discharge* the smoke
and gases through a short lateral drift near the surface into a
tall chimney, so as to keep the pit-top as clear as possible for
working. Otherwise the chimney is built directly over the
mouth of the pit.

Mechanical ventilation may be effected either by direct ex-
haustion or centrifugal displacement of the air to be removed.
In the first method reciprocating bells, or piston machines, or
rotary machines of varying capacity like gas-works exhausters,
are employed. They were formerly used on a very large scale
in Belgium and South Wales, but the great weight of the moving
parts makes it impossible to drive them at the high speed
called for by modern requirements, so that centrifugal fans are
now generally adopted instead. An early and very successful
machine of this class, the Guibal fan, is represented in fig. 12.
The fan has eight arms, framed together of wrought iron bars,
with diagonal struts, so as to obtain rigidity with comparative

lightness, carrying flat close-boarded blades at their extremities.
It revolves with the smallest possible clearance in a chamber
of masonry, one of the side walls being perforated by a large
round hole, through which the air from the mine is admitted
to the centre of the fan. The lower quadrant of the casing is
enlarged spirally, so as to leave a narrow rectangular opening
at the bottom, through which the air is discharged into a chimney
of gradually increasing section carried to a height of about 25 ft.
The size of the discharge aperture can be varied by means of a
flexible wooden shutter sliding in a groove in a cast iron plate,
curved to the slope of the casing. By the use of the spiral guide
casing and the chimney the velocity of the effluent air is gradually

FIG. 12. Guibal Fan.

reduced up to the point of final discharge into the' atmosphere,
whereby a greater useful effect is realized than is the case when
the air streams freely from the circumference with a velocity
equal to that of the rotating fan. The power is applied by steam
acting directly on a crank at one end of the axle, and the diameter
of the fan may be 40 ft. or more.

The Waddle fan, represented in fig. 13, is an example of
another class of centrifugal ventilator, in which a close casing
is not used, the air exhausted being discharged from the circum-
ference directly into the atmosphere. It consists of a hollow
sheet iron drum formed by two conoidal tubes, united together

FIG. 13. Waddle Fan.

t>y numerous guide blades, dividing it up into a series of rect-
angular tubes of diminishing section, attached to a horizontal
axle by cast iron bosses and wrought iron arms. The tubes at
their smallest part are connected to a cast iron ring, 10 ft. in
diameter, but at their outer circumference they are only 2 ft.
apart. The extreme diameter is 25 ft.

By the adoption of more refined methods of construction,
especially in the shape of the intake and discharge passages for
the air and the forms of the fan blades, the efficiency of the
ventilating fan has been greatly increased so that the dimensions
can be much reduced and a higher rate of speed adopted. Notable
examples are found in the Rateau, Ser and Capell fans, and
where an electric generating station is available electric motors
can be advantageously used instead of steam.

The quantity of air required for a large colliery depends upon
the .number of men employed, as for actual respiration from

588

COAL

100 to 200 cub. ft. per minute should be allowed. In fiery
mines, however, a very much larger amount must be provided
nistribu- m order to dilute the gas to the point of safety.
tioa at air Even with the best arrangements a dangerous increase
under i n t ne amount of gas is not infrequent from the sudden
ground. re i ease o f stored-up masses in the coal, which, over-
powering the ventilation, produce magazines of explosive material
ready for ignition when brought in contact with the flame of a
lamp or the blast of a shot. The management of such places,
therefore, requires the most constant vigilance on the part of
the workmen, especially in the examination of the working places
that have been standing empty during the night, in which gas
may have accumulated, to see that they are properly cleared
before the new shift commences.

The actual conveyance or coursing of the air from the intake
to the working faces is effected by splitting or dividing the current
at different points in its course, so as to carry it as directly as
possible to the places where it is required. In laying out the
mine it is customary to drive the levels or roads in pairs, com-
munication being made between them at intervals by cutting
through the intermediate pillar; the air then passes along one
and returns by the other. As the roads ad-
vance other pillars are driven through in the
same manner, the passages first made being
closed by stoppings of broken rock, or built
up with brick and mortar walls, or both.
When it is desired to preserve a way from one
road or similar class of working to another,
double doors placed at sufficient intervals
apart to take in one or more trams between

Belgium and other European countries. The buildings near the
pit bottom, such as the stables and lamp cabin, and even the
main roads for some distance, are often in large collieries lighted
with gas brought from the surface, or in some cases the gas given
off by the coal is used for the same purpose. Where the gases
are fiery, the use of protected lights or safety lamps (q.v.) becomes
a necessity.

The nature of the gases evolved by coal when freshly exposed
to the atmosphere has been investigated by several chemists,
more particularly by Lyon Playfair and Ernst von compos/-
Meyer. The latter observer found the gases given off tion of gas
by coal from the district of Newcastle and Durham evolved by
to contain carbonic acid, marsh gas or light carburetted ""^
hydrogen (the fire-damp of the miner), oxygen and nitrogen.
A later investigation, by J. W. Thomas, of the gases dissolved or
occluded in coals from South Wales basin shows them to vary
considerably with the class of coal. The results given below,
which are selected from a much larger series published in the
Journal of the Chemical Society, were obtained by heating samples
of the different coals in vacua for several hours at the tempera-
ture of boiling water:

Volume

Composition in Volumes per cent.

Quality.

Colliery.

in cub.

Carbonic

Marsh

Nitro-

ft.

Acid.

Oxygen.

Gas.

gen.

Bituminous

Cwm Clydach .

19-72

5-44

1-05

63-76

29-75

Lantwit

H'34

9-43

2-25

31-95

56-34

Steam
Anthracite

Navigation
Bonville's Court

89-62
198-95

13-21
2-62

0-49

81-64
93-13

4-66

4-25

them when closed are used, forming a kind of lock or sluice.
These are made to shut air-tight against their frames, so as
to prevent the air from taking a short cut back to the up-
cast, while preserving free access between the different districts
without following the whole round of the air-ways. The ventila-
tion of ends is effected by means of brattices or temporary
partitions of thin boards placed midway in the drift, and extend-
ing to within a few feet of the face. The air passes along one side
of the brattice, courses round the free end, and returns on the
other side. In many cases a light but air-proof cloth, specially
made for the purpose, is used instead of wood for brattices, as
being more handy and more easily removed. In large mines
where the air-ways are numerous and complicated, it often
happens that currents travelling in opposite directions are
brought together at one point. In these cases it is necessary to
cross them. The return air is usually made to pass over the
intake by a curved drift carried some distance above in the solid
measures, both ways being arched in brickwork, or even in some
cases lined with sheet iron so as to ensure a separation not likely
to be destroyed in case of an explosion (see figs. 5 and 8) . The use
of small auxiliary blowing ventilators underground, for carrying
air into workings away from the main circuits, which was largely
advocated at one time, has lost its popularity, but a useful
substitute has been found in the induced draught produced by
jets of compressed air or high-pressure water blowing into ejectors.
With a jet of -jfo in. area, a pipe discharging if gallon of water per
minute at 165 Ib pressure per sq. in., a circulation of 850 cub. ft.
of air per minute was produced at the end of a level, or about five
times that obtained from an equal volumne of air at 60 Ib pressure.
The increased resistance, due to the large extension of workings
from single pairs of shafts, the ventilating currents having often
to travel several miles to the upcast, has led to great increase
in the size and power of ventilating fans, and engines from 250
to 500 H.P. are not uncommonly used for such purposes.

The lighting of underground workings in collieries is closely
connected with the subject of ventilation. In many of the
Li Mia sma ll er pits in the Midland districts of England, and
generally hi South Staffordshire, the coals are suffi-
ciently free from gas, or rather the gases are not liable to become
explosive when mixed with air, to allow the use of naked lights,
candles being generally used. Oil lamps are employed in many
of the Scotch collieries, and are almost universally used in

In one instance about i% of hydride of ethyl was found in
the gas from a blower in a pit in the Rhondda district, which was
collected in a tube and brought to the surface to be used in
lighting the engine-room and pit-bank. The gases from the bitu-
minous house coals of South Wales are comparatively free from
marsh gas, as compared with those from the steam coal and
anthracite pits. The latter class of coal contains the largest
proportion of this dangerous gas, but holds it more tenaciously
than do the ' steam coals, thus rendering the workings com-
paratively safer. It was found that, of the entire volume of
occluded gas in an anthracite, only one-third could be expelled
at the temperature of boiling water, and that the whole quantity,
amounting to 650 cub. ft. per ton, was only to be driven out by
a heat of 300 C. Steam coals being softer and more porous give
off enormous volumes of gas from the working face in most of the
deep pits, many of which have been the scene of disastrous
explosions.

The gases evolved from the sudden outbursts or blowers in
coal, which are often given off at a considerable tension, are the
most dangerous enemy that the collier has to contend with.
They consist almost entirely of marsh gas, with only a small
quantity of carbonic acid, usually under i%, and from i to 4%
of nitrogen.

Fire-damp when mixed with from four to twelve times its
volume of atmospheric air is explosive; but when the proportion
is above of below these limits it burns quietly with a pale blue
flame.

The danger arising from the presence of coal dust in the air
of dry mines, with or without the addition of fire-damp, has,
since it was first pointed out by Professor W. Galloway,
been made the subject of special inquiries in the
principal European countries interested in coal mining; and
although certain points are still debatable, the fact is generally
admitted as one calling for special precautions. The conclusions
arrived at by the royal commission of 1891, which may be taken
as generally representative of the views of British colliery
engineers, are as follows:

1. The danger of explosion when gas exists in very small quantities
is greatly increased by the presence of coal dust.

2. A gas explosion in a fiery mine may be intensified or indefinitely
propagated by the dust raised by the explosion itself.

3. Coal dust alone, without any gas, may cause a dangerous

Coal dust.

COAL

589

explosion if ignited by a blown-out shot ; but such cases are likely
to be exceptional.

4. The inflammability of coal dust varies with different coals, but
none can be said to be entirely free from risk.

5. There is no probability of a dangerous explosion being produced
by the ignition of coal dust by a naked light or ordinary flame.

Danger arising from coal dust is best guarded against by
systematically sprinkling or watering the main roads leading
from the working faces to the shaft, where the dust falling from
the trams in transit is liable to accumulate. This may be done
by water-carts or hose and jet, but preferably by finely divided
water and compressed air distributed from a network of pipes
carried through the workings. This is now generally done, and
in some countries is compulsory, when the rocks are deficient
in natural moisture. In one instance the quantity of water
required to keep down the dust in a mine raising 850 tons of
coal in a single shift was 28-8 tons, apart from that required
by the jets and motors. The distributing network extended
to more than 30 m. of pipes, varying from 3^ in. to I in. in
diameter.

In all British coal-mines, when gas in dangerous quantities
has appeared within three months, and in all places that are

dry and dusty, blasting is prohibited, except with
p/os/ve"" " permitted " explosives, whose composition and pro-

perties have been examined at the testing station at
the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. A list of those sanctioned is
published by the Home Office. They are mostly distinguished
by special trade names, and are mainly of two classes those
containing ammonium nitrate and nitrobenzene or nitronaph-
thalene, and those containing nitroglycerin and nitrocellulose,
which are essentially weak dynamites. The safety property
attributed to them is due to the depression of the temperature
of the flame or products of explosion to a point below that
necessary to ignite fire-damp or coal dust in air from a blown-out
shot. New explosives that are found to be satisfactory when
tested are added to the list from time to time, the composition
being stated in all cases.

Methods for enabling miners to penetrate into workings where
the atmosphere is totally irrespirable have come into use for

saving life after explosions and for repairing shafts

anc ^ pit-work under water. The aerophore of A.

Galibert was in its earlier form a bag of about 12
cub. ft. capacity containing air at a little above atmospheric
pressure; it was carried on the back like a knapsack and supplied
the means of respiration. The air was continually returned
and circulated until it was too much contaminated with carbonic
acid to be further used, a condition which limited the use of the
apparatus to a very short period. A more extended application
of the same principle was made in the apparatus of L. Denayrouze
by which the air, contained in cylinders at a pressure of 300 to
350 Ib per sq. in., was supplied for respiration through a reducing
valve which brought it down nearly to atmospheric pressure.
This apparatus was, however, very heavy and became un-
manageable when more than an hour's supply was required.
The newer forms are based upon the principle, first enunciated
by Professor Theodor Schwann in 1854, of carrying compressed
oxygen instead of air, and returning the products of respiration
through a regenerator containing absorptive media for carbonic
acid and water, the purified current being returned to the mouth
with an addition of fresh oxygen. The best-known apparatus
of this class is that developed by G. A. Meyer at the Shamrock
colliery in Westphalia, where a body of men are kept in sys-
tematic training for its use at a special rescue station. This corps
rendered invaluable service at the exploring and rescue operations
after the explosion at Courrieres in March 1906, the most disas-
trous mining accident on record, when noo miners were killed.
A somewhat similar apparatus called the " weg," after the
initials of the inventor, is due to W. E. Garforth of Wakefield.
In another form of apparatus advantage is taken of the property
possessed by sodium-potassium peroxide of giving off oxygen
when damped; the residue of caustic soda and potash yielded
by the reaction is used to absorb the carbonic acid of the expired
air. Experiments have also been made with a device in which

the air-supply is obtained by the evaporation of liquid air
absorbed in asbestos.

Underground fires are not uncommon accidents in coal-mines.
In the thick coal workings in South Staffordshire the slack
left behind in the sides of work is especially liable to
fire from so-called spontaneous combustion, due to the rapid
oxidization that is set up when finely divided coal is brought
in contact with air. The best remedy in such cases is to prevent
the air from gaining access to the coal by building a wall round
the burning portion, which can in this way be isolated from
the remainder of the working, and the fire prevented from
spreading, even if it cannot be extinguished. When the coal is
fired by the blast of an explosion it is often necessary to isolate
the mine completely by stopping up the mouths of the pits with
earth, or in extreme cases it must be flooded with water or car-
bonic acid before the fire can be brought under. There have
been several instances of this being done in the fiery pits in the
Barnsley district, notably at the great explosion at the Oaks
colliery in 1866, when 360 lives were lost.

The drawing or winding of the coal from the pit bottom
to the surface is one of the most important operations
in coal mining, and probably the department in which ^'
mechanical appliances have been brought to the
highest state of development.

The different elements making up the drawing arrangements
of a colliery are (i) the cage, (2) the shaft or pit fittings, (3) the
drawing-rope, (4) the engine and (5) the surface
arrangements. The cage, as its name implies, consists
of one or more platforms connected by an open framework of
vertical bars of wrought iron or steel, with a top bar to which
the drawing-rope is attached. It is customary to have a curved
sheet iron roof or bonnet when the cage is used for raising or
lowering the miners, to protect them from injury by falling
materials. The number of platforms or decks varies consider-
ably; in small mines only a single one may be used, but in the
larger modern pits two-, three- or even four-decked cages are used.
The use of several decks is necessary in old pits of small section,
where only a single tram can be carried on each. In the large
shafts of the Northern and Wigan districts the cages are made
about 8 ft. long and 3^ ft. broad, being sufficient to carry two
large trams on one deck. These are received upon a railway
made of two strips of angle iron of the proper gauge for the wheels,
and are locked fast by a latch falling over their ends. At Cadeby
Main with four-decked cages the capacity is eight lo-cwt. tubs
or 4 tons of coal.

The guides or conductors in the pit may be constructed of
wood, in which case rectangular fir beams, about 3 by 4 in., are
used, attached at intervals of a few feet to buntons or cross-beams
built into the lining of the pit. Two guides are required for each
cage; they may be placed opposite to each other, either on the
long or short sides the latter being preferable. The cage is
guided by shoes of wrought iron, a few inches long and bell-
mouthed at the ends, attached to the horizontal bars of the
framing, which pass loosely over the guides on three sides, but
in most new pits rail guides of heavy section are used. They are
applied on one side of the cage only, forming a complete vertical
railway, carried by iron cross sleepers, with proper seats for the
rails instead of wooden buntons; the cage is guided by curved
shoes of a proper section to cover the heads of the rails. Rigid
guides connected with the walling of the pit are probably the
best and safest, but they have the disadvantage of being liable
to distortion, in case of the pit altering its form, owing to irregular
movements of the ground, or other causes. Wooden guides
being of considerable size, block up a certain portion of the area
of the pit, and thus offer an impediment to the ventilation,
especially in upcast shafts, where the high temperature, when
furnace ventilation is used, is also against their use. In the
Lancashire and the Midland districts wire-rope guides have been
introduced to a very considerable extent, with a view of meet-
ing the above objections. These are simply wire-ropes, from
| to ij in. in diameter, hanging from a cross-bar connected with
the pit-head framing at the surface, and attached to a similar

COAL

bar at the bottom, which are kept straight by a stretching
weight of from 30 cwt. to 4 tons attached to the lower bar.
In some cases four guides are used two to each of the long sides
of the cage; but a more general arrangement is to have three
two on one side, and the third in an intermediate position on the
opposite side. Many colliery managers, however, prefer to have
only two opposite guides, as being safer. The cage is connected
by tubular clips, made in two pieces and bolted together, which
slide over the ropes. In addition to this it is necessary to have
an extra system of fixed guides at the surface and at the bottom,
where it is necessary to keep the cage steady during the operations
of loading and landing, there being a much greater amount of
oscillation during the passage of the c"age than with fixed guides.
For the same reason it is necessary to give a considerable clear-
ance between the two lines of guides, which are kept from 15 to
18 in. apart, to prevent the possibility of the two cages striking
each other in passing. With proper precautions, however, wire
guides are perfectly safe for use at the highest travelling speed.
The cage is connected with the drawing-rope by short lengths
of chain from the corners, known as tackling chains, gathered

into a central ring to which the rope is attached.
chains" 1 R un d stee l wire-ropes, about 2 in. in diameter, are

now commonly used; but in very deep pits they are
sometimes tapered in section to reduce the dead weight lifted.
Flat ropes of steel or iron wire were and are still used to a great
extent, but round ones are now generally preferred. In Belgium
and the north of France flat ropes of aloe fibre (Manila hemp
or plantain fibre) are in high repute, being considered prefer-
able by many colliery managers to wire, in spite of their great
weight. A rope of this class for a pit 1 200 metres deep, tapered
from 15-6 in. to 9 in. in breadth and from 2 in. to if in. in
thickness, weighed 14-3 tons, and another at Anzin, intended to
lift a gross load of 15 tons from 750 metres, is 225 in. broad and
3 in. thick at the drum end, and weighs 18 tons. Tapered round
ropes, although mechanically preferable, are not advantageous
in practice, as the wear being greater at the cage end than on the
drum it is necessary to cut off portions of the former at intervals.
Ultimately also the ropes should be reversed in position, and this
can only be done with a rope of uniform section.

The engines used for winding or hoisting in collieries are
usually direct-acting with a pair of horizontal cylinders coupled

directly to the drum shaft. Steam at high pressure
engines. exhausting into the atmosphere is still commonly used,

but the great power required for raising heavy loads
from deep pits at high speeds has brought the question of fuel
economy into prominence, and more economical types of the
two-cylinder tandem compound class with high initial steam
pressure, superheating and condensing, have come in to some
extent where the amount of work to be done is sufficient to
justify their high initial cost. One of the earliest examples was
erected at Llanbradack in South Wales in 1894, and they have
been somewhat extensively used in Westphalia and the north of
France. In a later example at the Bargold pit of the Powell
Duffryn Steam Coal Company a mixed arrangement is adopted
with horizontal high-pressure and vertical low-pressure cylinders.
This engine draws a net load of 55 tons of coal from a depth
of 625 yds. in 45 seconds, the gross weight of the four trams,
cage and chains, and rope, with the coal, being 20 tons 12 cwt.
The work of the winding engine, being essentially of an inter-
mittent character, can only be done with condensation when
a central condenser keeping a constant vacuum is used, and
even with this the rush of steam during winding may be a cause
of disturbance. This difficulty may be overcome by using
Rateau's arrangement of a low-pressure turbine between the
engine and the condenser. The accumulator, which is similar
in principle to the thermal storage system of Druitt Halpin, is
a closed vessel completely filled with water, which condenses
the excess of steam during the winding period, and becoming
superheated maintains the supply to the turbine when the
main engine is standing. The power so developed is generally
utilized in the production of electricity, for which there is an
abundant use about large collieries.

The drum, when round ropes are used, is a plain broad cylinder,
with flanged rims, and cased with soft wood packing, upon
which the rope is coiled; the breadth is made sufficient to take
the whole length of the rope at two laps. One drum is usually
fixed to the shaft, while the other is loose, with a screw link or
other means of coupling, in order to be able to adjust the two
ropes to exactly the same length, so that one cage may be at the
surface when the other is at the bottom, without having to pay
out or take up any slack rope by the engine.

For flat ropes the drum or bobbin consists of a solid disk, of
the width of the rope fixed upon the shaft, with numerous
parallel pairs of arms or horns, arranged radially on both sides,
the space between being just sufficient to allow the rope to enter
and coil regularly upon the preceding lap. This method has the
advantage of equalizing the work of the engine throughout the
journey, for when the load is greatest, with the full cage at the
bottom and the whole length of rope out, the duty required in
the first revolution of the engine is measured by the length of
the smallest circumference; while the assistance derived from
gravitating action of the descending cage in th? same period is
equal to the weight of the falling mass through a height corre-
sponding to the length of the largest lap, and so on, the speed
being increased as the weight diminishes, and vice versa. The
same thing can be effected in a more perfect manner by the use
of spiral or scroll drums, in which the rope is made to coil in a
spiral groove upon the surface of the drum, which is formed by
the frusta of two obtuse cones placed with their smaller diameters
outwards. This plan, though mechanically a very good one,
has certain defects, especially in the possibility of danger resulting
from the rope slipping sideways, if the grooves in the bed are not
perfectly true. The great size and weight of such drums are
also disadvantages, as giving rather unmanageable dimensions
in a very deep pit. In some cases, therefore, a combined form is
adopted, the body of the drum being cylindrical, and a width
equal to three or four laps conical on either side.

Counterbalance chains for the winding engines are used in
the collieries of the Midland districts of England. In this method
a third drum is used to receive a heavy flat link chain, shorter
than the main drawing-ropes, the end of which hangs down a
special or balance pit. At starting, when the full load is to be
lifted, the balance chain uncoils, and continues to do so until the
desired equilibrium between the working loads is attained, when
it is coiled up again in the reverse direction, to be again given
out on the return trip.

In Koepe's method the drum is replaced by a disk with a
grooved rim for the rope, which passes from the top of one cage
over the guide pulley, round the disk, and back over the second
guide to the second cajje, and a tail rope, passing round a pulley
at the bottom of the shaft, connects the bottoms of the cages,
so that the dead weight of cage, tubs and rope is completely
counterbalanced at all positions of the cages, and the work of the
engine is confined to the useful weight of coal raised. Motion is
communicated to the rope by frictional contact with the drum,
which is covered through about one-half of the circumference.
This system has been used in Nottinghamshire, and at Sneyd,
in North Staffordshire. In Belgium it was tried in a pit 940
metres deep, where it has been replaced by flat hempen ropes,
and is now restricted to shallower workings. In Westphalia it is
applied in about thirty different pits to a maximum depth of
761 metres.

A novelty in winding arrangements is the substitution of
the electromotor for the steam engine, which has been effected
in a few instances. In one of the -best-known examples, the
Zollern colliery in Westphalia, the Koepe system is used, the
winding disk being driven by two motors of 1200 H.P. each on
the same shaft. Motion is obtained from a continuous-current
generator driven by an alternating motor with a very heavy
fly-wheel, a combination known as the Ilgner transformer, which
runs continuously with a constant draught on the generating
station, the extremely variable demand of the winding engine
during the acceleration period being met by the energy stored
in the fly-wheel, which runs at a very high speed. This

COAL

59 1

meats.

arrangement works admirably as regards smoothness and safety
in running, but the heavy first cost and complication stand in
the way of its general adoption. Nevertheless about 60 electric
winding engines were at work or under construction in May 1006.
The surface arrangements of a modern deep colliery are of
considerable extent and complexity, the central feature being
the head gear or pit frame carrying the guide pulleys
which lead the winding ropes from the axis of the pit
to the drum. This is an upright frame, usually made
in wrought iron or steel strutted by diagonal thrust
beams against the engine-house wall or other solid abutments,
the height to the bearings of the guide pulleys being from 80 to
100 ft. or more above the ground level. This great height is
necessary to obtain head-room for the cages, the landing plat-
forms being usually placed at some considerable height above
the natural surface. The pulleys, which are made as large as
possible up to 20 ft. in diameter to diminish the effect of bending
strains in the rope by change in direction, have channelled cast
iron rims with wrought iron arms, a form combining rigidity
with strength, in order to keep down their weight.

To prevent accidents from the breaking of the rope while the
cage is travelling in the shaft, or from over-winding when in
consequence of the engine not being stopped in time the cage
may be drawn up to the head-gear pulleys (both of which are
unhappily not uncommon), various forms of safety catches and
disconnecting hooks have been adopted. The former contriv-
ances consist essentially of levers or cams with toothed surfaces
or gripping shoes mounted upon transverse axes attached to the
sides of the cage, whose function is to take hold of the guides
and support the cage in the event of its becoming detached
from the rope. The opposite axes are connected with springs
which are kept in compression by tension of the rope in drawing
but come into action when the pull is released, the side axes then
biting into wooden guides or gripping those of steel bars or
ropes. The use of these contrivances is more common in
collieries on the continent of Europe, where in some countries
they are obligatory, than in England, where they are not generally
popular owing to their uncertainty in action and the constant
drag on the guides when the rope slacks.

For the prevention of accidents from over-winding, detaching
hooks are used. These consist essentially of links formed of a
pair of parallel plates joined by a central bolt forming a scissors
joint which is connected by chain links to the cage below and
the winding-rope above. The outer sides of the link are shaped
with projecting lugs above. When closed by the load the
width is sufficient to allow it to enter a funnel-shaped guide on a
cross-bar of the frame some distance above the bank level, but
on reaching the narrower portion of the guide at the top the
plates are forced apart which releases the ropes and brings the
lugs into contact with the top of the cross-bar which secures
the cage from falling.

Three principal patterns, those of King, Ormerod and Walker,
are in use, and they are generally efficient supposing the speed
of the cage at arrival is not excessive. To guard against this it is
now customary to use some speed-checking appliance, independ-
ent of the engine-man, which reduces or entirely cuts off the
steam supply when the cage arrives at a particular point near the
surface, and applies the brake if the load is travelling too quickly.
Maximum speed controllers in connexion with the winding
indicator, which do not allow the engine to exceed a fixed rate
of speed, are also used in some cases, with recording indicators.

When the cage arrives at the surface, or rather the platform
forming the working top above the mouth of the pit, it is received
upon the keeps, a pair of hinged gratings which are
k e pt ; n an inclined position over the pit-top by counter-
balance weights, so that they are pushed aside to
allow the cage to pass upwards, but fall back and
receive it when the engine is reversed. The tubs are then removed
or struck by the landers, who pull them forward on to the
platform, which is covered with cast iron plates; at the same
time empty ones are pushed in from thp opposite side. The
cage is then lifted by the engine clear of the keeps, which are

striking

opened by a lever worked by hand, and the empty tubs start
on the return trip. When the cage has several decks, it is
necessary to repeat this operation for each, unless there is a
special provision made for loading and discharging the tubs at
different levels. An arrangement of this kind for shifting the
load from a large cage at one operation was introduced by Fowler
at Hucknall, in Leicestershire, where the trains are received
into a framework with a number of platforms corresponding to
those of the cage, carried on the head of a plunger movable by
hydraulic pressure in a vertical cylinder. The empty tubs are
carried by a corresponding arrangement on the opposite side.
By this means the time of stoppage is reduced to a minimum,
8 seconds' for a three-decked cage as against 28 seconds, as the
operations of lowering the tubs to the level of the pit-top,
discharging, and replacing them are performed during the time
that the following load is being drawn up the pit.

In the United Kingdom the drawing of coal is generally
confined to the day shift of eight hours, with an output of from
100 to 150 tons per hour, according to the depth, capacity
of coal tubs, and facilities for landing and changing tubs. With
Fowler's hydraulic arrangement 2000 tons are raised 600 yds.
in eight hours. In the deeper German pits, where great thick-
nesses of water-bearing strata have to be traversed, the first
establishment expenses are so great that in order to increase
output the shaft is sometimes provided with a complete double
equipment of cages and engines. In such cases the engines
may be placed in line on opposite sides of the pit, or at right
angles to each other. It is said that the output of single shafts
has been raised by this method to 3500 and 450x3 tons in the
double shift of sixteen hours. It is particularly well suited to
mines where groups of seams at different depths are worked
simultaneously. Some characteristic figures of the yield for
British collieries in 1898 are given below:
Colliery, South

Albion
Wales

Silksworth Colliery, North-
umberland

Bolsover Colliery, Derby .

Denaby Main
Yorkshire .

551,000 tons in a year for one

shaft and one engine.
535,000 tons in a year for shaft

580 yds. deep, two engines.
598,798 tons in 279 days, shaft

365 yds. deep.
Colliery, ) 629,947 tons in 281 days, maxi-
. ) mum per day 2673 tons.

At Cadeby Main colliery near Doncaster in 1906, 3360 tons
were drawn in fourteen hours from one pit 763 yds. deep.

The tub when brought to the surface, after passing over a
weigh-bridge where it is weighed and tallied by a weigher
specially appointed for the purpose by the men and the owner
jointly, is run into a " tippler," a cage turning about a horizontal
axis which discharges the load in the first half of the rotation
and brings the tub back to the original position in the second.
It is then run back to the pit-bank to be loaded into the cage at
the return journey.

Coal as raised from the pit is now generally subjected to some
final process of classification and cleaning before being despatched
to the consumer. The nature and extent of these operations
vary with the character of the coal, which if hard and free from
shale partings may be finished by simple screening into large
and nut sizes and smaller slack or duff, with a final hand-picking
to remove shale and dust from the larger sizes. But when there
is much small duff, with intermixed shale, more elaborate sizing
and washing plant becomes necessary. Where hand-picking is
done, the larger-sized coal, separated by 3-in. bar screens, is
spread out on a travelling band, which may be 300 ft. long and
from 3 to 5 wide, and carried past a line of pickers stationed
along one side, who take out and remove the waste as it passes by,
leaving the clean coal on the belt. The smaller duff is separated
by vibrating or rotating screens into a great number of sizes,
which are cleaned by washing in continuous current or pulsating
jigging machines, where the lighter coal rises to the surface and is
removed by a stream of water, while the heavier waste falls and
is discharged at a lower level, or through a valve at the bottom
of the machine. The larger or " nut " sizes, from J in. upwards,
are washed on plain sieve plates, but for finer-grained duff the
sieve is covered with a bed of broken felspar lumps about 3 in.

592

COAL

thick, forming a kind of filter, through which the fine dirt passes
to the bottom of the hutch. The cleaned coal is carried by a
stream of water to a bucket elevator and delivered to the storage
bunkers, or both water and coal may be lifted by a centrifugal
pump into a large cylindrical tank, where the water drains away,
leaving the coal sufficiently dry for use. Modern screening and
washing plants, especially when the small coal forms a consider-
able proportion of the output, are large and costly, requiring
machinery of a capacity of 100 to 150 tons per hour, which
absorbs 350 to 400 H.P. In this, as in many other cases, electric
motors supplied from a central station are now preferred to
separate steam-engines.

Anthracite coal in Pennsylvania is subjected to breaking
between toothed rollers and an elaborate system of screening,
before it is fit for sale. The largest or lump coal is that which
remains upon a riddle having the bars 4 in. apart; the second,
or steamboat coal, is above 3 in.; broken coal includes sizes
above 2^ or zj in.; egg coal, pieces above 2\ in. sq. ; large stove
coal, if in.; small stove, i to i or ij in.; chestnut coal, f to J
in.; pea coal, \ in.; and buckwheat coal, j in. The most valu-
able of these are the egg and stove sizes, which are broker to
the proper dimensions for household use, the larger lumps bung
unfit for burning in open fire-places. In South Wales a somewhat
similar treatment is now adopted in the anthracite districts.

With the increased activity of working characteristic of

modern coal mining, the depth of the mines has rapidly increased,

and at the present time the level of 4000 ft., formerly

working, assumed as the possible limit for working, has been

nearly attained. The following list gives the depths

reached in the deepest collieries in Europe in 1900, from which

it will be seen that the larger number, as well as the deepest, are

in Belgium:

Metres.

Saint Henriette, C ie des Produits, Flenu, Belgium 1150

Viviers Gilly

Marcinelle, No. n, Charleroi

Marchienne, No. 2

Agrappe, Mpns

Pendleton dip workings .

Sacrfe Madame, Charleroi

Ashton Moss dip workings

Rpnchamp, No. n pit

Viernoy, Anderlues .

Astley Pit, Dukinfield, dip workings

Saint Andr6, Poirier, Charleroi

"43
1075
1065
1060
Lancashire 1059
Belgium 1055
Lancashire 1024
France 1015
Belgium 1006
Cheshire 960
Belgium 950

Ft.

3773

3750

3527

3494

3478

3474

3360
3330
3301
3150
3"7

The greatest depth attained in the Westphalian coal is at East
Recklinghausen, where there are two shafts 841 metres (2759 ft.)
deep.

The subject of the limiting depth of working has been very
fully studied in Belgium by Professor Simon Stassart of Mons
(" Les Conditions d'exploitation a grande profondeur en Bel-
gique," Bulletin de la SocietS de Vlnduslrie minerale, 3 ser., vol.
xiv.), who finds that no special difficulty has been met with in
workings above 1 100 metres deep from increased temperature or
atmospheric pressure. The extreme temperatures in the working
faces at 1150 metres were 79 and 86 F., and the maximum in
the end of a drift, 100; and these were quite bearable on account
of the energetic ventilation maintained, and the dryness of the
air. The yield per man on the working faces was 4-5 tons, and
for the whole of the working force underground, 0-846 tons,
which is not less than that realized in shallower mines. From
the experience of such workings it is considered that 1 500 metres
would be a possible workable depth, the rock temperature being
132, and those of the intake and return galleries, 92 and 108
respectively. Under such conditions work would be practically
impossible except with very energetic ventilation and dry air.
It would be scarcely possible to circulate more than 120,000 to
130,000 cub. ft. per minute under such conditions, and the
number of working places would thus be restricted, and conse-
quently the output reduced to about 500 tons per shift of 10
hours, which could be raised by a single engine at the surface
without requiring any very different appliances from those in
Current use.

In the United Kingdom the ownership of coal, like that of

ship of
coal.

other minerals, is in the proprietor of the soil, and passes with
it, except when specially reserved in the sale. Coal
lying under the sea below low- water mark belongs to the Owner-
crown, and can only be worked upon payment of
royalties, even when it is approached from shafts sunk
upon land in private ownership. In the Forest of Dean, which is
the property of the crown as a royal forest,there are certain curious
rights held by a portion of the inhabitants known as the Free
Miners of the Forest, who are entitled to mine for coal and iron
ore, under leases, known as gales, granted by the principal agent
or gaveller representing the crown, in tracts not otherwise
occupied. This is the only instance in Great Britain of the custom
of free coal-mining under a government grant or concession, which
is the rule in almost every country on the continent of Europe.

The working of collieries in the United Kingdom is subject
to the provisions of the Coal Mines Regulation Act 1887, as
amended by several minor acts, administered by in-
spectors appointed by the Home Office, and forming a
complete disciplinary codein all matters connected with
coal-mining. An important act was passed in 1908,
limiting the hours of work below ground of miners,
detailed account of thece various acts see the article LABOUR
LEGISLATION.

Coal-mining is unfortunately a dangerous occupation, more
than a thousand 'deaths from accident being reported
annually by the inspectors of mines as occurring in the
collieries of the United Kingdom.

The number of lives lost during the year 1906 was, according to
the inspectors' returns:

From explosions ..... 54

Coal
Mine*
Regula-
tion Act.

For a

falls of ground
other underground accidents
accidents in shafts
surface accidents .

547

328

135

Total . 1129

The principal sources of danger to the collier, as distinguished
from other miners, are explosions of fire-damp and falls of roof in
getting coal; these together make up about 70% of the whole
number of deaths. It will be seen that the former class of ac-
cidents, though often attended with great loss of life at one time,
are less fatal than the latter.

AUTHORITIES. The most important new publication on British
coal is that of the royal commission on coal supplies appointed in
1901, whose final report was issued in 1905. A convenient digest
of the evidence classified according to subjects was published by the
Colliery Guardian newspaper in three quarto volumes in 1905-1907,
and the leading points bearing on the extension and resources of the
different districts were incorporated in the fifth edition (1905) of
Professor Edward Hull's Coal Fields of Great Britain, The Report
of the earlier royal commission (1870), however, still remains of great
value, and must not Ijecpnsidered to have had its conclusions entirely
superseded. In connexion with the re-survey in greater detail of the
coalfields by the Geological Survey a series of descriptive memoirs
were undertaken, those on the North Staffordshire and Leicester-
shire fields, and nine parts dealing with that of South Wales, having
appeared by the beginning of 1908.

An independent work on the coal resources of Scotland under the
title of the Coalfields of Scotland, by R. W. Dixon, was published in
1902.

The Rhenish-Westphalian coalfield was fully described in all
details, geological, technical and economic, in a work called Die
Entwickelung des niederrheinisch-westfdlischen Steinkohlen Berg-
baues in der zweiten Hdlfte des ig'" 1 Jahrhunderts (also known by the
short title of Sammelwerk) in twelve quarto volumes, issued under the
auspices of the Westphalian Coal Trade Syndicate(Berlin, 1902-1905).

The coalfields of the Austrian dominions (exclusive of Hungary)
are described in Die Mineralkohlen Osterreichs, published at Vienna
by the Central Union of Austrian mineowners. It continues the
table of former official publications in 1870 and 1878, but in much
more detail than its predecessors.

Systematic detailed descriptions of the French coalfields appear
from time to time under the title of Eludes sur les gites mineraux de
la France from the ministry of public works in Paris.

Much important information on American coals will be found in
the three volumes of Reports on the Coal Testing Plant at the St
Louis Exhibition, published by the United States Geological Survey
in 1906. A special work on the A nthracite Coal Industry of the United
States, by P. Roberts, wa*s published in 1901.

The most useful general work on coal mining is the Text Book
of Coal Mining, by H. W. Hughes, which also contains detailed

COALBROOKDALE COALING STATIONS

593

bibliographical lists for each division of the text. The 5th edition
appeared in 1904.

Current progress in mining and other matters connected with coal
can best be followed by consulting the abstracts and bibliographical
lists of memoirs on these subjects that have appeared in the technical
journals of the world contained in the Journal of the Institute of

101

Mining Engineers and that of the Iron and Steel Institute. The
latter appears at half-yearly intervals and includes notices of pub-
lications up to about two or three months before the date of its

publication. (H. B.)

COALBROOKDALE, a town and district in the Wellington
parliamentary division of Shropshire, England. The town has a
station on the Great Western railway, 160 m. N.W. from London.
The district or dale is the narrow and picturesque valley of a
stream rising near the Wrekhi and following a course of some
8 m. in a south-easterly direction to the Severn. Great ironworks
occupy it. They were founded in 1709 by Abraham Darby with
the assistance of Dutch workmen, and continued by his son and
descendants. Father and son had a great share in the discovery
and elaboration of the use of pit-coal for making iron, which
revolutionized and saved the English iron trade. The father
hardly witnessed the benefits of the enterprise, but the son was
fully rewarded. It is recorded that he watched the experimental
filling of the furnace ceaselessly for six days and nights, and that,
just as fatigue was overcoming him, he saw the molten metal
issuing, and knew that the experiment had succeeded.

The third Abraham Darby built the famous Coalbrookdale
iron bridge over the Severn, which gives name to the neighbouring
town of Ironbridge, which with a portion of Coalbrookdale is
in the parish of Madeley (q.v.). Fine wrought iron work is pro-
duced, and the school of art is well known. There are also
brick and tile works.

COAL-FISH (Gadus virens), also called green cod, black
pollack, saith and sillock, a fish of the family Gadidae. It has a
very wide range, which nearly coincides with that of the cod,
although of a somewhat more southern character, as it extends
to both east and west coasts of the North Atlantic, and is
occasionally found in the Mediterranean. It is especially common
in the north, though rarely entering the Baltic; it becomes
rare south of the English Channel. Unlike the cod and haddock,
the coal-fish is, to a great extent, a surface-swimming fish,
congregating together in large schools, and moving from place to
place in search of food; large specimens (3 to 3^ ft. long),
however, prefer deep water, down to 70 fathoms. The flesh
is not so highly valued as that of the cod and haddock. The
lower jaw projects more or less beyond the upper, the mental
barbie is small, sometimes rudimentary, the vent is below the
posterior half of the first dorsal fin, and there is a dark spot in
the axil of the pectoral fin.

COALING STATIONS. Maritime war in all ages has required
that the ships of the belligerents should have the use of sheltered
waters for repairs and for replenishment of supplies. The
operations of commerce from the earliest days demanded natural
harbours, round which, as in the conspicuous instance of Syracuse,
large populations gathered. Such points, where wealth and re-
sources of all kinds accumulated, became objects of attack, and
great efforts were expended upon their capture. As maritime
operations extended, the importance of a seaboard increased,
and the possession of good natural harbours became more and
more advantageous. At the same time, the growing size of ships
and the complexity of fitments caused by the development of the
sailing art imposed new demands upon the equipment of ports
alike for purposes of construction and for repairs; while the
differentiation between warships and the commercial marine led
to the establishment of naval bases and dockyards provided
with special resources. From the days when the great sailors
of Elizabeth carried war into distant seas, remote harbours began
to assume naval importance. Expeditionary forces required
temporary bases, such as Guantanamo Bay, in Cuba, which was
so utilized by Admiral Vernon in 1741. As outlying territories
began to be occupied, and jurisdiction to be exercised over their
ports, the harbours available for the free use of a belligerent
were gradually reduced in number, and it became occasionally
necessary to take them by force. Thus, in 1782, the capture of

Trincomalee was an object of sufficient importance to justify
special effort, and Suffren gained a much-needed refuge for his
ships, at the same time compelling his opponent to depend upon
the open roadstead of Madras, and even to send ships to Bombay.
In this case a distant harbour acquired strategic importance,
mainly because sheltered waters, in the seas where Hughes and
Suffren strove for naval supremacy, were few and far between.
A sailing man-of-war usually carried from five to six months'
provisions and water for 100 to 120 days. Other needs required
to be met, and during the wars of the French Revolution it was
usual, when possible, to allow ships engaged in blockade to return
to port every five or six weeks " to refresh." For a sailing fleet
acting on the offensive, a port from which it could easily get to sea
was a great advantage. Thus Raleigh protested against the use of
closely landlocked harbours. " Certain it is," he wrote, " that
these ships are purposely to serve His Majesty and to defend the
kingdom from danger, and not to be so penned up from casualitie
as that they should be less able or serviceable in times of need."
Nelson for this reason made great use of Maddalcna Bay, in
Sardinia, and was not greatly impressed with the strategic value
of Malta in spite of its fine natural harbour. The introduction of
steam gave rise to a new naval requirement coal which soon
became vital. Commerce under steam quickly settled down
upon fixed routes, and depots of coal were established to meet its
needs. Coaling stations thus came into existence by a natural
process, arising from the exigencies of trade, and began later to
supply the needs of navies.

For many years there was no inquiry into the war requirements
of the British fleet as regards coal, and no attempt to regularize
or to fortify the ports at which it was stored. Suc-
cessful naval war had won for Great Britain many
points of vantage throughout the world, and in some
cases the strategic value of ports had been proved by
actual experience. The extreme importance of the Cape of Good
Hope, obscured for a time after the opening of the Suez Canal,
was fully realized in sailing days, and the naval conditions of
those days to some extent determined the choice of islands and
harbours for occupation. There does not, however, appear to
have been any careful study of relative strategic values. Treaties
were occasionally drafted by persons whose geographical know-
ledge was at fault, and positions were, in some cases, abandoned
which ought to have been retained, or tenaciously held when
they might have been abandoned. It was left to the personal
exertions of Sir Stamford Raffles to secure such a supremely
important roadstead as that of Singapore for the empire. Al-
though, therefore, the relative values of positions was not always
recognized, Great Britain obtained as a legacy from sailing days
a large number of harbours admirably adapted for use as coaling
stations. Since the dawn of the era of steam, she has acquired
Aden, Perim, Hong-Kong, North Borneo, Fiji, part of New
Guinea, Fanning Island, and many other islands in the Pacific,
while the striking development of Australia and New Zealand has
added to the long roll of British ports. The coaling stations,
actual and potential, of the empire are unrivalled in number, in
convenience of geographical distribution, and in resources. Of
the numerous British ports abroad which contained coal stores,
only the four so-called " fortresses " Gibraltar, Malta, Halifax
and Bermuda were at first fortified as naval stations after the
introduction of rifled ordnance. The term fortress is a misnomer
in every case except Gibraltar, which, being a peninsula separated
only by a neck of neutral ground from the territory of a foreign
power, exists under fortress conditions. Large sums were ex-
pended on these places with little regard to principles, and the
defences of Bermuda, which were very slowly constructed, are
monuments of misapplied ingenuity.

In 1878 great alarm arose from strained relations with Russia.
Rumours of the presence of Russian cruisers in many waters, and
of hostile projects, were readily believed, although
the Russian navy, which had just shown itself unable ^J^'
to face that of Turkey, would at this period have M/00i
been practically powerless. Widespread fears for the
security of coaling stations led to the appointment of a strong

594

COALITION

royal commission, under the presidency of the earl of Carnarvon,
which was instructed to inquire into and report upon the pro-
tection of British commerce at sea. This was the first attempt
to formulate any principles, or to determine which of the many
ports where coal was stored should be treated as coaling stations
essential for the purposes of war. The terms of the reference to
the commission were ill-conceived. The basis of all defence of
sea-borne commerce is a mobile navy. It is the movement of
commerce upon the sea during war, not its security in port,
that is essential to the British empire, and a navy able to protect
commerce at sea must evidently protect ports andcoalingstations.
The first object of inquiry should, therefore, have been to lay
down the necessary standard of naval force. The vital question
of the navy was not referred to the royal commission, and the four
fortresses were also strangely excluded from its purview. It
followed inevitably that the protection of commerce was ap-
proached at the wrong end, and that the labours of the com-
mission were to a great extent vitiated by the elimination of the
principal factor. Voluminous and important evidence, which has
not been made public, was, however, accumulated, and the final
report was completed in 1 88 1 . The commissioners recalled atten-
tion to the extreme importance of the Cape route to the East;
they carefully examined the main maritime communications of
the empire, and the distribution of trade upon each; they selected
certain harbours for defence, and they obtained from the War
Office and endorsed projects of fortification in every case; lastly,
they condemned the great dispersion of troops in the West Indies,
which had arisen in days when it was a political object to keep
the standing army out of sight of the British people, and had
since been maintained by pure inadvertence. Although the
principal outcome of the careful inquiries of the commission
was to initiate a great system of passive defence, the able
reports were a distinct gain. Some principles were at last
formulated by authority, and the information collected, if it had
been rendered accessible to the public, would have exercised
a beneficial influence upon opinion. Moreover, the commis-
sioners, overstepping the bounds of their charter, delivered a
wise and statesmanlike warning as to the position of the navy.

Meanwhile, the impulse of the fears of 1878 caused indifferent
armaments to be sent to Cape Town, Singapore and Hong-Kong,
there to be mounted after much delay in roughly designed
works. At the same time, the great colonies of Australasia began
to set about the defence of their ports with commendable earnest-
ness. There is no machinery for giving effect to the recommenda-
tions of a royal commission, and until 1887, when extracts
were laid before the first colonial Conference, the valuable report
was veiled in secrecy. After several years, during which Lord
Carnarvon persistently endeavoured to direct attention to the
coaling stations, the work was begun. In 1885 a fresh panic
arose out of the Panjdeh difficulty, which supplied an impetus
to the belated proceedings. Little had then been accomplished
and the works were scarcely completed before the introduction of
long breech-loading guns rendered their armaments obsolete.

The fortification of the coaling stations for the British empire
is still proceeding on a scale which, in some cases, cannot easily
be reconciled with the principles laid down by the president
of the cabinet committee of defence. At the Guildhall, London,
on the 3rd of December 1896, the duke of Devonshire stated that
" The maintenance of sea supremacy has been assumed as the
basis of the system of imperial defence against attack from over
the sea. This is the determining factor in fixing the whole defen-
sive policy of the empire. " It was, however, he added, necessary
to provide against " the predatory raids of cruisers "; but " it
is in the highest degree improbable that this raiding attack would
be made by more than a few ships, nor could it be of any per-
manent effect unless troops were landed. " This is an unexcep-
tionable statement of the requirements of passive defence in the
case of the coaling stations of the British empire. Their protec-
tion must depend primarily on the navy. Their immobile
armaments are needed to ward off a raiding attack, and a few
effective guns, well mounted, manned by well-trained men, and
kept in full readiness, will amply suffice.

If the command of the sea is lost, large expeditionary forces can
be brought to bear upon coaling stations, and their security will
thus depend upon their mobile garrisons, not upon their passive
defences. In any case, where coal is stored on shore, it cannot
be destroyed by the fire of a ship, and it can only be appropriated
by landing men. A small force, well armed and well handled, can
effectually prevent a raid of this nature without any assistance
from heavy guns. In war, the possession of secure coal stores in
distant ports may be a great advantage, but it will rarely suffice
for the needs of a fleet engaged in offensive operations, and
requiring to be accompanied or met at prearranged rendezvous
by colliers from which coal can be transferred in any sheltered
waters. In the British naval manoeuvres of 1892,
Admiral Sir Michael Seymour succeeded in coaling his
squadron at sea, and by the aid of mechanical appli- tioas.
ances this is frequently possible. In the Spanish-
American War of 1898 some coaling was thus accomplished;
but Guantanamo Bay served the purpose of a coaling station
during the operations against Santiago. Watering at sea was
usually carried out by means of casks in sailing days, and must
have been almost as difficult as coaling. As, however, it is
certainty of coaling in a given time that is of primary importance,
the utilization of sheltered waters as improvised coaling stations
is sure to be a marked feature of future naval wars. Although
coaling stations are now eagerly sought for by all powers which
cherish naval ambitions, the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands
by the United States being a case in point, it is probable that they
will play a somewhat less important part than has been assumed.
A fleet which is able to assert and to maintain the command of
the sea, will not find great difficulty in its coal supply. More-
over, the increased coal endurance of ships of war tends to make
their necessary replenishment less frequent. On the other hand,
the modern warship, being entirely dependent upon a mass of
complex machinery, requires the assistance of workshops to
maintain her continuous efficiency, and unless docked at intervals
suffers a material reduction of speed. Prolonged operations in
waters far distant from home bases will therefore be greatly
facilitated in the case of the Power which possesses local docks
and means of executing repairs. Injuries received in action,
which might otherwise disable a ship during a campaign, may
thus be remedied. During the hostilities between

France and China in 1884, the French ship " La

Secondary
bases.

Galissonniere " was struck by a shell from one of the

Min forts, which, though failing to burst, inflicted serious damage.
As, by a technical fiction, a state of war was not considered to exist,
the " La Galissonniere " was repaired at Hong-Kong and enabled
again to take the sea. Local stores of reserve ammunition and of
spare armaments confer evident advantages. Thus, independ-
ently of the question of coal supply, modern fleets employed
at great distances from their bases require the assistance of ports
furnished with special resources, and a power like Japan with
well-equipped naval bases in the China Sea, and possessing large
sources of coal, occupies, for that reason, a favoured position in
regard to naval operations in the Far East. As the term " coaling
station " refers only to a naval need which can often be satisfied
without a visit to any port, it appears less suitable to modern
conditions than " secondary base." Secondary bases, or coaling
stations, when associated with a powerful mobile navy, are sources
of maritime strength in proportion to the services they can render,
and to their convenience of geographical position. In the hands
of an inferior naval power, they may be used, as was Mauritius
in 1809-1810, as points from which to carry on operations
against commerce; but unless situated near to trade routes,
which must be followed in war, they are probably less useful for
this purpose than in sailing days, since convoys can now be more
effectively protected, and steamers have considerable latitude of
courses. Isolated ports dependent on sea-borne resources, and
without strong bodies of organized fighting men at their backs
are now, as always, hostages offered to the power which obtains
command of the sea. (G. S. C.)

COALITION (Lat. cualilio, the verbal substantive of coalescere,
to grow together), a combination of bodies or parts into one

COAL-TAR

595

body or whole. The word is used, especially in a political sense,
of an alliance or terrporary union for joint action of various
powers or states, such as the coalition of the European powers
against France, during the wars of the French Revolution; and
also of the union in a single government of distinct parties or
members of distinct parties. Of the various coalition ministries
in English history, those of Fox and North in 1782, of the Whigs
and the Peelites, under Lord Aberdeen in 1852-1853, and of the
Liberal Unionists and Conservatives in Lord Salisbury's third
ministry in 1895, may be instanced.

COAL-TAR, the black, viscous, sometimes semi-solid, fluid of
peculiar smell, which is condensed together with aqueous " gas
liquor " when the volatile products of the destructive distillation
of coal are cooled down. It is also called " gas-tar," because
it was formerly exclusively, and even now is mostly, obtained
as a by-product in the manufacture of coal-gas, but the tar
obtained from the modern coke-ovens, although not entirely
identical with gas-tar, resembles it to such an extent that it is
worked up with the latter, without making any distinction in
practice between the two kinds. Some descriptions of gas-tar
indeed differ very much more than coke-oven tar from pure
coal-tar, viz. those which are formed when bituminous shale or
other materials, considerably deviating in their nature from coal,
are mixed with the latter for the purpose of obtaining gas of
higher illuminating power.

It may be generally said that for the purpose of tar-distillers
the tar is all the more valuable the less other materials than real
coal have been used by the gas-maker. All these materials
bog-head shale, bituminous lignite and so forth by destructive
distillation yield more or less paraffinoid oils, which render the
purification of the benzols very difficult and sometimes nearly
impossible for the purposes of the manufacturer of coal-tar
colours.

Neither too high nor too low a temperature should have been
observed in gas-making in order to obtain a good quality of tar.
Since in recent times most gas retorts have been provided with
heating arrangements based on the production of gaseous fuel
from coke, which produce higher temperatures than direct firing
and have proved a great economy in the process of gas-making
itself, the tar has become of decidedly inferior quality for the
purposes of the tar-distillers, and in particular yields much less
benzol than formerly.

Entirely different from gas-tar is the tar obtained as a by-
product from those (Scottish) blast furnaces which are worked
with splint-coal. This tar contains very little aromatic hydro-
carbons, and the phenols are of quite a different character from
those obtained in the working of gas-tar. The same holds good
of oil-gas tars and similar substances. These should not be
worked up like gas-tars.

The ordinary yield of tar in the manufacture of coal-gas is
between 4 and 5% of the weight of the coal. Rather more is
obtained when passing the gas through the apparatus of E.
Pelouze and P. Audouin, where it is exposed to several shocks
against solid surfaces, or by carrying on the process at the lowest
possible temperature, as proposed by H. J. Davis, but this
" carbonizing process " can only pay under special circumstances,
and is probably no longer in practical use.

All coal-tars have a specific gravity above that of water, in
most cases between 1-12 and 1-20, but exceptionally up to 1-25.
The heavier tars contain less benzol than the lighter tars, and
more " fixed carbon," which remains behind when the tars are
exhausted of benzol and is a decidedly objectionable constituent.
All tars also mechanically retain a certain quantity of water (or
rather gas-liquor), say, 4% on the average, which is very
obnoxious during the process of distillation, as it leads to " bump-
ing," and therefore ought to be previously removed by prolonged
settling, preferably at a slightly elevated temperature, which
makes the tar more fluid. The water then rises to the top, and
is removed in the ordinary way or by special " separators."

The tar itself is a mixture of exceedingly complex character.
The great bulk of its constituents belongs to the class of " aro-
matic " hydrocarbons, of very different composition and degrees

of volatility, beginning with the simplest and most volatile,
benzene (C 6 H e ), and ending with an entirely indistinguishable
mass of non-volatile bodies, which compose the pitch left behind
in the tar-stills. The hydrocarbons mostly belong to the benzene
series C B Hjn-6, the naphthalene series C.Hjn-.iz, and the an-
thracene and phenanthrene series C B H jB _ij. Small quantities of
" fatty " (" aliphatic ") hydrocarbons are never absent, even
in pure tars, and are found in considerable quantities when
shales and similar matters have been mixed with the coal in the
gas-retorts. They belong mostly to the paraffins C.H^+j, and
the defines CnHj,,. The " asphalt " or soluble part of the pitch
is also a mixture of hydrocarbons, of the formula CnHa,; even
the " carbon," left behind after treating the pitch with all
possible solvents is never pure carbon, but contains a certain
quantity of hydrogen, although less than any of the volatile and
soluble constituents of the tar.

Besides the hydrocarbons, coal-tar contains about 2 % of the
simpler phenols C B H2n-7OH, the best known and most valuable
of which is the first of the series, carbolic acid (q.v.) CjHjOH,
besides another interesting oxygenized substance, cumarone
CgHeO. The phenols, especially the carbolic acid, are among
the more valuable constituents of coal-tar. Numerous sulphur
compounds also occur in coal-tar, some of which impart to it
their peculiar nauseous smell, but they are of no technical
importance or value.

Still more numerous are the nitrogenatcd compounds contained
in coal-tar. Most of these are of a basic character, and belong
to the pyridine and the quinoline series. Among these we find
a somewhat considerable quantity of aniline, which, however,
is never obtained from the tar for commercial purposes, as its
isolation in the pure state is too difficult. The pyridines are
now mostly recovered from coal-tar, but only in the shape of a
mixture of all members of the series which is principally employed
for denaturing alcohol. Some of these nitrogenated compounds
possess considerable antiseptic properties, but on the whole
they are only considered as a contamination of the tar-oils.

Applications of Coal-Tar in the Crude Slate. Large quantities
of coal-tar are employed for various purposes without submitting
it to the process of distillation. It is mostly advisable to de-
hydrate the tar as much as possible for any one of its applications,
and in some cases it is previously boiled in order to remove its
more volatile constituents.

No preparation whatever is needed if the tar is to be used as
fuel, either for heating the gas-retorts or for other purposes.
Its heating-value is equal to the same weight of best coal, but
it is very difficult to burn it completely without producing a
great deal of evil-smelling smoke. This drawback has been
overcome by employing the same means as have been found
suitable for the combustion of the heavy petroleum residues,
called " masut," viz. converting the tar into a fine spray by means
of steam or compressed air. When the gas-maker cannot con-
veniently or profitably dispose of his tar for other purposes, he
burns it by the above means under his retorts.

Several processes have also been patented for producing
illuminating gas from tar, the most notable of which is the
Dinsmore process. This process has been adversely criticized
by very competent gas-makers, and no great success can be
expected in this line.

Coal-tar is very much employed for painting wood, iron, brick-
work, or stone, as a preventive against the influence of weather
or the far more potent action of corrosive chemicals. This, of
course, can be done only where appearance is no object, for
instance in chemical works, where all kinds of erections and
apparatus are protected by this cheap kind of paint. Coal-tar
should not be used for tarring the woodwork and ropes of ships,
a purpose for which only wood-tar has been found suitable.

One of the most considerable outlets for crude tar is in
the manufacture of roofing-felt. This industry was introduced
in Germany upwards of a hundred years ago, even before coal-tar
was available, and has reached a very large extension both in
that country and in the United States, where most of the gas-tar
seems to be devoted to this purpose. In the United Kingdom

COAL-TAR

it is much less extensive. For this manufacture a special fabric
is made from pure woollen fibre, on rolls of about 3 ft. width
and of considerable length. The tar must be previously dehy-
drated, and is preferably deprived of its more volatile portions
by heating in a still. It is heated in an iron pan to about 90
or 100 C.; the fabric is drawn through it by means of rollers
which at the same time squeeze out the excess of tar; on coming
out of these, the tarred felt is covered with a layer of sand on
both sides by means of a self-acting apparatus; and is ultimately
wound round wooden rolls, in which state it is sent out into the
trade. This roofing-felt is used as a cheap covering, both by itself
and as a grounding for tiles or slates. In the former case it must
be kept in repair by repainting with tar from time to time, a top
covering of sand or small gravel being put on after every coat of
paint.

Coal-tar is also employed for the manufacture of lamp-black.
This is done by burning the tar in ovens, connected with brick-
chambers in which the large quantity of soot, formed in this
process, deposits before the gases escape through the chimney.
Numerous patents have been taken out for more efficiently
collecting this soot. Most of it is employed without further
manipulation for the manufacture of electric carbons, printing
inks, shoe-blacking, patent leather and so forth. A finer quality
of lamp-black, free from oily and empyreumatic parts, is obtained
by calcining the soot in closed iron pots at a red heat.

Distillation of Coal-Tar. Much more important than all appli-
cations of crude coal-tar is the industry of separating its con-
stituents from it in a more or less pure form by fractional dis-
tillation, mostly followed by purifying processes. Most naturally
this industry took its rise in Great Britain, where coal-gas was
invented and made on a large scale before any other nation took
it up, and up to this day both the manufacture of coal-gas and
the distillation of the tar, obtained as a by-product thereof,
are carried out on a march larger scale in that than in any other
country. The first attempts in this line were made in 1815 by
F. C. Accum, and in 1822 by Dr G. D. Longstaff and Dr Dalston.
At first the aim was simply to obtain "naphtha," used in the
manufacture of india-rubber goods, for burning in open lamps
and for some descriptions of varnish; the great bulk of the tar
remained behind and was used as fuel or burned for the purpose
of obtaining lamp-black.

It is not quite certain who first discovered in the coal-naphtha
the presence of benzene (<?..), which had been isolated from
oil-gas by M. Faraday as far back as 1825. John Leigh claims
to have shown coal-tar benzene and nitro-benzene made from it
at the British Association meeting held at Manchester in 1842,
but the report of the meeting says nothing about it, and the
world in general learned the presence of benzene in coal-tar only
from the independent discovery of A. W. Hofmann, published
in 1845. And it was most assuredly in Hofmann's London
laboratory that Charles Mansfield worked out that method of
fractional distillation of the coal-tar and of isolating the single
hydrocarbons which laid the foundation of that industry. His
patent, numbered 11,960 and dated November nth, 1847, is
the classical land-mark of it. About the same time, in 1846,
Bronner, at Frankfort, brought his " grease-remover " into the
trade, which consisted of the most volatile coal-tar oils, of course
not separated into the pure hydrocarbons; he also sold water-
white " creosote " and heavy tar-oils for pickling railway
timbers, and used the remainder of the tar for the manufacture
of roofing-felt. The employment of heavy oils for pickling
timber had already been patented in 1838 by John Bethell, and
from this time onward the distillation of coal-tar seems to have
been developed in Great Britain on a larger scale, but the utiliza-
tion of the light oils in the present manner naturally took place
only after Sir W. H. Perkin, in 1856, discovered the first aniline
colour which suddenly created a demand for benzene and its
homologues. The isolation of carbolic acid from the heavier
oils followed soon after; that of naphthalene, which takes place
almost automatically, went on simultaneously, although the
uses of this hydrocarbon for a long time remained much behind
the quantities which are producible from coal-tar, until the

manufacture of synthetic indigo opened out a wide field for it.
The last of the great discoveries in that line was the preparation
of alizarine from anthracene by C. Graebe and C. T. Liebermann,
in 1868, soon followed by patents for its practical manufacture
by Sir W. H. Perkin in England, and by Graebe, Liebermann
and H. Caro in Germany.

The present extension of the industry of coal-tar distilling
can be only very roughly estimated from the quantity of coal-tar
produced in various countries. Decidedly at the head is Great
Britain, where about 700,000 tons are produced per annum,
most of which probably finds its way into the tar-distilleries,
whilst in Germany and the United States much less gas-tar is
produced and a very large proportion of it is used for roofing-felt
and other purposes.

We shall now give an outline of the processes used in the
distillation of tar.

Dehydration. The first operation in coal-tar distilling is the
removal of the mechanically enclosed water. Some water is chemi-
cally combined with the bases, phenols, &c., and this, of course,
cannot be removed by mechanical means, but splits off only during
the distillation itself, when a certain temperature has been reached.
The water mechanically present in the tar is separated by long
repose in large reservoirs. Very thick viscous tars are best mixed
with thinner tars, and the whole is gently heated by coils of pipes
through which the heated water from the oil-condensers is made to
flow. Sometimes special " tar-separators " are employed, working
on the centrifugal principle. The water rises to the top and is worked
up like ordinary gas-liquor. More water is again separated during
the heating-up of the tar in the still itself, and can be removed there
by a special overflow.

Tar-Stills. The tar is now pumped into the tar-still, fig. I. This
is usually, as shown, an upright wrought-iron cylinder, with an
arched top, and with a bottom equally vaulted upwards for the
purpose of increasing the heating surface and of raising the level
of the pitch remaining at the end of the operation above the fire-
flues. The fuel is consumed on the fire-grate a, and, after having

FIG. i. Tar-Still (sectional elevation). 1

traversed the holes 66 in the annular wall e built below the still, the
furnace gases are led around the still by means of the flue d, whence
they pass to the chimney. Cast-iron necks are provided in the top
for the outlet of the vapours, for a man-hole, supply-pipe, ther-
mometer-pipe, safety valve, and for air and steam-pipes reaching
down to the bottom and branching out into a number of distributing

1 The illustrations in this article are from Prof. G. Lunge's Coal
Tar and Ammonia, by permission of Friedrich Vieweg u. Sohn.

COAL-TAR

597

arms. Near the top there is an overflow pipe which comes into
action on filling the still. In the lowest part of the bottom there is
a running-off valve or tap. In some cases (but only exceptionaljy)
a perpendicular shaft is provided, with horizontal arms, and chains
hanging down from these drag along the bottom for the purpose of
keeping it clean and of facilitating the escape of the vapours. This
arrangement is quite unnecessary where the removal of the vapours
is promoted by the injection of steam, but this steam must be care-
fully dried beforehand, or, better, slightly superheated, in order to
prevent explosions, which might be caused by the entry of liquid water
into the tar during the later stages of the work, when the tempera-
ture has arisen far above the boiling-point of water. The steam acts
both by stirring up the tar and by rapidly carrying; off
the vapours formed in distillation. The latter object
is even more thoroughly attained by the application
of a vacuum, especially during the later stage of dis-
tillation. For this purpose the receivers, in which the
liquids condensed in the cooler are collected, are con-
nected with an air pump or an ejector, by which a
vacuum of about 4 in., say J atmosphere, is made
which lowers the boiling process by about 80 C. ; this
not merely hastens the process, but also produces an
improvement of the quality and yield of the products,
especially of the anthracene, and, moreover, lessens
or altogether prevents the formation of coke on the
still-bottom, which is otherwise very troublesome.

Most manufacturers emply ordinary stills as
described. A few of them have introduced continu-
ously acting stills, of which that constructed by
Frederic Lennard has probably found a wider appli-
cation than any of the others. They all work on the
principle of gradually heating the tar in several com-
partments, following one after the other. The fresh
tar is run in at one end and the pitch is run out from
the other. The vapours formed in the various
compartments are separately carried away and con-
densed, yielding at one and the same time those
products which are obtained in the ordinary stills at
the different periods of the distillation. Although in
theory this continuous process has great advantages
over the ordinary style of working, the complica-
tion of the apparatus and practical difficulties arising
in the manipulation have deterred most manufac-
turers from introducing it.

The tar-stills are set in brickwork in such a manner
that there is no over-heating of their contents. For this purpose the
fire-grate is placed at a good distance from the bottom or even covered
by a brick arch so that the flame does not touch the still-bottom at all
and acts only indirectly, but the sides of the still are always directly
heated. The fire-flue must not be carried up to a greater height
than is necessary to provide against the overheating of any part
of the still not protected inside by liquid tar, or, at the end of the
operation, by liquid pitch. The outlet pipe is equally protected
against overheating and also against any stoppage by pitch solidi-
fying therein. The capacity of tar-stills ranges from 5 to 50 tons.
They hold usually about 10 tons, in which case they can be worked
off during one day.

The vapours coming from the still are condensed in coolers of
various shapes, one of which is shown in figs. 2 and 3. The cooling-
pipes are best made of cast-iron, say 4 in. wide inside and laid so
as to have a continuous fall towards the bottom. A steam-pipe (6)
is provided for heating the cooling water, which is necessary during
the later part of the operation to prevent the stopping up of
the pipes by the solidification of the distillates. A cock (a) allows

and a second fraction as " light oil," up to 210 C., but more usually
these two are not separated in the first distillation, and the first or
" light oil " fraction then embraces everything which comes over
until the drops no longer float on, but show the same specific gravity
as water. The specific gravity of this fraction varies from 0-9 1 to
0-94. The next fraction is the " middle oil " or " carbolic oil," of
specific gravity l-oi, boiling up to 240 C.; it contains most of the
carbolic acid and naphthalene. The next fraction is the " heavy oil "
or " creosote oil," of specific gravity 1-04. Where the nature of the
coals distilled for gas is such that the tar contains too little anthra-
cene to be economically recovered, the creosote-oil fraction is carried
right to the end ; but otherwise, that is in most cases, a last fraction

FIG. 2. Condensing Worm (Plan), scale ^j.

steam to be injected into the condensing worm in order to clear any
obstruction.

The cooling-pipe is at its lower end connected with receivers for
the various distillates in such a manner that by the turning of a cock
the flow of the distillates into the receivers can be changed at will.
In a suitable place provision is made for watching the colour, the
specific gravity, and the general appearance of the distillates. At
the end of the train of apparatus, and behind the vacuum pump
or ejector, when one is provided, there is sometimes a purifier for
the gases which remain after condensation; or these gases are
carried back into the fire, in which case a water-trap must be inter-
posed to prevent explosions.

Distillation of the Tar. The number of fractions taken during the
distillation varies from four to six. Sometimes a first fraction is
taken as " first runnings," up to a temperature of 105 C. in the still,

FIG. 3. Condensing Worm (side elevation).

is made at about the temperature 270 C., above which the
" anthracene oil " or " green oil " is obtained up to the finish of the
distillation.

During the light-oil period the firing must be performed very
cautiously, especially where the water has not been well removed,
to prevent bumping and boiling over. It has been observed that,
apart from the water, those tars incline most to boiling over which
contain an unusual quantity of " fixed carbon." During this period
cold water must be kept running through the cooler. The distillate
at once separates into water (gas-liquor) and light oil, floating at
the top. Towards the end of this fraction the distillation seems to
cease, in spite of increasing the fires, and a rattling noise is heard
in the still. This is caused by the combined water splitting off from
the bases and phenols and causing slight explosions in the tar.

As soon as the specific gravity approaches i-o, the supply of cold
water to the cooler is at least partly cut off, so that the temperature
of the water rises up to 40 C. This is necessary because otherwise
some naphthalene would crystallize out and pjug up the pipes. If
a little steam is injected into the still during this period no stoppage
of the pipes need be feared in any case, but this must
be done cautiously.

When the carbolic oil has passed over and the
temperature in the still has risen to about 240 C.,
the distillate can be run freely by always keeping
the temperature in the cooler at least up to 40* C.
The " creosote oil " which now comes over often
separates a good deal of solid naphthalene on
cooling.

The last fraction is made, either whrn the ther-
mometer indicates 270 C., or when " green grease "
appears in the distillate, or simply by judging from the quantity of
the distillate. What comes over now is the " anthracene oil." The
firing may cease towards the end as the steam (with the vacuum)
will finish the work by itself. The water in the cooler should now
approach the boiling-point.

The point of finishing the distillation is different in various places
and for various objects. It depends upon the fact whether soft or
hard pitch is wanted. The latter must be made where it has to be
sold at a distance, as soft pitch cannot be easily carried during the
warmer season in railway trucks and not at all in ships, where it would
run into a single lump. Hard pitch is also always made where as
much anthracene as possible is to be obtained. For hard pitch the
distillation is carried on as far as practicable without causing the
residue in the still to " coke." The end cannot be judged by the
thermometer, but by the appearance and quantity of the distillate

598

COAL-TAR

and its specific gravity. If carried too far, not merely is coke formed,
but the pitch is porous and almost useless, and the anthracene oil
is contaminated with high-boiling hydrocarbons which may render
it almost worthless as well. Hard pitch proper should soften at
100 C., or little above.

Where the distillation is to stop at soft pitch it is, of course, not
carried up to the same point, but wherever the pitch can be disposed
of during the colder season or without a long carriage, even the hard
pitch is preferably softened within the still by pumping back a
sufficient quantity of heavy oil, previously deprived of anthracene.
This makes it much easier to discharge the still. When the contents
consist of soft pitch they are run off without much trouble, but hard
pitch not merely emits extremely pungent vapours, but is mostly
at so high a temperature that it takes fire in the air. Hard pitch
must, therefore, always be run into an iron or brick cooler where it
cools down out of contact with air, until it can be drawn out into
the open pots where its solidification is completed.

Most of the pitch is used for the manufacture of " briquettes "
(" patent fuel "), for which purpose it should soften between 55
and 80 C. according to the requirements of the buyer. In Germany
upwards of 50,000 tons are used annually in that industry; much
of it is imported from the United Kingdom, whence also France and
Belgium are provided. Apart from the softening point the pitch
is all the more valued the more constituents it contains which are
soluble in xylene. The portion insoluble in this is denoted as " fixed
carbon." If the briquette manufacturer has bought the pitch in the
hard state he must himself bring it down to the proper softening
point by re-melting it with heavy coal-tar oils.

We now come to the treatment of the various fractions obtained
from the tar-stills. These operations are frequently not carried
out at the smaller tar-works, which sell their oils in the crude state
to the larger tar-distillers.

Working up of the Light-Oil Fraction. The greatest portion of
the light-oil fraction consists of aromatic hydrocarbons, about one-
fifth being naphthalene, four-fifths benzene and its homologues,
in the proportion of about 100 benzene, 30 toluene, 15 xylenes, 10
trimethylbenzenes, I tetramethylbenzene. Besides these the light-
oil contains 5-15% phenols, 1-3% bases, o-i sulphuretted com-
pounds, 0-2-0-3% nitriles, &c. It is usually first submitted to a
preliminary distillation in directly fired stills, similar to the tar-
stills, but with a dephlegmating head. Here we obtain (i) first
runnings (up to 0.89 spec, grav.), (2) heavy benzols (up 100.95), (3)
carbolic oil (uptol-oo). The residue remaining in the still (chiefly
naphthalene) goes to the middle-oil fraction.

The " first runnings " are now" washed " in various ways, of which
we shall describe one of the best. The oil is mixed with dilute
caustic soda solution, and the solution of phenols thus obtained
is worked up with that obtained from the next fractions. After this
follows a treatment with dilute sulphuric acid (spec. grav. 1-3), to
extract the pyridine bases, and lastly with concentrated sulphuric
acid (1-84), which removes some of the aliphatic hydrocarbons
and " unsaturated " compounds. After this the crude benzol is
thoroughly washed with water and dilute caustic soda solution, until
its reaction is neutral. The mixing of the basic, acid and aqueous
washing-liquids with the oils is performed by compressed air, or
more suitably by mechanical stirrers, arranged on a perpendicular,
or better, a horizontal shaft. Precisely the same treatment takes
place with the next fraction, the " heavy benzols," and the oils left
behind after the washing operations now go to the steam-stills.
The heaviest hydrocarbons are sometimes twice subjected to the
operation of washing.

The washed crude benzols are now further fractionated by dis-
tillation with steam. The steam-stills are in nearly all details on
the principle of the " column apparatus " employed in the distillation
of alcoholic liquids, as represented in fig. 4. They are usually made
of cast iron. The still itself is either an upright or a horizontal
cylinder, heated by a steam-coil, of a capacity of from 1000 to 2000
gallons. The superposed columns contain from 20 to 50 compart-
ments of a width of 2\ or 3 ft. The vapours pass into a cooler, and
from this the distillate runs through an apparatus, where the liquor
can be seen and tested, into the receivers. The latter are so arranged
that the water passing over at the same time is automatically re-
moved. This is especially necessary, because the last fraction is
distilled by means of pure steam.

The fractions made in the steam distillation vary at different
works. In some places the pure hydrocarbons are net extracted
and here only the articles called: " 90 per cent, benzol," " 50 per
cent, benzol," " solvent naphtha," " burning naphtha " are made,
or any other commercial articles as they are ordered. The expression
" per cent." in this case does not signify the percentage of real
benzene, but that portion which distils over up to the temperature
of 100 C., when a certain quantity of the article is heated in glass
retorts of a definite shape, with the thermometer inserted in the
liquid itself. By the application of well-constructed rectifying-
columns and with proper care it is, however, possible to obtain in
this operation nearly pure benzene, toluene, xylene, and cumene
(in the two last cases a mixture of the various isomeric hydrocarbons).
These hydrocarbons contain only a slight proportion of thiophene
and its isomers, which can be removed only by a treatment with
fuming sulphuric acid, but this is only exceptionally done.

Sometimes the pyridine bases are recovered from the tarry acid
which is obtained in the treatment of the light oil with sulphuric
acid, and which contains from 10 to 30% of bases, chiefly pyridine
and its homologues with a little aniline, together with resinous
substances. _The latter are best removed by a partial precipitation
with ammonia, either in the shape of gas or of concentrated ammpni-
acal liquor. This reagent is added until the acid reaction has just
disappeared and a faint smell of pyridine is perceived. The mixture
is allowed to settle, and it then separates into two layers. The upper
layer, containing the impurities, is run off; the lower layer, contain-
ing the sulphates of ammonia and of the pyridine bases, is treated
with ammonia in excess, where it separates into a lower aqueous
layer of ammonium sulphate solution and an oil, consisting of crude
pyridine. This is purified by fractionation in iron stills and dis-
tillation over caustic
soda. Most of it is
used for denaturing
spirit of wine in
Germany, for which
purpose it is re-
quired to contain
90 % of bases boiling
up to 140 C. (see
ALCOHOL).

Working up of the
Middle-Ou Fraction
(Carbolic Oil Frac-
tion). Owing to its
great percentage of
naphthalene (about
40 %) this fraction
is solid or semi-solid
at ordinary tempera-
tures. Its specific
gravity is about I -2 ;
its colour may vary
from light yellow to
dark brown or black.
In the latter case it
must be re-distilled
before further treat-
ment. On cooling
down, about four-
fifths of the naph-
thalene crystallizes
out on standing
from three to ten
days. The crystals
are freed from the
mother oils by drain-
ing and cold or hot
pressing; they are
then washed at 100
C. with concentrated
sulphuric acid, after-
wards with water
and re-distilled or
sublimed. About
10,000 tons of naph-
thalene are used an-
nually in Germany,
mostly for the manu-
facture of many azo-
colours and of syn-
thetic indigo.

The oils drained
from the crude naph-

FIG. 4, Benzol Still (elevation), scale

thalene are re-distilled and worked for carbolic acid and its isomers.
For this purpose the oil is washed with a solution of caustic soda,
of specific gravity l-l; the solution thus obtained is treated with
sulphuric acid or with carbon dioxide, and the crude phenols now
separated are fractionated in a similar manner as is done in the case
of crude benzol. The pure phenol crystallizes out and is again
distilled in iron stills with a silver head and cooling worm; the
remaining oils, consisting mainly of cresols, are sold as " liquid
carbolic acid " or under other names.

Most of the oil which passes as the " creosote-oil fraction " is sold
in the crude state for the purpose of pickling timber. It is at the
ordinary temperature a semi-solid mixture of about 20 % crystallized
hydrocarbons (chiefly naphthalene), and 80% of a dark brown,
nauseous smelling oil, of 1-04 spec, grav., and boiling between
200 and 300 C. The liquid portion contains phenols, bases, and a
great number of hydrocarbons. Sometimes it is redistilled, when
most of the naphthalene passes over in the first fraction, between
180 and 230 C., and crystallizes out in a nearly pure state. The
oily portion remaining behind, about 60% of this distillate, contains
about 50% phenols and 3% bases. It has highly disinfectant
properties and is frequently converted into special disinfectants,
e.g. by mixing it with four times its volume of slaked lime, which
yields " disinfectant powder " for stables, railway cars, &c. Mixtures

COALVILLE COAST DEFENCE

599

of potash soaps (soft soaps) with this oil have the property of yielding
with water emulsions which do not settle for a long time and are
found in the trade as " creolin," " sapocarbol," " lysol," &c.

That description of creosote oil which is sold for the purpose of
pickling railway sleepers, telegraph posts, timber for the erection
of wharves and so forth, must satisfy special requirements which are
laid down in the specifications for tenders to public bodies. These
vary to a considerable extent. They always stipulate (i) a certain
specific gravity (e.g. not below 1-035 . an< i not above 1-065); ( 2 )
certain limits of boiling points (e.g. to yield at most 3% up to 150,
at most 30% between 150 and 255, and at least 85% between
150 and 355) ; (3) a certain percentage of phenols, as shown by
extraction with caustic soda solution, say 8 to 10%.

Much of this creosote oil is obtained by mixing that which has
resulted in the direct distillation of the tar with the liquid portion of
the anthracene oils after separating the crude anthracene (see below).
It is frequently stipulated that the oil should remain clear at the
ordinary temperature, say 15 C., which means that no naphthalene
should crystallize out.

Working up the Anthracene Oil Fraction. The crude oil boils
between 280 and 400 C. It is liquid at 60 C., but on cooling about
6 to 10% of crude anthracene separates as greenish-yellow, sandy
crystals, containing about 30% of real anthracene, together with
a large percentage of carbazol and phenanthrene. This crystalliza-
tion takes about a week. The crude anthracene is separated from
the mother oils by filter presses, followed by centrifugals or by hot
hydraulic presses. The liquid oils are redistilled, in order to obtain
more anthracene, and the last oils go back to the creosote oil, or are
employed for softening the hard pitch (vide supra). The crude
anthracene is brought up to 50 or 60, sometimes to 80 %, by washing
with solvent naphtha, or moreefficiently with the higher boiling portion
of the pyridine bases. The naphtha removes mostly only the phenan-
threne, but the carbazol can be removed only by pyridine, or by sub-
liming or distilling the anthracene over caustic potash. The whole
of the anthracene is sold for the manufacture of artificial alizarine.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The principal work on Coal-tar is G. Lunge's
Coal-tar and Ammonia (3rd ed., 1900). Consult also G. P. Sadtler,
Handbook of Industrial Organic Chemistry (1891), and the article
" Steinkohlentheer," Kraemer and Spreker, in Encyklopddisches
Handbuch der technischen Chemie (4th ed., 1905, viii. i). (G. L.)

COALVILLE, a town in the Loughborough parliamentary
division of Leicestershire, England, 1 1 2 m. N.N. W. from London.
Pop. of urban district (1901) 15,281. It is served by the Midland
railway, and there is also a station (Coalville East) on the
Nuneaton-Loughborough branch of the London & North-
Western railway. This is a town of modern growth, a centre of
the coal-mining district of north Leicestershire. There are also
iron foundries and brick-works. A mile north of Coalville is
Whitwick, with remains of a castle of Norman date, while to
the north again are slight remains of the nunnery of Gracedieu,
founded in 1240, where, after its dissolution, Francis Beaumont,
the poet-colleague of John Fletcher, was born about 1 586. In the
neighbourhood is the Trappist abbey of Mount St Bernard,
founded in 1835, possessing a large domain, with buildings
completed from the designs of A. W. Pugin in 1844.

COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side), the part of the land which
meets the sea in a line of more or less regular form. The word
is sometimes applied to the bank of a river or lake, and
sometimes to a region (cf. Gold Coast, Coromandel Coast)
which may include the hinterland. If the coast-line runs parallel
to a mountain range, such as the Andes, it has usually a more
regular form than when, as in the rias coast of west Brittany,
it crosses the crustal folds. Again, a recently elevated coast is
more regular than one that has been long exposed to wave action.
A recently depressed coast will show the irregularities that were
impressed upon the surface before submergence. Wave erosion
and the action of marine currents are the chief agents in coast
sculpture. A coast of homogeneous rock exposed to similar action
will present a regular outline, but if exposed to differential
action it will be embayed where that action is greatest. A coast
consisting of rocks of unequal hardness or of unequal structure
will present headlands, " stacks " and " needles " of hard rocks,
and bays of softer or more loosely aggregated rocks, when the
wave and current action is similar throughout. The southern
shore-line of the Isle of Wight and the western coast of Wales
are simple examples of this differential resistance. In time the
coast becomes " mature " and its outline undergoes little change
as it gradually recedes, for the hard rock being now more exposed
is worn away faster, but the softer rock more slowly because it is
protected in the bays and re-entrants.

COAST DEFENCE, a general term for the military and naval
protection and defence of a coast-line, harbours, dockyards,
coaling-stations, &c., against serious attack by a strong naval
force of the enemy, bombardment, torpedo boat or destroyer
raids, hostile landing parties, or invasion by a large or small
army. The principal means employed by the defender to cope
with these and other forms of attack which may be expected in
time of war or political crisis are described below. See also for
further details NAVY; ARMY;' FORTIFICATION AND SIEGE-
CRAFT; AMMUNITION; ORDNANCE; SUBMARINE MINES; TOR-
PEDO. The following is a general description of modern coast
defences as applied in the British service.

No system of coast defence is of any value which does not
take full account of the general distribution of sea-power and the
resultant strength of the possible hostile forces. By resultant
strength is meant the balance of one side over the other, for it
is now generally regarded as an axiom that two opposing fleets
must make their main effort in seeking one another, and that the
force available for attack on coast defences will be either com-
posed of such ships as can be spared from the main engagement,
or the remnant of the hostile fleet after it has been victorious
in a general action.

Coast defences are thus the complement and to some extent
the measure of naval strength. It is often assumed that this
principle was neglected in the large scheme of fortification
associated in England with the name of Lord Palmerston, but
it is at least arguable that the engineers responsible for the details
of this scheme were dependent then as now on the naval view of
what was a suitable naval strength. Public opinion has since
been educated to a better appreciation of the necessity for a
strong navy, and, as the British navy has increased, the scale
of coast defences required has necessarily waned. Such a change
of opinion is always gradual, and it is difficult to name an exact
date on which it may be said that modern coast defence, as
practised by British engineers, first began.

An approximation may, however, be made by taking the
bombardment of Alexandria (1881) as being the parting of the
ways between the old and the modern school. At that time
the British navy, and in fact all other navies, had not really
emerged from the stage of the wooden battleships. Guns were
still muzzle-loaders, arranged mainly in broadsides, and protected
by heavy armour; sails were still used as means of propulsion;
torpedoes, net defence, signalling, and search-lights quite un-
developed.

At this time coast defences bore a close resemblance to the
ships the guns were muzzle-loaders, arranged in long batteries
like a broadside, often in two tiers. The improvement of rifled
ordnance had called for increased protection, and this was found
first by solid constructions of granite, and latterly by massive
iron fronts. Examples of these remain in Garrison Fort, Sheer-
ness, and in Hurst Castle at the west end of the Solent. The
range of guns being then relatively short, it was necessary to
place forts at fairly close intervals, and where the channels to
be defended could not be spanned from the shore, massive
structures with two or.even three tiers of guns, placed as close
as on board ship and behind heavy armour, were built up from
the ocean bed. On both sides the calibre and weight of guns
were increasing, till the enormous sizes of 80 and 100 tons were
used both ashore and afloat.

The bombardment of Alexandria established two new
principles, or new applications of old principles, by showing the
value of concealment and dispersion in reducing the effect of the
fire of the fleet. On the old system, two ships firing at one
another or ships firing at an iron-fronted fort shot " mainly
into the brown "; if they missed the gun aimed at, one to the
right or left was likely to be hit; jf they missed the water-line,
the upper works were in danger. At Alexandria, however, the
Egyptian guns were scattered over a long line of shore, and it
was soon found that with the guns and gunners available, hits
could only be obtained by running in to short range and dealing
with one gun at a time.

This new principle was not at once recognized, for systems

6oo

COAST DEFENCE

die hard, and much money and brains were invested in the then
existing system. But a modern school was gradually formed; a
small group of engineer officers under the headship of Sir Andrew
Clarke, the then inspector-general of fortifications, took the
matter up, and by degrees the new views prevailed and the
modern school of coast defence came into being between 1881
and 1885. Meanwhile important changes had been developing
in the gun, the all-important weapon of coast defence, changes
due mainly to the gradual supersession of the muzzle-loader by
the breech-loader. The latter gave the advantages of quicker
loading and more protection for the gun detachment over and
above the technical improvements in the gun itself, which gave
higher muzzle velocity, greater striking effect and longer effective
range.

All this reacted on the general scheme of coast defence by
enabling the number of guns to be reduced and the distance
between forts increased. On the other hand, the ships, too,
gained increased range and increased accuracy of fire, so that it
became necessary in many cases to advance the general line of the
coast defences farther from the harbour or dockyard to be defended,
in order to keep the attackers out of range of the objective.

Another change resulted from an improvement in the method
of mounting. Even in the older days discussion had arisen
freely on the relative merits of barbette and casemate mounting.
In the former the gun fires over a parapet, giving a larger field of
view to the gun-layer, and a larger field of fire for the gun, with,
however, more exposure for the detachment. The latter gives
a restricted view and greater safety to the layer, but unless the
casemate takes the form of a revolving turret, the arc of fire is
very limited.

An important advantage of the barbette system is its cheap-
ness, and thus in order to obtain with it concealment, suggestions
were made for various forms of mounting which would allow of
the gun, under the shock of recoil, disappearing behind the
parapet to emerge only when loaded and ready for the next
round. A mounting of this description for muzzle-loading guns,
designed by Colonel Moncrieff , was actually in use in the defences
of Alexandria and in H.M.S. " Temeraire."

But with the increased charges and length of breech-loading
guns, a further change was desirable, and after some trials a
system of disappearing mountings (see ORDNANCE: Garrison
Mountings) was adopted into the British service.

A word must be now said on the size of gun finally adopted.
At first muzzle-loaders figured largely in the British defences,
even though these were planned on modern ideas; and even in
1906 muzzle-loading guns still existed and were counted as part
of the defences. The sizes of these guns varied from the 32- or
64-pounder, of which the nomenclature depends on the weight of
the shell, to the 7-in., 9 -in., io-in.,ii-in., 12-5- and finally 17-25-^1.,
the size indicating the calibre. Such a multiplication of sizes
was due to gradual improvements in the science of gun manu-
facture, each advance being hailed as the last word to be said
on the subject, and each in turn being rapidly made obsolete
by something bigger and better. But with the improvements
in gun design which followed the introduction of breech-loaders,
the types used in coast defence were gradually narrowed down
to two, the 9-2-in. and the 6-in. guns. Of these, the 9-2-in. was
considered powerful enough to attack armour at any practical
range, while the 6-in. gun was introduced to deal with lightly
armed vessels at shorter ranges where 9-2-in. guns were un-
necessarily powerful.

A few larger guns of lo-in. calibre have actually been used,
but though the British navy has now sealed a 1 2-in. so-toh gun
as the stock size for battleships, for the heavy armament of the
coast defences the War Office remain faithful to the 9- 2-in. calibre,
preferring to develop improvements rather in the direction of
more rapid fire and higher muzzle velocity.

The 6-in. has also been retained and is extensively used for
the smaller ports, where attack by powerful vessels is for various
reasons considered improbable.

The design of the forts to contain the guns necessarily varied
with the type of defence adopted, and the duties which the forts

had to fulfil. These duties may be said to be twofold, first to
facilitate the service of the guns, and secondly to protect the
guns and their detachments from damage by fire from ships, or
by close attack from landing parties. The service of the gun is
provided for by a system of cartridge and shell magazines (see
AMMUNITION), well protected from fire and suitably arranged.
The shelters for the gun detachments must be bomb-proof and
fitted with some arrangements for comfort and sanitation.
Formerly it was the custom to provide living accommodation
for the full garrison in casemates inside each fort, but it is now
considered better to provide barrack accommodation in the
vicinity and to occupy forts in peace only by a few caretakers.
The shelters in the fort itself can thus be kept at the minimum
required when actually manning the guns. The protection of
the guns and magazines against bombardment is provided, in
the British service, mainly by an earthen parapet over a sub-
stantial roof or wall of concrete, but immediately round the gun
an " apron " of concrete is necessary to withstand the shock of
discharge or " blast."

It has been already mentioned that in the old designs a large
number of guns was put in each fort, but with dispersion and
improved gun power this number was much reduced. At first
the type of fort adopted was for four guns, of which the two
in the centre were heavy and the two on the Sank of medium
power. Such a design was good from the point of view of the
engineer; it gave an economical grouping of magazines and
shelters and was easily adapted to varying sites, and the smaller
guns helped the larger by covering their flanks both towards
the sea and also over the land approaches. But from the point
of view of the artillery officer the arrangement was faulty, for
when the guns are too much separated, ranging has to be carried
out separately for each gur. On the other hand, two guns of
the same calibre placed near one another can be fought
simultaneously and form what is known as a " group." In the
typical 4-gun battery described above, the flank guns had to be
fought independently, which was wasteful of officers and staff.
Further, hi a battery of more than two guns the arc of fire of the
centre guns is much restricted by that of the guns on either
flank.

For these reasons it is now generally recognized that new
works should be designed for only two guns of the same calibre,
though 3- or 4-gun batteries are occasionally used in special
circumstances.

Protection of the gun detachments against infantry attack
is best provided by a line of infantry posts outside and on the
flanks of the gun batteries, but as small parties may evade the
outposts, or the latter may be driven in, it is necessary to place
round each fort a line of obstacles sufficient to protect the guns
against a rush and to cover the infantry while it rallies. This
obstacle was formerly a wet or dry ditch, with escarp, counter-
scarp and flanking galleries; but with the new design of parapet
a simpler form of obstacle was adopted. This was obtained by
carrying down and forward the slope of the parapet to a point
well below the level of the surrounding ground, and then placing
a stout fence at the foot of the parapet and concealed from view.
It is in fact the old principle of the sunk fence, and has this
further advantage, that the fence, being visible from the parapet,
can be kept under fire by men posted between the guns without
any special flanking galleries.

Occasionally two or more batteries are placed inside one
line of obstacles, but usually each 2-gun battery is complete
in itself.

Cases arise, e.g. with sites on the top of a cliff, where no
obstacle is required; in such places the parapet merges into the
surrounding ground.

In old days the parapet was shaped with well-defined edges
and slopes. Now the parapet slopes gently down to the front
and is rounded at the sides, so as to present no definite edge or
angle to the enemy, and concealment is furthered by allowing
grass or small scrub to grow over the parapet and round the
guns. In order to obtain complete concealment from view the
background behind the guns must be carefully studied from the

COAST DEFENCE

60 1

point of view of the attack. Sites on the sky-line, and marked
contrasts of colour or shape, should be avoided. In some cases
extensive planting, amounting to landscape gardening, is justi-
fied. This is most easily arranged in the tropics, where plant
growth is rapid. In all cases the guns and their mountings
should be coloured to blend with the background and thus
avoid hard lines and shadows.

Any change of principle such as that of 1885 involves improve-
ments both in guns and their adjuncts. Of these latter the most
important was the position-finder designed by Colonel Watkin.
This instrument in its simplest form, when the observer is
following a ship through the telescope of the instrument, draws
on a chart the track of the ship, so that the exact bearing and
distance of the latter can be ascertained at any time and com-
municated to the guns by electrical and other dials, &c. The
position-finder may be some distance from the guns it serves,
and connected with them by electric cable. The guns can then
be placed well under cover and in many cases out of sight of the
target, giving a measure of protection which cannot be obtained
with any system of direct laying over sights. This instrument
has been applied on a high site to control guns placed low, or
where guns are so placed as to be liable to obscuration by fog
or mist the position-finder can be placed below the fog-line.
In either case direct laying is provided for as an alternative.
In some defences batteries equipped with old pattern p-in.
muzzle-loading guns, mounted as howitzers for long-range
firing, have been placed in folds in the ground so as to be quite
invisible from the sea and therefore invulnerable. Such batteries
are fought entirely by the position-finder.

The next adjunct to coast defences is the submarine mine.
In Great Britain the first submarine mining company dates
from 1873, and from that date mining defences were gradually
installed both at home and abroad; but the modern system of
mining, which for twenty years was maintained at British
ports, really started into full life under the impetus of Sir A.
Clarke, about the same year (1885) in which we have dated
the commencement of the modern coast defence system.

With the increased speed of warships, a method of attack
on fortifications was evolved by running past the main defences
and either taking them in reverse, or disregarding them and
attacking the dockyard or other objective at short range. This
was made more possible at most defended ports by the pushing
forward of the defences which has been already alluded to, and
it is especially dangerous where dockyards or towns are situated
some way up a river or estuary, so that once the defences are
passed there is a large stretch of water (e.g. the Thames, the
Solent, and Cork harbour) in which the enemy can manoeuvre.
In such cases there are two possible forms of defence, first by
arranging for gun-fire behind the main gun position, usually
called the defence of inner waters, and secondly by placing in
the entrance and under the fire of the main gun defence some
form of obstruction to detain ships under fire. This obstruction
can be passive (booms, chains, rows of piles or sunken ships)
or active (mines or torpedoes). Passive obstructions are only
effective against comparatively small craft, and at important
ports mines are the only efficient obstruction which can be used
against large vessels.

After some years of experiment, English engineers adopted
two main classes of mines, called " observation " and " con-
tact " mines (see SUBMARINE MINES). Both were fired by
electricity, which was applied only at the moment a hostile
ship was within the dangerous zone of a mine. In the observation
mines the moment of applying the electric current was ascer-
tained by a- position-finder, which, tracing a ship's course on a
chart, made an electrical connexion at the moment the ship was
over a mine. These mines were placed so as to be well below the
bottom of any ships afloat and were used in channels which it
was desired to leave open for the entrance of friendly vessels.
Contact mines, which arc moored a few feet below the surface
of the water, are fired after certain electrical connexions have
been made in a firing room on shore by the ship itself striking
against the mine. These are used in waters which it is intended

to deny to friend and foe. Except in narrow waters where the
whole width of the channel was required for friendly traffic,
contact mines were generally used to limit the width of the
channel to the minimum consistent with the amount of friendly
traffic which would use the port in war. It will be readily
understood that by bending this channel and disclosing its
exact position only to special pilots, a very complete measure
of security against surprise would be obtained. In English
ports the practical importance of allowing free ingress for
friendly traffic overruled all other considerations, and the
friendly channels were always straight and coincided with
some part of the usual fairway channel. They were also care-
fully marked by lightships and buoys.

A variation of the submarine mine is the Brennan torpedo,
purchased by the British government about 1800. This differs
from the torpedo used on board ship, mainly by the fact that
the engine-power which drives it is on shore and connected with
the torpedo by two strong wires. These wires are wound out of
the torpedo by the engine, and by varying the strain on the two
wires very accurate control of the steering can be obtained.
This torpedo shares with the submarine mine the disadvantages
that it must wait for the enemy to venture within its range, and
with all other forms of defence (except contact mines), that it is
made useless by fog or rain. As compared with a mine it has
the advantage of being unaffected by tide or depth, and of form-
ing no obstruction to traffic, except when actually in action.
It was installed at the principal ports only.

The system of defence hitherto described is thus a main gun
defence of p-a-in. and 6-in. guns pushed well forward, assisted
by position-finders, mine-fields and torpedo stations, and with
some gun defence of inner waters. Subject to improvements in
patterns of guns and mountings of which the most important
has been the substitution of barbette mounting and shield for
the recoil mounting described above this system held the field
up to 1905, when, partly as a result of the experience of the
Russo-Japanese War, and partly owing to the alteration of the
naval balance of power due to the destruction of the Russian
fleet, both the scale and system of defence were very considerably
modified.

We can now consider another branch of defence, which was
evolved pari passu with the automobile torpedo, and was
therefore almost non-existent in 1885. In this year the boats
specially built for carrying torpedoes were little more than
launches, but in the next five years was developed the type of
first-class torpedo boat. This, while seaworthy, was limited as
to its radius of action by the small amount of coal it would carry.
But with a possibly hostile coast only a few hours' steam
away, and with foreign harbours thronged with torpedo craft,
it became necessary for the British government especially to
consider this form of attack and its antidote. It was obvious
that in daytime and in clear weather such an attack would have
little chance of success, also that in no circumstances would
torpedo boats be able to damage fixed defences. Their best
chance was attack by night, and the only form of attack was
that referred to above as " running past," that is, an attempt
to evade the defences and to attack ships or docks inside. The
light draught of torpedo boats and their comparative invisibility
favoured this form of attack.

To meet it the first requirement was some form of illumination
of the defended channel. Experiments in the attack and defence
of defended harbours took place at Gosport in 1879 and 1880,
at Milford Haven in 1885, at Berehaven (by the royal navy) in
1886, at Langston Harbour in 1887, and a series at the Needles
entrance of the Isle of Wight up to 1892. During the course of
these experiments various methods of illumination were tried,
but by far the best was found to be the light from an electric
arc -lamp of high power projected by powerful reflectors. At
first these were used as concentrated beams forming a pencil of
light with an angular opening of about 2 to 3. Such a beam
directed at an incoming ship gives effective illumination up to a
mile or more from the source of light, but has the disadvantage
that it must be moved so as to follow the ship's movements.

602

COASTGUARD

Each beam thus lights only one ship at a time, and the move-
ments of several beams crossing and recrossing have a very
confusing effect, with the consequent risk that a proportion of
the attacking vessels may slip through unnoticed.

An alternative method of using electric lights is to arrange
the projector so that the light comes out in a fan (generally of
30 divergence). Two or three such lights are usually placed
side by side, forming an illuminated fan of considerable diver-
gence. These fans are now used for the main defence, with in
front of them one or more search-lights to warn the defences
of the approach of ships. There is some loss of range when using
these fans as compared with search-lights, but by occupying
both sides of a channel and placing the defences against torpedo
boats at the narrowest point, an effective illumination can be
obtained in moderate weather.

Heavy guns can, of course, be fired against torpedo boats, but
their rate of fire is relatively slow, and at first they had also the
disadvantage of using black powder, the smoke of which obscured
the lights.

A small quick-firing gun using smokeless powder was seen
to be a necessity. At first the 6-pounder was adopted as the
stock size supplemented by machine guns for close range, bui:
soon afterwards it became necessary to reconsider the scale
of anti-torpedo boat defences, owing first to the increased size
of first-class torpedo boats, and secondly to the introduction of
a new type of vessel, the torpedo boat destroyer. The increased
size of torpedo boats, and improved arrangements for the distribu-
tion of coal on board, made these boats practically proof against
6-pounder guns and necessitated the introduction of the 12-
pounder. The torpedo boat destroyer, originally introduced to
chase and destroy torpedo boats, not only justified its existence
by checking the construction of more torpedo boats, but in
addition became itself a sea-going torpedo craft, and thus in-
creased the menace to defended ports and also the area over
which this form of attack would be dangerous.

This development was met by an increased number of 12-
pounder guns, assisted in the more important places by 4-7-in.
(and latterly 4-in.) guns, and also by an increased number of
lights, both guns and lights increasing at some places nearly
fourfold. But even with the best possible arrangement of this
form of defence, the possibility of interference by fog, mist or
rain introduces a considerable element of uncertainty.

About the same time, and largely on account of the demand
for better and quicker firing, the " automatic sight " was intro-
duced (see ORDNANCE : Garrison ; and SIGHTS) . In this, a develop-
ment of the principle of the position-finder, the act of bringing
an object into the field of the auto-sight automatically lays the
gun. In order to take full advantage of this, the ammunition
was made up into a cartridge with powder and shell in one
case to allow of the quickest possible loading. It may be added
that the efficiency of the auto-sight depends on the gun being
a certain height above the water, and that therefore the rise
and fall of tide has to be allowed for in setting the sight.

In view of the possible interference by fog it was thought wise
at an early stage to provide, towards the rear of the defences,
some form of physical obstacle behind which ships could lie in
safety. Such an obstacle had been designed in the early days
by the Royal Engineers and took the form of a " boom " of
baulks of timber secured by chains. Such booms were limited
in size by considerations of expense and were only partially
successful. About 1892 the British navy took the matter up
and began experiments on a larger scale, substituting wire
hawsers for chains and using old gunboats to divide the booms
up into sections of convenient length. The result was that booms
were definitely adopted as an adjunct of coast defence. Their
place is behind the lighted area, but within reach of some of the
anti-torpedo boat batteries.

Other forms of obstacle to torpedo boat attack, based on a
modification of contact mines or a combination of mines and
passive obstructions, have been tried but never definitely
adopted, though some form of under-water defence of this
description seems necessary to meet attack by submarines.

We may now summarize the anti-torpedo boat defences.
These are, first, an outpost or look-out line of electric search-
lights, then a main lighted area composed of fixed lights with
which there are a considerable number of i2-pounder or 4-in.
Q.F. guns fitted with auto-sights, and behind all this, usually
at the narrowest part of the entrance, the boom.

Once coast defences are designed and installed, little change
is possible during an attack, so that the operation of fighting a
system of defence, such as we have considered above, is mainly
a matter of peace training of gun-crews, electric light men and
look-outs, coupled with careful organization. To facilitate the
transmission of order and intelligence, a considerable system of
telephonic and other electrical communication has been estab-
lished. This may be considered under the three heads of (i)
orders, (2) intelligence, (3) administration.

The communication of orders follows the organization adopted
for the whole fortress. Each fortress is commanded by a fortress
commander, who has a suitable staff. This officer sends orders
to commanders of artillery, engineers, and infantry. The
artillery officer in charge of a group of batteries is called a " fire
commander "; his command is generally confined to such
batteries as fire over the same area of water and can mutually
support one another. Thus there may be several fire commanders
at a defended port. Anti-torpedo boat batteries are not in a
fire command, and are connected to the telephone system for
intelligence only and not for orders. The engineers require
orders for the control of electric lights or Brennan torpedo.
The officer in charge of a group of lights or of a torpedo station
is called a director. Though receiving orders direct from the
fortress commander, he has also to co-operate with the nearest
artillery commander. The infantry are posted on the flanks
of the fixed defences, or on the land front. They are divided
into suitable groups, each under a commanding officer, who
communicates with the fortress commander. In large fortresses
the area is divided into sections, each including some portion
of the artillery, engineers, and infantry defence. In such cases
the section commanders receive orders from the fortress com-
mander and pass them on to their subordinates.

The intelligence system includes communication with the
naval signal stations in the vicinity, one of which is specially
selected for each port as the warning station and is directly
connected to some part of the defences. Another part of the
intelligence system deals with the arrangements for examining
all ships entering a harbour. This is usually effected by posting
in each entrance examination vessels, which are in communica-
tion by signal with a battery or selected post on shore. Any
points on shore which can see the approaches are connected by a
special alarm circuit, mainly for use in case of torpedo boat
attack.

The administrative system of telephones is used for daily
routine messages. These usually take the form of telephone
lines radiating from a central exchange. In many stations the
same lines may be used for command and administration, or
intelligence and command, but at the larger stations each class
of line is kept distinct. (W. B. B.)

COASTGUARD, a naval force maintained in Great Britain
and Ireland to suppress smuggling, aid shipwrecked vessels and
serve as a reserve to the navy. The coastguard was originally
designed to prevent smuggling. Before 1816 this duty was
entrusted to the revenue cutters, and to a body of " riding
officers," mounted men who were frequently supported by
detachments of dragoons. The crews of the cutters and the
riding officers were under the authority of the custom house in
London, and were appointed by the treasury. On the conclusion
of the war with Napoleon in 1815 it was resolved to take stricter
precautions against smuggling. A " coast blockade " was
established in Kent and Sussex. The " Ramillies " (74) was
stationed in the Downs and the " Hyperion " (42) at Newhaven.
A number of half-pay naval lieutenants were appointed to these
vessels, but were stationed with detachments of men and boats
at the Martello towers erected along the coast as a defence
against French invasion. They were known as the " preventive

COASTING COB

603

water guard " or the " preventive service." The crews of the
boats were partly drawn from the revenue cutters, and partly
hired from among men of all trades. The " coast blockade "
was extended to all parts of the coast. The revenue cutters and
the riding officers continued to be employed, and the whole
force was under the direction of the custom house. The whole
was divided into districts under the command of naval officers.
In 1822 the elements of which the preventive water guard was
composed were consolidated, and in 1829 it was ordered that
only sailors or fishermen should be engaged as boatmen. In
1830 the whole service consisted of 50 revenue cutters, fine
vessels of 150 and 200 tons, of the " preventive boats," and the
riding officers. In 1831, during the administration of Sir James
Graham, the service was transferred to the admiralty, though
the custom house flag was used till 1857. After 1840 the men
were drilled "in the common formations," mainly with a view
to being employed for the maintenance of order and in support
of the police, in case of Chartist or other agitations. But in
1845 the first steps were taken to utilize the coastguard as a
reserve to the navy. The boatmen were required to sign an
engagement to serve in the navy if called upon. In May 1857
the service was transferred entirely to the admiralty, and the
coastguard became a part of the navy, using the navy flag. The
districts were placed under captains of the navy, known as
district captains, in command of ships stationed at points
round the coast. Since that year the coastguard has been
recruited from the navy, and has been required to do regular
periods of drill at sea, on terms laid down by the admiralty from
time to time. It has, in fact, been a form of naval reserve.

The rise and early history of the coastguard are told in Smuggling
Days and Smuggling Ways, by the Hon. Henry N. Shore, R.N.,
(London, 1892). Its later history must be traced in the Queen's
(and King's) Regulations and Admiralty Instructions of successive
years. (D. H.)

COASTING, usually called tobogganing (q.v.) in Europe, the
sport of sliding down snow or ice-covered hills or artificial
inclines upon hand-sleds, or sledges, provided with runners shod
with iron or steel. It is uncertain whether the first American
sleds were copied from the Indian toboggans, but no sled without
runners was known in the United States before 1870, except
to the woodsmen of the Canadian border. American Jaws have
greatly restricted, and in most places prohibited, the practice,
once common, of coasting on the highways; and the sport
is mainly confined to open hills and artificial inclines or chutes.
Two forms of hand-sled are usual in America, the original
" clipper " type, built low with long, pointed sides, originally
shod with iron but since 1850 with round steel runners; and the
light, short " girls' sled," with high skeleton sides, usually flat
shod. There is also the " double-runner," or " bob-sled," formed
of two clipper sleds joined by a board and steered by ropes, a
wheel or a cross-bar, and seating from four to ten persons.

In Scandinavia several kinds of sled are common, but that of
the fishermen, by means of which they transport their catch
over the frozen fjords, is the one used in coasting, a sport especi-
ally popular in the neighbourhood of Christiania, where there are
courses nearly 3 m. in length. This sled is from 4 to 6 ft. long,
with skeleton sides about 7 in. high, and generally holds three
persons. It is steered by two long sticks trailing behind. On
the ice the fisherman propels his sled by means of two short
picks. The general Norwegian name for sledge is skijalker, the
primitive form being a kind of toboggan provided with broad
wooden runners resembling the ski (<?..). In northern Sweden
and Finland the commonest form of single sled is the Spark-
stottinger, built high at the back, the coaster standing up and
steering by -means of two handles projecting from the sides.

Coasting in its highest development may be seen in Switzerland,
at the fashionable winter resorts of the Engadine, where it is
called tobogganing. The first regular races there were organized
by John Addington Symonds, who instituted an annual contest
for a challenge cup, open to all comers, over the steep post-road
from Davos to Klosters, the finest natural coast in Switzerland,
the sled used being the primitive native Schlittli or HandsMitten,
a miniature copy of the ancient horse-sledge. Soon afterwards

followed the construction of great artificial runs, the most
famous being the " Cresta " at St Moritz, begun in 1884, which
is about 1350 yds. in length, its dangerous curves banked up
like those of a bicycle track. On this the annual " Grand
National " championship is contested, the winner's time being
the shortest aggregate of three heats. In 1885 and the following
year the native Schliltli remained in use, the rider sitting upright
facing the goal, and steering either with the heels or with short
picks. In 1887 the first American clipper sled was introduced
by L. P. Child, who easily won the championship for that year
on it. The sled now used by the contestants is a development
of the American type, built of steel and skeleton in form. With
it a speed of over 70 m. an hour has been attained. The coaster
lies flat upon it and steers with his feet, shod with spiked shoes,
to render braking easier, and helped with his gloved hands.
The " double-runner " has also been introduced into Switzerland
under the name of " bob-sleigh."

See Ice Sports, in the Isthmian Library, London (1901) ; Toboggan-
ing at St Moritz, by T. A. Cook (London, 1896).

COATBRIDGE, a municipal and police burgh, having the privi-
leges of a royal burgh, of Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891)
15,212; (1901) 36,991. It is situated on the Monkland Canal,
8 m. E. of Glasgow, with stations on the Caledonian and North
British railways. Until about 1825 it was only a village, but
since then its vast stores of coal and iron have been developed,
and it is now the centre of the iron trade of Scotland. Its
prosperity was largely due to the ironmaster James Baird (q.v.),
who erected as many as sixteen blast-furnaces in the immediate
neighbourhood between 1830 and 1842. The industries of Coat-
bridge produce malleable iron, boilers, tubes, wire, tinplates and
railway wagons, tiles, fire-bricks and fire-clay goods. There are
two public parks in the town, and its public buildings include a
theatre, a technical school and mining college, hospitals, and the
academy and Baird Institute at Gartsherrie. Janet Hamilton,
the poetess (1795-1873), spent most of her life at Langloan
now a part of Coatbridge and a fountain has been erected to her
memory near the cottage in which she lived. For parliamentary
purposes the town, which became a municipal burgh in 1885,
is included in the north-west division of Lanarkshire. About
4 m. west by south lies the mining town of Baillieston (pop.
3 784) , with a station on the Caledonian railway. It has numerous
collieries, a nursery and market garden.

COATESVILLE, a borough of Chester county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on the west branch of Brandywine Creek, 39 m. W. of
'Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 3680; (1900) 5721 (273 foreign-born);
(1910) 11,084. It is served by the Pennsylvania and the
Philadelphia & Reading railways, and interurban electric lines.
For its size the borough ranks high as a manufacturing centre,
iron and steel works, boiler works, brass works, and paper, silk
and woollen mills being among its leading establishments. Its
water-works are owned and operated by the municipality.
Named in honour of Jesse Coates, one of its early settlers, it was
settled about 1800, and was incorporated in 1867.

COATI, or CoATi-MuNDi, the native name of the members of
the genus Nasua, of the mammalian family Procyonidae. They
are easily recognized by their long body and tail, and elongated,
upturned snout; from which last feature the Germans call them
Riisselbiiren or " snouted bears." In the white-nosed coati,
a native of Mexico and Central America, the general hue is
brown, but the snout and upper lip are white, and the tail is often
banded. In the red coati, ranging from Surinam to Paraguay, the
tail is marked with from seven to nine broad fulvous or rufous
rings, alternating with black ones, and tipped with black. Coatis
are gregarious and arboreal in habit, and feed on birds, eggs,
lizards and insects. They are common pets of the Spaniards in
South America. (See CARNTVORA.)

COB, a word of unknown origin with a variety of meanings,
which the New English Dictionary considers may be traced to the
notions of something stout, big, round, head or top. In " cobble,"
e.g. in the sense of a round stone used in paving, the same word
may be traced. The principal uses of " cob " are for a stocky
strongly built horse, from 13 to 14 hands high, a small round loaf,

604

COBALT

a round lump of coal, in which sense " cobble " is also used, the
fruiting spike of the maize plant, and a large nut of the hazel
type, more commonly known as the cob-nut.

" Cobbler," a patcher or mender of boots and shoes, is probably
from a different root. It has nothing to do with an O. Fr.
coubler, Mod. coupler, to fasten together. In " cobweb," the
web of the spider, the " cob " represents the older cop, coppe,
spider, cf. Dutch spinnekop.

COBALT (symbol Co, atomic weight 59), one of the metallic
chemical elements. The term " cobalt " is met with in the
writings of Paracelsus, Agricoia and Basil Valentine, being used
to denote substances which, although resembling metallic ores,
gave no metal on smelting. At a later date it was the name
given to the mineral used for the production of a blue colour
in glass. In 1735 G. Brandt prepared an impure cobalt metal,
which was magnetic and very infusible. Cobalt is usually found
associated with nickel, and frequently with arsenic, the chief ores
being speiss-cobalt, (Co,Ni,Fe)As 2 , cobaltite (q.v.), wad, cobalt
bloom, linnaeite, Co 3 S.|, and skutterudite, CoAs 3 . Its presence
has also been detected in the sun and in meteoric iron. For the
technical preparation of cobalt, and its separation from nickel,
see NICKEL. The metal is chiefly used, as the oxide, for colouring
glass and porcelain.

Metallic cobalt may be obtained by reduction of the oxide or
chloride in a current of hydrogen at a red heat, or by heating the
oxalate, under a layer of powdered glass. As prepared by the
reduction of the oxide it is a grey powder. In the massive state it
has a colour resembling polished iron, and is malleable and very
tough. It has a specific gravity of 8-8, and it melts at 1530
C. (H. Copaux). Its mean specific heat between 9 and 97 C.
Is 0-10674 (H. Kopp). It is permanent in dry air, but in the
finely divided state it rapidly combines with oxygen, the com-
pact metal requiring a strong heating to bring about this com-
bination. It decomposes steam at a red heat, and slowly
dissolves in dilute hydrochloric and sulphuric acids, but more
readily in nitric acid. Cobalt burns in nitric oxide at 150 C.
giving the monoxide. It may be obtained in the pure state,
according to C. Winkler (Zeit.fiir anorg. Chem., 1895, 8, p. i), by
electrolysing the pure sulphate in the presence of ammonium
sulphate and ammonia, using platinum electrodes, any occluded
oxygen in the deposited metal being removed by heating in a
current of hydrogen.

Three characteristic oxides of cobalt are known, the monoxide,
CoO, the sesquioxide, Co 2 Os, and tricobalt tetroxide, Co 3 O<; besides
these there are probably oxides of composition CoO 2 , CogOg, CoeO?
and Co4Os. Cobalt monoxide, CoO, is prepared by heating the
hydroxide or carbonate in a current of air, or by heating the oxide
CosC>4 in a current of carbon dioxide. It is a brown coloured powder
which is stable in air, but gives a higher oxide when heated. On
heating in hydrogen, ammonia or carbon monoxide, or with carbon
or sodium, it is reduced to the metallic state/. It is readily soluble
in warm dilute mineral acids forming cobaltous salts. Cobaltous
hydroxide, Co(OH)?, is formed when a cobaltous salt is precipitated
by caustic potash in the absence of air. A blue basic salt is precipi-
tated first, which, on boiling, rapidly changes to the rose-coloured
hydroxide. It dissolves in acids forming cobaltous salts, and on
exposure to air it rapidly absorbs oxygen, turning brown in colour.
A. de Schulten (Comptes Rendus, 1889, 109, p. 266) has obtained it in
a crystalline form; the crystals have a specific gravity of 3-597, and
are easily soluble in warm ammonium chloride solution. Cobalt
sesquioxide, CojOs, remains as a dark-brown powder when cobalt
nitrate is gently heated. Heated at 190-300 in a current of hydro-
gen it gives the oxide CosOi, while at higher temperatures the
monoxide is formed, and ultimately cobalt is obtained. Cobaltic
hydroxide, Co(OH)s, is formed when a cobalt salt is precipitated
by an alkaline hypochlorite, or on passing chlorine through water
containing suspended cobaltous hydroxide or carbonate. It is a
brown-black powder soluble in hydrochloric acid, chlorine being
simultaneously liberated. This hydroxide is soluble in well cooled
acids, forming solutions which contain cobaltic salts, one of the most
stable of which is the acetate. Cobalt dioxide, CoO2, has not yet
been isolated in the pure state; it is probably formed when iodine
and caustic soda are added to a solution of a cobaltous salt. By
suspending cobaltous hydroxide in water and adding hydrogen
peroxide, a strongly acid liquid is obtained (after filtering) which
probably contains cobaltous acid, H 2 CoO s . The barium and mag-
nesium salts of this acid are formed when baryta and magnesia
are fused with cobalt sesquioxide. Tricobalt tetroxide, CosO^ is
produced when the other oxides, or the nitrate, are heated in air.

By heating a mixture of cobalt oxalate and sal-ammoniac in air, it
is obtained in the form of minute hard octahedra, which are not
magnetic, and are only soluble in concentrated sulphuric acid.

The cobaltous salts are formed when the metal, cobaltous oxide,
hydroxide or carbonate, are dissolved in acids, or, in the case of the
insoluble salts, by precipitation. The insoluble salts are rose-red
or violet in colour. The soluble salts are, when in the hydrated
condition, also red, but in the anhydrous condition are blue. They
are precipitated from their alkaline solutions as cobalt sulphide by
sulphuretted hydrogen, but this precipitation is prevented by the
presence of citric and tartaric acids ; _ similarly the presence of
ammonium salts hinders their precipitation by caustic alkalis.
Alkaline carbonates give precipitates of basic carbonates, the forma-
tion of which is also retarded by the presence of ammonium salts.
For the action of ammonia on the cobaltous salts in the presence of air
see Cobaltammines (below). On the addition of potassium cyanide
they give a brown precipitate of cobalt cyanide, Co(CN) 2 , which
dissolves.in excess of potassium cyanide to a green solution.

Cobalt chloride, CoCU, in the anhydrous state, is formed by burn-
ing the metal in chlorine or by heating the sulphide in a current
of the same gas. It is blue in colour and sublimes readily. It dis-
solves easily in water, forming the hydrated chloride, CoCh-GHjO,
which may also be prepared by dissolving the hydroxide or car-
bonate in hydrochloric acid. The hydrated salt forms rose-red
prisms, readily soluble in water to a red solution, and in alcohol to a
blue solution. Other hydrated forms of the chloride, of composition
CoCl 2 -2H 2 O and CoCl 2 -4H 2 O have been described (P. Sabatier, Bull.
Soc. Chim. 51, p. 88 ; Bersch, Jahresb. d. Chemie, 1867, p. 291). Double
chlorides of composition CoCl 2 -NH4Cl-6H 2 O; CoCl 2 'SnCU-6H 2 O and
CoCl 2 -2CdCl 2 -12H 2 O are also known. By the addition of excess of
ammonia to a cobalt chloride solution in absence of air, a greenish-
blue precipitate is obtained which, on heating, dissolves in the
solution, giving a rose-red liquid. This solution, on standing,
deposits octahedra of the composition CoCI 2 -6NHj. These crystals
when heated to 120 C. lose ammonia and are converted into the
compound CoCl 2 -2NH 3 (E. Fremy). The bromide, CoBr 2 , resembles
the chloride, and may be prepared by similar methods. The
hydrated salt readily loses water on heating, forming at 100 C. the
hydrate CoBr 2 -2H 2 O, and at 130 C. passing into the anhydrous form.
The iodide, CoI 2 , is produced by heating cobalt and iodine together,
and forms a greyish-green mass which dissolves readily in water
forming a red solution. On evaporating this solution the hydrated
salt CoI 2 -6H 2 O is obtained in hexagonal prisms. It behaves in an
analogous manner to CoBrj-6H 2 O on heating.

Cobalt fluoride, CoFj-2H 2 O, is formed when cobalt carbonate is
evaporated with an excess of aqueous hydrofluoric acid, separating
in rose-red crystalline crusts. Electrolysis of a solution in hydro-
fluoric acid gives cobaltic fluoride, CoF 3 .

Sulphides of cobalt of composition CoiSs, CoS, Co 8 S<, CosS 3 and
CoSz are known. The most common of these sulphides is cobaltous
sulphide, CoS, which occurs naturally as syepoorite, and can be
artificially prepared by heating cobaltous oxide with sulphur, or by
fusing anhydrous cobalt sulphate with barium sulphide and common
salt. By either of these methods, it is obtained in the form of bronze-
coloured crystals. It may be prepared in the amorphous form by
heating cobalt with sulphur dioxide, in a sealed tube, at 200 C.
In the hydrated condition it is formed by the action of alkaline sul-
phides on cobaltous salts, or by precipitating cobalt acetate with
sulphuretted hydrogen (in the absence of free acetic acid). It is a
black amorphous powder soluble in concentrated sulphuric and
hydrochloric acids, and when in the moist state readily oxidizes on
exposure.

Cobaltous sulphate, CoSO4-7H 2 O, is found naturally as the mineral
bieberite, and is formed when cobalt, cobaltous oxide or carbonate
are dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid. It forms dark red crystals
isomorphous with ferrous sulphate, and readily soluble in water.
By dissolving it in concentrated sulphuric acid and warming the
solution, the anhydrous salt is obtained. Hydrated sulphates of
composition CoSO 4 -6H 2 O, CoSO 4 -4H 2 O and CoSO 4 -H 2 O are also
known. The heptahydrated salt combines with the alkaline sul-
phates to form double sulphates of composition CoSO4-M 2 SO4-6H2O
(M=K, NH 4 , &c.).

The cobaltic salts corresponding to the oxide CojOa are generally
unstable compounds which exist only in sohition. H. Marshall
(Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin. 59, p. 760) has prepared cobaltic sulphate
Co2(SO4)3-18H 2 O, in the form of small needles, by the electrolysis of
cobalt sulphate. In a similar way potassium and ammonium cobalt
alums have been obtained. A cobaltisulphurous acid, probably
H. [(SOsVCoj.] has been obtained by E. Berglund (Berichte, 1874, 7,
p. 469), in aqueous solution, by dissolving ammonium cobalto-
cobaltisulphite (NH4) 2 Co 2 [(SOO.-Coj] -I4H 2 O in dilute hydrochloric
or nitric acids, or by decomposition of its silver salt with hydro-
chloric acid. The ammonium cobalto-cobaltisulphite is prepared
by saturating an air-oxidized ammoniacal solution of cobaltous
chloride with sulphur dioxide. The double salts containing
the metal in the cobaltic form are more stable than the corre-
sponding single salts, and of these potassium cobaltinitrite,
Co 2 (NO ? )6'6KNO 2 -3H 2 O, is best known. It may be prepared by
the addition of potassium nitrite to an acetic acid solution of cobalt
chloride. The yellow precipitate obtained is washed with a solution

COBALTITE COBAN

605

of potassium acetate and finally with dilute alcohol. The reaction
proceeds according to the following equation: 2CoClj + 10KNO 2 +
4HNO 2 = Co 2 (NO 2 ),-6KNOj+4KCI+2NO+2H 2 O (A. Stromeyer,
Annalen, 1855, 96, p. 220). This salt may be used for the separation
of cobalt and nickel, since the latter metal does not form a similar
double nitrite, but it is necessary that the alkaline earth metals
should be absent, for in their presence nickel forms complex nitrites
containing the alkaline earth metal and the alkali metal. A sodium
cobaltinitrite is also known.

Cobalt nitrate, Co(NO 3 ) 2 -6H 2 O, is obtained in dark-red mono-
clinic tables by the slow evaporation of a solution of the metal, its
hydroxide or carbonate, in nitric acid. It deliquesces in the air and
melts readily on heating. By the addition of excess of ammonia
to its aqueous solution, in the complete absence of air, a blue pre-
cipitate of a basic nitrate of the composition 6CoO-NCV5HiO is
obtained.

By boiling a solution of cobalt carbonate in phosphoric acid,
the acid phosphate CoHPCh-SHjO is obtained, which when heated
with water to 250" C. is converted into the neutral phosphate
Co,(PO4)a-2H 2 O (H. Debray, Ann.de. Mmie, 1861, [3] 61, p. 438).
Cobalt ammonium phosphate, CoNHPO4-12HjO, is formed when
a soluble cobalt salt is digested for some time with excess of a warm
solution of ammonium phosphate. It separates in the form of small
rose-red crystals, which decompose on boiling with water.

Cobaltous cyanide, Co(CN) 2 -3H 2 O, is obtained when the carbonate
is dissolved in hydrocyanic acid or when the acetate is precipitated
by potassium cyanide. It is insoluble in dilute acids, but is readily
soluble in excess of potassium cyanide. The double cyanides of
cobalt are analogous to those of iron. Hydrocobaltocyanic acid
is not known, but its potassium salt, K4Co(CN) 6t is formed when
freshly precipitated cobalt cyanide is dissolved in an ice-cold solution
of potassium cyanide. The liquid is precipitated by alcohol, and the
washed and dried precipitate is then dissolved in water and allowed
to stand, when the salt separates in dark-coloured crystals. In
alkaline solution it readily takes up oxygen and is converted into
potassium cobalticyanide, KjCo(CN), which may also be obtained
by evaporating a solution of cobalt cyanide, in excess of potassium
cyanide, in the presence of air, 8KCN+2Co(CN) 2 +H 2 O+O =
2KjCo(CN)a+2KHO. It forms monoclinic crystals which are very
soluble in water. From its aqueous solution, concentrated hydro-
chloric acid precipitates hydrocobalticyanic acid, H 3 Co(CN) 6 , as a
colourless solid which is very deliquescent, and is not attacked by
concentrated hydrochloric and nitric acids. For a description of the
various salts of this acid, see P. Wesselsky, Berichte, 1869, 2, p. 588.

Cobaltammines. A large number of cobalt compounds are

known, of which the empirical composition represents them as salts

of cobalt to which one or more molecules of ammonia have been

added. These salts have been divided into the following series :

Diammine Series, [Co(NH 3 ) 2 ]X4M. In these salts X = NO 2 and

M=one atomic proportion of a monovalent metal, or the

equivalent quantity of a divalent metal.
Triammine Series, [Co(NH,),]X,. Here X = C1, NO,, NO 2 , JSO,,

&c.
Tetrammine Series. This group may be divided into the

Praseo-salts [R 2 Co(NH 3 ),JX, where X = C1.

Croceo-salts [(NO 2 ) 2 Co(NH 3 )4]X, which may be considered
as a subdivision of the praseo-salts.

Tetrammine purpureo-salts [RCo(NH 3 )4-H 2 O]X 2 .

Tetrammine roseo-salts [Co(NH 3 ) 4 -(H 2 O) 2 ]X 3 .

Fuseo-salts [Co(NH 3 >4]OH-X 2 .
Pentammine Series.

Pentammine purpureo-salts [R-Co(NH 3 ) 6 ]Xj where X =
Cl, Br, NO 3 , NO 2 , iSO4, &c.

Pentammine roseo-salts [Co(NHs)5-H 2 O]X 2 .
Hexammine or Luteo Series [Co(NH 3 ) 6 ]X 3 .

The hexammine salts are formed by the oxidizing action of air
on dilute ammoniacal solutions of cobaltous salts, especially in
presence of a large excess of ammonium chloride. They form
yellow or bronze-coloured crystals, which decompose on boiling
their aqueous solution. On boiling their solution in caustic alkalis,
ammonia is liberated. The pentammine purpureo-salts are formed
from the luteo-salts by loss of ammonia, or from an air slowly
oxidized ammoniacal cobalt salt solution, the precipitated luteo-
salt being filtered off and the filtrate boiled with concentrated acids.
They are violet-red in colour, and on boiling or long standing with
dilute acids they pass into the corresponding roseo-salts.

The pentammine nitrito salts are known as the xanthocobalt salts
and have the general formula [NO 2 -Co-(NH 3 ) 5 ]X 2 . They are formed
by the action of nitrous fumes on ammoniacal solutions of cobaltous
salts, or purpureo-salts, or by the mutual reaction of chlorpurpureo-
salts and alkaline nitrites. They are soluble in water and give char-
acteristic precipitates with platinic and auric chlorides, and with
potassium ferrocyanide. The pentammine roseo-salts can be ob-
tained from the action of concentrated acids, in the cold, on air-
oxidized solutions of cobaltous salts. They are of a reddish colour
and usually crystallize well; on heating with concentrated acids
are usually transformed into the purpureo-salts. Their alkaline
solutions liberate ammonia on boiling. They give a characteristic
pale red precipitate with sodium pyrophosphate, soluble in an excess
of the precipitant; they also form precipitates on the addition of

platinic chloride and potassium ferrocyanide. For methods of
preparation of the tetrammine and triammine salts, see O. Dammer's
Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie, vol. 3 (containing a complete
account of the preparation of the cobaltammine salts). The diam-
mine salts are prepared by the action of alkaline nitrites on cobaltout
salts in the presence of much ammonium chloride or nitrate; they
are yellow or brown crystalline solids, not very soluble in cold water.

The above series of salts show striking differences in their be-
haviour towards reagents; thus, aqueous solutions of the luteo
chlorides are strongly ionized, as is shown by their high electric
conductivity ; and alf their chlorine is precipitated on the addition
of silver nitrate solution. The aqueous solution, however, does not
show the ordinary reactions of cobalt or of ammonia, and so it is to
be presumed that the salt ionizes into [Co(NHj),) and 3d'. The
purpureo chloride has only two-thirds of its chlorine precipitated
on the addition of silver nitrate, and the electric conductivity
is much less than that of the luteo chloride; again in the praseo-
salts only one-third of the chlorine is precipitated by silver nitrate,
the conductivity again falling; while in the triammine salts all
ionization has disappeared. For the constitution of these salts
and of the " metal ammonia " compounds generally, see A. Werner,
Zeit.Jur anorg. Chemie, 1893 et seq., and Berichte, 1895, et seq.;
and S. Jorgensen, Zeit.Jur anorg. Chemie, 1892 et seq.

The oxycobaltammines are a series of compounds of the general
type [Co 2 O 3 -H 2 (NH 3 )i ]X < first observed by L. Gmelin, and subse-
quently examined by E. Fremy, W. Gibbs and G. Vortmann (Monati-
hefte /ur Chemie, 1885, 6, p. 404), They result frpm the cobalt-
ammines by the direct taking up of oxygen and water. On heating,
they decompose, forming basic tetrammine salts.

The atomic weight of cobalt has been frequently determined,
the earlier results not being very concordant (see R. Schneider,
Pog. Ann., 1857, 101, p. 387; C. Marignac, Arch. Phys. Nat. [2], I,
P- 373; W. Gibbs, Amer. Jour. Sci. [2], 25, p. 483; J. B. Dumas,
Ann. Chim. Phys., 1859 [3], 55, p. 129; W. J. Russell, Jour. Chem.
Soc., 1863, 16, p. 51). C. Winkler, by the analysis of the chloride,
and by the action of iodine on the metal, obtained the values 59-37
and 59-07, whilst W. Hempel and H. Thiele (Zeit. f. anorg. Chem.,
1896, n, p. 73), by reducing cobalto-cobaltic oxide, and by the
analysis of the chloride, have obtained the values 58-56 and 58-48.
G. P. Baxter and others deduced the value 58-995 (O = 16).

Cobalt salts may be readily detected by the formation of the
black sulphide, in alkaline solution, and by the blue colour they
produce when fused with borax. For the quantitative determination
of cobalt, it is either weighed as the oxide, CojO4, obtained by
ignition of the precipitated monoxide, or it is reduced in a current
of hydrogen and weighed as metal. For the quantitative separation
of cobalt and nickel, see E. llintz (Zeit. f. anal. Chem., 1891, 30,
p. 227), and also NICKEL.

COBALTITE, a mineral with the composition CoAsS, cobalt
sulpharsenide. It is found as granular to compact masses, and
frequently as beautifully developed crystals, which have the same
symmetry as the isomorphous mineral pyrites, being cubic with
parallel hemihedrism. The usual forms are the cube, octahedron
and pentagonal dodecahedron (210). The colour is silver-white
with a reddish tinge, and the lustre brilliant and metallic,
hence the old name cobalt-glance; the streak is greyish-black.
The mineral is brittle, and possesses distinct cleavages parallel
to the faces of the cube; hardness 55; specific gravity 6-2.
The brilliant crystals from Tunaberg in Sodermanland and
Hakansboda in Vestmanland, Sweden, and from Skutterud near
Drammen in Norway are well known in mineral collections.
The cobalt ores at these localities occur with pyrites and chalco-
pyrite as bands in gneiss. Crystals have also been found at
Khetri in Rajputana, and under the name sehla the mineral
is used by Indian jewellers for producing a blue enamel on gold
and silver ornaments. Massive cobaltite has been found in small
amount in the Botallack mine, Cornwall. A variety containing
much iron replacing cobalt, and known as ferrocobaltite (Ger.
Stahlkobalt), occurs at Siegen in Westphalia. (L. J. S.)

COBAN, or SANTO DOMINGO DE COBAN, the capital of the
department of Alta Vera Paz in central Guatemala; about
90 m. N. of the city of Guatemala, on the Cojab6n, a left-hand
tributary of the Polochic. Pop. (1905) about 31,000. The town
is built in a mountainous and fertile district, and consists chiefly
of adobe Indian cottages, surrounded by gardens of flowering
shrubs. More modern houses have been erected for the foreign
residents, among whom the Germans are numerically pre-
dominant. In the chief square of the town stands a 16th-century
Dominican church, externally plain, but covered internally with
curious Indian decorations. The municipal offices, formerly
a college for priests, are remarkable for their handsome but

6o6

COBAR COBBETT

disproportionately large gateway in Renaissance style. Despite
the want of a railway, Coban has a flourishing trade in coffee
and cinchona; cocoa, vanilla and sugar-cane are also cultivated,
and there are manufactures of rum, cotton fabrics, soap and
cigars. The prosperity of the town is largely due to the industry
of the Quecchi, Kacchi or Kakchi Indians who form the majority
of the inhabitants.

Coban was founded in the i6th century by Dominican monks
under Fray Pedro de Angulo, whose portrait is preserved in the
church. In honour of the emperor Charles V. (1500-1538),
Coban received the name of Ciudad Imperial (which soon became
obsolete), together with a coat of arms and other privileges
belonging to a Spanish city of the first class.

COBAR, a mining town of Robinson county, New South Wales,
Australia, 459 m. N.W. by W. of Sydney by rail. Pop. (1901)
3371. The district of which Cobar is the centre abounds in
minerals of all kinds, but copper and gold are those most
extensively worked. The Great Cobar copper-mine is the most
important in the state, and there are a number of successful gold-
mines. In addition to the mining, the district produces large
quantities of wool. Cobar is a municipality, as also is the
adjacent township of Gladstone, with a mining population.

COBB, HOWELL (1815-1868), American political leader, was
born at Cherry Hill, Jefferson county, Georgia, on the 7th of
September 1815. He graduated from Franklin College (Univer-
sity of Georgia) in 1834, and two years later was admitted to the
bar. From 1837 to 1840 he was solicitor-general for the western
circuit of his state; from 1843 to I 8si and from 1855 to 1857
he was a member of the National House of Representatives,
becoming Democratic leader in that body in 1847, and serving
as speaker in 1840-1851; from 1851 to 1853 he was governor
of his state; and from March 1857 to December 1860 he was
secretary of the treasury in President Buchanan's cabinet. He
was president of the convention of the seceded states which
drafted a constitution for the Confederacy. In 1861 he was
appointed colonel of a regiment and two years later was made
a major-general. He died in New York on the gth of October
1868. He sided with President Jackson on the question of nulli-
fication; was an efficient supporter of President Folk's admini-
stration during the Mexican War; and was an ardent advocate
of slavery extension into the Territories, but when the Com-
promise of 1850 had been agreed upon he became its staunch
supporter as a Union Democrat, and on that issue was elected
governor of Georgia by a large majority. In 1860, however,
he ceased to be a Unionist, and became a leader of the secession
movement. From the close of the war until his death he
vigorously opposed the Reconstruction Acts.

COBBETT, WILLIAM (1766-1835), English politician and
writer, was born near Farnham in Surrey, according to his own
statement, on the gth of March 1766. He was the grandson of
a farm-labourer, and the son of a small farmer; and during his
early life he worked on his father's farm. At the age of sixteen,
inspired with patriotic feeling by the sight of the men-of-war in
Portsmouth harbour, he thought of becoming a sailor; and in
May 1783, having, while on his way to Guildford fair, met the
London coach, he suddenly resolved to accompany it to its
destination. He arrived at Ludgate Hill with exactly half-a-
crown in his pocket, but an old gentleman who had travelled
with him invited him to his house, and obtained for him the situa-
tion of copying clerk in an attorney's office. He greatly disliked
his new occupation; and rejecting all his father's entreaties that
he would return home, he went down to Chatham early in 1784
with the intention of joining the marines. By some mistake,
however, he was enlisted in a regiment of the line, which rather
more than a year after proceeded to St John's, New Brunswick.
All his leisure time during the months he remained at Chatham
was devoted to reading the contents of the circulating library
of the town, and getting up by heart Lowth's English Grammar.
His uniform good conduct, and the power of writing correctly
which he had acquired, quickly raised him to the rank of corporal,
from which, without passing through the intermediate grade
of sergeant, he was promoted to that of sergeant-major. In

November 1791 he was discharged at his own request, and
received the official thanks of the major and the general who
signed his discharge. In February 1792 Cobbett married the
daughter of a sergeant-major of artillery, whom he had met some
years before in New Brunswick. But his liberty was threatened
in consequence of his bringing a charge of peculation against
certain officers in his old regiment, and he went over to France
in March, where he studied the language and literature. In his
absence, the inquiry into his charges ended in an acquittal.

In September he crossed to the United States, and supported
himself at Wilmington, Delaware, by teaching English to French
emigrants. Among these was Talleyrand, who employed him,
according to Cobbett's story, not because he was ignorant of
English, but because he wished to purchase his pen. Cobbett
made his first literary sensation by his Observations on the
Emigration of a Martyr to the Cause of Liberty, a clever retort on
Dr Priestley, who had just landed in America complaining of
the treatment he had received in England. This pamphlet was
followed by a number of papers, signed " Peter Porcupine,"
and entitled Prospect from the Congress Gallery, the Political
Censor and the Porcupine's Gazette. In the spring of 1796,
having quarrelled with his publisher, he set up in Philadelphia
as bookseller and publisher of his own works. On the day of
opening, his windows were filled with prints of the most extrava-
gant of the French Revolutionists and of the founders of the
American Republic placed side by side, along with portraits of
George III., the British ministers, and any one else he could find
likely to be obnoxious to the people; and he continued to pour
forth praises of Great Britain and scorn of the institutions of
the United States, with special abuse of the French party. Abuse
and threats were of course in turn showered upon him, and in
August 1797, for one of his attacks on Spain, he was prosecuted,
though unsuccessfully, by the Spanish ambassador. Immediately
on this he was taken up for libels upon American statesmen,
and bound in recognizances to the amount of $4000, and shortly
after he was prosecuted a third time for saying that Dr Benjamin
Rush, who was much addicted to blood-letting, killed nearly
all the patients he attended. The trial was repeatedly deferred,
and was not settled till the end of 1799, when he was fined
$5000. After this last misfortune, for a few months Cobbett
carried on a newspaper called the Rushlight; but in June 1800
he set sail for England.

At home he found himself regarded as the champion of order
and monarchy. Windham invited him to dinner, introduced
him to Pitt, and begged him to accept a share in the True Briton.
He refused the offer and joined an old friend, John Morgan, in
opening a book shop in Pall Mall. For some time he published
the Porcupine's Gazette, which was followed in January 1802 by
the Weekly Political Register. In 1801 appeared his Letters to
Lord Hawkesbury (afterwards earl of Liverpool) and his Letters
to the Rt. Hon. Henry Addington, in opposition to the proposed
peace of Amiens. On the conclusion of the peace (1802) Cobbett
made a still bolder protest; he determined to take no part in
the general illumination, and assisted by the sympathy of
his wife, who, being in delicate health, removed to the house of
a friend he carried out his resolve, allowing his windows to be
smashed and his door broken open by the angry mob. The
letters to Addington are among the most polished and dignified
of Cobbett's writings; but by 1803 he was once more revelling
in personalities. The government of Ireland was singled out
for wholesale attack; and a letter published in the Register
remarked of Hardwicke, the lord-lieutenant, that the appoint-
ment was like setting the surgeon's apprentice to bleed the
pauper patients. For this, though not a word had been uttered
against Hardwicke's character, Cobbett was fined 500; and
two days after the conclusion of this trial a second commenced,
at the suit of Plunkett, the solicitor-general for Ireland, which
resulted in a similar fine. About this time he began to write in
support of Radical views; and to cultivate the friendship of
Sir Francis Burdett, from whom he received considerable sums
of money, and other favours, for which he gave no very grateful
return. In 1809 he was once more in the most serious trouble.

COBBOLD COBDEN

607

He had bitterly commented on the flogging of some militia,
because their mutiny had been repressed and their sentence
carried out by the aid of a body of German troops, and in con-
sequence he was fined 1000 and imprisoned for two years. His
indomitable vigour was never better displayed. He still con-
tinued to publish the Register, and to superintend the affairs of
his farm; a hamper containing specimens of its produce and
other provisions came to him every week; and he amused
himself with the company of some of his children and with
weekly letters from the rest. On his release a public dinner,
presided over by Sir F. Burdett, was held in honour of the event.
He returned to his farm at Botley in Hampshire, and continued
in his old course, extending his influence by the publication of
the Twopenny Trash, which, not being periodical, escaped the
newspaper stamp tax. Meanwhile, however, he had contracted
debts to the amount of 34,000 (for it is said that, notwithstand-
ing the aversion he publicly expressed to paper currency, he
had carried on his business by the aid of accommodation bills
to a very large amount) ; and early in 1817 he fled to the United
States. But his pen was as active as ever; from Long Island
his MS. for the Register was regularly sent to England; and
it was here that he wrote his clear and interesting English
Grammar, of which 10,000 copies were sold in a month.

His return to England was accompanied by his weakest
exhibition the exhuming and bringing over of the bones of
Thomas Paine, whom he had once heartily abused, but on whom
he now wrote a panegyrical ode. Nobody paid any attention
to the affair; the relics he offered were not purchased; and the
bones were reinterred.

Cobbett's great aim was now to obtain a seat in the House
of Commons. He calmly suggested that his friends should assist
him by raising the sum of 5000; it would be much better, he
said, than a meeting of 50,000 persons. He first offered himself
for Coventry, but failed; in 1826 he was by a large number of
votes last of the candidates for Preston; and in 1828 he could
find no one to propose him for the office of common councillor.
In 1830, that year of revolutions, he was prosecuted for inciting
to rebellion, but the jury disagreed, and soon after, through
the influence of one of his admirers, Mr Fielden, who was himself
a candidate for Oldham, he was returned for that town. In the
House his speeches were listened to with amused attention.
His position is sufficiently marked by the sneer of Peel that he
would attend to Mr Cobbett's observations exactly as if they
had been those of a "respectable member"; and the only
striking part of his career was his absurd motion that the king
should be prayed to remove Sir Robert Peel's name from the list
of the privy council, because of the change he had proposed
in the currency in 1819. In 1834 Cobbett was again member
for Oldham, but his health now began to give way, and in June
1835 he left London for his farm, where he died on the i6th of
that month.

Cobbett's account of his home-life makes him appear singularly
happy; his love and admiration of his wife never failed; and
his education of his children seems to .have been distinguished
by great kindliness, and by a good deal of healthy wisdom,
mingled with the prejudices due to the peculiarities of his temper
and circumstances. Cobbett's ruling characteristic was a sturdy
egoism, which had in it something of the nobler element of self-
respect. A firm will, a strong brain, feelings not over-sensitive,
an intense love of fighting, a resolve to get on, in the sense of
making himself a power in the world these are the principal
qualities which account for the success of his career. His
opinions were the fruits of his emotions. It was enough for him
to get a thorough grasp of one side of a question, about the other
side he did not trouble himself; but he always firmly seizes the
facts which make for his view, and expresses them with unfail-
ing clearness. His argument, which is never subtle, has always
the appearance of weight, however flimsy it may be in fact.
His sarcasm is seldom polished or delicate, but usually rough,
and often abusive, while coarse nicknames were his special
delight. His style is admirably correct and always extremely
forcible.

Cobbett's contributions to periodical literature occupy 100
volumes, twelve of which consist' of the papers published at Phila-
delphia between 1794 and I8o ' and the rest of tne Weekly Political
Register, which ended only with Cobbett's death (June 1835). An
abridgment of these works, with notes, was published by his sons,
John M. Cobbett and James P. Cobbett. Besides this he published
An Account of the Horrors of the French Revolution, and a work
tracing all these horrors to " the licentious politics and infidel
philosophy of the present age " (both 1798); A Year's Residence
in the United States; Parliamentary History of England from the
Norman Conquest to 1800 (1806); Cottage Economy; Roman History;
French Grammar and English Grammar, both in the form of letters;
Geographical Dictionary of England and Wales; History of the
Regency and Reign of George IV., containing a defence of Queen
Caroline, whose cause he warmly advocated (1830-1834); Life of
Andrew Jackson, President of the United Stales (1834); Legacy to
Labourers; Legacy to Peel; Legacy to Parsons (1835), an attack on
the secular claims of the Established Church; Doom of Tithes;
Rural Rides (1830; new ed. 1885), an account of his tours on horse-
back through England, full of admirable descriptive writing;
Advice to Young Men and Women; Cobbett's Corn (1828); and
History of the Protestant Reformation in England and Ireland (1824-
1827), in which he defends the monasteries, Queen Mary and Bonner,
and attacks the Reformation, Henry VIII., Elizabeth and all who
helped to bring it about, with such vehemence that the work was
translated into French and Italian, and extensively circulated
among Roman Catholics.

In 1708 Cobbett published in America an account of his early life,
under the title of The Life and Adventures of Peter Porcupine; and
he left papers relating to his subsequent career. His life has been
written by R. Huish (1835), E. Smith (1878), and E. I. Carlyle (1904).
See also the annotated edition of the Register (1835).

COBBOLD, THOMAS SPENCER (1828-1886), English man of
science, was born at Ipswich in 1828, a son of the Rev. Richard
Cobbold (1797-1877), the author of the History of Margaret
Catchpole. After graduating in medicine at Edinburgh in 1851,
he was appointed lecturer on botany at'St Mary's hospital,
London, in 1857, and also on zoology and comparative anatomy
at Middlesex hospital in 1861. From 1868 he acted as Swiney
lecturer on geology at the British Museum until 1873, when he
became professor of botany at the Royal Veterinary College,
afterwards filling a chair of helminthology which was specially
created for him at that institution. He died in London on the
20th of March 1886. His special subject was helminthology,
particularly the worms parasitic in man and animals, and as a
physician he gained a considerable reputation in the diagnosis
of cases depending on the presence of such organisms. His
numerous writings include Entozoa (1864); Tapeworms (1866);
Parasites (1879); Human Parasites (1882); and Parasites of
Meat and Prepared Flesh Food (1884).

COBDEN, RICHARD (1804-1865), English manufacturer and
Radical politician, was born at a farmhouse called Dunford,
near Midhurst, in Sussex, on the 3rd of June 1804. The family
had been resident in that neighbourhood for many generations,
occupied partly in trade and partly in agriculture. Formerly
there had been in the town of Midhurst a small manufacture of
hosiery with which the Cobdens were connected, though all
trace of it had disappeared before the birth of Richard. His
grandfather was a maltster in that town, an energetic and
prosperous man, almost always the bailiff or chief magistrate,
and taking rather a notable part in county matters. But his
father, forsaking that trade, took to farming at an unpropitious
time. He was amiable and kind-hearted, and greatly liked by
his neighbours, but not a man of business habits, and he did not
succeed in his farming enterprise. He died when his son Richard
was a child, and the care of the family devolved upon the mother,
who was a woman of strong sense and of great energy of character,
and who, after her husband's death, left Dunford and returned
to Midhurst.

The educational advantages of Richard Cobden were not
very ample. There was a grammar school at Midhurst, which
at one time had enjoyed considerable reputation, but which had
fallen into decay. It was there that he had to pick up such
rudiments of knowledge as formed his first equipment in life,
but from his earliest years he was indefatigable in the work of
self-cultivation. When fifteen or sixteen years of age he went
to London to the warehouse of Messrs Partridge & Price, in
Eastcheap, one of the partners being his uncle. His relative,

6o8

COBDEN

noting the lad's passionate addiction to study, solemnly warned
him against indulging such a taste, as likely to prove a fatal
obstacle to his success in commercial life. But the admonition
was unheeded, for while unweariedly diligent in business, he
was in his intervals of leisure a most assiduous student. During
his residence in London he found access to the London Institution,
and made ample use of its large and well-selected library.

When he was about twenty years of age he became a com-
mercial traveller, and soon became eminently successful in his
calling. But never content to sink into the mere trader, he
sought to introduce among those he met on the " road " a higher
tone of conversation than usually marks the commercial room,
and there were many of his associates who, when he had attained
eminence, recalled the discussions on political economy and
kindred topics with which he was wont to enliven and elevate
the travellers' table. In 1830 Cobden learnt that Messrs Fort,
calico printers at Sabden, near Clitheroe, were about to retire
from business, and he, with two other young men, Messrs
Sheriff and GUlet, who were engaged in the same commercial
house as himself, determined to make an effort to acquire the
succession. They had, however, very little capital among them.
But it may be taken as an illustration of the instinctive confidence
which Cobden through life inspired in those with whom he came
into contact, that Messrs Fort consented to leave to these untried
young men a large portion of their capital in the business. Nor
was their confidence misplaced. The new firm had soon three
establishments, one at Sabden, where the printing works were,
one in London and one in Manchester for the sale of their goods.
This last was under the direct management of Cobden, who, in
1830 or 1831, settled in the city with which his name became
afterwards so closely associated. The success of this enterprise
was decisive and rapid, and the " Cobden prints " soon became
known through the country as of rare value both for excellence
of material and beauty of design. There can be no doubt that
if Cobden had been satisfied to devote all his energies to com-
mercial life he might soon have attained to great opulence, for
it is understood that his share in the profits of the business he
had established amounted to from 8000 to 10,000 a year.
But he had other tastes, which impelled him irresistibly to
pursue those studies which, as Bacon says, " serve for delight,
for ornament and for ability." Prentice, the historian of the
Anti-Corn-Law League, who was then editor of the Manchester
Times, describes how, in the year 1835, he received for publica-
tion in his paper a series of admirably written letters, under the
signature of " Libra," discussing commercial and economical
questions with rare ability. After some time he discovered that
the author of these letters was Cobden, whose name was until
then quite unknown to him.

In 1835 he published his first pamphlet, entitled England,
Ireland and A merica, by a Manchester Manufacturer. It attracted
great attention, and ran rapidly through several editions. It
was marked by a breadth and boldness of views on political and
social questions which betokened an original mind. In this
production Cobden advocated the same principles of peace, non-
intervention, retrenchment and free trade to which he continued
faithful to the last day of his life. Immediately after the publica-
tion of this pamphlet, he paid a visit to the United States, landing
in New York on the 7th of June 1835. He devoted about three
months to this tour, passing rapidly through the seaboard states
and the adjacent portion of Canada, and collecting as he went
large stores of information respecting the condition, resources
and prospects of the great western republic. Soon after his
return to England he began to prepare another work for the
press, which appeared towards the end of 1836, under the title
of Russia. It was mainly designed to combat a wild outbreak
of Russophobia which, under the inspiration of David Urquhart,
was at that time taking possession of the public mind. But it
contained also a bold indictment of the whole system of foreign
policy then in vogue, founded on ideas as to the balance of power
and the necessity of large armaments for the protection of
commerce. While this pamphlet was in the press, delicate health
obliged him to leave England, and for several months, at the end

of 1836 and the beginning of 1837, he travelled in Spain, Turkey
and Egypt. During his visit to Egypt he had an interview
with Mehemet Ali, of whose character as a reforming monarch
he did not bring away a very favourable impression. He re-
turned to England in April 1837. From that time Cobden became
a conspicuous figure in Manchester, taking a leading part in the
local politics of the town and district. Largely owing to his
exertions, the Manchester Athenaeum was established, at the
opening of which he was chosen to deliver the inaugural address.
He became a member of the chamber of commerce, and soon
infused new life into that body. He threw himself with great
energy into the agitation which led to the incorporation of the
city, and was elected one of its first aldermen. He began also
to take a warm interest in the cause of popular education.
Some of his first attempts in public speaking were at meetings
which he convened at Manchester, Salford, Bolton, Rochdale
and other adjacent towns, to advocate the establishment of
British schools. It was while on a mission for this purpose to
Rochdale that he first formed the acquaintance of John Bright,
who afterwards became his distinguished coadjutor in the free-
trade agitation. Nor was it long before his fitness for parliamen-
tary life was recognized by his friends. In 1837, the death of
William IV. and the accession of Queen Victoria led to a general
election. Cobden was candidate for Stockport, but was defeated,
though not by a large majority.

In 1838 an anti-Corn-Law association was formed at Man-
chester, which, on his suggestion, was afterwards changed into a
national association, under the title of the Anti-Corn-Law League
(see CORN LAWS). Of that famous association Cobden was from
first to last the presiding genius and the animating soul. During
the seven years between the formation of the league and its
final triumph, he devoted himself wholly to the work of pro-
mulgating his economic doctrines. His labours were as various
as they were incessant now guiding the councils of the league,
now addressing crowded and enthusiastic meetings of his sup-
porters in London or the large towns of England and Scotland,
now invading the agricultural districts and challenging the
landlords to meet him in the presence of their own farmers, to dis-
cuss the question in dispute, and now encountering the Chartists,
led by Feargus O'Connor. But whatever was the character
of his audience he never failed, by the clearness of his statements,
the force of his reasoning and the felicity of his illustrations,
to make a deep impression on the minds of his hearers.

In 1841, Sir Robert Peel having defeated the Melbourne
ministry in parliament, there was a general election, when Cobden
was returned for Stockport. His opponents had confidently
predicted that he would fail utterly in the House of Commons.
He did not wait long, after his admission into that assembly,
in bringing their predictions to the test. Parliament met on the
igth of August. On the 24th, in course of the debate on the
Address, Cobden delivered his first speech. " It was remarked,"
says Miss Martineau, in her History of the Peace, " that he was
not treated in the House with the courtesy usually accorded to
a new member, and it was perceived that he did not need such
observance." With perfect self-possession, which was not dis-
turbed by the jeers that greeted some of his statements, and
with the utmost simplicity, directness and force, he presented
the argument against the corn-laws in such a form as startled
his audience, and also irritated some of them, for it was a style
of eloquence very unlike the conventional style which prevailed
in parliament.

From that day he became an acknowledged power in the House,
and though addressing a most unfriendly audience, he compelled
attention by his thorough mastery of his subject, and by the
courageous boldness with which he charged the ranks of his
adversaries. He soon came to be recognized as one of the fore-
most debaters on those economical and commercial quostions
which at that time so much occupied the attention of parliament;
and the most prejudiced and bitter of his opponents were fain to
acknowledge that they had to deal with a man whom the most
practised and powerful orators of their party found it hard to
cope with, and to whose eloquence, indeed, the great statesman

COBDEN

609

in whom they put their trust was obliged ultimately to surrender.
On the i yth of February 1843 an extraordinary scene took place
in the House of Commons. Cobden had spoken with great
fervour of the deplorable suffering and distress which at that time
prevailed in the country, for which, he added, he held Sir Robert
Peel, as the head of the government, responsible. This remark,
when it was spoken, passed unnoticed, being indeed nothing
more than one of the commonplaces of party warfare. But a
few weeks before, Mr Drummond, who was Sir Robert Peel's
private secretary, had been shot dead in the street by a lunatic.
In consequence of this, and the manifold anxieties of the time
with which he was harassed, the mind of the great statesman
was no doubt in a moody and morbid condition, and when he
arose to speak later in the evening, he referred in excited and
agitated tones to the remark, as an incitement to violence
against his person. Sir Robert Peel's party, catching at this hint,
threw themselves into a frantic state of excitement, and when
Cobden attempted to explain that he meant official, not personal
responsibility, they drowned his voice with clamorous and in-
sulting shouts. But Peel lived to make ample and honourable
amend for this unfortunate ebullition, for not only did he " fully
and unequivocally withdraw the imputation which was thrown out
in the heat of debate under an erroneous impression," but when
the great free-trade battle had been won, he took the wreath of
victory from his own brow, and placed it on that of his old
opponent, in the following graceful words: " The name which
ought to be, and will be associated with the success of these
measures, is not mine, or that of the noble Lord (Russell), but
the name of one who, acting I believe from pure and disinterested
motives, has, with untiring energy, made appeals to our reason,
and has enforced those appeals with an eloquence the more to
be admired because it was unaffected and unadorned; the
name which ought to be chiefly associated with the success of
these measures is the name of Richard Cobden." Cobden had,
indeed, with unexampled devotion, sacrificed his business, his
domestic comforts and for a time his health to the public
interests. His friends therefore felt, at the close of that long
campaign, that the nation owed him some substantial token of
gratitude and admiration for those sacrifices. No sooner was
the idea of such a tribute started than liberal contributions came
from all quarters, which enabled his friends to present him with
a sum of 80,000. Had he been inspired with personal ambition,
he might have entered upon the race of political advancement
with the prospect of attaining the highest official prizes. Lord
John Russell, who, soon after the repeal of the corn laws, suc-
ceeded Sir Robert Peel as first minister, invited Cobden to join
his government. But he preferred keeping himself at liberty
to serve his countrymen unshackled by official ties, and declined
the invitation. He withdrew for a time from England. His
first intention was to seek complete seclusion in Egypt or Italy,
to recover health and strength after his long and exhausting
labours. But his fame had gone forth throughout Europe,
and intimations reached him from many quarters that his voice
would be listened to everywhere with favour, in advocacy of the
doctrines to the triumph of which he had so much contributed at
home. Writing to a friend in July 1846, he says " I am going
to tell you of a fresh project that has been brewing in my brain.
I have given up all idea of burying myself in Egypt or Italy. I
am going on an agitating tour through the continent of Europe."
Then, referring to messages he had received from influential
persons in France. Prussia, Austria, Russia and Spain to the
effect mentioned above, he adds: " Well, I will, with God's
assistance during the next twelve months, visit all the large
states of Europe, see their potentates or statesmen, and endeavour
to enforce those truths which have been irresistible at home. Why
should I rust in inactivity? If the public spirit of my country-
men affords me the means of travelling as their missionary, I
will be the first ambassador from the people of this country to
the nations of the continent. I am impelled to this by an
instinctive emotion such as has never deceived me. I feel that
I could succeed in making out a stronger case for the prohibitive
nations of Europe to compel them to adopt a freer system than

VI. 20

I had here to overturn our protection policy." This programme
he fulfilled. He visited in succession France, Spain, Italy,
Germany and Russia. He was received everywhere with marks
of distinction and honour. In many of the principal capitals
he was invited to public banquets, which afforded him an op-
portunity of propagating those principles of which he was re-
garded as the apostle. But beside these public demonstrations
he sought and found access in private to many of the leading
statesmen, in the various countries he visited, with a view to
indoctrinate them with the same principles. During his absence
there was a general election, and he was returned (1847) for
Stockport and for the West Riding of Yorkshire. He chose to sit
for the latter.

When Cobden returned from the continent he addressed himself
to what seemed to him the logical complement of free trade,
namely, the promotion of peace and the reduction of naval and
military armaments. His abhorrence of war amounted to a
passion. Throughout his long labours in behalf of unrestricted
commerce he never lost sight of this, as being the most precious
result of the work in which he was engaged, its tendency to
diminish the hazards of war and to bring the nations of the world
into closer and more lasting relations of peace and friendship
with each other. He was not deterred by the fear of ridicule
or the reproach of Utopianism from associating himself openly,
and with all the ardour of his nature, with the peace party in
England. In 1849 he brought forward a proposal in parliament in
favour of international arbitration, and in 1851 a motion for
mutual reduction of armaments. He was not successful in either
case, not did he expect to be. In pursuance of the same-object, he
identified himself with a series of remarkable peace congresses
international assemblies designed to unite the intelligence and
philanthropy of the nations of Christendom in a league against
war which from 1848 to 1851 were held successively in Brussels,
Paris, Frankfort, London, Manchester and Edinburgh.

On the establishment of the French empire in 1851-1852 a
violent panic took possession of the public mind. The press
promulgated the wildest alarms as to the intentions of Louis
Napoleon, who was represented as contemplating a sudden and
piratical descent upon the English coast without pretext or
provocation. By a series of powerful speeches in and out of
parliament, and by the publication of his masterly pamphlet,
17 pj and 1853, Cobden sought to calm the passions of his country-
men. By this course he sacrificed the great popularity he had
won as the champion of free trade, and became for a time the
best-abused man in England. Immediately afterwards, owing
to the quarrel about the Holy Places which arose in the east of
Europe, public opinion suddenly veered round, and all the
suspicion and hatred which had been directed against the emperor
of the French were diverted from him to the emperor of Russia.
Louis Napoleon was taken into favour as England's faithful
ally, and in a whirlwind of popular excitement the nation was
swept into the Crimean War. Cobden, who had travelled in
Turkey, and had studied the condition of that country with great
care for many years, discredited the outcry about maintaining the
independence and integrity of the Ottoman empire which was the
battle-cryof the day. He denied that itwas possible to maintain
them, and no less strenuously denied that it was desirable even
if it were possible. He believed that the jealousy of Russian
aggrandizement and the dread of Russian power were absurd
exaggerations. He maintained that the future of European
Turkey was in the hands of the Christian population, and that it
would have been wiser for England to ally herself with them
rather than with the doomed and decaying Mahommedan
power. " You must address yourselves," he said in the House
of Commons, " as men of sense and men of energy, to the
question what are you to do with the Christian population?
for Mahommedanism cannot be maintained, and I should be
sorry to see this country fighting for the maintenance of Mahom-
medanism. . . . You may keep Turkey on the map of Europe,
you may call the country by the name of Turkey if you like,
but do not think you can keep up the Mahommedan rule in the
country." The torrent of popular sentiment in favour of war

6io

COBDEN

was, however, irresistible; and Cobden and Bright were over-
whelmed with obloquy.

At the beginning of 1857 tidings from China reached England of
a rupture between the British plenipotentiary in that country
and the governor of the Canton provinces in reference to a small
vessel or lorcha called the " Arrow," which had resulted in the
English admiral destroying the river forts, burning 23 ships
belonging to the Chinese navy and bombarding the city of
Canton. After a careful investigation of the official documents,
Cobden became convinced that those were utterly unrighteous
proceedings. He brought forward a motion in parliament
to this effect, which led to a long and memorable debate, lasting
over four nights, in which he was supported by Sydney Herbert,
Sir James Graham, Gladstone, Lord John Russell and Disraeli,
and which ended in the defeat of Lord Palmerston by a majority
of sixteen. But this triumph cost him his seat in parliament.
On the dissolution which followed Lord Palmerston's defeat,
Cobden became candidate for Huddersfield, but the voters of
that town gave the preference to his opponent, who had supported
the Russian War and approved of the proceedings at Canton.
Cobden was thus relegated to private life, and retiring to his
country house at Dunford, he spent his time in perfect content-
ment in cultivating his land and feeding his pigs.

He took advantage of this season of leisure to pay another visit
to the United States. During his absence the general election of
1859 occurred, when he was returned unopposed for Rochdale.
Lord Palmerston was again prime minister, and having discovered
that the advanced liberal party was not so easily " crushed "
as he had apprehended, he made overtures of reconciliation, and
invited Cobden and Milner Gibson to become members of his
government. In a frank, cordial letter which was delivered to
Cobden on his landing in Liverpool, Lord Palmerston offered
him the presidency of the Board of Trade, with a seat in the
Cabinet. Many of his friends urgently pressed him to accept;
but without a moment's hesitation he determined to decline
the proposed honour. On his arrival in London he called on Lord
Palmerston, and with the utmost frankness told him that he had
opposed and denounced him so frequently in public, and that
he still differed so widely from his views, especially on questions
of foreign policy, that he could not, without doing violence
to his own sense of duty and consistency, serve under him as
minister. Lord Palmerston tried good-humouredly to combat
his objections, but without success.

But though he declined to share the responsibility of Lord
Palmerston's administration, he was willing to act as its repre-
sentative in promoting freer commercial intercourse between Eng-
land and France. But the negotiations for this purpose originated
with himself in conjunction with Bright and Michel Chevalier.
Towards the close of 1859 he called upon Lord Palmerston, Lord
John Russell and Gladstone, and signified his intention to visit
France and get into communication with the emperor and his
ministers, with a view to promote this object. These statesmen
expressed in general terms their approval of his purpose, but he
went entirely on his own account, clothed at first with no official
authority. On his arrival in Paris he had a long audience with
Napoleon, in which he urged many arguments in favour of re-
moving those obstacles which prevented the two countries from
being brought into closer dependence on one another, and he
succeeded in making a considerable inpression on his mind in
favour of free trade. He then addressed himself to the French
ministers, and had much earnest conversation, especially with
Rouher, whom he found well inclined to the economical and com-
mercial principles which he advocated. After a good deal of
time spent in these preliminary and unofficial negotiations, the
question of a treaty of commerce between the two countries
having entered into the arena of diplomacy, Cobden was requested
by the British government to act as their plenipotentiary in the
matter in conjunction with Lord Cowley, their ambassador in
France. But it proved a very long and laborious undertaking.
He had to contend with the bitter hostility of the French pro-
tectionists, which occasioned a good deal of vacillation on the
part of the emperor and his ministers. There were also delays,

hesitations and cavils at home, which were more inexplicable.
He was, moreover, assailed with great violence by a powerful
section of the English press, while the large number of minute
details with which he had to deal in connexion with proposed
changes in the French tariff, involved a tax on his patience and
industry which would have daunted a less resolute man But
there was one source of embarrassment greater than all the rest.
One strong motive which had impelled him to engage in this
enterprise was his anxious desire to establish more friendly
relations between England and France, and to dispel those feelings
of mutual jealousy and alarm which were so frequently breaking
forth and jeopardizing peace between the two countries. This
was the most powerful argument with which he had plied the
emperor and the members of the French government, and which
he had found most efficacious with them. But while he was
in the midst of the negotiations, Lord Paimerstcn brought
forward in the House of Commons a measure for fortifying the
naval arsenals of England, which he introduced in a warlike
speech pointedly directed against France, as the source of danger
of invasion and attack, against which it was necessary to guard.
This produced irritation and resentment in Paris, and but for
the influence which Cobden had acquired, and the perfect trust
reposed in his sincerity, the negotiations would probably have
been altogether wrecked. At last, however, after nearly twelve
months' incessant labour, the work was completed in November
1860. " Rare," said Mr Gladstone, " is the privilege of any
man who, having fourteen years ago rendered to his country
one signal service, now again, within the same brief span of life,
decorated neither by land nor title, bearing no mark to distin-
guish him from the people he loves, has been permitted to perform
another great and memorable service to his sovereign and his
country."

On the conclusion of this work honours were offered to Cobden
by the governments of both the countries which he had so
greatly benefited. Lord Palmerston offered him a baronetcy
and a seat in the privy council, and the emperor of the French
would gladly have conferred upon him some distinguished mark
of his favour. But with characteristic disinterestedness and
modesty he declined all such honours.

Cobden's efforts in furtherance of free trade were always
subordinated to what he deemed the highest moral purposes
the promotion of peace on earth and goodwill among men. This
was his desire and hope as respects the commercial treaty with
France. He was therefore deeply disappointed and distressed to
find the old feeling of distrust still actively fomented by the press
and some of the leading politicians of the country. In 1862 he
published his pamphlet entitled The Three Panics, the object
of which was to trace the history and expose the folly of those
periodical visitations of alarm as to French designs with which
England had been afflicted for the preceding fifteen or sixteen
years.

When the Civil War threatened to break out in the United
States, Cobden was deeply distressed. But after the conflict
became inevitable his sympathies were wholly with the North,
because the South was fighting for slavery. His great anxiety,
however, was that the British nation should not be committed
to any unworthy course during the progress of that struggle.
And when relations with America were becoming critical and
menacing in consequence of the depredations committed on
American commerce by vessels issuing from British ports, he
brought the question before the House of Commons in a series
of speeches of rare clearness and force.

For several years Cobden had been suffering severely at in-
tervals from bronchial irritation and a difficulty of breathing.
Owing to this he had spent the winter of 1860 in Algeria, and
every subsequent winter he had to be very careful and confine
himself to the house, especially in damp and foggy weather.
In November 1864 he went down to Rochdale and delivered a
speech to his constituents the last he ever delivered. That
effort was followed by great physical prostration, and he deter-
mined not to quit his retirement at Midhurst until spring had
fairly set in. But in the month of March there were discussions

COBET

611

in the House of Commons on the alleged necessity of constructing
large defensive works in Canada. He was deeply impressed with
the folly of such a project, and he was seized with a strong desire
to go up to London and deliver his sentiments on the subject.
He left home on the 2ist of March, and caught a chill. He
recovered a little for a few days after his arrival in London;
but on the 2gth there was a relapse, and on the 2nd of April
1865 he expired peacefully at his apartments in Suffolk Street.

On the following day there was a remarkable scene in the House
of Commons. When the clerk read the orders of the day Lord
Palmerston rose, and in impressive and solemn tones declared
" it was not possible for the House to proceed to business without
every member recalling to his mind the great loss which the
House and country had sustained by the event which took place
yesterday morning." He then paid a generous tribute to the
virtues, the abilities and services of Cobden, and he was followed
by Disraeli, who with great force and felicity of language
delineated the character of the deceased statesman, who, he said,
" was an ornament to the House of Commons and an honour
to England." Bright also attempted to address the House,
but, after a sentence or two delivered in a tremulous voice, he
was overpowered with emotion, and declared he must leave to
a calmer moment what he had to say on the life and character of
the manliest and gentlest spirit that ever quitted or tenanted a
human form.

In the French Corps Legislatif, also, the vice-president, Forcade
la Roquette, referred to his death, and warm expressions of esteem
were repeated and applauded on every side. " The death of
Richard Cobden," said M. la Roquette, " is not alone a misfortune
for England, but a cause of mourning for France and humanity."
Drouyn de Lhuys, the French minister of foreign affairs, made his
death the subject of a special despatch, desiring the French
ambassador to express to the government " the mournful
sympathy and truly national regret which the death, as lamented
as premature, of Richard Cobden had excited on that side of the
Channel." " He is above all," he added, " in our eyes the repre-
sentative of those sentiments and those cosmopolitan principles
before which national frontiers and rivalries disappear; whilst
essentially of his country, he was still more of his time; he knew
what mutual relations could accomplish in our day for the
prosperity of peoples. Cobden, if I may be permitted to say so,
was an international man."

He was buried at West Lavington church, on the ?th of April.
His grave was surrounded by a large crowd of mourners, among
whom were Gladstone, Bright, Milner Gibson, Charles Villiers
and a host besides from all parts of the country. In 1866 the
Cobden Club was founded in London, to promote free-trade
economics, and it became a centre for political propaganda on
those lines; and prizes were instituted in his name at Oxford
and Cambridge.

Cobden had married in 1840 Miss Catherine Anne Williams,
a Welsh lady, and left five surviving daughters, of whom Mrs
Cobden-Unwin (wife of the publisher Mr Fisher Unwin), Mrs
Walter Sickert (wife of the painter) and Mrs Cobden-Sanderson
(wife of the well-known artist in bookbinding), afterwards
became prominent in various spheres, and inherited their father's
political interest. His only son died, to Cobden's inexpressible
grief, at the age of fifteen, in 1856.

The work of Cobden, and what is now called " Cobdenism,"
has in recent years been subjected to much criticism from the
newer school of English economists who advocate a " national
policy " (on the old lines of Alexander Hamilton and Friedrich
List) as against his cosmopolitan ideals. But it remains the fact
that his success with the free-trade movement was for years
unchallenged, and that the leaps and bounds with which English
commercial prosperity advanced after the repeal of the corn-
laws were naturally associated with the reformed fiscal policy,
so that the very name of protectionism came to be identified with
all that was not merely heterodox but hateful. The tariff reform
movement in England started by Mr Chamberlain (q.v.) had the
result of giving new boldness to the opponents of Manchesterism,
and the whole subject once more became controversial (see

FREE TRADE; CORN LAWS; PROTECTION; TARIFF; ECONOMICS).
Cobden has left a deep mark on English history, but he was
not himself a " scientific economist," and many of his confident
prophecies were completely falsified. As a manufacturer, and
with the circumstances of his own day before him, he considered
that it was " natural " for Great Britain to manufacture for the
world in exchange for her free admission of the more " natural "
agricultural products of other countries. He advocated the repeal
of the corn-laws, not essentially in order to make food cheaper,
but because it would develop industry and enable the manufac-
turers to get labour at low but sufficient wages; and he assumed
that other countries would be unable to compete with England
in manufactures under free trade, at the prices which would be
possible for English manufactured products. " We advocate,"
he said, " nothing but what is agreeable to the highest behests
of Christianity to buy in the cheapest market, and sell in the
dearest." He believed that the rest of the world must follow
England's example: " if you abolish the corn-laws honestly,
and adopt free trade in its simplicity, there will not be a tariff
in Europe that will not be changed in less than five years "
(January 1846). His cosmopolitanism which makes him in the
modern Imperialist's eyes a " Little Englander " of the straitest
sect led him to deplore any survival of the colonial system and
to hail the removal of ties which bound the mother country to
remote dependencies; but it was, in its day, a generous and
sincere reaction against popular sentiment, and Cobden was at
all events an outspoken advocate of an irresistible British navy.
There were enough inconsistencies in his creed to enable both
sides in the recent controversies to claim him as one who if he
were still alive would have supported their case in the altered
circumstances; but, from the biographical point of view, these
issues are hardly relevant. Cobden inevitably stands for
" Cobdenism, " which is a creed largely developed by the modern
free-trader in the course of subsequent years. It becomes
equivalent to economic laisser-faire and " Manchesterism/' and
as such it must fight its own corner with those who now take
into consideration many national factors which had no place in
the early utilitarian individualistic regime of Cobden's own day.

The standard biography is that by John Morley (1881). Cobden's
speeches were collected and published in 1870. The centenary
of his birth in 1904 was celebrated by a flood of articles in the news-
papers and magazines, naturally coloured by the new controversy in
England over the Tariff Reform movement.

COBET, CAREL GABRIEL (18*3-1889), Dutch classical
scholar, was born at Paris on the 28th of November 1813, and
educated at the Hague Gymnasium and the university of Leiden.
In 1836 he won a gold medal for an essay entitled Prosopographia
Xenophontea, a brilliant characterization of all the persons
introduced into the Memorabilia, Symposium and Oeconomicus
of Xenophon. His Observationes crilicae in Platonis comici
reliquias (1840) revealed his remarkable critical faculty. The
university conferred on him an honorary degree, and recom-
mended him to the government for a travelling pension. The
ostensible purpose of his journey was to collate the texts of
Simplicius, which, however, engaged but little of his time. He
contrived, however, to make a careful study of almost every
Greek manuscript in the Italian libraries, and returned after
five years with an intimate knowledge of palaeography. In
1846 he married, and in the same year was appointed to an
extraordinary professorship at Leiden. His inaugural address,
De Arte interpretandi Grammatices el Critices Fundamenlis
innixa, has been called the most perfect piece of Latin prose
written in the i9th century. The rest of his life was passed
uneventfully at Leiden. In 1856 he became joint editor of
Mnemosyne, a philological review, which he soon raised to a
leading position among classical journals. He contributed to it
many critical notes and emendations, which were afterwards
collected in book form under the titles Novae Lectiones, Variae
Lectiones and Miscellanea Critica. In 1875 he took a prominent
part at the Leiden Tercentenary, and impressed all his hearers
by his wonderful facility in Latin improvisation. In 1884, when
his health was failing, he retired as emeritus professor. He died
on the 26th of October 1889. Cobet's special weapon as a critic

6l2

COBHAM COBLENZ

was his consummate knowledge of palaeography, but he was no
less distinguished for his rare acumen and wide knowledge of
classical literature. He has been blamed for rashness in the
emendation of difficult passages, and for neglecting the comments
of other scholars. He had little sympathy for the German
critics, and maintained that the best combination was English
good sense with French taste. He always expressed his obliga-
tion to the English, saying that his masters were three Richards
Bentley, Person and Dawes.

See an appreciative obituary notice by W. G. Rutherford in the
Classical Review, Dec. 1889; Hartman in Bursian's Biographisches
Jahrbuch, 1890; Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol. (1908), iii. 282.

COBHAM, a village in the Medway parliamentary division
of Kent, England, 4 m. W. of Rochester. The church (Early
English and later, and restored by Sir G. G. Scott) is famous for
its collection of ancient brasses, of which thirteen belonging to
the years 1320-1529 commemorate members of the Brooke and
Cobham families. There are some fine oak stalls and some
tilting armour of the I4th century in the chancel. Cobham
college, containing 20 almshouses, took the place, after the dis-
solution, of a college for priests founded by Sir John de Cobham
in the I4th century. The present mansion of Cobham Hall is
mainly Elizabethan. The picture gallery contains a fine collection
of works by the great masters, Italian, Dutch and English.

The Cobham family was established here before the reign of
King John. In 1313 Henry de Cobham was created Baron
Cobham, but on the execution of Sir John Oldcastle (who had
been summoned to parliament, jure uxoris, as Baron Cobham)
in 1417, the barony lay dormant till revived in 1445 by Edward,
son of Sir Thomas Brooke and Joan, grand-daughter of the 3rd
Baron Cobham. In 1603 Henry Brooke, Lord Cobham, was
arraigned for participation in the Raleigh conspiracy, and spent
the remainder of his life in prison, where he died in 1618. With
him the title expired, and Cobham Hall was granted to Lodowick
Stewart, duke of Lennox, passing subsequently by descent and
marriage to the earls of Darnley. The present Viscount Cobham
(cr. 1718) belongs to the Lyttelton family (see LVTTELTON, IST
BARON).

COBIJA, or PUERTO LA MAR (the official title given to it by
the Bolivian government), a port and town of the Chilean
province of Antofagasta, about 800 m. N. of Valparaiso. It is
the oldest port on this part of the coast, and was for a time the
principal outlet for a large mining district. It was formerly
capital of the Bolivian department of Atacama and the only
port possessed by Bolivia, but the seizure of that department in
1879 by Chile and the construction of the Antofagasta and
Oruro railway deprived it of all importance, and its population,
estimated at 6000 in 1858, has fallen to less than 500. Its
harbour is comparatively safe but lacks landing facilities. Smelt-
ing for neighbouring mines is still carried on, and some of its
former trade remains, but the greater part of it has gone to
Tocopilla and Antofagasta. The town occupies a narrow beach
between the sea and bluffs, and was greatly damaged by an
earthquake and tidal wave in 1877.

COBLE (probably of Celtic origin, and connected with the
root ceu or cau, hollow; cf. Welsh ceubol, a ferry-boat), a flat-
bottomed fishing-boat, with deep-lying rudder and lug-sail,
used off the north-east coast of England.

COBLENZ (KOBLENZ), a city and fortress of Germany, capital
of the Prussian Rhine Province, 57 m. S.E. from Cologne by
rail, pleasantly situated on the left bank of the Rhine at its
confluence with the Mosel, from which circumstance it derived
its ancient name Confluentes, of which Coblenz is a corruption.
Pop. (1885) 31,669; (1905) 53,902. Its defensive works are
extensive, and consist of strong modern forts crowning the hills
encircling the town on the west, and of the citadel cf Ehrenbreit-
stein (q.v.) on the opposite bank of the Rhine. The old city was
triangular in-shape, two sides being bounded by the Rhine and
Mosel and the third by a line of fortifications. The last were
razed in 1890, and the town was permitted to expand in this
direction. Immediately outside the former walls lies the new
central railway station, in which is effected a junction of the

Cologne-Mainz railway with the strategical line Metz-Berlin.
The Rhine is crossed by a bridge of boats 485 yds. long, by an
iron bridge built for railway purposes in 1864, and, a mile above
the town, by a beautiful bridge of two wide and lofty spans
carrying the Berlin railway referred to. The Mosel is spanned
by a Gothic freestone bridge of 14 arches, erected in 1344, and
also by a railway bridge.

The city, down to 1890, consisted of the Altstadt (old city)
and the Neustadt (new city) or Klemenstadt. Of these, the
Altstadt is closely built and has only a few fine streets and squares,
while the Neustadt possesses numerous broad streets and a
handsome frontage to the Rhine. In the more ancient part of
Coblenz are several buildings which have an historical interest.
Prominent among these, near the point of confluence of the
rivers, is the church of St Castor, with four towers. The church
was originally founded in 836 by Louis the Pious, but the present
Romanesque building was completed in 1208, the Gothic vaulted
roof dating from 1498. In front of the church of St Castor
stands a fountain, erected by the French in 1812, with an
inscription to commemorate Napoleon's invasion of Russia.
Not long after, the Russian troops occupied Coblenz; and St
Priest, their commander, added in irony these words " Vu el
approwvi par nous, Commandant Russe de la Ville de Coblence:
Janvier ler, 1814." In this quarter of the town, too, is the
Liebfrauenkirche, a fine church (nave 1250, choir 1404-1431)
with lofty late Romanesque towers; the castle of the electors
of Trier, erected in 1280, which now contains the municipal
picture gallery; and the family house of the Metternichs, where
Prince Metternich, the Austrian statesman, was born in 1773.
In the modern part of the town lies the palace (Residenzschloss),
with one front looking towards the Rhine, the other into the
Neustadt. It was built in 1778-1786 by Clement Wenceslaus
the last elector of Trier, and contains among other curiosities
some fine Gobelin tapestries. From it some pretty gardens and
promenades (Kaiserin Augusta Anlageri) stretch along the bank
of the Rhine, and in them is a memorial to the poet Max von
Schenkendorf. A fine statue to the empress Augusta, whose
favourite residence was Coblenz, stands in the Luisen-platz.
But of all public memorials the most striking is the colossal
equestrian statue of the emperor William I., erected by the
Rhine provinces in 1897, standing on a lofty and massive pedestal,
at the point where the Rhine and Mosel meet. Coblenz has also
handsome law courts, government buildings, a theatre, a museum
of antiquities, a conservatory of music, two high grade schools,
a hospital and numerous charitable institutions. Coblenz is a
principal seat of the Mosel and Rhenish wine trade, and also does
a large business in the export of mineral waters. Its manufactures
include pianos, paper, cardboard, machinery, boats and barges.
It is an important transit centre for the Rhine railways and for
the Rhine navigation.

Coblenz (Confluentes, Covelenz, Cobelenz) was one of the
military posts established by Drusus about 9 B.C. Later it was
frequently the residence of the Prankish kings, and in 860 and
922 was the scene of ecclesiastical synods. At the former of
these, held in the Liebfrauenkirche, took place the reconciliation
of Louis the German with his half-brother Charles the Bald.
In 1018 the city, after receiving a charter, was given by the
emperor Henry II. to the archbishop of Trier (Treves), and it
remained in the possession of the archbishop-electors till the
close of the i8th century. In 1249-1254 it was surrounded with
new walls by Archbishop Arnold II. (of Isenburg) ; and it was
partly to overawe the turbulent townsmen that successive arch-
bishops built and strengthened the fortress of Ehrenbreitstein
(q.v.) that dominates the city. As a member of the league of the
Rhenish cities which took its rise in the I3th century, Coblenz
attained to great prosperity; and it continued to advance till
the disasters of the Thirty Years' War occasioned a rapid
decline. After Philip Christopher, elector of Trier, had sur-
rendered Ehrenbreitstein to the French the town received an
imperial garrison (1632), which was soon, however, expelled
by the Swedes. They in their turn handed the city over to the
French, but the imperial forces succeeded in retaking it by

COBOURG COBURG

613

storm (1636). In 1688 it was besieged by the French under
Marshal de Boufflers, but they only succeeded in bombarding
the Altstadt into ruins, destroying among other buildings the
old merchants' hall (Kaufhaus), which was restored in its present
form in 1725. In 1786 the elector of Trier, Clement Wenceslaus
of Saxony, took up his residence in the town, and gave great
assistance in its extension and improvement; a few years
later it became, through the invitation of his minister, Ferdinand,
Frciherr von Duminique, one of the principal rendezvous of the
French tmigres. This drew down upon the archbishop-elector
the wrath of the French republicans; in 1794 Coblenz was
taken by the Revolutionary army under Marceau (who fell
during the siege), and, after the peace of Luneville, it was made
the shief town of the Rhine and Mosel department (1798).
In 1814 it was occupied by the Russians, by the congress of
Vienna it was assigned to Prussia, and in 1822 it was made the
seat of government of the Rhine province.

i See Daniel, Deutschland (Leipzig, 1895) ; W. A. Gunther, Geschichte
der Stadt Koblenz (Cobl., 1815); and Bar, Urkunden und Akten zur
Geschichte der Verfassung und Verwaltung der Stadt Koblenz bis zum
Jakre 1500 (Bonn, 1898).

COBOURG, the capital of Northumberland county, Ontario,
Canada, on Lake Ontario and the Grand Trunk railway; 7001.
E.N.E. of Toronto. Pop. (1901) 4239. It has a large, safe
harbour, and steamboat communication with St Lawrence and
Lake Ontario ports. It contains car-works, foundries, and
carpet and woollen factories, and is a summer resort, especially
for Americans. Victoria University, formerly situated here,
was removed to Toronto in 1890.

COBRA (Naja tripudians) , a poisonous Colubrine snake,
belonging to the family Elapidae, known also as the hooded
snake, cobra di capello or naga. In this genus the anterior ribs
are elongated, and by raising and bringing forward these, the
neck can be expanded at will into a broad disk or hood. It

possesses two rows of
palatine teeth in the
upper jaw, while the
maxillary bones bear
the fangs, of which the
anterior one only is in
connexion with the
poison gland, the others
in various stages of
surrounding flesh until the
brings the one immediately

Head of Cobra.

awth remaining loose in the

struction of the poison fang

liind to the front, which then gets anchylosed to the maxillary
and into connexion with the gland secreting the poison,

bich in the cobra is about the size of an almond. Behind the

son fangs there are usually one or two ordinary teeth. The
obra attains a length of nearly 6 ft. and a girth of about 6 in.

The typical cobra is yellowish to dark-brown, with a black and
white spectacle-mark on the back of the hood, and with a pair of
large black and white spots on the corresponding under-surface.
There are, however, many varieties, in some of which the spectacle
markings on the hood are wanting. The cobra may be regarded
as nocturnal in its habits, being most active by night, although
not unfrequently found in motion during the day. It usually
conceals itself under logs of wood, in the roofs of huts and in
holes in old walls and ruins, where it is often come upon in-
advertently, inflicting a death wound before it has been observed.
It feeds on sma.ll quadrupeds, frogs, lizards, insects and the
eggs of birds, in search of which it sometimes ascends trees.
When seeking its prey it glides slowly along the ground, holding
the anterior third of its body aloft, with its hood distended, on
the alert for anything that may come in its way. " This attitude,"
says Sir J. Fayrer, " is very striking, and few objects are more
calculated to inspire awe than a large cobra when, with his hood
erect, hissing loudly and his eyes glaring, he prepares to strike."
It is said to drink large quantities of water, although like reptiles
in general it will live for many months without food or drink.
The cobra is ovipirous; and its eggs, which are from 18 to 25
in number, are of :v pure white colour, somewhat resembling in

size and appearance the eggs of the pigeon, but sometimes larger.
These it leaves to be hatched by the heat of the sun. It is
widely distributed, from Transcaspia to China and to the Malay
Islands, and is found in all parts of India, from Ceylon to the
Himalayas up to about 8000 ft. above the level of the sea.

Closely allied is AT. haje, the common hooded cobra of all
Africa, the Spy-slange, i.e. spitting snake of the Boers.

The cobra is justly regarded as one of the most deadly of
the Indian Thanatophidia. Many thousand deaths are caused
annually by this unfortunately common species, but it is difficult
to obtain accurate statistics. The bite of a vigorous cobra will
often prove fatal in a few minutes, and as there is no practicable
antidote to the poison, it is only in rare instances that such
mechanical expedients as cauterizing, constriction or amputa-
tion can be applied with sufficient promptitude to prevent the
virus from entering the circulation. Owing to a small reward
offered by the Indian government for the head of each poisonous
snake, great numbers of cobras have been destroyed; but only
low-caste Hindus will engage in such work, the cobra being
regarded by the natives generally with superstitious reverence,
as a divinity powerful to injure, and therefore to be propitiated;
and thus oftentimes when found in their dwellings this snake is
allowed to remain, and is fed and protected. " Should fear,"
says Sir J. Fayrer, " and perhaps the death of some inmate
bitten by accident, prove stronger than superstition, it may be
caught, tenderly handled, and deported to some field, where it is
released and allowed to depart in peace, not killed " (Thanato-
phidia of India). Great numbers, especially of young cobras,
are killed by the adjutant birds and by the mungoos a small
mammal which attacks it with impunity, apparently not from
want of susceptibility to the poison, but by its dexterity in
eluding the bite of the cobra. Mere scratching or tearing does
not appear to be sufficient to bring the poison from the glands;
it is only when the fangs are firmly implanted by the jaws being
pressed together that the virus enters the wound, and in those
circumstances it has been shown by actual experiment that the
mungoos, like all other warm-blooded animals, succumbs to the
poison. In the case of reptiles, the cobra poison takes effect
much more slowly, while it has been proved to have no effect
whatever on other venomous serpents.

In the Egyptian hieroglyphics the cobra occurs constantly
with the body erect and hood expanded; its name was ouro,
which signifies " king," and the animal appears in Greek literature
as ouraios and basiliscus. With the Egyptian snake-charmers
of the present day the cobra is as great a favourite as with their
Hindu colleagues. They pretend to change the snake into a
rod, and it appears that the supple snake is made stiff and rigid
by a strong pressure upon its neck, and that the animal does not
seem to suffer from this operation, but soon recovers from the
cataleptic fit into which it has been temporarily. thrown.

The cobra is the snake usually exhibited by the Indian jugglers,
who show great dexterity in handling it, even when not deprived
of its fangs. Usually, however, the front fang at least is extracted ,
the creature being thus rendered harmless until the succeeding
tooth takes its place, and in many cases all the fangs, with the
germs behind, are removed the cobra being thus rendered
innocuous for life. The snake charmer usually plays a few
simple notes on the flute, and the cobra, apparently delighted,
rears half its length in the air and sways its head and body about,
keeping time to the music.

The cobra, like almost all poisonous snakes, is by no means
aggressive, and when it gets timely warning of the approach
of man endeavours to get out of his way. It is only when
trampled upon inadvertently, or otherwise irritated, that it
attempts to use its fangs. It is a good swimmer, often crossing
broad rivers, and probably even narrow arms of the sea, for it
has been met with at sea at least a quarter of a mile from land.

COBURG, a town of Germany, the twin capital with Gotha
of the duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, on the left bank of the Itz,
an affluent of the Regen, on the southern slope of the Franken-
wald, the railway from Eisenach to Lichtenfels, and 40 m. S.S.E.
of Gotha. Pop. (1905) 22,489. The town is for the most part

614

COCA

old, and contains a number of interesting buildings. The ducal
palace, known as the Ehrenburg, is a magnificent building,
originally erected on the site of a convent of bare-footed friars
by Duke John Ernest in 1549, renovated in 1698, and restored
in 1816 by Duke Ernest I. It contains a vast and richly
decorated hall, the court church and a fine picture gallery. In
the gardens are the mausoleum of Duke Francis (d. 1806) and
his wife, a bronze equestrian statue of Duke Ernest II. and a
fountain in commemoration of Duke Alfred (duke of Edinburgh).
In the market square are the medieval Rathaus, the government
buildings, and a statue of Prince Albert (consort of Queen
Victoria), by William Theed the younger (1804-1891). In the
Schloss-platz are the Edinburgh Palace (Palais Edinburg),
built in 1881, the theatre and an equestrian statue of Duke
Ernest I. Among the churches the most remarkable is the
Moritzkirche, with a lofty tower. The educational establish-
ments include a gymnasium, founded in 1604 by Duke John
Casimir (d. 1633) and thus known as the Casimirianum, a com-
mercial, an agricultural and other schools. The Zeughaus
(armoury) contains the ducal library of 100,000 volumes, and
among other public buildings may be mentioned the Augusten-
stift, formerly the seat of the ministerial offices, and the Marstall
(royal mews). On a commanding eminence above the town is
the ancient castle of Coburg, dating from the nth century (see
below). In 1781 it was turned into a penitentiary and lunatic
asylum, but in 1835-1838 was completely restored, and now
contains a natural history museum. The most interesting room
in this building is that which was occupied by Luther in 1530,
where the surroundings may have inspired, though (as is now
proved) he did not compose, the famous hymn, Ein' feste Burg
ist unser Gott; the bed on which he slept, and the pulpit from
which he preached in the old chapel are shown. Coburg is a
place of considerable industry, the chief branches of the latter
being brewing, manufactures of machinery, colours and porcelain,
iron-founding and saw-milling; and there is an important trade
in the cattle reared in the neighbourhood. Among various
places of interest in the vicinity are the ducal residences of
Callenberg and Rosenau, in the latter of which Albert, Prince
Consort, was born in 1819; the castle of Lauterburg; and the
village of Neuses, with the house of the poet J. M. F. Ruckert,
who died here in 1866, and on the other side of the river the
tomb of the poet Moritz August von Thummel (1738-1817).

The town of Coburg, first mentioned in a record of 1207, owed
its existence and its name to the castle, and in the isth and i6th
centuries was of considerable importance as a halting-place on
the great trade route from Nuremberg via Bamberg to the North.
In 1245 the castle became the seat of the elder branch of the
counts of Henneberg (Coburg-Schmalkalden). The countships
of Coburg and Schmalkalden passed by the marriage of Jutta,
daughter of Hermann I. (d. 1290), to Otto V. of Branden-
burg, whose grandson John, however, sold them to Henry VIII.
of Henneberg, his brother-in-law. Henry's daughter Catherine
(d. 1397) married Frederick III. of Meissen, and so brought the
castle, town and countship into the possession of the Saxon
house of Wettin. In 1549 Duke John Ernest of Saxony made
Coburg his residence and turned theold castleintoafortressstrong
enough to stand a three years' siege (1632-1635) during the
Thirty Years' War. In 1641 Coburg fell to the dukes of Saxe-
Altenburg. In 1835 it became the residence of the dukes of
Saxe-Coburg. For the princes of the house of Coburg see WETTIN
and SAXE-COBURG.

COCA, or CUCA (Erylhroxylon coca), a plant of the natural
order Erythroxylaceae, the leaves of which are used as a stimulant
in the western countries of South America. 1 It resembles a
blackthorn bush, and grows to a height of 6 or 8 ft. The branches
are straight, and the leaves, which have a lively green tint, are
thin, opaque, oval, more or less tapering at the extremities.

1 Garcilasso de la Vega, writing of the plant, says that it is called
cuca by the Indians, coca by the Spaniards; and Father Bias Valera
states that the leaves are called cuca both by Indians and Spaniards
(The Royal Commentaries of the Yncas, 1609-1617; trans, by C. R.
Markham, Hakluyt Soc., 1871). See also, on the name cuca, Christi-
son, Brit. Med. Journ., April 29, 1876, p. 527. .

A marked characteristic of the leaf is an areolated portion
bounded by two longitudinal curved lines one on each side of
the midrib, and more conspicuous on the under face of the leaf.
Good samples of the dried leaves are uncurled, are of a deep
green on the upper, and a grey-green on the lower surface, and
have a strong tea-like odour; when chewed they produce a sense
of warmth in the mouth, and have a pleasant, pungent taste.
Bad specimens have a camphoraceous smell and a brownish
colour, and lack the pungent taste. The flowers are small, and
disposed in little clusters on short stalks; the corolla is composed
of five yellowish-white petals, the anthers are heart-shaped, and
the pistil consists of three carpels united to form a three-
chambered ovary. The flowers are succeeded by red berries.
The seeds are sown in December and January in small plots
(almacigas) sheltered from the sun, and the young plants when
from i J to 2 ft. in height are placed in holes (aspi), or, if the
ground is level, in furrows (uachos) in carefully-weeded soil.
The plants thrive best in hot, damp situations, such as the
clearings of forests; but the leaves most preferred are obtained
in drier localities, on the sides of hills. The leaves are gathered
from plants varying in age from one and a half to upwards of
forty years. They are considered ready for plucking when they
break on being bent. The first and most abundant harvest is
in March, after the rains ; the second is at the end of June, the
third in October or November. The green leaves (matu) are
spread in thin layers on coarse woollen cloths and dried in the
sun; they are then packed in sacks, which, in order to preserve
the quality of the leaves, must be kept from damp.

In the Kew Bulletin for January 1889 is an account of the
history and botany of the plant, which has been so long under
cultivation in South America that its original home is doubtful.
As the result of this cultivation numerous forms have arisen.
The writer distinguishes from the typical Peruvian form with
pointed leaves a variety novo-granatense, from New Granada,
which has smaller leaves with a rounded apex. The plant is now
cultivated in the West Indies, India, Ceylon, Java and elsewhere.
It has been estimated that coca is used by about 8,000,000 of
the human race, being consumed in Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador,
Colombia and Rio Negro. In Peru the Indians carry a leathern
pouch (the chuspa or huallqui) for the leaves, and a supply of
pulverized unslaked lime, or a preparation of the ashes of the
quinoa plant (Chenopodium Quinoa), called llipta or llucta.
Three or four times a day labour is suspended for chacchar or
acullicar, as the mastication of coca is termed. The leaves,
deprived of their stalks, are chewed and formed into a ball
(acullico) in the mouth; a small quantity of the lime or llipta
is then applied to the acullico to give it a proper relish. Two
or three ounces of coca are thus daily consumed by each Indian.

Coca was used by the Peruvian Indians in the most ancient
times. It was employed as an offering to the sun, or to produce
smoke at the great sacrifices; and the priests, it was believed,
must chew it during toe performance of religious ceremonies,
otherwise the gods wouk' not be propitiated. Coca is still held
in superstitious veneration among the Peruvians, and is believed
by the miners of Cerro de Pasco to soften the veins of ore, if
masticated and thrown upon them.

The composition of different specimens of coca leaves is very
inconstant. Besides the important alkaloid cocaine (q.v.),
occurring to the extent of about 0-2% in fresh specimens, there
are several other alkaloids. The preparations of coca leaves are
incompatible with certain drugs which might often be prescribed
in combination with them, such as salts of mercury, menthol
and mineral acids, which latter decompose cocaine into benzoic
acid and ecgonine.

Coca leaves and preparations of them have no external action.
Internally their action is similar to that of opium, though some-
what less narcotic, and causing a dilatation of the pupil of the
eye instead of a contraction. When masticated, the leaves first
cause a tingling in the tongue and mucous membrane of the
mouth, owing to a stimulation of the nerves of common sensation,
and then abolish taste owing to a paralysis cf the terminals of
the gustatory nerves. They have a definite anaesthetic action

COCAINE COCCIDIA

615

upon the mucous membrane of the stomach, from which there
come in large part those organic sensations which we interpret as
hunger. Hence it is possible, under the influence of coca, to go
without food or consciousness of needing it, for as long a period
as three days. The drug is not a food, however, as its com-
position and history in the body clearly show, and the individual
who comfortably fasts under its influence nevertheless shows all
the physical signs of starvation, such as loss of weight. In small
doses coca stimulates the intestinal peristalsis and thus is an
perient, but in large doses it paralyses the muscular coat of the
owel, causing constipation, such as is constantly seen in coco-
naniacs, and in those inhabitants of Peru and the adjacent
ountries who take it in excess or are markedly susceptible to its
ifluence.

The injection of coca leaves has a very remarkable effect upon
he higher tracts of the nervous system an effect curiously
Dntrary to that produced by their chief ingredient upon the
eripheral parts of the nervous apparatus. The mental power
s, at any rate subjectively, enhanced in marked degree. In the
bsence of extended experiments in psychological laboratories,
such as have been conducted with alcohol, it is not possible
say whether the apparent enhancement of the intellect is
objectively demonstrable fact. The physical power is un-
questionably increased, such muscular exercises as are involved
i ascending mountains being made much easier after the chewing
: an ounce or so of these leaves. Excess in coca-chewing leads
i many cases to great bodily wasting, mental failure, insomnia,
weakness of the circulation and extreme dyspepsia. For other
pharmacological characters and the therapeutic employments of

. see COCAINE.

COCAINE, Ci7H 2 iNQi, an alkaloid occurring to the extent
of about i% in the leaves of Erythroxylon coca (see above).
It is associated with many other alkaloids: cinnamyl
line, Ci 9 H23NO 4 ; o-truxilline (CisHaNO^; /3-truxilline,
; benzoylecgonine, Ci 6 Hi 9 NO 2 ; tropa-cocaine,
hygrine, CsHi 5 NO; cuscohygrine, CisHaNOj.
These substances, which may be collectively termed " cocaines,"
are all derivatives of ecgonine (<?..). Cocaine is benzoylmethyl
cgonine. It crystallizes from alcohol in prisms, which are
ringly soluble in water. Its solution has a bitter taste,
ilkaline reaction, and is laevorotatory. Its use as a local
anaesthetic (see ANAESTHESIA) makes it the most valuable of
he coca alkaloids, and it is much used in ophthalmic practice.
Applied to the conjunctiva it causes anaesthesia, dilatation of
the pupil, diminution of the intraocular tension, and some
interference with accommodation. The conversion of the
mixture obtained by extracting coca-leaves into cocaine is
effected by saponifying the esters into ecgonine and the respective
cids, and then benzoylating and methylating the ecgonine.
Homologues of cocaine ethylbenzoylecgonine, &c. have been
prepared; they closely resemble natural cocaine. Cinnamyl
cocaine is cinnamylmethylecgonine, i.e. cocaine in which the
benzoyl group is replaced by the cinnamyl group, a- and
'-truxillines, named from their isolation from a coca of Truxillo
(Peru), are two isomeric alkaloids which hydrolyse to ecgonine,
methyl alcohol, and two isomeric acids, the truxillic acids,
The alkaloids are therefore methyl truxillylecgonines.
The truxillic acids have been studied by K. Liebermann and his
students (Ber., vols. 21-27, and 31), and are diphenyl tetra-
methylene dicarboxylic acids.

COCANADA, or COCONADA, a town of British India, in the
Godavari district of Madras, on the coast in the extreme north
of the Godavari delta, about 315 m. N. of Madras. Pop. (1901)
48,096, showing an increase of 18% in the decade. As the
administrative headquarters of the district, and the chief port
on the Coromandel coast after Madras, Cocanada was formerly
of considerable importance, but its shipping trade has declined,
owing to the silting of the anchorage, and to the construction of
the railway. It is connected by navigable channels with the
canal system of the Godavari delta, and by a branch line with
Samalkot on the East Coast railway. The anchorage is an open
roadstead, with two lighthouses. The chief exports are rice,

cotton, sugar and oilseeds. Mills have been established for
cleaning rice. The town contains a second-grade college, a high
school, and a literary association.

COCCEIUS [strictly KOCH], JOHANNES (1603-1669), Dutch
theologian, was born at Bremen. After studying at Hamburg
and Franeker, where Sixtinus Amama was one of his teachers,
he became in 1630 professor of biblical philology at the " Gym-
nasium illustre " in his native town. In 1636 he was transferred
to Franeker, where he held the chair of Hebrew, and from 1643
the chair of theology also, until 1650, when he succeeded Fr.
Spanheim the elder as professor of theology at Leiden. He died
on the 4th of November 1669. His chief services as an oriental
scholar were in the department of Hebrew philology and
exegesis. As one of the leading exponents of the " covenant "
or " federal " theology, he spiritualized the Hebrew scriptures
to such an extent that it was said that Cocceius found Christ
everywhere in the Old Testament and Hugo Grotius found him
nowhere. He taught that before the Fall, as much as after it,
the relation between God and man was a covenant. The first
covenant was a " Covenant of Works." For this was sub-
stituted, after the Fall, the " Covenant of Grace," to fulfil
which the coming of Jesus Christ was necessary. He held
millenarian views, and was the founder of a school of theologians
who were called after him Cocceians. His theology was founded
entirely on the Bible, and he did much to promote and encourage
the study of the original text. In one of his essays he contends
that the observance of the Sabbath, though expedient, is not
binding upon Christians, since it was a Jewish institution. His
most distinguished pupil was the celebrated Campeius Vitringa.
His most valuable work was his Lexicon et Commentarius Sermonis
Hebraici et Chaldaici (Leiden, 1669), which has been frequently
republished; his theology is fully expounded in his Summa
Doclrinaede Foedere et Testamenlo Dei (1648).

His collected works were published in 12 folio volumes (Amster-
dam, 1673-1675). See Herzog-Hauck, Realcncyklopddic.

COCCIDIA, an important order of Sporozoa Ectospora, parasites
possessing certain very distinctive characters. With one or two
possible exceptions, they are invariably intracellular during the
entire trophic life of the individual. They always attack tissue-
cells, usually of an epithelium, and never blood-corpuscles.
Correlated with the advanced degree of parasitism, there is a
complete absence of specialization or differentiation of the cell-
body, and the trophozoite is quite incapable of any kind of
movement. In all cases, so far as known, the life-cycle is di-
genetic, an asexual generation (produced by schizogony) alternat-
ing with a sexual one .(gametogony). After conjugation of two
highly-differentiated gametes has taken place, a resistant oocyst
is formed, which provides for the dispersal of the species; inside
this sporogony (spore- and sporozoite-formation) goes on.

Hake (1839) was, perhaps, the first to describe a Coccidian,
but he regarded the parasites as pathological cell-products. In
1845 N. Lieberkiihn pointed out the resemblances nittory
to Gregarines, with which organisms he considered
Coccidia to be allied. A year later, H. Kloss proved the existence
of similar parasites in the snail, and attempted to construct their
life-history; this form was subsequently named Klossia helicina
by A. Schneider. The asexual part of the life-cycle was first
described by Th. Eimer in 1870, for a Coccidian infesting the
mouse, which was afterwards elevated by Schneider into a distinct
genus Eimeria. The generic name Coccidium was introduced
by R. Leuckart in 1879, for the parasite of the rabbit. It was
many years, however, before the double character of the life-
cycle was realized, and the ideas of L. and R. Pfeiffer, who first
suggested the possibility of an alternation of generations, for a
long time found no favour. In the first decade of the 2oth century
great progress was accomplished, thanks largely to the researches
of F. Schaudinn and M. Siedlecki, who first demonstrated the
occurrence of sexual conjugation in the group; and the Coccidian
life-history is now one of the best known among Sporozoa.

Coccidia appear to be confined 1 to four great phyla, Vertebrates,

1 A curious organism, parasitic in a gregarine, has lately been
described by Dogiel as a coccidian, and termed Hyalosphaera.

6i6

COCCIDIA

Molluscs, ArthropodsandAnnelids; the firstnamed group furnishes
by far the most hosts, the parasites being frequently met with in
domestic animals, both birds and mammals. Following
Habitat: { rom the casual method of infection, the epithelium of
'"oft* ' the gut or of its appendages (e.g. the liver [Plate I.,
fig. ij) is a very common seat of the parasitic inva-
sion. But in many cases Coccidia are found in other organs, to
which they are doubtless carried by lymphatic or circulatory
channels. In Molluscs, they often occur in the kidneys (fig. 2) ;
in Insects, they are met with as " coelomic " parasites, the fat-
bodies, pericardial cells, &c., being a favourite habitat; even the
testis is not free from their attentions in one or two instances,
though the ovary appears always immune.

The parasite invariably destroys its host-cell completely.
The latter is at first stimulated to abnormal growth and activity
and becomes greatly hypertrophied, the nucleus also undergoing
karyolytic changes (fig. 4). The fatty materials elaborated by
the host-cell are rapidly used up by the Coccjdian, as nourish-
ment; and at length the weakened and disorganized cell is no
longer able to assimilate but dies and is gradually absorbed by the
parasite, becoming reduced to a mere enclosing skin or envelope.
In some cases (ex. Cyclospora caryolytica of the mole) the parasite
is actually intranuclear, the nucleus becoming greatly swollen and
transformed into a huge vacuole containing it.

The effects of a Coccidian infection upon the host as a whole
depend largely upon the extent to which endogenous multiplica-
tion of the parasites takes place. On the one hand, schizogony
may be so limited in extent as not to cause appreciable injury to
the host. This seems to be often the case in forms infecting
Molluscs and Arthropods. On the other hand, where schizogony
is rapid and prolonged, the results are often serious. For, although
any one individual only causes the death of a single host-cell, yet
the number of the parasites may be so enormously increased by
this means, that the entire affected epithelium may be overrun
and destroyed. Thus are occasioned grave attacks of coccidiosis,
characterized by severe enteritis and diarrhoea, which may end
fatally. In the case of the Vertebrates, secondary causes, result-
ing from the stoppage of the bile ducts, also help to produce death.
There is, however, one factor in the endangered animal's favour.
Schizogony cannot go on indefinitely; it has a limit, dependent
upon the supply of host-cells, and consequently of nutriment,
available. As this shows signs of becoming exhausted, by the
rapid multiplication of the parasites, the latter begin to make
preparations for theexogenous cycle,inauguratedbygametogony.
When conjugation has taken place and sporogony is begun, the
danger to the host is at an end. So that, if the acute stage of
the disease is once successfully passed, the regenerative capacity
of the epithelium may be able to restore something like equi-
librium to the deranged metabolism in time to prevent
collapse.

Coccidium schubergi, parasitic in the intestine of a centipede
(Lithobius forficatus) , may be taken as an example of a Coccidian
Morpho- life-history (see Schaudinn, 1900): some of the more
logy and important variations exhibited by other forms will be
llte ~ noted afterwards. The trophozoite, or actively-grow-

toly ' ing parasite, is an oval or rounded body (fig._ 3, I.).
The general cytoplasm shows no differentiation into ectoplasm
and endoplasm; it is uniformly alveolar in character. The
nucleus is relatively large, and possesses a distinct membrane and
a well-marked reticulum in which are embedded grains of chro-
matin. Its most conspicuous feature is the large deeply-staining
karyosome, which consists of the greater part of the chromatin
of the nucleus intimately bound up with a plastinoid basis.
When fully grown, the trophozoite (now a schizont) undergoes
schizogony. Its nucleus divides successively to form a number of
nuclei, which travel to the periphery, and there become more or
less regularly disposed (fig. 3, II. and III.). The protoplasm in
the neighbourhood of each next grows out, as a projecting bud,
carrying the nucleus with it. In this manner are formed a number
of club-shaped bodies, the merozoites, which are at length set free
from the parent-body (IV.), leaving a certain amount of residual
cytoplasm behind. By the rupture of the disorganized host-

cell, 1 the fully-formed merozoites are liberated into the intestinal
lumen, and seek out fresh epithelial cells. Each is more or less
sickle-shaped, and capable of active movements. Once inside a
new host-cell, the merozoite grows to a schizont again.

After this course has been repeated several times, gametogony
sets in, the trophozoites growing more slowly and becoming the
parent-cells of the sexual elements (gametocytes), either male
individuals (microgametocytes) or female ones (megagameto-
cytes). A microgametocyte (fig. 3, VI. 3) is characterized by its
dense but finely reticular or alveolar cytoplasm, very different
from the loose structure of that of a schizont. The male elements
(microgametes) are formed in a manner essentially comparable
to that in which the formation of merozoites takes place. Al-
though the details of the nuclear changes and divisions vary
somewhat, the end-result is similar, a number of little nuclear
agglomerations being evenly distributed at the surface (VII. $).
Each of these elongates considerably, becoming comma-shaped
and projecting from the gametocyte. Nearly all the body of the
male gamete (VIII. 3) consists of chromatin, the cytoplasm only
forming a very delicate zone or envelope around the nucleus.
From the cytoplasm two long fine fiagella grow out, one of
which originates at the anterior end, the other, apparently, at
the hinder end, acting as a rudder; but it is probable that this
also is developed at the anterior end and attached to the side of
the body. By means of their flagella the numerous microgametes
break loose from the body of the microgametocyte and swim
away in search of a female element.

A megagametocyte (VI. ?) is distinguished by jts rather
different shape, being more like a bean than a sphere until ripe
for maturation, and by the fact that it stores up in its cytoplasm
quantities of reserve nutriment in the form of rounded refringent
plastinoid grains. Each female gametocyte gives rise to only a
single female element (megagamete), after a process of nuclear
purification. The karyosome is expelled from the nucleus into
thecytoplasm, where it breaks up at once into fragments (VII. ?).
Meanwhile the gametocyte is becoming spherical, and its changes
in shape aid in setting it free from the shrivelled host-cell. The
fragments of the karyosome, which are, as it were, squeezed out
to the exterior, exert a powerful attraction upon the micro-
gametes, many of which swarm round the now mature mega-
gamete. The female nucleus (pronucleus) approaches the surface
of the cell (VIII. ?), and at this spot a little clear cytoplasmic
prominence arises (cone of reception). On coming into contact
with this protuberance (probably attracted to it by the female
pronucleus), a microgamete adheres. Partly by its own move-
ments and partly by the withdrawal of the cone of attraction,
the male penetrates into the female element and fertilization
is accomplished. Only one microgamete can thus pass into the
megagamete, for immediately its entry is effected a delicate
membrane is secreted around the copula (zygote), which effectu-
ally excludes other less fortunate ones. This membrane rapidly
increases in thickness and becomes the oocyst (IX.), and the
copula is now ready to begin sporogony.

Sporogony goes on indifferently either inside the host or after
the cyst has been passed out with the faeces to the exterior.
The definitive nucleus of the zygote (resulting from the intimate
fusion of the male and female pronuclei, by means of a somewhat
elaborate " fertilization-spindle " [X.]) gives rise by successive
direct divisions to four nuclei (XII.) , around which the protoplasm
becomes segregated; these segments form the four sporoblasts.
Around each sporoblast two membranes are successively secreted
(exospore and endospore), which constitute the sporocyst(XIII.) ;
the sporocyst and its contents forming the spore. The nucleus
of each spore next divides, again directly, and this is followed
by the division of the cytoplasm. As a final result, each of the
four spores contains two germs (sporozoites), and a certain
amount of residual protoplasm (fig-3, XIV.); this latter encloses
a viscid, vacuole-like body, which aids in the subsequent de-
hiscence of the sporocyst. On being eaten by a fresh host,
the wall of the oocyst is dissolved at a particular region by the

1 It is important to note that in schizogony there is never any
cyst or cyst-membrane formed around the parasite.

COCCIDIA

PLATE I.

FIG. i SECTION THROUGH RABBIT'S LIVER,
INFECTED WITH COCCIDIUM CUNICULI.
(AFTER THOMA.)

FIG. 2 KLOSSIA HELICINA, FROM KIDNEY
OF HELIX HORTENSIS.

a, Portion of a section of the kidney showing normal
epithelial cells containing concretions (c), and enlarged
epithelial cells containing the parasite (k) in various
stages; b, cyst of the Klossia containing sporoblasts;
c, cyst with ripe spores, each enclosing four sporozoites
and a patch of residual protoplasm. (From Wasielewski,
after Balbiani.)

"*? . *l VW

^ **~^v

FIG. 4. PHASES OF CARYOTROPHA MESNILII,
SIEDL. (PAR. POLYMNIA NEBULOSA).

FIG. 3. THE LIFE-CYCLE OF COCCIDIUM SCHUBERGI,
SCHAUD. (PAR. LITHOBIUS FORFICATUS). (FROMMIN-
CHIN, AFTER SCHAUDINN.)

I. -IV represents the schizogony, commencing with infection of an
epithelial cell by a sporozoite or merozoite. After stage IV the de-
velopment may start again at stage I, as indicated by the arrows;
or it may go on to the formation of gametocytes (V). V-VIII
represents the sexual generation. The line of development, hitherto
single (I- IV) becomes split into two lines male (VI S, VII $,
VIII 5), and female (VI ?, VII $, VIII ?), culminating in the highly
differentiated micro- and mega-gametes. By conjugation these two
lines are again united. IX, X, show the formation of the zygotc by
fusion of the nuclei of the gametes. XI-XV, sporogony. H.C, host-
cell; N, its nucleus; mz, merozoite; szt, schizont; ky, karyosome (or
fragments of same) ; n.n, daughter-nuclei of schizont ; pl.er, plastinoid
grains; ooc, oocyst; n.zyg, zygote-nucleus (segmentation-nucleus);
sp.m, spore-membrane (sporocyst); rp, residual protoplasm of oocyst
(" reliquat kystal"); rp.sp, residual protoplasm of spore (" rcliquat
sporal ") ; sp.z, sporozoite.

a, Young schizont in a cluster of spermatogonia ; the host-cell
(represented granulated) and two of its neighbours are greatly
hypertrophied, with very large nuclei, and have fused into a
single mass containing the parasite (represented clear, with a thick
outline). The other spermatogonia are normal, b, Intracellular
schizont divided up into schizontocytes (c), each schizontocyte giving
rise to a cluster of merozoitcs arranged as a "corps en barillet";
spg, spermatogonia; h.c, host-cell; N, nucleus of host-cell or cells;
n, nucleus of parasite; szc, schizontocyte; mz, merozoites; r.b, residual
bodies of the schizontocytes. (From Minchin, after Siedlecki.)

VI. 616.

PLATE II.

COCCIDIA

FIG. 5. SCHIZOGONY OF ADELEA OVATA, A. SCHN.
(PAR. LITHOBIUS FORFICATUS).

a-c, S generation; d-f, i generation, a, Full-grown $ schizont
(megaschizont) , with a large nucleus (n) containing a conspicuous
karyosome (ky). b, Commencement of schizogony; the nucleus
has divided up to form a number of daughter-nuclei (d.n). The
karyosome of stage a has broken up into a great number of daughter-
karyosomes, each of which forms at first the centre of one of the
star-shaped daughter-nuclei; but in a short time the daughter-
karyosomes become inconspicuous, c, Completion of schizogony;
the $ schizont has broken up into a number of megamerozoites
(9 mz) implanted on a small quantity of residual protoplasm (r.p.).
Each $ merozoite has a chromatic nucleus (n) without a karyosome.

d, Full-grown 4 schizont (microschizont) , with nucleus (n), karyo-
some (ky), and a number of characteristic pigment-granules (p.gr).

e, Commencement of schizogony. The nucleus is dividing up into
a number of daughter-nuclei (d.n), each with a conspicuous karyo-
some (ky). f, Completion of schizogony. The numerous micro-
merozoites (& mz) have each a nucleus with a conspicuous karyosome
(ky) at one pole, and the protoplasm contains pigment-granules
(p.gr) near the nucleus, on the side farthest from the karyosome.
(From Minchin, after Siedlecki.)

FIG. 6. ASSOCIATION AND CONJUGATION IN

ADELEA OVATA.

a, Young microgametocyte (J game.) attached to a megagameto-
cyte (? game.). The nucleus of the microgametocyte gives rise to 4
daughter-nuclei (c) which become (d) 4 microgametes (5 gam.), e,
One of the microgametes penetrates the megagamete, which forms a
fertilization-spindle composed of male and female chromatin (* and $
chr.). The other 3 microgametes and the residual protoplasm of the
microgametocyte (r.p.) perish. The karyosome of the megagamete has
disappeared, as such. /, Union of the chromatin of both elements, to
produce the zygote-nucleus (n.zyg.). (From Minchin, after Siedlecki.)

FIG. 7. SPORES OF VARIOUS COCCIDIAN GENERA.

a, Minchinia chitonis (E.R.L.), (par. Chiton); b, Diaspora hyda-
tidea, Leger (par. Polydesmus) ; c, Echinospora labbei, Leger (par.
Lithobius mutabilis) ; d, Goussia motellae, Labbe ; e, Diplospora
(Hyaloklossia), lieberkuhni (Labbe), (par. Rana esculenta) ; f, Crystal-
lospora crystalloides (TheL), (par. Motella tricirrata). (From Min-
chin; b and c after L6ger, the others after Labbe.)

FIG. 8. SPOROGONY AND SPORE-GER-
MINATION IN BARROUSSIA ORNATA,
A. SCH., FROM THE GUT OF NEPA
CINERA.
a, Oocyst with sporoblasts; b, oocyst with

ripe spores; c, a spore highly magnified, showing

the single sporozoite bent on itself ; d, the spore

has split along its outer coat or epispore, but the

sporozoite is still enclosed in the endospore; e,

the sporozoite, freed from the endospore, is

emerging; /, the sporozoite has straightened itself out and is freed

from its envelopes. (From Wasielewski, after A. Schneider.)

COCCIDIA

617

digestive juices, which are thus enabled to reach the spores
and cause the rupture of the sporocysts. As the result of in-
structive experiments, Metzner has shown that it is the pancreatic
and not the gastric juice by which this liberation of the germs
is effected. The liberated sporozoites creep out and proceed
to infect the epithelial cells. The sporozoites (XV.) are from
15-20 /i long by 4-6 n wide; they are fairly similar to merozoites
in form, structure and behaviour, the chief point of distinction
being that they have no karyosome in the nucleus (cf. above).

Comparing the life-cycle of other Coccidia with that just
described, a greater or less degree of modification is frequently
met with. In the process of schizogony two orders of division
sometimes occur; the parent-schizont first divides up into a
varying number of rounded daughter-schizonts (schizontocytes),
each of which gives rise, in the usual manner, to a cluster of
merozoites, 1 which thus constitute a second order of cells.
Siedlecki (1902) has found this to be the case in Caryotropha
mesntiii (fig. 4), and Woodcock (1904) has shown that it is most
probably really the same process which Smith and Johnson
(1902) mistook for sporogony when originally describing their
Coccidian of the mouse, Klossiella. In Caryotropha, a perfectly
similar state of affairs is seen in the formation of microgametes
from the microgametocyte; this is additionally interesting as
showing that this process is neither more nor less than male
schizogony.

Coming to the sexual generation, considerable variation is
met with as regards the period in the life-history when sexual
differentiation first makes its appearance. Sexuality may become
evident at the very beginning of schizogony, as, e.g. in Adelea
ovata (Siedlecki, 1899), where the first-formed schizonts (those
developed from the sporozoites) are differentiated into male and
female (micro- and mega-schizonts) (see Plate II., fig. 5). Corre-
spondingly, the merozoites, to which they give rise, are also
different (micro- and mega-merozoites). In one or two cases
sexuality appears even earlier in the cycle, and has thus been
carried still farther back.

The Coccidia, as a whole, have not developed the phenomenon
of association of the sexual individuals prior to gamete-formation
which is so characteristic of Gregarines. Their method of en-
deavouring to secure successful sporulation, and thus the survival
of the species, has been rather by the extreme specialization
of the sexual process. In place of many female elements, which
the primitive or ancestral forms may be assumed to have had, 2
there is always, save possibly for one exception, 3 only a single
relatively huge megagamete formed, which offers a comparatively
easy goal for one of the many microgametes. Nevertheless
in the effort to render fertilization absolutely certain, a few
Coccidia have acquired (secondarily) the power of associating;
a state of things which enables those forms, moreover, to effect

Ian economy in the number of male gametes, only three or four
being developed. Instances are seen in Adelea mesnili (Perez,
1903), A. ovata (fig. 6), and Klossia helicina (Siedlecki, 1899).
It is very interesting to note that, in the two last cases, unless
this association of the microgametocyte with the megagametocy te
occurs, neither can the former produce male elements (micro-
gametes) nor can the female individual maturate and become
ready for fertilization. (Concerning this question of association
see also GREGARINES.)

In sporogony, great variation is seen with respect to the
number of spores and sporozoites formed; and, as in Gregarines,
these characters are largely used for purposes of classification,
under which heading they are better considered. Usually, the

I spores (fig. 7) are quite simple in outline, and not produced into
1 The merozoites are frequently arranged like the staves of a
barrel whence the term barillet, which is frequently used.
1 In Cyclospora, Schaudinn (1902) has noted certain abnormal
cases of the persistence and further multiplication of the " reduction-
nuclei " of the female element (i.e. the nuclear portions given off
during maturation), followed by multiple fertilization. This occur-
rence points strongly to the conclusion that there were originally
many female gametes (cf. also the sporoblasts of Gregarines).

I* The remarkable forms parasitic in Cephalopods (of late known
as Eucoccidium) , if still ranked with the Coccidia, furnish an ex-
ception (see below).

spines or processes; exceptions are found, however, in a few
instances (e.g. Minchinia ckilonis). In one case (Coccidium
mitrarium), the oocyst itself, instead of being spherical, is
curiously shaped like a mitre.

The life-history as a whole is invariably undergone in a single
host, i.e. there is no alternation of true hosts. 4 Schaudinn, in his
work on the Coccidia of Li Hi obi us (1900), showed that the oocysts
expelled with the faeces may be eaten by wood-lice (Oniscus),
but when this happens they pass through the intestine of the
wood-louse unaltered, the latter not being an intermediate host
but merely a carrier.

The order Coccidiidea is divided into four families, characterized
by the number of sporocysts (if any) found in the oocyst.

Fam. ASPOROCYSTIDAE, Leger. No sporozoites are Cl**tlfl-
formed in the oocyst, the sporozoites being unenclosed cutloa.
(gy mnospores) .

Genus, Legeretta, Mesnil. This genus actually conforms to Aime
Schneider's original definition of Eimeria, which was founded on
what were really the schizogonous generations of other forms, then
thought to be distinct. In view of the great confusion attending
the use of this name, however, Mesnil (1900) has suggested the new
one here adopted. Two species known, L. nova and L. testiculi, both
from different species of Glomeris, a Myriapod ; the former inhabits
the Malpighian tubules, the latter the testis.

Fam. DISPOROCYSTIDAE, Leger. The oocyst contains 2 spores.

Genus I. Cyclospora, A. Schneider. Spores dizoic, i.e. with two
sporozoites. C. glomericola, from the intestinal epithelium of
Glomeris, and C. caryolytica, from the intestinal epithelium of the
mole, intranuclear.

Genus 2. Diplospora, Labbe. Spores tetrazoic. D. lacazei, from
many birds, is the best-known species; and others have been de-
scribed from different Sauropsida. D. lieberkuhni is an interesting
form occurring in the kidneys of the frog, which it reaches by way
of the circulation.

Genus 3. Isospora, Schn. Spores polyzoic. Founded for /. rara,
parasitic in the black slug (Umax cinereo-niger). Many authors
consider that Schneider was mistaken in attnbuting many sporo-
zoites to this form, and would unite with it the genus Diplospora.

Fam. TETRASPOROC YSTIDAE, Leger. The oocyst contains 4 spores.

Genus I. Coccidium,' Leuckart. The spores are dizoic and the
sporocysts rounded or oval. A very large number of species are
known, mostly from Vertebrate hosts. C. cuniculi ( = C. oviforme)
from the rabbit (intestine and diverticula) , but also occurring some-
times in other domestic animals; C. falciformis, from the mouse;
C. faurei from sheep; and C. schubergi, from Lithobius (a centipede),
are among the best-known forms. All of them may cause disastrous
epidemics of coccidiosis.

Genus 2. Paracoccidium, Laveran and Mesnil. This genus is
distinguished from Coccidium by the fact that the sporocysts become
dissolved up in the oocyst, thus leaving the 8 sporozoites unenclosed,
recalling the condition in Legeretta. P. prevail, unique species, from
the frog's intestine.

Genus 3. Crystallospora, Labbe. Spores also dizoic, but having
the form of a double pyramid. C. crystalloides from a fish, Motella
tricirrata.

Genus 4. Angeiocystis, Brasil. Apparently 6 sporozoites, but
the only species, A. audouiniae, has only been briefly described;
from a Polychaete (Audouinia).

Fam. POLYSPOROCYSTIDAE, Leger. The oocyst contains numerous
spores.

There are several genera with monozoic spores, characterized by
variations in the form and structure of the sporocysts, e.g. Barroussia,
Schn. (fig. 8), Echinospora, Leger, and Diaspora, Leger; most of
these forms are from Myriapods.

Genus Adelea, Schn. Dizoic spores; sporocysts round or oval,
plain. Several species are included in this well-known genus, among
them being A. ovata, A. mesnili, A. dimidiala; most of them are
parasitic in Insects or Myriapods.

Genus Minchinia, Labbe. Dizoic spores; the sporocysts are
produced at each pole into a long filament. M. chitonis, from the
liver of Chiton (Mollusca).

Genus Klossia, Schn. The spores are tetrazoic (or perhaps

Colyzoic). K. helicina from the kidney of various land-snails is the
est-known form. Usually said to have 5 to 6 spores, but Mesnil
considers that the normal number is 4, as is the case in another
species, K. soror.

Genus Caryotropha, Siedlecki. Many spherical spores (about 20)

4 Again with the exception of Eucoccidium.^

* Purists in systematic nomenclature maintain that this name
should be relinquished in favour of Eimeria, since the latter was the
first legitimate generic name given to a Coccidian. But one reason
against the use of Eimeria has been stated already (it should be used
for E. (Legeretta) nova, if anywhere) ; and in addition, the word
Coccidium and its important derivatives are now so universally
established that it would be little short of ridiculous to displace
them.

6i8

COCCULUS INDICUS COCHABAMBA

each with 12 sporozoites. C. mesnilii, unique species, from the
spermatogonial (testis) cells of Pplymnia (a Polychaete). An inter-
esting point in the schizogony is the formation of schizontocytes
(see above).

A Coccidian parasitic in the kidneys of the mouse has been de-
scribed by Smith and Johnson (1902) and named by them Klossiella,
on the ground that it possessed many spores, each with about
20 sporozoites. Woodcock has shown, however, that the authors
were in all probability dealing with a similar modification of schizo-
gony to that which obtains in Caryotropha. The sporogony of this
form (and hence its systematic position) remains at present, there-
fore, quite unknown.

There are several doubtful or insufficiently known genera, e.g.
Bananella, Goussia, Hyaloklossia, Gonobia, Pfeifferella and Rhabdo-
spora, many of which probably represent only schizogonous genera-
tions of other forms. (For information concerning these see Labbe,
1897.)

Lastly it remains to mention the extremely interesting forms
parasitic in Cephalopods. For some years these have provided a
fruitful source of discussion to systematists. Here it may be stated
simply that their systematic position and nomenclature were
thought to have been finally settled by the researches of Jacquemet
(1903) and Liihe (1902) in the following terms:
Genus Eucoccidium. Liihe (sy_n. Leeenna Jacq.), Coccidia possess-
ing polysporous oocysts and lacking scnizqgony, parasitic in Cephalo-
pods. Two well-known species : E. eberthi (Labbe) , ( = Benedenia seu
Klossia e. seu octopiana) , parasitic in Sepia, which is tri- or tetra-zoic ;
and E. octopianum (Schn.), (syn. Benedenia seu Klossia o.) from
Octopus, which is polyzoic, having 10 to 12 sporozoites. In both
forms cysts containing megasppres and megasporozoites, and others
containing microspores and microsp_orozoites are found, considered
as representing sexual differentiation thrown back to the very
earliest stages of the life-cycle.

Quite recently much additional light has been thrown upon our
knowledge of these parasites, including a new one, E. jacquemeti.
Moroff (1906) has shown that not one but many megagametes are
formed, and fertilized by the microgametes. For this reason he
regards them as Gregarines rather than Coccidia. Further, Leger
and Duboscq (1906) have found that the characteristic coelomic
parasites (Aggregate,) of Crustacea, generally regarded as gyrnno-
sporous Gregarines (i.e. Gregarines in which the sporozoites are
naked) constitute in reality nothing more or less than a schizogonous
generation of these Cephalopodan parasites, which have thus an
alternation of true hosts. The ripe sporocysts from the Cephalopod
are eaten by a particular crab (e.g. Portunus or Inachus, according
to the parasite), the sporozoites are liberated and traverse the
mucous membrane of the intestine, coming to rest in the surrounding
lymphatic layer. Here a large " cyst " is formed, projecting into
the body-cavity, the contents of which give rise to a great number
of merozoites. On the crab being devoured by the right species
of Cephalopod, the merozoites doubtless give rise to the sexual
generation again.

As the name Aggregate, is much the older, and as, moreover, there
is no longer any reason to retain that, of Eucoccidium, these parasites
must in future receive the former generic appellation. With regard
to the various specific names, however, they remain quite unsettled
until the life-history is properly worked out in different cases (see
also GREGARINES).

It seems to the writer a much more open question than Moroff
and Leger and Duboscq apparently suppose, whether these para-
sites are to be relegated to the Gregarines. For undoubtedly they
have many Coccidian features, and on the other hand they differ
in many ways from Gregarines. The chief feature of agreement
with the latter order is the possession of many female gametes.
As already said, there can be little doubt that this was the condition
in the Coccidian ancestor, and it is by no means impossible that one
or two forms existing at the present day remain primitive in that
respect. On the other hand, the advanced character of the parasitism
(the parasites remaining intracellular up to and including gamete-
formation) ; the entire lack of the characteristic feature of associa-
tion; the schizogony, which is only a very rare occurrence in
Gregarines, and which, in the present case, strongly suggests the
process in Caryotropha and Klossiella; and, last but not least, the
varying number of the sporozoites (3 in one form, 10-15 in others),
which is very different from the almost constant number (8) in
Gregarines, are all characters in which these forms agree with
Coccidia and not with Gregarines. Having regard to these points, the
writer is inclined, for the present, to consider Aggregata as an off-
shoot rather from the Coccidian than from the Gregarine branch of
the Ectosporan tree.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The following are some of the important papers
dealing with the order :-^-G. Bonnet-Eymard, " Sur 1'Evolution
de V Eimeria nova, Schneider," C.R. Soc. Biol. 52, p. 659, 1900;
L. Brasil, " Sur une Coccidie nouvelle, &c.," AR.Ac. Sci. 139,
p. 645, 1904; L. Cuenot, " Legeretta testiculi n. sp., &c.," Arch. Zool.
exp. (N. et R.), (3) 10, p. 49, 6 figs., 1902; M. Jacquemet, " Sur la
systematique des Coccidies des Cephalopodes," Arch. Protistenk.
2 p., 190, 1903; A. Labbe, " Recherches zoologiques, cytologiques et
biologiques sur les Coccidies," Arch. zool. exp. (3), 4, p. 517, 3 pis.,
1897 ; A. Laveran, " Sur lesmodesdereproduction d' Isospora lacazei,"

C.R. Soc. Biol. 50, p. 1139, 1898; A. Laveran and F. Mesnil, " Sur
deux Coccidies intestinales de fa Rana esculenta," op. cit. 54, p. 857,
9 figs., 1902; A. Laveran and F Mesnil, " Sur la Coccidie trouvee
dans le rein de la Rana esculenta, &c.," C.R.Ac. Sci. 135, p. 82, 10
figs., 1902; A. Laveran and F. Mesnil, " Sur quelques Protozoa ires
parasites d'une tortue, &c." /. c. p. 609, 14 figs., 1902; L. Leger,
Sur une nouvelle Coccidie a microgametes cilies," op. cit., 127,
p. 418, 1898; L. L6ger, " Sur la morphologie et le developpement
des microgametes des Coccidies," Arch. zool. exp. (N. et R.) (3), 6,
1898; L. Leger, " Essai sur la classification des Coccidies, &c.,"
Ann. Mus. Nat. Hist., Marseille (2), Bull. i. p. 71, 4 pis., 1898;
L. Leger, " Sur la presence d'une Coccidie coelomique chez Olocrates,
&c.," Arch. zool. exp. (N. et R.) (3), 8, p. i., 1900; L. Leger, " Sur
le genre Eimeria et la classification des Coccidies," C.R. Soc. Biol.
52. P- 575. 1900; L. Leger and O. Duboscq, " Recherches sur les
Myriapodes de Corse et leurs parasites," Arch. zool. exp. (4), i,
p. 307,^24 figs., 1903; L. Leger and O. Duboscq, " Sur 1'eVqlution
des Gregarines gymnosporees des Crustac6s," C.R.Ac. Sci. 142,
p. 1225, 1906; L. Leger and O. Duboscq, " L'Evolution d'une
Aggregata de la seiche chez le Portunus depurator," C.R. Soc. Biol.
60, p. icoi, 1906; M. Ltihe, " Cber Geltung und Bedeutung der
Gattungsnamen Eimeria und Coccidium," C. B. Bakter (i) 31 Orig,
p. 771, 1902; C. B. Bakter, " Die Coccidien-Literatur der letzten
vier Jahre," Zool. Centrlbl. 10, 45 pp., 1903; F. Mesnil, "Sur la
conservation du nom generique Eimeria, &c.," C.R. Soc. Biol. 52,
". 603, 1900; F. Mesnil, " Les Travaux recents sur les Coccidies,"

:. Inst. Pasteur, i. pp. 473, 505, 1903; R. Metzner, " Unter-
suchungen an Coccidium cumculi," Arch. Protistenk. 2, p. 13, pi. ii.
1903; G. Moussu and G. Marotel, " La Coccidiose du mouton et son
parasite," Arch. Parasitol. 6, p. 82, 10 figs., 1902; T. Moroff, " Sur
revolution des pr6tendues Coccidies des Cephalopodes," C.R.Ac.
Sci. 142, p. 652, 1906; C. Perez, " Le Cycle evolutif de 1'Adelea
mesnih, &c.," Arch. Protistenk. 2, p. i, pi. i, 1903; F. Schaudinn,
" Untersuchungen tiber den Generationswechsel bei Coccidien,"
Zool. Jahrbucher (Anat.) 13, p. 197, 4 pis., 1900; F. Schaudinn,
" Studien liber krankheitserregende Protozoan I. Cyclospora
caryolytica, &c.," Arb. kais. Gesundh.-amte, 18, p. 378, 2 pis., 1902;
M. Siedlecki, " Reproduction sexuee . . . chez . . . Coccidium
proprium," C.R. Soc. Biol. 50, p. 664, figs., 1898; M. Siedlecki,
Etude cytologique . . . de la Coccidie de la seiche, &c.," Ann.
Inst. Pasteur, 12, p. 799, 3 pis., 1898; M. Siedlecki, " Etude cytolo-
gique . . . de Adelea ovata," op. cit. 13, p. 169, 3 pis., 1899;
M. Siedlecki, " Cycle evolutif de la Caryotropha mesnilii, &c.,"
Bull. Ac. Cracovie, p. 561, 5 figs., 1902; T. Smith and H. P.
Johnson, " On a Coccidian (Klossiella muris, gen. et spec, nov.),
&c.," J. exp. Med. 6, p. 303, 3 pis., 1902; H. M. Woodcock, " Notes
on Sporozoa, I. On Klossiella muris, &c.," Q.J. micr. Sci. 48,
p. 153, 2 figs., 1904. (H. M. Wo.)

COCCULUS INDICUS, the commercial name for the dried
fruits of Anamirta Cocculus (natural order Menispermaceae),
a large climbing shrub, native to India. It contains a bitter
poisonous principle, picrotoxin, used in small doses to control
the night sweats of phthisis. It was formerly known as Levant
nut. and Levant shell, owing to the fact that it was brought to
Europe by way of the Levant.

COCHABAMBA, a central department of Bolivia, occupying
the eastern angle of the great Bolivian plateau, bounded N. by
the department of El Beni, E. by Santa Cruz, S. by Chuquisaca
and Potosi, and W. by Potosi, Oruro and La Paz. Area, 23,328
sq. m.; pop. (1900) 328,163. Its average elevation is between
8000 and 10,000 ft., and its mean temperature ranges from 50
to 60 F., making it one of the best climatic regions in South
America. The rainfall is moderate and the seasons are not
strongly marked, the difference being indicated by rainfall
rather than by temperature. The rainy season is from November
to February. Cochabamba is essentially an agricultural depart-
ment, although its mineral resources are good and include
deposits of gold, silver and copper. Its temperate climate
favours the production of wheat, Indian corn, barley and
potatoes, and most of the fruits and vegetables of the temperate
zone. Coca, cacao, tobacco and most of the fruits and vegetables
of the tropics are also produced. Its forest products include
rubber and cinchona. Lack of transportation facilities, however,
have been an insuperable obstacle to the development of any
industry beyond local needs except those of cinchona and rubber.
Sheep and cattle thrive in this region, and an experiment with
silkworms gave highly successful results. The population is
chiefly of the Indian and mestizo types, education is in a back-
ward state, and there are no manufactures other than those of
the domestic stage, the natives making many articles of wearing
apparel and daily use in their own homes. Rough highways and

COCHABAMBA COCHIN

619

mule-paths are the only means of communication, but a pro-
jected railway from Cochabamba (city) to Oruro, 132 m., promises
to bring this isolated region into touch with the commercial
world. The department is divided into nine provinces, but
there is no effective local government outside the municipalities.
The capital is Cochabamba; other important towns are Punata,
Tarata, Totora, Mizque and Sacaba.

COCHABAMBA, a city of Bolivia, capital of the department
of the same name and of the province of Cercado, situated on
the Rocha, a small tributary of the Guapay river, in lat. 17
27' S.and long. 65 46' W. Pop. (1900) 21,886, mostly Indians
and mestizos. The city stands in a broad valley of the Bolivian
plateau, 8400 ft. above sea-level, overshadowed by the snow-clad
heights of Tunari and Larati, 291 m. north-north-west of Sucre
and 132 m. east-north-east of Oruro, with both of which places it
is connected by rough mountain roads. A subsidized stage-
coach line runs to Oruro. A contract for a railway between the
two cities was made in 1906, connecting with the Antofagasta
and Arica lines. The climate is mild and temperate, and the
surrounding country fertile and cultivated. Cochabamba is often
described as the most progressive city of Bolivia, but it has been
held back by its isolated situation. The warehouses of the city
are well supplied with foreign goods, and trade is active in spite
of high prices. The city is provided with telegraphic com-
munication via Oruro, and enjoys a large part of the Amazon
trade through some small river ports on tributaries of the
Mamore. The city is regularly laid out, and contains many
attractive residences surrounded by gardens. It is an episcopal
city (since 1847), containing many churches, four conventual
establishments, and a missionary college of the " Propaganda
Fide " for the conversion of Indians. The city has a university
and two colleges, but they are poorly equipped and receive very
little support from the government. Cochabamba was founded
in the i6th century, and for a time was called Oropesa. It took
an active part in the " war of independence," the women dis-
tinguishing themselves in an attack on the Spanish camp in 1815,
and some of them being put to death in 1818 by the Spanish
forces. In 1874 the city was seized and partly destroyed by
Miguel Aguirre, but in general its isolated situation has been a
protection against the disorders which have convulsed Bolivia
since her independence.

COCHEM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine pro-
vince on the Mosel, and 30 m. W. of Coblenz by the railway
to Trier, which above the town enters the longest tunnel
(25 m.) in Germany. Pop. 3500. It is romantically situated in
the deep and winding valley of the Mosel, at the. foot of a
hill surrounded by a feudal castle dating from 1051, which
has been restored in its former style. There is a considerable
trade in wines.

COCHERY, LOUIS ADOLPHE (1819-1900), French statesman,
was bom at Paris. After studying law he soon entered politics,
and was on the staff of the ministry of justice after the revolution
of February 1848. From the coup d'etat of 1851 to May 1869
he devoted himself to journalism. Then, elected deputy by
the department of the Loiret, he joined the group of the Left
Centre, and was a supporter of the revolution of the 4th of
September 1870. His talent in finance won him a distinguished
place in the chamber. From 1879 till 1885 he was minister of
posts and telegraphs, and in January 1888 he was elected to the
senate. He died in 1900.

His son, GEORGES CHARLES PAUL, born in 1855, was in his
father's department from 1879 till 1885, deputy from 1885, five
times president of the Budget Commission, minister of finance
(1895-1898) and vice-president of the chamber (1898-1902), and
again finance minister in the Briand Cabinet, 1909.

COCHIN, DENYS MARIE PIERRE AUGUSTIN (1851- ),
French politician, was born at Paris. He studied law, was
elected to the chamber of deputies in 1893, and gradually became
one of the leaders and principal orators of the Conservative
party. He opposed the project of the income-tax in 1894, the
revision of the Dreyfus case in 1899, and the separation of the
church and state in 1905. He is known as an author by his works,

L'txolution de la vie (1895); Le Monde exttrieur (1895); Centre
les barbares (1899); Ententes et ruptures (1905).

COCHIN, a feudatory state of southern India, in political
subordination to Madras, with an area of 1361 sq. m. It is
bounded on the N. by British Malabar, on the E. by British
Malabar, Coimbatore and Travancore, on the S. by Travancore,
and on the W. by British Malabar and the Arabian Sea. Isolated
from the main territory, and situated to the north-east of it,
lies the major portion of the Chittore taluk, entirely surrounded
by British territory. The whole state may be divided into three
well-defined regions or zones: (i) the eastern zone, consisting
of broken forested portions of the Western Ghats, which,
gradually decreasing in height, merge into (2) the central belt,
comprising the uplands and plains that dip towards the lagoons
or " backwaters " along the coast (see COCHIN, town), beyond
which lies (3) the western zone, forming the littoral strip. The
low belt which borders on the seas and the backwaters is by
nature flat and swampy, but has in the course of ages become
enriched by the work of man. On leaving the seaboard, an
undulating country is found, diversified with grassy flats, naked
hills and wooded terraces, intersected by numerous torrents and
rapids, and profusely dotted with homesteads, orchards and
cultivated fields, up to the very foot of the Ghats. Here the
landscape, now on a grander scale, embraces great forests which
form a considerable source of wealth. Of the total area of the
state the forests and lagoons cover nearly 605 and 16 sq. m.
respectively.

In 1901- the population was 812,025, showing an increase of
12% in the decade. More than one-fifth are Christians, mostly
Syrians and Roman Catholics. The revenue is estimated at
153,000, subject to a tribute of 13,000. During recent years
the financial condition of the state has been flourishing. The
principal products are rice, cocoanuts, timber, cardamoms,
pepper and a little coffee. Salt is manufactured along the coast.
The capital is Ernakulam, but the raja resides at Tripunthora.
The principal commercial centre is Mattancheri, adjoining the
British town of Cochin. The chief means of communication is
by boat along the backwaters; but in 1902 a metre-gauge line
was constructed by the Madras railway at the expense of the
state to connect Ernakulam with Shoranur.

History. What is now the native state of Cochin formed,
until about the middle of the 9th century A.D., part of the ancient
Chera or Kerala kingdom (see KERALA) . Its port of Kodungalur
(Kranganur, the ancient Muziris), at the mouth of the Periyar,
was from early times one of the chief centres for the trade between
Europe and India; and it was at Malankara, near Kodungalur,
that the apostle Thomas is traditionally said to have landed.
The history of Cochin is, however, like that of the Kerala king-
dom generally, exceedingly obscure previous to the arrival of the
Portuguese. The rajas of Cochin, who are of pure Kshatriya
blood, claim descent from the Chera king Cheraman Perumal,
the last of his race to rule the vast tract from Gokarn in North
Kanara to Cape Comorin. About the middle of the 9th century
this king, according to tradition, resigned his kingdom, embraced
Islam, and went on pilgrimage to Arabia, where he died. To-
wards the end of the century the Chera kingdom was overrun
and dismembered by the Cholas. It was in 1498 that Vasco da
Gama reached the Malabar coast; and in 1502 the Portuguese
were allowed to settle in the town of Cochin, where they built a
fort and began to organize trade with the surrounding country.
By the end of the century their influence had become firmly
established, largely owing to the effective aid they had given
to the rajas of Cochin in their wars with the Zamorin of Calicut.
The Syrian Christians, forming at that time a large proportion
of the population, now felt the weight of Portuguese ascendancy;
in 1599 Menezes, the archbishop of Goa, held a synod at Uday-
amperur (Diamper), a village 12 m. south-east of Cochin, at
which their, tenets were pronounced heretical and their service-
books purged of all Nestorian phrases. In 1663, however,
Portuguese domination came to an end with the capture of
Cochin by the Dutch, whose ascendancy continued for about
a hundred years. In 1776 Hyder Ali of Mysore invaded the

620

COCHIN COCHIN-CHINA

state and forced the raja to acknowledge his suzerainty and pay
tribute. In 1791 Tippoo, son of Hyder Ali, ceded the sovereignty
to the British, who entered into a treaty with the raja by which
he became their vassal and paid an annual tribute of a lakh of
rupees. On the ijth of October 1809, in consequence of an
attempt of the hereditary chief minister Paliyath Achan, in
1808, to raise an insurrection against the British without his
master's knowledge, a fresh treaty was made, by which the
raja undertook to hold no correspondence with any foreign
state and to admit no foreigners to his service without the sanc-
tion of the British government, which, while undertaking to
defend the raja's territories against all enemies, reserved the
right to dismantle or to garrison any of his fortresses. In 1818
the tribute, raised to 2$ lakhs in 1808, was permanently fixed
at 2 lakhs. Since then, under the rule of the rajas, the state has
greatly advanced in prosperity, especially under that of H.H.
Sir Sri Rama Varma (b. 1852), who succeeded in 1895, was
made a K. C.S.I, in 1897, and G.C.S.I. in 1903.

COCHIN, a town of British India, in the district of Malabar,
Madras. Pop. (1901) 19,274. The town lies at the northern
extremity of a strip of land about 12 m. in length, but in few
places, more than a mile in breadth, which is nearly insulated
by inlets of the sea and estuaries of streams flowing from the
Western Ghats. These form the Cochin backwaters, which
cdnsist of shallow lagoons lying behind the beach-line and below
its level. In the monsoon the Cochin backwaters are broad
navigable channels and lakes; in the hot weather they contract
into shallows in many places not 2 ft. deep. The town of Cochin
is about a mile in length by half a mile in breadth. Its first
European possessors were the Portuguese. Vasco da Gama
founded a factory in 1502, and Albuquerque built a fort, the first
European fort in India, in 1503. The British made a settlement
in 1634, but retired when the Dutch captured the town in 1663.
Under the Dutch the town prospered, and about 1778 an English
traveller described it as a place of great trade, " a harbour filled
with ships, streets crowded with merchants, and warehouses
stored with goods from every part of Asia and Europe, marked
the industry, the commerce, and the wealth of the inhabitants."
In 1795 Cochin was captured from the Dutch by the British, and
in 1806 the fortifications and public buildings were blown up by
order of the authorities. The explosion destroyed much private
property, and for a long time seriously affected the prosperity
of the town. Considerable sea-borne trade is still carried on. A
lighthouse stands on the ruins of the old fort. The chief exports
are cocoanut products, for the preparation of which there are
factories, and tea; and the chief import is rice. Cochin is the
only port south of Bombay in which large ships can be built.

COCHIN-CHINA, 1 a French colony in the extreme south of
French Indo-China. The term formerly included the whole
Annamese empire Tongking, Annam, and Lower Cochin- China,
but it now comprises only the French colony, which corresponds
to Lower Cochin-China, and consists of the six southern provinces
of the Annamese empire annexed by France in 1862 and 1867.
Cochin-China is bounded W. by the Gulf of Siam, N.W. and N.
by Cambodia, E. by Annam, and S.E. by the China Sea. Except
along part of the north-west frontier, where the canal of Vinh-
The divides it from Cambodia, its land-limits are conventional.
Its area is about 22,000 sq. m.

In 1901 the population numbered 2,968,529, of whom 4932
were French' (exclusive of French troops, who numbered 2537),
2 >5S8,30i Annamese, 231,902 Cambodians, 92,075 Chinese,
42,940 savages (Min Huong), the rest being Asiatics of other
nationalities, together with a few Europeans other than French.

G?ogra^y. Cochin-China consists chiefly of an immense
plain, flat and monotonous, traversed by the Mekong and extend-
ing from Ha-Tien in the west to Baria in the east, and from
Bien-Hoa in the north-east to the southern point of the peninsula
of Ca-Mau in the south-west. The last spurs of the mountains
of Annam, which come to an end at Cape St Jacques, extend over
parts of the provinces of Tay-Ninh, Bien-Hoa and Baria in the
north-east and east of the colony, but nowhere exceed 2900 ft.
,' See also INDO-CHINA, FRENCH; and ANNAM.

in height; low hills are found in the north-western province
of Chau-Doc. Cochin-China is remarkable for the abundance
of its waterways. The Mekong divides at Pnom-Penh in Cam-
bodia into two arms, the Fleuve superieur and the Fleuve
inferieur, which, pursuing a course roughly parallel from north-
west to south-east, empty into the China Sea by means of the
numerous channels of its extensive delta. From June to October
the inundations of the Mekong cover most of the country,
portions of which, notably the Plaine des Jones in the north
and a large tract of the peninsula of Ca-Mau, are little else than
marshes. Besides a great number of small coastal streams
there are four other rivers of secondary importance, all of which
water the east of the colony, viz. the Don-Nai, which rising
in the Annamese mountains flows west, then abruptly south,
reaching the sea to the west of Cape St Jacques; the Saigon
river, which flowing from north-west to south-east passes Saigon,
the capital of the colony, 12 m. below which it unites with the
Don-Nai; and the two Vaicos, which join the Don-Nai close to its
mouth. These rivers flow into the sea through numerous winding
channels, forming a delta united by canals to that of the Mekong.
The waterways of Cochin-China communicate by means of
natural or artificial channels (arroyos), facilitating transport and
aiding in the uniform distribution of the inundation to which
the country owes its fertility. Canals from Chau-Doc to Ha-Tien
and from Long Xuyen to Rach-Gia join the Mekong with the
Gulf of Siam. East of Cape St Jacques the mountains of Annam
come down close to the sea; west of that point, as far as the
southern headland of Ca-Mau, the coast-line of Cochin-China runs
north-east to south-west for about 160 m. in a straight line
broken only by the mouths of the Don-Nai and Mekong. From
Cape Ca-Mau to Rach-Gia it runs north for a distance of 120 m.,
then north-west as far as Ha-Tien, where the boundary line
between it and Cambodia meets the sea.

Climate and Fauna. The climate of the country is warm,
humid, and very trying to Europeans. The wet season, during
which heavy rain falls almost daily, lasts from April to October,
coinciding with the south-west monsoon. The hottest period
lasts from the middle of April to the middle of June, the ther-
mometer during that time often reaching 94 F., and never
descending below 86. The forest regions of Cochin-China
havbour the tiger, panther, leopard, tiger-cat, ichneumon, wild
boar, deer, buffalo, rhinoceros and elephant, as well as many
varieties of monkeys and rats. Of birds some species of parrakeet,
the " mandarin " blackbird, and the woodcock are not found
in the rest of Indo-China. Duck, teal, cranes and other aquatic
birds abound in the delta. Venomous reptiles are numerous,
and the Mekong contains crocodiles.

Agriculture and Industries. The cultivation of the rice-fields,
which cover large extents of the plains of Cochin-China, is by far
the chief industry of the colony. Pepper is grown in considerable
quantities in the districts of Ha-Tien and Bien-Hoa, and sugar-
canes, coffee, cotton, tobacco and jute are also produced. The
buffalo, used both for transport and in the rice-fields, and swine,
the flesh of which forms an important element in the native
diet, are the principal domestic animals. Oxen and cows are of
secondary importance and the climate is unsuitable for sheep;
horses of a small breed are used to some extent. The chief
industrial establishments are those for the decortication of rice
at Saigon and Cholon; they are in the hands of the Chinese, by
whom most of the trade in the colony is conducted. Sugar-
making, the distillation of rice-spirit, silk-weaving, fishing and
the preparation of a fish-sauce (nuoc-mam) made from decayed
fish, and the manufacture of salt from sea-water and of lime
are carried on in many localities.

Commerce. Rice is the chief article of export, dried or salted
fish, pepper and cotton ranking next in order of value. Imports
include woven goods, metals, ironware, machinery, tea, wines
and spirits, mineral oils, opium, paper, and arms and powder.
The ports of Saigon and Mytho are accessible to the largest
vessels, and are connected by a railway (see INDO-CHINA,
FRENCH). The roadsteads of Rach-Gia, Ca-Mau, and Ha-Tien
can accommodate only vessels of low tonnage. In 1905 exports

COCHINEAL COCHLAEUS

621

reached a value of 3,816,000, and imports a value of 4,834,000
(not including treasure and transit trade).

Government and Administration. Cochin-China is administered
by a lieutenant-governor under the authority of the governor-
general of Indo-China. He is assisted by the conseil colonial
numbering sixteen members, six of whom are French citizens
elected by the French, six natives elected by the natives, the
other four being members of the chamber of commerce of
Saigon and the conseil prive. The conseil colonial, besides its
advisory functions, discusses and votes the budget, determines
the nature of the taxes, has supreme control over the tariffs,
and extensive powers in the administration of colonial domains.
The conseil prive is a deliberative body under the presidency
of the lieutenant-governor, composed of colonial officials together
with two native members. The colony is divided into four
circumscriptions (Saigon, My-Tho, Vinh-Long, Bassac), at the
head of each of which is an inspector of native affairs. These
are subdivided into twenty provinces, each administered by an
administrator of native affairs by whose side is the provincial
council consisting of natives and occupied with the discussion of
ways and means and questions of public works. The provinces
are divided into cantons and subdivided into communes. The
commune forms the basis of the native social system. Its
assembly of notables ormunicipal council forms a sort of oligarchy,
the members of which themselves elect individuals from among
the more prominent inhabitants to fill vacancies. The notables
elect the provincial councillors in the proportion, usually, of one
to every canton, and their delegates elect the chief of the canton,
who voices the wishes of the natives to the government. Local
administration, e.g. supervision of markets,policing,land-transfer,
&c., are carried on by a mayor and two assistants, to whom the
municipal council delegates its powers. The same body draws
up the list of males liable to the poll-tax and of the lands liable
to land-tax, these being the chief sources of revenue. There
are French tribunals of first instance in nine of the chief towns
of the colony, and in four of these there are criminal courts.
These administer justice in accordance both with French law
and, in the case of natives, with Annamese law, which has been
codified for the purpose. Saigon has two chambers of the court
of appeal of French Indo-China and a tribunal of commerce.
Primary instruction is given in some six hundred schools. Cochin-
China is represented in the French chamber by a deputy. The
capital is Saigon (q.v.) ', of the other towns, Cholon (q.v.}, My-Tho,
Vinh-Long and Chau-Doc are of importance.

In 1904 the budget receipts amounted to 495,241 (as com-
pared with 474,545 in 1899). To this sum the land and poll-tax
and other direct taxes contributed 374,630. The main heads
of expenditure, of which the total was 467,3 28, were as follows:
Government . . . . . 87,271

Administration .
Public Works .
Transport ....
Public Instruction
Topography and Surveying

62,725
40,454
38,173
36,009
32,036

History. The Khmer kingdom (see CAMBODIA), at its zenith
from the pth to the i2th centuries, included a large portion of the
modern colony of Cochin-China, the coastal portion and perhaps
the eastern region being under the dominion of the empire of
Champa, which broke up during the isth century. This eastern
region was occupied in the i7th century by the Annamese, who
in the i8th century absorbed the western provinces. From this
period the history of Cochin-China follows that of Annam (q.v.)
till 1867, when it was entirely occupied by the French and
became a French colony. In 1887 it was united with Cambodia,
Annam and Tongking to form the Indo-Chinese Union (see
INDO-CHINA, FRENCH).

COCHINEAL, a natural dye-stuff used for the production of
scarlet, crimson, orange and other tints, and for the preparation
of lake and carmine. It consists of the females of Coccus cacti,
an insect of the family Coccidae of the order Hemiptera, which
feeds upon various species of the Cactaceae, more especially the
nopal plant, Opuntia coccinellifera, a native of Mexico and Peru.

The dye was introduced into Europe from Mexico, where it had
been in use long before the entrance of the Spaniards in the year
1518, and where it formed one of the staple tributes to the crown
for certain districts. In 1523 Cortes received instructions from
the Spanish court to procure it in as large quantities as possible.
It appears not to have been known in Italy so late as the year
1 548, though the art of dyeing then flourished there. Cornelius
van Drebbel, at Alkmaar, first employed cochineal for the
production of scarlet in 1650. Until about 1725 the belief was
very prevalent that cochineal was the seed of a plant, but Dr
Martin Lister in 1672 conjectured it to be a kind of kermes, and
in 1703 Antony van Leeuwenhoek ascertained its true nature by
aid of the microscope. Since its introduction cochineal has sup-
planted kermes (Coccus ilicis) over the greater part of Europe.

The male of the cochineal insect is half the size of the female,
and, unlike it, is devoid of nutritive apparatus; it has long
white wings, and a body of a deep red colour, terminated by two
diverging setae. The female is apterous, and has a dark-brown
plano-convex body; it is found in the proportion of 150 to 200
to one of the male insect. The dead body of the mother insect
serves as a protection for the eggs until they are hatched. Cochi-
neal is now furnished not only by Mexico and Peru, but also by
Algiers and southern Spain. It is collected thrice in the seven
months of the season. The insects are carefully brushed from
the branches of the cactus into bags, and are then killed by
immersion in hot water, or by exposure to the sun, steam, or the
heat of an oven much of the variety of appearance in the
commercial article being caused by the mode of treatment.
The dried insect has the form of irregular, fluted and concave
grains, of which about 70,000 go to a pound. Co'chineal has a
musty and bitterish taste. There are two principal varieties
silver cochineal, which has a greyish-red colour, and the furrows
of the body covered with a white bloom or fine down; and black
cochineal, which is of a dark reddish brown, and destitute of
bloom. Granilla is an inferior kind, gathered from uncultivated
plants. The best crop is the first of the season, which consists
of the unimpregnated females; the later crops contain an
admixture of young insects and skins, which contain propor-
tionally little colouring matter.

The black variety of cochineal is sometimes sold for silver
cochineal by shaking it with powdered talc or heavy-spar; but
these adulterations can be readily detected by means of a lens.
The duty in the United Kingdom on imported cochineal was
repealed in 1845.

Cochineal owes its tinctorial power to the presence of a sub-
stance termed cochinealin or carminic acid, CnHuOio, which
may be prepared from the aqueous decoction of cochineal.
Cochineal also contains a fat and wax; cochineal wax or coccerin,
C3oH6o(C3iH 6 iO 3 )2, may be extracted by benzene, the fat is a
glyceryl myristate CsHstCuHgOz^.

COCHLAEUS, JOHANN (1470-1552), German humanist and
controversialist, whose family name was Dobneck, was born of
poor parents in 1479 at Wendelstein (near Nuremberg), whence
his friends gave him the punning surname Cochlaeus (spiral),
for which he occasionally substituted Wendelstinus. Having
received some education at Nuremberg from the humanist
Heinrich Grieninger, he entered (1504) the university of Cologne.
In 1507 he graduated, and published under the name of Wendel-
stein his first piece, In musicam exhortatorium. He left Cologne
(May 1510) to become schoolmaster at Nuremberg, where he
brought out several school manuals. In 1 51 5 he was at Bologna,
hearing (with disgust) Eck's famous disputation against usury,
and associating with Ulrich von Hutten and humanists. He
took his doctor's degree at Ferrara (1517), and spent some time
in Rome, where he was ordained priest. In 1 5 20 he became dean
of the Liebfrauenkirche at Frankfort, where he first entered the
lists as a controversialist against the party of Luther, developing
that bitter hatred to the Reformation which animated his forceful
but shallow ascription of the movement to the meanest motives,
due to a quarrel between the Dominicans and Augustinians.
Luther would not meet him in discussion at Mainz in 1521.
He was present at the diets of Worms, Regensburg, Spires and

622

COCK COCKATRICE

Augsburg. The peasants' war drove him from Frankfort; he
obtained (1526) a canonry at Mainz; in 1529 he became secretary
to Duke George of Saxony, at Dresden and Meissen. The death
of his patron (1539) compelled him to take flight. He became
canon (September 1539) at Breslau, where he died on the loth
of January 1 552- He was a prolific writer, largely of overgrown
pamphlets, harsh and furious. His more serious efforts retain
no permanent value. With humanist convictions, he had little
of the humanist spirit. We owe to him one of the few contem-
porary notices of the young Servetus.

See C. Otto, Johannes Cochlaeus, der Humanist (1874); Haas, jn
I. Goschler's Diet, encycloped. de la theol. cath. (1858) ; Brecher, in
Allgemeine drutsche Biographie (1876); T. Kolde, in A. Hauck's
Realencyklopddie fur prot. Theol. u. Kirche (1898). (A. Go.*)

COCK, EDWARD (1805-1892), British surgeon, was born
in 1 805. He was a nephew of Sir Astley Cooper, and through him
became at an early age a member of the staff of the Borough
hospital in London, where he worked in the dissecting room for
thirteen years. Afterwards he became in 1838 assistant surgeon
at Guy's, where from 1849 to 1871 he wassurgeon, and from 1871
to 1892 consulting surgeon. He rose to be president of the
College of Surgeons in 1869. He was an excellent anatomist, a
bold operator, and a clear and incisive writer, and though in
lecturing he was afflicted with a stutter, he frequently utilized
it with humorous effect and emphasis. From 1843 to 1849 he
was editor of Guy's Hospital Reports, which contain many of his
papers, particularly on stricture of the urethra, puncture of the
bladder, injuries to the head, and hernia. He was the first
English surgeon to perform pharyngotomy with success, and also
one of the first to succeed in trephining for middle meningeal
haemorrhage; but the operation by which his name is known
is that of opening the urethra through the perinaeum (see Guy's
Hospital Reports, 1866). He died at Kingston in 1892.

COCKADE (Fr. cocarde, in i6th century coquarde, from coq,
in allusion probably to the cock's comb), a knot of ribbons or
a rosette worn as a badge, particularly now as part of the livery
of servants. The cockade was at first the button and loop or
clasp which " cocked " up the side of an ordinary slouch hat.
The word first appears in this sense in Rabelais in the phrase
" bonnet a la coquarde," which is explained by Cotgrave (1611)
as a " Spanish cap or fashion of bonnet used by substantial men
of yore . . . worne proudly or peartly on th' one side." The
bunch of ribbons as a party badge developed from this entirely
utilitarian button and loop. The Stuarts' badge was a white
rose, and the resulting white cockade figured in Jacobite songs
after the downfall of the dynasty. William III.'s cockade was
of yellow, and the House of Hanover introduced theirs of black,
which in its present spiked or circular form of leather is worn in
England to-day by the royal coachmen and grooms, and the
servants of all officials or members of the services. At the battle
of Sheriffmuir in the reign of George I. the English soldiers wore
a black rosette in their hats, and in a contemporary song are
called " the red-coat lads wi' black cockades." At the outbreak
of the French Revolution of 1789, cockades of green ribbon were
adopted. These afterwards gave place to the tricolour cockade,
which is said to have been a mixture of the traditional colours
of Paris (red and blue) with the white of the Bourbons, the early
Revolutionists being still Royalists. The French army wore the
tricolour cockade until the Restoration. To-day each foreign
nation has its special coloured cockade. Thus the Austrian is
black and yellow, the Bavarian light blue and white, the Belgian
black, yellow and red, French the tricolour, Prussian black and
white, Russian green and white, and so on, following usually the
national colours. Originally the wearing of a cockade, as soon
as it had developed into a badge, was restricted to soldiers, as
" to mount a cockade " was " to become a soldier." There is still
a trace of the cockade as a badge in certain military headgears
in England and elsewhere. Otherwise it has become entirely
the mark of domestic service. The military cocked hat, the
lineal descendant of the bonnet a la coquarde, became the fashion
in France during the reign of Louis XV.

See Genealogical Magazine, vols. i.-iii. (London, 1897-1899);
Racinet, La Costume historique (6 vols., Paris, 1888).

COCKAIGNE (COCKAYNE), LAND OF (O. Fr. Coquaigne, mod.
Fr. cocagne, " abundance," from Ital. Cocagna; " as we say
' Lubberland,' the epicure's or glutton's home, the land of all
delights, so taken in mockerie ": Florio), an imaginary country,
a medieval Utopia where life was a continual round of luxurious
idleness. The origin of the Italian word has been much disputed.
It seems safest to connect it, as do Grimm and Littre, ultimately
with Lat. coquere, through a word meaning " cake," the literal
sense thus being " The Land of Cakes." In Cockaigne the
rivers were of wine, the houses were built of cake and barley-
sugar, the streets were paved with pastry, and the shops supplied
goods for nothing. Roast geese and fowls wandered about
inviting folks to eat them, and buttered larks fell from the skies
like manna. There is a 13th-century French fabliau, Cocaigne,
which was possibly intended to ridicule the fable of the mythical
Avalon, " the island of the Blest." The 13th-century English
poem, The Land of Cockaygne, is a satire on monastic life. The
term has been humorously applied to London, and by Boileau
to the Paris of the rich. The word has been frequently confused
with Cockney (<?..).

See D. M. Meon, Fabliaux et conies (4 vols., 1808), and F. J.
Furnivall, Early English Poems (Berlin, 1862).

COCKATOO (Cacaluidae), a family of parrots characterized
among Old World forms by their usually greater size, by the crest
of feathers on the head, which can be raised or depressed at will,
and by the absence of green in thdr coloration. They inhabit
the Indian Archipelago, New Guinea and Australia, and are
gregarious, frequenting woods and feeding on seeds, fruits and
the larvae of insects. Their note is generally harsh and un-
musical, and although they are readily tamed when taken young,
becoming familiar, and in some species showing remarkable
intelligence, their powers of vocal imitation are usually limited.
Of the true cockatoos (Cacatua) the best known is the sulphur-
crested cockatoo (Cacatua galerita), of a pure white plumage with
the exception of the crest, which is deep sulphur yellow, and of
the ear and tail coverts, which are slightly tinged with yellow.
The crest when erect stands 5 in. high. These birds are found
in Australia in flocks varying from 100 to 1000 in number, and
do great damage to newly-sown grain, for which reason they are
mercilessly destroyed by farmers. They deposit their eggs two
in number, and of a pure white colour in the hollows of decayed
trees or in the fissures of rocks, according to the nature of the
locality in which they reside. This is one of the species most
usually kept in Europe as a cage bird. Leadbeater's Cockatoo
(Cacatua Leadbeateri) , an inhabitant of South Australia, excels
all others in the beauty of its plumage, which consists in great
part of white, tinged with rose colour, becoming a deep salmon
colour under the wings, while the crest is bright crimson at the
base, with a yellow spot in the centre and white at the tip.
It is exceedingly shy and difficult of approach, and its note is
more plaintive while less harsh than that of the preceding species.
In the cockatoos belonging to the genus Calyptorhynchus the
general plumage is black or dark brown, usually with a large spot
or band of red or yellow on the tail. The largest of these is known
as the funereal cockatoo (Calyplorhynchus funereus), from the
lugubrious note or call which it utters, resembling the two
syllables Wy la , the native name of the species. It deposits
its eggs in the hollows of the large gum-trees of Australia,
and feeds largely on the larvae of insects, in search of which it
peels off the bark of trees, and when thus employed it may
be approached closely. The cockateel (Calopsittacus novae-
hollandiae), the only species in the family smaller than a pigeon,
and with a long pointed tail, is a common aviary bird, and breeds
freely in captivity.

COCKATRICE, a fabulous monster, the existence of which
was firmly believed in throughout ancient and medieval times,
descriptions and figures of it appearing in the natural history
works of such writers as Pliny and Aldrovandus, those of the
latter published so late as the beginning of the i7th century.
Produced from a cock's egg hatched by a serpent, it was believed
to possess the most deadly powers, plants withering at its touch,
and men and animals dying poisoned by its look. It stood in

COCKBURN, SIR A. J. E.

623

awe, however, of the cock, the sound of whose crowing killed
it, and consequently travelers were wont to take this bird with
them in travelling over regions supposed to abound in cockatrices.
The weasel alone among mammals was unaffected by the glance
ot its evil eye, and attacked it at all times successfully; for when
wounded by the monster's teeth it found a ready remedy in rue
the only plant which the cockatrice could not wither. This myth
reminds one of the real contests between the weasel-like mungoos
of India and the deadly cobra, in which the latter is generally
killed. The term " cockatrice " is employed on four occasions
in the English translation of the Bible, in all of which it denotes
nothing more than an exceedingly venomous reptile; it seems
also to be synonymous with " basilisk," the mythical king of
serpents.

COCKBURN, SIR ALEXANDER JAMES EDMUND, loth
Bart. (1802-1880), lord chief justice of England, was born on
the 24th of December 1802, of ancient Scottish stock. He was
the son of Alexander, fourth son of Sir James Cockburn, 6th
baronet, his three uncles, who had successively held the title,
dying without heirs. His father was British envoy extraordinary
and minister plenipotentiary to the state of Columbia, and
married Yolande, daughter of the vicomte de Vignier. Young
Alexander was at one time intended for the diplomatic service,
and frequently during the legal career which he ultimately
adopted he was able to make considerable use of the knowledge
of foreign languages, especially French, with which birth and
early education had equipped him. He was educated at Trinity
Hall, Cambridge, of which he was elected a fellow, and after-
wards an honorary fellow. He entered at the Middle Temple in
1825, and was called to the bar in 1829. He joined the western
circuit, and for some time such practice as he was able to obtain
lay at the Devon sessions, quarter sessions at that time affording
an opening and a school of advocacy to young counsel not to be
found anywhere fifty years later. In London he had so little
to do that only the persuasion of friends induced him to keep
his London chambers open. Three years after his call to the
bar, however, the Reform Bill was passed, and the petitions
which followed the ensuing general election gave rise to a large
number of new questions for the decision of election committees,
and afforded an opening of which he promptly availed himself.
The decisions of the committees had not been reported since
182 1, and with M. C. Rowe, another member of the western circuit,
Cockburn undertook a new series of reports. They only published
one volume, but the work was well done, and in 1833 Cockburn
had his first parliamentary brief.

In 1834 Cockburn was well enough thought of to be made a
member of the commission to inquire into the state of the cor-
porations of England and Wales. Other parliamentary work
followed; but he had ambition to be more than a parliamentary
counsel, and attended diligently on his circuit, besides appearing
before committees. In 1841 he was made a Q.C., and in that
year a charge of simony, brought against his uncle, William,
dean of York, enabled him to appear conspicuously in a case
which attracted considerable public attention, the proceedings
taking the form of a motion for prohibition duly obtained against
the ecclesiastical court, which had deprived Dr Cockburn of his
office. Not long after this, Sir Robert Peel's secretary, Edward
Drummond, was shot by the crazy Scotsman, Daniel M'Naughten,
and Cockburn, briefed on behalf of the assassin, not only made a
very brilliant speech, which established the defence of insanity,
but also secured the full publicity of a long report in the Morning
Chronicle of the 6th of March 1843. Another well-known trial
in which he appeared a year later was that of Wood v. Peel ( The
Times, 2nd and 3rd of July 1844), the issue being in form to
determine the winner of a bet (the Gaming Act was passed in the
following year) as to the age of the Derby winner Running Rein
in substance to determine, if possible, the vexed question
whether Running Rein was a four-year-old or a three-year-old
when he was racing as the latter. Running Rein could not be
produced by Mr Wood, and Baron Alderson took a strong view
of this circumstance, so that Cockburn found himself on the
losing side, while his strenuous advocacy of his client's cause had

led him into making, in his opening speech, strictures on Lord
George Bentinck's conduct in the case which had better have
been reserved to a later stage. He was, however, a hard fighter,
but not an unfair one a little irritable at times, but on the
whole a courteous gentleman, and his practice went on increasing.

In 1847 he decided to stand for parliament, and was elected
without a contest Liberal M.P. for Southampton. His speech
in the House of Commons on behalf of the government in the
Don Pacifico dispute with Greece commended him to Lord John
Russell, who appointed him solicitor-general in 1850 and
attorney-general in 1851, a post which he held till the resignation
of the ministry in February 1852. During the short administra-
tion of Lord Derby which followed, Sir Frederic Thesiger was
attorney-general, and Cockburn was engaged against him in the
case of R. v. Newman, on the prosecution of Achilli. This was the
trial of a criminal information for libel filed against John Henry
Newman, who had denounced a scandalous and profligate friar
named Achilli, then lecturing on Roman Catholicism in England.
Newman pleaded justification; but the jury who heard the case
in the Queen's Bench, with Lord Campbell presiding, found that
the justification was not proved except in one particular: a
verdict which, together with the methods of the judge and the
conduct of the audience, attracted considerable comment. The
verdict was set aside, and a new trial ordered, but none ever took
place. In December 1852, under Lord Aberdeen's ministry,
Cockburn became again attorney-general, and so remained until
1856, taking part in many celebrated trials, such as the Hopwood
Will Case in 1855, and the Swyr.fen Will Case, but notably
leading for the crown in the trial of William Palmer of Rugeley
in Staffordshire an ex-medical man who had taken to the turf,
and who had poisoned a friend of similar pursuits named Cook
with strychnine, in order to obtain money from his estate by
forgery and otherwise. Cockburn made an exhaustive study
of the medical aspects of the case, and the prisoner's comment
when convicted after a twelve days' trial was, alluding to the
attorney-general's advocacy, " It was the riding that did it."
In 1854 Cockburn was made recorder of Bristol. In 1856 he
became chief justice of the common pleas. He inherited the
baronetcy in 1858. In 1859 Lord Campbell became chancellor,
and Cockburn became chief justice of the Queen's Bench, con-
tinuing as a judge for twenty-four years and dying in harness.
On Friday, the igth of November 1880, he tried causes with
special juries at Westminster; on Saturday, the 2oth, he pre-
sided over a court for the consideration of crown cases reserved;
he walked home, and on that night he died of angina pectoris at
his house in Hertford Street.

Sir Alexander Cockburn earned and deserved a high reputation
as a judge. He was a man of brilliant cleverness and rapid
intuition rather than of profound and laboriously cultivated
intellect. He had been a great advocate at the bar, with a
charm of voice and manner, fluent and persuasive rather than
learned; but before he died he was considered a good lawyer,
some assigning his unquestioned improvement in this respect
to his frequent association on the bench with Blackburn. He
had notoriously little sympathy with the Judicature Acts.
Many were of opinion that he was inclined to take an advocate's
view of the cases before him, making up his mind as to their
merits prematurely and, in consequence, wrongly, as well as
giving undue prominence to the views which he so formed; but
he was beyond doubt always in intention, and generally in fact,
scrupulously fair. It is not necessary to enumerate the many
causes cSlebres at which Sir Alexander Cockburn presided as a
judge. It was thought that he went out of his way to arrange
that they should come before him, and his successor, Lord
Coleridge, writing in 1881 to Lord Bramwell, to make the offer
that he should try the murderer Lefroy as a last judicial act
before retiring, added, " Poor dear Cockburn would hardly have
given you such a chance." Be this as it may, Cockburn tried
all cases which came before him, whether great or small, with
the same thoroughness, courtesy and dignity, so that no counsel
or suitor could complain that he had not been fully heard in a
matter in which the issues were seemingly trivial; while he

624

COCKBURN, A. COCKBURN, H. T.

certainly gave great attention to the elaboration of his judgments
and charges to juries. He presided at the Tichborne trial at
Bar, lasting 188 days, of which his summing-up occupied
eighteen.

The greatest public occasion on which Sir Alexander Cockburn
acted, outside his usual judicial functions, was that of the
" Alabama " arbitration, held at Geneva in 1872, in which he
represented the British government, and dissented from the view
taken by the majority of the arbitrators, without being able to
convince them. He prepared, with Mr C. F. Adams, the repre-
sentative of the United States, the English translation of the
award of the arbitrators, and published his reasons for dissenting
in a vigorously worded document which did not meet with
universal commendation. He admitted in substance the liability
of England for the acts of the " Alabama," but not on the
grounds on which the decision of the majority was based, and
he held England not liable in respect of the " Florida " and the
" Shenandoali."

In personal appearance Sir Alexander Cockburn was of small
stature, but great dignity of deportment. He was fond of
yachting and sport, and was engaged in writing a series of
articles on the " History of the Chase in the Nineteenth Century "
at the time of his death. He was fond, too, of society, and was
also throughout his life addicted to frivolities not altogether
consistent with advancement in a learned profession, or with
the positions of dignity which he successively occupied. At the
same time he had a high sense of what was due to and expected
from his profession; and his utterance upon the limitations of
advocacy, in his speech at the banquet given in the Middle
Temple Hall to M. Berryer, the celebrated French advocate,
may be called the classical authority on the subject. Lord
Brougham, replying for the guests other than Berryer, had
spoken of " the first great duty of an advocate to reckon every-
thing subordinate to the interests of his client." The lord chief
justice, replying to the toast of " the judges of England,"
dissented from this sweeping statement, saying, amid loud cheers
from a distinguished assembly of lawyers, " The arms which an
advocate wields he ought to use as a warrior, not as an assassin.
He ought to uphold the interests of his clients per fas, not per
nefas. He ought to know how to reconcile the interests of his
clients with the eternal interests of truth and justice" (The
Times, 9th of November 1864). Sir Alexander Cockburn was
never married, and the baronetcy became extinct at his death.

AUTHORITIES. The Times, 22nd of November 1880; Law Journal;
Law Times; Solicitors' Journal, 27th of November 1880; Law Maga-
zine, new series, vol. xv. p. 193, 1851 ; Ashley's Life of Lord Palmer-
ston; Nash's Life of Lord Westbury; " Reminiscences of Lord Chief
Justice Coleridge," by Lord Russell of Killowen, in the North
American Review, September 1894; The Greville Memoirs; Croker's
Correspondence and Diaries; Justin M'Carthy's History of Our Own
Times; Serjeant Ballantine s Experiences; Bench and Bar, by
Serjeant Robinson; Fairchild's Life of Lord Bramwell; Manson's
Builders of Our Law; Burke's Peerage, ed. 1879; Foster's Peerage,
1880.

COCKBURN, ALICIA, or ALISON (1713-1794), Scottish poet,
authoress of one of the most exquisite of Scottish ballads, the
" Flowers of the Forest," was the daughter of Robert Rutherfurd
of Fairnalee, Selkirkshire, and was born on the 8th of October
1713. There are two versions of this song, the one by Mrs
Cockburn, the other by Jean Elliot (1727-1805) of Minto. Both
were founded on the remains of an ancient Border ballad. Mrs
Cockburn's that beginning " I've seen the smiling of Fortune
beguiling " is said to have been written before her marriage
in 1731, though not published till 1765. Anyhow, it was com-
posed many years before Jean Elliot's sister verses, written in
1756, beginning, "I've heard them liltin' at our ewe-milkin'."
Robert Chambers states that the ballad was written on the
occasion of a great commerical disaster which ruined the fortunes
of some Selkirkshire lairds. Later biographers, however, think
it probable that it was written on the departure to London of a
certain John Aikman, between whom and Alison there appears
to have been an early attachment. In 1731 Alison Rutherfurd
was married to Patrick Cockburn of Ormiston. After her
marriage she knew all the intellectual and aristocratic celebrities

of her day. In the memorable year 1 745 she vented her Whiggism
in a squib upon Prince Charlie, and narrowly escaped being taken
by the Highland guard as she was driving through Edinburgh
in the family coach of the Keiths of Ravelston, with the parody
in her pocket. Mrs Cockburn was an indefatigable letter-writer
and a composer of parodies, squibs, toasts and " character-
sketches " then a favourite form of composition like other
wits of her day; but the " Flowers of the Forest " is the only
thing she wrote that possesses great literary merit. At her house
on Castle-hill, and afterwards in Crichton Street, she received
many illustrious friends, among whom were Mackenzie, Robert-
son, Hume, Home, Monboddo, the Keiths of Ravelston, the
Balcarres family and Lady Anne Barnard, the authoress of
" Auld Robin Gray." As a Rutherfurd she was a connexion of
Sir Walter Scott's mother, and was her intimate friend. Lockhart
quotes a letter written by Mrs Cockburn in 1777, describing the
conduct of little Walter Scott, then scarcely six years old, during
a visit which she paid to his mother, when the child gave as a
reason for his liking for Mrs Cockburn that she was a " virtuoso
like himself." Mrs Cockburn died on the 22nd of November
1794.

See her Letters and Memorials . . . , with notes by T. Craig Brown
(1900).

COCKBURN, SIR GEORGE, Bart. (1772-1853), British
admiral, second son of Sir James Cockburn, Bart., and uncle of
Lord Chief Justice Cockburn, was born in London. He entered
the navy in his ninth year. After serving on the home station,
and in the East Indies and the Mediterranean, he assisted, as
captain of the " Minerve " (38) at the blockade of Leghorn in
1796, and fought a gallant action with the Spanish frigate
" Sabina " (40) which he took. He was present at the battle of
Cape St Vincent. In 1809, in command of the naval force on
shore, he contributed greatly to the reduction of Martinique,
and signed the capitulation by which that island was handed
over to the English; for his services on this occasion he received
the thanks of the House of Commons. After service in the
Scheldt and at the defence of Cadiz he was sent in 1811 on an
unsuccessful mission for the reconciliation of Spain and her
American colonies. He was made rear-admiral in 1812, and in
1813-14, as second in command to Warren, he took a prominent
part in the American War, especially in the capture of Washington.
Early in 1815 he received the order of the Bath, and in the
autumn of the same year he carried out, in the " Northumber-
land " (74), the sentence of deportation to St Helena which had
been passed upon Bonaparte. In 1818 he received the Grand
Cross of his order, and was made a lord of the admiralty; and
the same year he was returned to parliament for Portsmouth.
He was promoted to the rank of vice-admiral in 1819, and to
that of admiral in 1837; he became senior naval lord in 1841,
and held office in that capacity till 1846. From 1827 he was a
privy councillor. In 1851 he was made admiral of the fleet, and
in 1852, a year before his death, inherited the family baronetcy
from his elder brother, being himself succeeded by his brother
William, dean of York, who died in 1858.

See O' Byrne, Naval Biography; W. James, Naval History;
Gentleman's Magazine for 1853.

COCKBURN, HENRY THOMAS (1779-1854), Scottish judge,
with the style of Lord Cockburn, was born in Edinburgh on the
26th of October 1779. His father, a keen Tory, was a baron of
the Scottish court of exchequer, and his mother was connected
by marriage with Lord Melville. He was educated at the high
school and the university cf Edinburgh; and he was a member
of the famous Speculative Society, to which Sir Walter Scott,
Brougham and Jeffrey belonged. He entered the faculty of
advocates in 1800, and attached himself, not to the party of
his relatives, who could have afforded him most valuable patron-
age, but to the Whig or Liberal party, and that at a time when it
held out few inducements to men ambitious of success in life.
On the accession of Earl Grey's ministry in 1830 he became
solicitor-general for Scotland. In 1834 he was raised to the
bench, and on taking his seat as a judge in the court of session he
adopted the title of Lord Cockburn. Cockburn's forensic style

COCKER COCK-FIGHTING

625

was remarkable for its clearness, pathos and simplicity; and
his conversational powers were unrivalled among his contem-
poraries. The extent of his literary ability only became known
after he had passed his seventieth year, on the publication of his
biography of Lord Jeffrey in 1852, and from the Memorials of his
Time, which appeared posthumously in 1856. He died on the
26th of April 1854, at his mansion of Bonaly, near Edinburgh.

COCKER, EDWARD (1631-1675), the reputed author of the
famous Arithmetick, the popularity of which has added a phrase
(" according to Cocker ") to the list of English proverbialisms,
was an English engraver, who also taught writing and arithmetic.
He is credited with the authorship and execution of some fourteen
sets of copy slips, one of which, Daniel's Copy-Book, ingraven
by Edward Cocker, Philomath (1664), is preserved in the British
Museum. Pepys, in his Diary, makes very favourable mention
of Cocker, who appears to have displayed great skill in his art.
Cocker's Arithmetick, the fifty-second edition of which appeared
in 1748, and which has passed through about 112 editions in all,
was not published during the lifetime of its reputed author, the
first impression bearing date of 1678. Augustus de Morgan in
his Arithmetical Books (1847) adduces proofs, which may be
held to be conclusive, that the work was a forgery of the editor
and publisher, John Hawkins; and there appears to be no
doubt that the Decimal Arithmetic (1684), and the English
Dictionary (second edition, 1715), issued by Hawkins under
Cocker's name, are forgeries also. De Morgan condemns the
Arithmetick as a diffuse compilation from older and better works,
and dates " a very great deterioration in elementary works on
arithmetic " from the appearance of the book, which owed its
celebrity far more to persistent puffing than to its merits. He
pertinently adds, " This same Edward Cocker must have had
great reputation, since a bad book under his name pushed out
the good ones."

COCKERELL, CHARLES ROBERT (1788-1863), British
architect, was born in London on the 28th of April 1788. After
a preliminary training in his profession, he went abroad in 1810
and studied the great architectural remains of Greece, Italy and
Asia Minor. At Aegina, Phigalia and other places of interest,
he conducted excavations on a large scale, enriching the British
Museum with many fine fragments, and adding several valuable
monographs to the literature of archaeology. Elected in 1829
an associate of the Royal Academy, he became a full member
in 1836, and in 1839 he was appointed professor of architecture.
On Sir John Soane's death in 1837 Cockerell was appointed
architect of the Bank of England, and carried out the alterations
that were judged to be necessary in that building. In addition
to branch banks at Liverpool and Manchester he erected in 1840
the new library at Cambridge, and in 1845 the university galleries
at Oxford, as well as the Sun and the Westminster Fire Offices
in Bartholomew Lane and in the Strand; and he was joint
architect of the London & Westminster Bank, Lothbury, with
Sir W. Tite. On the death of Henry Lonsdale Elmes in 1847,
Cockerell was selected to finish the St George's Hall, Liverpool.
Cockerell's best conceptions were those inspired by classic
models; his essays in the Gothic the college at Lampeter, for
instance, and the chapel at Harrow are by no means so
successful. His thorough knowledge of Gothic art, however,
can be seen from his writings, On the Iconography of Wells
Cathedral, and On the Sculptures of Lincoln and Exeter Cathedrals.
In his Tribute to the Memory of Sir Christopher Wren (1838) he
published an interesting collection of the whole of Wren's works
drawn to one scale.

COCKERILL, WILLIAM (1750-1832), Anglo-French inventor
and machinist, was born in England in 1 7 59. He went to Belgium
as a simple mechanic, and in 1799 constructed at Verviers the
first wool-carding and wool-spinning machines on the continent.
In 1807 he established a large machine workshop at Liege.
Orders soon poured in on him from all over Europe, and he
amassed a large fortune. In 1810 he was granted the rights of
naturalization by Napoleon I., and in 1812 handed over the
management of his business to his youngest son, JOHN COCKERILL
(1790-1840).

Thanks to his own energy and ability, aided by the influence
of King William I. of the Netherlands, John Cockerill largely
extended his father's business. King William secured him a site
at Seraing, where he built large works, including an iron-foundry
and blast furnace. The construction of the Belgian railways
in 1834 gave a great impetus to these works, branches of which
had already been opened in France, Germany and Poland. In
1838 Cockerill met with a carriage accident which nearly proved
fatal, and the prospect of his loss resulted in the credit of the firm
being so badly shaken that in 1839 it was compelled to go into
liquidation, the liabilities being estimated at 26 millions of
francs, the assets at 18 millions. This reverse, however, was only
temporary. John Cockerill had practically concluded negotia-
tions to construct the Russian government railways, when his
constitution, undermined by overwork, broke down. He died
at Warsaw on the igth of June 1840. The iron works, among
the largest in Europe, are still carried on under the name of La
Societe Cockerill at Seraing (q.v.).

COCKERMOUTH, a market town in the Cockermouth parlia-
mentary division of Cumberland, England, 2 7 m. S. W. of Carlisle,
on the Cockermouth, Keswick & Penrith, the London & North
Western, and the Maryport & Carlisle railways. Pop. of urban
district (1901) 5355. It is pleasantly situated on the river
Derwent, at the junction of the Cocker, outlying hills of the Lake
District sheltering it on the north, east and south. The castle
has remains of Norman work in the keep, and other ancient
portions (including the gateway) of later date, but is in part
modernized as a residence. The grammar school was founded
in 1676. The county industrial school is established in the
town. The industries include the manufacture of woollens and
confectionery, tanning and engineering, and there is a consider-
able agricultural trade. There are coal mines in the neighbour-
hood. A statue was erected in 1875 to the sixth earl of Mayo,
who represented the borough (abolished in 1885) from 1857 to
1868. There is a Roman fort a mile west of the town, at
Papcastle.

Cockermouth (Cokermulh, Cokermue) was made the head of the
honour or barony of Allerdale when that barony was created
and granted to Waltheof in the early part of the I2th century.
At a later date the honour of Allerdale was frequently called the
honour of Cockermouth. Waltheof probably built the castle,
under the shelter of which the town grew up. Although it never
received any royal charter, the earliest records relating to
Cockermouth mention it as a borough. In 1295 it returned two
members to parliament and then not again until 1640. By the
Representation of the People Act of 1867 the representation was
reduced to one member, and by the Redistribution Act of 1885
it was disfranchised. In 1221 William de Fortibus, earl of
Albemarle, was granted a Saturday market, which later in the
year was transferred to Monday, the day on which it has con-
tinued to be held ever since. The Michaelmas Fair existed in
1343, and an inquisition dated 1374 mentions two horse-fairs on
Whit-Monday and at Michaelmas. In 1638 Algernon Percy, earl
of Northumberland, obtained a grant of a fair every Wednesday
from the first week in May till Michaelmas. The chief sources
of revenue in Norman times were the valuable fisheries and
numerous mills.

COCK-FIGHTING, or COCKING, the sport of pitting game-cocks
to fight, and breeding and training them for the purpose. The
game-fowl is now probably the nearest to the Indian jungle-fowl
(Callus ferrugineus) , from which all domestic fowls are believed
to be descended. The sport was popular in ancient times in
India, China, Persia and other eastern countries, and was intro-
duced into Greece in the time of Themistocles. The latter, while
moving with his army against the Persians, observed two cocks
fighting desperately, and, stopping his troops, inspired them by
calling their attention to the valour and obstinacy of the feathered
warriors. In honour of the ensuing victory of the Greeks cock-
fights were thenceforth held annually at Athens, at first in a
patriotic and religious spirit, but afterwards purely for the love
of the sport. Lucian makes Solon speak of quail-fighting and
cocking, but he is evidently referring to a time later than that

626

COCK LANE GHOST

of Themistocles. From Athens the sport spread throughout
Greece, Asia' Minor and Sicily, the best cocks being bred in
Alexandria, Delos, Rhodes and Tanagra. For a long time the
Romans affected to despise this " Greek diversion," but ended
by adopting it so enthusiastically that Columella (ist century
A.D.) complained that its devotees often spent their whole
patrimony in betting at the pit-side. The cocks were provided
with iron spurs (tela), as in the East, and were often dosed with
stimulants to make them fight more savagely.

From Rome cocking spread northwards, and, although
opposed by the Christian church, nevertheless became popular in
Great Britain, the Low Countries, Italy, Germany, Spain and
her colonies. On account of adverse legislation cocking has
practically died out everywhere excepting in Spain, countries of
Spanish origin and the Orient, where it is still legal and extremely
popular. It was probably introduced into England by the
Romans before Caesar's time. William Fitz-Stephen first speaks
of it in the time of Henry II. as a sport for school-boys on
holidays, and particularly on Shrove Tuesday, the masters them-
selves directing the fights, or mains, from which they derived a
material advantage, as the dead birds fell to them. It became
very popular throughout England and Wales, as well as in
Scotland, where it was introduced in 1681. Occasionally the
authorities tried to repress it, especially Cromwell, who put an
almost complete stop to it for a brief period, but the Restoration
re-established it among the national pastimes. Contemporary
apologists do not, in the 1 7th century, consider its cruelty at all,
but concern themselves solely with its justification as a source of
pleasure. " If Leviathan took his sport in the waters, how much
more may Man take his sport upon the land?" From the time
of Henry VIII., who added the famous Royal Cock-pit to his
palace of Whitehall, cocking was called the " royal diversion,"
and the Stuarts, particularly James I. and Charles II., were
among its most enthusiastic devotees, their example being
followed by the gentry down to the igth century. Gervase
Markham in his Pleasures of Princes (1614) wrote " Of the
Choyce, Ordring, Breeding and Dyeting of the fighting- Cocke
for Battell,"- his quaint directions being of the most explicit
nature. When a cock is to be trained for the pit he must be fed
" three or foure daies only with old Maunchet (fine white bread)
and spring water." He is then set to spar with another cock,
" putting a payre of hots upon each of their heeles, which Hots
are soft, bumbasted roules of Leather, covering their spurs, so
that they cannot hurt each other. . . . Let them fight and buffet
one another a good space. " After exercise the bird must be put
into a basket, covered with hay and set near the fire. " Then let
him sweate, for the nature of this scowring is to bring away his
grease, and to breed breath, and strength." If not killed in the
fight, " the first thing you doe, you shall search his wounds, and
as many as you can find you shall with your mouth sucke the
blood out of them, then wash them with warm salt water, . . .
give him a roule or two, and so stove him up as hot as you can."

Cocking-mains usually consisted of fights between an agreed
number of pairs of birds, the majority of victories deciding the
main; but there were two other varieties that aroused the
particular ire of moralists. These were the " battle royal," in
which a number of birds were " set," i.e. placed in the pit, at the
same time, and allowed to remain until all but one, the victor,
were killed or disabled; and the " Welsh main," in which eight
pairs were matched, the eight victors being again paired, then
four, and finally the last surviving pair. Among London cock-
pits were those at Westminster, in Drury Lane, Jewin Street
and Birdcage Walk (depicted by Hogarth). Over the royal pit
at Whitehall presided the king's cockmaster. The pits were
circular in shape with a matted stage about 20 ft. in diameter
and surrounded by a barrier to keep the birds from falling off.
Upon this barrier the first row of the audience leaned. Hardly a
town in the kingdom was without its cockpit, which offered the
sporting classes opportunities for betting not as yet sufficiently
supplied by horse-racing. With the growth of the latter sport
and the increased facilities for reaching the racing centres,
cocking gradually declined, especially after parliament passed

laws against it, so that gentlemen risked arrest by attending a
main.

Among the best-known devotees of the sport was a Colonel
Mordaunt, who, about 1780, took a number of the best English
game-cocks to India. There he found the sport in high favour
with the native rulers and his birds were beaten. Perhaps the
most famous main in England took place at Lincoln in 1830
between the birds of Joseph Gilh'ver, the most celebrated breeder,
or " feeder," of his day, and those of the earl of Derby. The
conditions called for seven birds a side, and the stakes were
5000 guineas the main and 1000 guineas each match. The main
was won by Gilliver by five matches to two. His grandson was
also a breeder, and the blood of his cocks still runs in the best
breeds of Great Britain and America. Another famous breeder
was Dr Bellyse of Audlem, the principal figure in the great
mains fought at Chester during race-week at the beginning of the
igth century. His favourite breed was the white pile, and
" Cheshire piles " are still much-fancied birds. Others were
Irish brown-reds, Lancashire black-reds and Staffordshire duns.

In Wales, as well as some parts of England, cocking-mains took
place regularly hi churchyards, and in many instances even
inside the churches themselves. Sundays, wakes and church
festivals were favourite occasions for them. The habit of holding
mains in schools was common from the I2th to about the middle
of the igth century. When cocking was at its height, the pupils
of many schools were made a special allowance for purchasing
fighting-cocks, and parents were expected to contribute to the
expenses of the annual main on Shrove Tuesday, this money
being called " cockpence." Cock-fighting was prohibited by law
in Great Britain in 1849.

Cocking was early introduced into America, though it was
always frowned upon in New England. Some of the older states,
as Massachusetts, forbade it by passing laws against cruelty as
early as 1836, and it is now expressly prohibited in Canada and
in most states of the Union, or is repressed by general laws for
the prevention of cruelty to animals.

Cocks are fought at an age of from one to two years. " Heel-
ing," or the proper fastening of the spurs, and " cutting out,"
trimming the wings at a slope, and cutting the tail down by one-
third of its length and shortening the hackle and rump feathers,
are arts acquired by experience. The comb is cut down close,
so as to offer the least possible mark for the hostile bird's bill.
The cock is then provided with either " short heels," spurs if in.
or less in length, or with " long heels," from 2 to 2f in. in length.
The training of a cock for the pit lasts from ten days to a month
or more, during which time the bird is subjected to a rigid diet
and exercise in running and sparring. The birds may not be
touched after being set down in the pit, unless to extricate
them from the matting. Whenever a bird refuses to fight longer
he is set breast to breast with his adversary in the middle of the
pit, and if he then still refuses to fight he is regarded as defeated.
Among the favourite breeds may be mentioned the " Irish
gilders," " Irish Grays," " Shawlnecks," " Gordons," " Eslin
Red-Quills," " Baltimore Topknots," " Dominiques," " War-
horses " and " Claibornes."

Cock-fighting possesses an extensive literature of its own. See
Gervase Markham, Pleasures of Princes (London. 1614) ; Blain,
Rural Sports (London, 1853); " Game Cocks and Cock-Fighting,"
Outing, vol. 39; "A Modest Commendation of Cock-Fighting,"
Blackwood's Magazine, vol. 22; "Cock-Fighting in Schools,"
Chambers' Magazine, vol. 65.

COCK LANE GHOST, a supposed apparition, the vagaries
of which attracted extraordinary public attention in London
during 1762. At a house in Cock Lane, Smithfield, tenanted
by one Parsons, knockings and other noises were said to occur
at night varied by the appearance of a luminous figure, alleged
to be the ghost of a Mrs Kent who had died in the house some
two years before. A thorough investigation revealed that
Parsons' daughter, a child of eleven, was the source of the
disturbance. The object of the Parsons family seems to have
been to accuse the husband of the deceased woman of murdering
her, with a view to blackmail. Parsons was prosecuted and
condemned to the pillory. Among the crowds who visited the

COCKLE COCKNEY

627

'house was Dr Johnson, who was in consequence made the
object of a scurrilous attack by the poet Charles Churchill in
"The Ghost."

See A. Lang, Cock Lane and Common Sense (1894).

COCKLE, SIR JAMES (1819-1895), English lawyer and
mathematician, was born on the i4th of January 1819. He was
the second son of James Cockle, a surgeon, of Great Oakley,
Essex. Educated at Charterhouse and Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, he entered the Middle Temple in 1838, practising as a
special pleader in 1845 and being called in 1846. Joining the
midland circuit, he acquired a good practice, and on the recom-
mendation of Chief Justice Sir William Erie he was appointed
chief justice of Queensland in 1863. He received the honour
of knighthood in 1869, retired from the bench, and returned
to England in 1879.

Cockle is more remembered for his mathematical and scientific
investigations than as a lawyer. Like many young mathe-
maticians he attacked the problem of resolving the higher
algebraic equations, notwithstanding Abel's proof that a solution
by radicles was impossible. In this field Cockle achieved some
notable results, amongst which is his reproduction of Sir William
R. Hamilton's modification of Abel's theorem. Algebraic forms
were a favourite object of his studies, and he discovered and
developed the theory of criticoids, or differential invariants; he
also made contributions to the theory of differential equations.
He displayed a keen interest in scientific societies. From 1863
to 1879 he was president of the Queensland Philosophical Society
(now incorporated in the Royal Society of Queensland) ; on his
return to England he became associated with the London
Mathematical Society, of which he was president from 1886
to 1888, and the Royal Astronomical Society, serving as a
member of the council from 1888 to 1892. He died in London
on the zyth of January 1895.

A volume containing his scientific and mathematical researches
made during the years 1864-1877 was presented to the British
Museum in 1897 by his widow. See the obituary notice by the
Rev. R. Harley in Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. 59.

COCKLE, in zoology, a mollusc (Cardium) of the class Lamelli-
branchia (q.v J. A very large number of species of Cardium have
been distinguished by conchologists. Besides the common
species Cardium edule, two others occur in Britain, but are not
sufficiently common to be of commercial importance. One of
these is C. echinalum, which is larger than the common species,
reaching 3 in. in diameter, and distinguished by the presence
of spines along the ribs of the shell. The other is C. noriiegicum,
which is also somewhat larger than C. edule, is longer dorso-
ventrally than broad, and is only faintly ribbed.

The two valves of the shell of the common cockle are similar
to each other, and somewhat circular in outline. The beak or
umbo of each valve is prominent and rounded, and a number of
sharp ridges and furrows radiate from the apex to the free edge
of the shell, which is crenated. The ligament is external, and the
hinge carries cardinal teeth in each valve. The interior of the
shell is remarkable for the absence of pearly lustre on its interior
surface. The colour externally is reddish or yellowish. The
pallial line, which is the line of attachment of the mantle parallel
to the edge of the shell, is not indented by a sinus at the posterior
end. In the entire animal the posterior end projects slightly
more than the anterior from the region of the umbones.

The animal possesses two nearly equal adductor muscles.
The edges of the mantle are united posteriorly except at the anal
and branchial apertures, which are placed at the ends of two
very short siphons or tubular prolongations of the mantle; the
siphons bear a number of short tentacles, and many of these are
furnished with eye-spots. The foot is very large and powerful;
it can be protruded from the anterior aperture between the mantle
edges, and its outer part is bent sharply forwards and terminates
in a point. By means of this muscular foot the cockle burrows
rapidly in the muddy sand of the sea-shore, and it can also when
it is not buried perform considerable leaps by suddenly bending
the foot. The foot has a byssus gland on its posterior surface.

On either side of the body between the mantle and the foot
are two flat gills each composed of two lamellae. Cardium

belongs to the order of Lamellibranchia in which the gills present
the maximum of complexity, the original vertical filaments of
which they are composed being united by interfilamentar and
interlamellar junctions. In other respects the anatomy of the
cockle presents no important differences from that of a typical
Lamellibranch. The sexes are distinct, and the generative
opening is on the side of the body above the edge of the inner
lamella of the inner gill. The eggs are minute, and pass out
into the sea-water through the dorsal or exhalent siphon. The
breeding season is April, May and June. The larva for a time
swims freely in the sea-water, having a circlet of cilia round the
body in front of the mouth, forming the velum. The shell is
developed on the dorsal surface behind the velum, the foot on the
opposite or ventral surface behind the mouth. After a few days,
when the mantle bearing the shell valves has developed so much
as to enclose the whole body, the young cockle sinks to the bottom
and commences to follow the habits of the adult. The usual
size of the cockle in Its shell is from i to 2 in. in breadth.

The common cockle is regularly used as food by the poorer
classes. It occurs in abundance on sandy shores in all estuaries.
At the mouth of the Thames the gathering of cockles forms a
considerable industry, especially at Leigh. On the coast of
Lancashire also the fishery, if it may be so called, is of consider-
able importance. The cockles are gathered by the simple process
of raking them from the sand, and they are usually boiled and
extracted from their shells before being sent to market. The
cockle is liable to the same suspicion as the oyster of conveying
the contamination of typhoid fever where the shores are pol-
luted, but as it is boiled before being eaten it is probably less
dangerous. (J. T. C.)

COCKNEY, a colloquial name applied to Londoners generally,
but more properly confined to those born in London, or more
strictly still to those born within the sound of the bells of St
Mary-le-Bow church. The origin of the word has been the
subject of many guesses, from that in John Minsheu's lexicon,
Ductor in linguas (1617), which gives the tale of the town-bred
child who, on hearing a horse neigh, asked whether a " cock
neighed " too, to the confusion of the word with the name of the
Utopia, the land of Cockaigne (q.v.). The historical examination
of the various uses of " Cockney," by Sir James Murray (see
Academy, loth of May 1890, and the New English Dictionary, s.v.)
clearly shows the true derivation. The earliest form of the word
is cokenay or cokeney, i.e. the ey or egg, and coken, genitive plural
of " cock," " cocks' eggs " being the name given to the small
and malformed eggs sometimes laid by young hens, known in
German as Hahneneier. An early quotation, in Langland's Piers
Plowman, A. vii. 272, gives the combination of " cokeneyes "
and bacon to make a " collop," or dish of eggs and bacon. The
word then applied to a child overlong nursed by its mother,
hence to a simpleton or milksop. Thus in Chaucer, Reeve's Tale,
the word is used with daf, i.e. a fool. The particular application
of the name as a term of contempt given by country folk to
town-bred people, with their dandified airs and ignorance of
country ways and country objects, is easy. Thus Robert
Whittington or Whitinton (fl. 1520), speaks of the " cokneys " in
such " great cytees as London, York, Perusy " (Perugia), show-
ing the general use of the word. It was not till the beginning
of the 1 7th century that " cockney " appears to be confined to
the inhabitants of London.

The so-called " Cockney " accent or pronunciation has varied
in type. In the first part of the igth century, it was chiefly
characterized by the substitution of a v for a w, or vice versa.
This has almost entirely disappeared, and the chief consonantal
variation which exists is perhaps the change of th to /or v, as in
" fing " for thing, or " fawer " for father. This and the vowel-
sound change from ou to ah, as in " abaht " for " about," are
only heard among the uneducated classes, and, together with
other characteristic pronunciations, phrases and words, have
been well illustrated in the so-called " coster " songs of Albert
Chevalier. The most marked and widely-prevalent change of
vowel sound is that of ei for ai, so that " daily " becomes " dyly "
and " may " becomes " my." This is sometimes so marked

COCK-OF-THE-ROCK COCOA

that it almost amounts to incapacity to distinguish the vowels
a and i and is almost universal in large classes of the population
of London. The name of the " Cockney School of Poetry " was
applied in 1817 to the literary circle of which Leigh Hunt was
the principal representative, though Keats also was aimed at.
The articles in Blackwood's Magazine, in which the name ap-
peared, have generally, but probably wrongly, been attributed to
John Gibson Lockhart.

COCK-OF-THE-ROCK, the familiar name of the birds of the
genus Rupicola (subfamily Rupicolinae) of the Cotingas (allied
to the Manakins, q.v.), found in the Amazon valley. They
are about the size of a pigeon, with orange-coloured plumage,
a pronounced crest, and orange-red flesh, and build their
nests on rock. The skins and feathers are highly valued for
decoration.

COCKPIT, the term originally for an enclosed place in which
the sport of cock-fighting (q.v.) was carried on. On the site of
an old cockpit opposite Whitehall in London was a block of
buildings used from the i7th century as offices by the treasury
and the privy council, for which the old name Survived till the
early ipth century. The name was given also to a theatre in
London, built in the early part of the I7th century on the site
of Drury Lane theatre. As the place where the wounded in
battle were tended, or where the junior officers consorted, the
term was also formerly applied to a cabin used for these purposes
on the lower deck of a man-of-war.

COCKROACH 1 (Blattidae), a family of orthopterous insects,
distinguished by their flattened bodies, long thread-like antennae,
and shining leathery integuments. Cockroaches are nocturnal
creatures, secreting themselves in chinks and crevices about
houses, issuing from their retreats when the lights are extin-
guished, and moving about with extraordinary rapidity in
search of food. They are voracious and omnivorous, devouring,
or at least damaging, whatever comes in their way, for all the
species emit a disagreeable odour, which they communicate to
whatever article of food or clothing they may touch.

The common cockroach (Stilopyga orientates) is not indigenous
to Europe, but is believed to have been introduced from the
Levant in the cargoes of trading vessels. The wings in the male
are shorter than the body; in the female they are rudimentary.
The eggs, which are 16 in number, are deposited in a leathery
capsule fixed by a gum-like substance to the abdomen of the
female, and thus carried about till the young are ready to escape,
when the capsule becomes softened by the emission of a fluid
substance. The larvae are perfectly white at first and wingless,
although in other respects not unlike their parents, but they are
not mature insects until after the sixth casting of the skin.

The American cockroach (Periplaneta americana) is larger
than the former, and is not uncommon in European seaports
trading with America, being conveyed in cargoes of grain and
other food produce. It is very abundant in the Zoological
Gardens in London, where it occurs in conjunction with a much
smaller imported species Phyllodromia germanica, which may
also be seen in some of the cheaper restaurants.

In both of these species the females, as well as the males,
are winged.

In addition to these noxious and obtrusive forms, England
has a few indigenous species belonging to the genus Ectobia,
which live under stones or fallen trees in fields and woods. The
largest known species is the drummer of the West Indies (Blabera
gigantea), so called from the tapping noise it makes on wood,
sufficient, when joined in by several individuals, as usually
happens, to break the slumbers of a household. It is about
2 in. long, with wings 3 in. in expanse, and forms one of the
most noisome and injurious of insect pests. Wingless females
of many tropical species present a close superficial resem-
blance to woodlice; and one interesting apterous form known
as Pseudoglomeris, from the East Indies, is able to roll up like
a millipede.

The best mode of destroying cockroaches is, when the fire anc

1 The word is a corruption of Sp. cucaracha. In America it is
commonly abbreviated to " roach."

ights are extinguished at night, to lay some treacle on a piece
of wood afloat on a broad basin of water. This proves a tempta-
tion to the vermin too great to be resisted. The chinks and holes
'rom which they issue should also be filled up with unslaked
ime, or painted with a mixture of borax and heated turpentine.

See generally Miall and Denny, The Structure and Life History oj

e Cockroach (1887); G. H. Carpenter, Insects: their Structure and
Life (1899) ; Charles Lester Marlatt, Household Insects (U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, revised edition, 1902); Leland Ossian Howard,
The Insect Book (1902).

COCK'S-COMB, in botany, a cultivated form of Celosia crislata
(natural order Amarantaceae), in which the inflorescence is
monstrous, forming a flat " fasciated " axis bearing numerous
small flowers. The plant is a low-growing herbaceous annual,
bearing a large, comb-like, dark red, scarlet or purplish mass of
flowers. Seeds are sown in March or April in pans of rich, well-
drained sandy soil, which are placed in a hot-bed at 65 to 70
in a moist atmosphere. The seedlings require plenty of light,
and when large enough to handle are potted off and placed close
to the glass in a frame under similar conditions. When the heads
show they are shifted into s-in. pots, which are plunged to
their rims in ashes or coco-nut fibre refuse, in a hot-bed, as before,
close to the glass; they are sparingly watered and more air
admitted. The soil recommended is a half-rich sandy loam and
half-rotten cow and stable manure mixed with a dash of silver
sand. The other species of Celosia cultivated are C. pyramidalis,
with a pyramidal inflorescence, varying in colour in the great
number of varieties, and C. argentea, with a dense white in-
florescence. They require a similar cultural treatment to that
given for C. cristata.

COCKTON, HENRY (1807-1853), English humorous novelist,
was born in London on the 7th of December 1807. He published
a number of volumes, but is best known as the author of Valentine
Vox, the Ventriloquist (1840) and Sylvester Sound, the Somnambu-
list (1844). He died at Bury St Edmunds on the 26th of June

1853-

COCKX (or COCK), HIERONYMUS [JEROME] (1510-1570),
Flemish painter and engraver, was born at Antwerp, and in
1545 was admitted to the Gild of St Luke as a painter. It is as
an engraver, however, that he is famous, a number of portraits
and subject-pictures by him, and reproductions of Flemish
masters, being well known. His brother Matthys (1505-1552)
was also a painter.

COCOA, 2 more properly CACAO, a valuable dietary substance
yielded by the seeds of several small trees belonging to the genus
Theobroma, of the natural order Sterculiaceae. The whole genus,
which comprises twelve species, belongs to the tropical parts of
the American continent; and although the cocoa of commerce
is probably the produce of more than one species, by far the
greatest and most valuable portion is obtained from Theobroma
Cacao. The generic name is derived from 0eos (god) and ftp&na.
(food), and was bestowed by Linnaeus as an indication of the
high appreciation in which he held the beverage prepared from
the seeds, which he considered to be a food fit for the gods.

The common cacao tree is of low stature, seldom exceeding
25 ft. in height, but it is taller in its native forests than it is in
cultivated plantations. The leaves are large, smooth, and glossy,
elliptic-oblong and tapering in form, growing principally at the
ends of branches, but sometimes springing directly from the
main trunk. The flowers are small, and occur in numerous
clusters on the main branches and the trunk, a very marked
peculiarity which gives the matured fruit the appearance of being
artificially attached to the tree. Generally only a single fruit is
matured from each cluster of flowers. When ripe the fruit or
" pod " is elliptical-ovoid in form, from 7 to 10 in. in length
and from 3 to 4! in. in diameter. It has a hard, thick, leathery
rind of a rich purplish-yellow colour, externally rough and marked
with ten very distinct longitudinal ribs or elevations. The

2 As a matter of nomenclature it is unfortunate that the corrupt
form " cocoa," from a confusion with the coco-nut (g.f.), has become
stereotyped. When introduced early in the 1 8th century it was as a
trisyllable co-co-a, a mispronunciation of cacao or cocoa, the Spanish
adaptation from the Mexican cacauaU.

COCOA

629

Branch of Cocoa Tree, with Fruit in
section, much reduced.

interior of the fruit has five cells, in each of which is a row of
from 5 to 1 2 seeds embedded in a soft delicately pink acid pulp.
Each fruit thus contains from 20 to 50 or more seeds, which
constitute the raw cacao or " cacao beans " of commerce.

The tree appears to have been originally a native of the coast
lands of the Gulf of Mexico and tropical South America as far

south as the basin of
the Amazon; but it
can be cultivated in
suitable situations
within the 25th par-
allels of latitude. It
flourishes best within
the 1 5th parallels, at
elevations ranging
from near the sea-
level up to about 2000
ft. in height. It is now
cultivated in Mexico,
Honduras, Guate-
mala, Nicaragua,
Brazil, Peru, Ecuador,
New Granada, Venez-
uela, Surinam, Guiana,
and in many of the
West Indian islands,
particularly in Trini-
dad, San Domingo,
Grenada, Cuba, Porto
Rico and Jamaica.
Away from America
it has been introduced,
and is cultivated on a large scale in West Africa, Ceylon and
the Dutch East Indies.

History. The value of cacao was appreciated in its native
country before the discovery of America by Europeans. The
Spaniards found in use in Mexico a beverage known by the Aztec
name of chocolath, from choco (cacao) and lath (water). W. H.
Prescott records that the emperor Montezuma of Mexico was
" exceedingly fond of it ... no less than 50 jars or pitchers
being prepared for his own daily consumption; 2000 more were
allowed for that of his household." Bags of cacao containing a
specified number of beans were also a recognized form of currency
in the country. The product was early introduced into Spain,
and thence to other parts of Europe. The Public Advertiser
(London) of June 16, 1657, contains an announcement that
" In Bishopgate St., in Queen's Head Alley, at a Frenchman's
house, is an excellent West India drink, called chocolate, to be
sold, where you may have it ready at any time, and also unmade
at reasonable rates." Chocolate was a very fashionable beverage
in the early part of the i8th century.

Cultivated Varieties. Numerous varieties of the cacao, i.e. of
Theobroma Cacao, are recognized in cultivation. According to
Dr P. Preuss, who has travelled extensively in the cacao pro-
ducing countries of the world studying this crop, it is impossible
to embody in a single table the characteristics of the world's
varieties. A separate classification is needed for almost each
country. In 1882 the Trinidad forms were classified by Sir D.
Morris. This table was later revised by Mr J. H. Hart, and more
recently Mr R. H. Lock studied the Ceylon varieties. As the
Ceylon cacaos were obtained mainly from Trinidad, and as Mr
Lock's results agree substantially with those of Sir D. Morris, they
serve to illustrate the distinguishing characteristics of the West
Indian and Ceylon forms. The main divisions are as follows:

1. Criollo. Pods relatively thin- walled and soft, rough, pointed
at apex. The seeds or beans are plump and of pale colour. The
ripe pods may be either red (Colorado) or yellow (amarillo).

2. Forastero. Pods relatively thick-walled and hard. The seeds
vary in colour from pale to deep purple. Various varieties are
recognized, such as cundeamor, amelonado, liso, calabacillo, differing
in shape, colour and character of beans, &c. , and of each of these again
there may be a Colorado and amarillo sub-variety. Of special
interest is calabacillo, a variety with a smooth, small pod, and deep

purple beans. It is considered by some to be sufficiently distinct
to form a third type equivalent to criollo or forastero. Others again
would raise amelonado to the rank of a distinct type. Of the above
calabacillo is the hardiest and yields the least valuable beans-
criollo is the most delicate and yields beans of the highest value,
whilst forastero is intermediate in both respects. In general pale
coloured beans are less bitter and more valuable than purple beans.
Both, however, may occur in the same pod.

Alligator, or lagarto cacao, is the common name of a variety
cultivated in Nicaragua, Guatemala, &c. Its pods are distinctly
five-angled and beset with irregular, warty protuberances. Some
regard it as a distinct species, T. pentagona, but others only
as a variety of T. Cacao. Its produce is of high value.

T. bicolor, indigenous to Central America, is another species
of some interest. It bears small, hard woody pods about 6 in.
long and 3 in. in diameter, with curious surface markings. The
beans possess a fetid odour and a bitter flavour and are known
as " tiger cacao." It is not likely to become of great commercial
importance, although consumed locally where found. " Cacao
bianco " and " pataste " are other names for this species.

Cultivation and Preparation. Cacao requires for its successful
cultivation a deep, well-watered and yet well-drained soil,
shelter from strong winds, and a thoroughly tropical climate,
with a mean annual temperature of about. 80 F., a rainfall
of from 50 to 100 or more in., and freedom from long droughts.
Young plants are grown from seed, which may either be sown
directly in the positions the future trees are to occupy, varying
according to local circumstances from 6 to 25 ft. apart in all
directions, or raised in nurseries and transplanted later. The
latter course is desirable when it is necessary to. water and other-
wise tend the seedlings. However raised, the young plants
require to be shaded, and this is usually done by planting bananas,
cassava or other useful crops between the rows of cacao. In some
countries, but not in all, permanent shade trees are planted
amongst the cacao. Various leguminous trees are commonly
used, e.g. the coral tree (Erythrina spp.) sometimes known as
bois immortel and madre del cacao or mother of cocoa, Albtzzia
Lebbek, Pithecolobium Saman, &c. The various rubber trees
have been employed with success. Wind belts are also necessary
in exposed situations.'

Cacao comes into bearing when about five years old, the small
pink flowers and the succeeding large pods being borne directly
on the trunk and main branches. The pods are carefully picked
when ripe, broken open, and the slimy mass of contained seeds
and their enveloping mucilaginous pulp extracted. The " beans "
are next fermented or " sweated," often in special houses con-
structed for the purpose, or by placing them in heaps and
covering with leaves or earth, or in baskets, barrels, &c., lined
with banana leaves. During fermentation the beans should be
stirred once daily or oftener. The time of fermentation varies
from one to twelve or even more days. Pale-coloured beans
usually require less time than the deep purple and bitter kinds.
The method adopted also considerably modifies the time required.
The process of fermenting destroys the mucilage; the seeds
lose to some degree their bitter flavour and their colour also-
changes: the pale criollo seeds, for example, developing a
cinnamon-brown colour. The " fracture " of the beans also
characteristically alters. Fermentation is not universally
practised; the purple colour and bitter taste of unfermented
cacao being wanted in some markets.

After the fermentation is completed the beans may or may
not be washed, opinion as to the desirability of this process
varying in different countries. In any case, however, they have
to be dried and cured. When climatic conditions are favourable
this is commonly done by spreading the beans in thin layers on
barbecues, or stone drying floors, or otherwise exposing them
to the sun. Sliding roofs or other means of rapidly affording
shelter are desirable in case of showers, excessive heat, and also
for protection at night. Artificial drying is now often resorted
to and various patterns of drying houses are in use.

The appearance of the beans may often be improved by
" claying," a very slight coating of red earth or clay being added.
Polishing the beans also gives them a brighter appearance,

630

COCOA

removes mildew, and remnants of dried mucilage, &c. This may
be done by " dancing the cacao," i.e. treading a heap with the
bare feet, or by the use of special polishing machines. The cacao
is now ready for shipment, and is usually packed in bags. Ham-
burg is the chief port in the world for cacao. Until quite recently,
however, this position was held by Havre, which is now second
in Europe. New York imports about the same amount as Havre.
London follows next in importance.

Cacao-producing Countries. In the following table the pro-
duction in tons (of 1000 kilos =2 205 Ib) of the principal
producing countries, arranged under continents, is given for 1905
and 1901. During this period the total world's production
has increased by about 40 %, as indicated in the summary below.
Study of the table will show where the increase has taken place,
but attention is directed especially to the rapid development
in West Africa.

America.

Ecuador

Brazil .

Trinidad

San Domingo

Venezuela

Grenada

Cuba and Porto Rico

Haiti . .

Surinam .

Jamaica .

French West Indies

St. Lucia

Dominica .

1905 (tons).

1901 (tons).

21,128

22,896

21,091

18,324

20,018

".943

12,785

6,850

11,700

7,860

5-456

4,865

3,000

1-750

2343

1.95

1,612

3,163

1,484

1,350

1,200

825

7OO

765

597

Total, America
Africa.

San Thom6 .

Gold Coast and Lagos .

Cameroons

Congo Free State .

103,114

1905 (tons).

25.379

5,666

1,185

195

82,54'

1901 (tons).
16,983
997
528

Total, Africa . 32,425
A sia.

18,508

Ceylon .

Dutch East Indies.

Other countries

Total, Asia

World's Production.

1905 (tons).

3543
1492

1901 (tons).
2697
1277

5035
800

3974
700

1905 (tons).
Tropical America and West Indies . 103,114

West Africa 32,425

Asia 5,035

Other countries . . ' . . . 800

1901 (tons).

82,54
18,508

3-974
700

Total

141,374 105,723

Composition. The relative weights of the various parts of
a whole cacao pod are given thus by Prof. J. B. Harrison for
British Guiana specimens:

Husk

Pulp

Cuticles of the beans

Kernels of the beans

Calabacillo.

80-59

7-61

1-77
10-03

Forastero.
89-87

4-23
0-50
5-40

The husk is composed mainly of water and cellulose woody tissue,
with their usual mineral constituents, and has a low manurial
value. The pulp contains sugars which become converted into
alcohol during fermentation. Fibrous elements and water
compose about six-tenths of the cuticles, which also contain
approximately: albuminoids (6%), alkaloids (2%), fat (2%),
sugars (6%), starch (7%), colouring matter (4%), tartaric
acid (3%) and small quantities of various mineral con-
stituents. The average composition of the kernels, according
to Payen, is:

Per cent.

Fat (cacao butter) 50

Starch 10

Albuminoids 20

Water 12

Cellulose

Mineral matter
Theobromine ....
Colouring matter (cacao-red)

trace
100-00

Manufacture of Cocoa and Chocolate. The beans are cleaned
and sorted to remove foreign bodies of all kinds and also graded
into sizes to secure uniformity in roasting. The latter process
is carried out in rotating iron drums in which the beans are heated
to a temperature of about 260 to 280 F., and results in develop-
ing the aroma, partially converting the starch into dextrin, and
eliminating bitter constituents. The beans also dry and their
shells become crisp. In the next process the beans are gently
crushed and winnowed, whereby the light shells are removed,
and after removal by sifting of the " germs " the beans are left
in the form of the irregular cocoa-nibs occasionally seen in shops.
Cocoa-nibs may be infused with water and drunk, but for most
people the beverage is too rich, containing the whole of the cacao-
fat or cacao-butter. This fat is extracted from the carefully
ground nibs by employing great hydraulic pressure in heated
presses. The fat exudes and solidifies. When fresh it is yellowish-
white, but becomes quite v.'hite on keeping. It is very valuable
for pharmaceutical purposes and is a constituent of many
pomades. With care it can be kept for a long time without
going rancid.

After the extraction of the fat the resulting mass is ground
to a fine powder when it is ready for use in the ordinary way.
Many preparations on the market are of course not pure cocoa
but contain admixtures of various starchy and other bodies.

The shells of the beans separated by the winnowing process
contain theobromine, and their infusion with water is sometimes
used as a substitute for coffee, under the name " miserabile."
More recently they have been put to good account as a cattle food.

In the preparation of chocolate the preliminary processes
of cleaning, sorting, roasting and removing the shells, and
grinding the nibs, are followed as for cocoa. The fat, however,
is not extracted, but sugar, and sometimes other materials also,
are added to the ground pasty mass, together with suitable
flavouring materials, as for example vanilla. The greatest care is
taken in the process and elaborate grinding and mixing machinery
employed. The final result is a semi-liquid mass which is
moulded into the familiar tablets or other forms in which choco-
late comes on the market.

Cocoa as a beverage has a similar action to tea and coffee,
inasmuch as the physiological properties of all three are due to
the alkaloids and volatile oils they contain. Tea and coffee
both contain the alkaloid caffeine, whilst cocoa contains theo-
bromine. In tea and coffee, however, we only drink an infusion
of the leaves or seeds, whilst in cocoa the whole material is taken
in a state of very fine suspension, and as the preceding analysis
indicates, the cocoa bean, even with the fat extracted, is of high
nutritive value.

Cacao-consuming Countries. The principal cacao-consuming
countries are indicated below, which gives the imports into the
countries named for 1905. These figures, as also those on
production, are taken from Der Gordian.

'Tons (1000 kilos).
United States of America . 34-958

Germany

France

United Kingdom

Holland .

Spain .

Switzerland

Belgium .

Austria Hungary

Russia

Denmark

29,663
21,748
21,106

19,295
6,102
5,218

3,oi9
2,668
2,230
1,125

Carry forward . . 147, 132

COCO DE MER COCYTUS

631

Tons (1000 kilos.)
Brought forward . 147,132

971

Sweden 900

Canada ......... 700

Australia 600

Norway, Portugal and Finland .... 692

Total . 150,995

During recent years the use of cocoa has increased rapidlj
in some countries. The following table gives the increase pe
cent in consumption in 1905 over that in 1901 for the five chie
consumers:

Per cent.

United States 70

Germany 6j

France 21

United Kingdom II

Holland 34

(A. B. R. ; W. G. F.)

COCO DE MER, or DOUBLE COCO-NUT, a palm, Lodoicea
Sechellarum, which is a native of the Seychelles Islands. The
flowers are borne in enormous fleshy spadices, the male anc
female on distinct plants. The fruits, which are among the
largest known, take ten years to ripen; they have a fleshy anc
fibrous envelope surrounding a hard nut-like portion which is
generally two-lobed, suggesting a large double coco-nut. The
contents of the nut are edible as in the coco-nut. The empty
fruits (after germination of the seed) are found floating in the
Indian Ocean, and were known long before the palm was
discovered, giving rise to various stories as to their origin.

COCOMA, or CUCAMAS, a tribe of South American Indians
living on the Maranon and lower Huallaga rivers, Peru. In 1 68 1 ,
at the time of the Jesuit missionaries' first visit, they had the
custom of eating their dead and grinding the bones to a powder,
which was mixed with a fermented liquor and drunk. When ex-
postulated with by the Jesuits they said " it was better to be
inside a friend than to be swallowed up by the cold earth."
They are a provident, hard-working people, partly Christianized,
and bolder than most of the civilized Indians. Their languages
show affinity to the Tupi-Guarani stock.

COCO-NUT 1 PALM (Cocos mtcifera), a very beautiful and lofty
palm-tree, growing to a height of from 60 to 100 ft., with a
cylindrical stem which attains a thickness of 2 ft. The tree
terminates in a crown of graceful waving pinnate leaves. The
leaf, which may attain to 20 ft. in length, consists of a strong
mid-rib, whence numerous long acute leaflets spring, giving the
whole the appearance of a gigantic feather. The flowers are
arranged in branching spikes 5 or 6 ft. long, enclosed in a tough
spathe, and the fruits mature in bunches of from 10 to 20. The
fruits when mature are oblong, and triangular in cross section,
measuring from 12 to 18 in. in length and 6 to 8 in. in diameter.
The fruit consists of a thick external husk or rind of a fibrous
structure, within which is the ordinary coco-nut of commerce.
The nut has a very hard, woody shell, enclosing the nucleus or
kernel, the true seed, within which again is a milky liquid called
coco-nut milk. The palm is so widely disseminated throughout
tropical countries that it is impossible to distinguish its original
habitat. It flourishes with equal vigour on the coast of the
East Indies, throughout the tropical islands of the Pacific, and in
the West Indies and tropical America. It, however, attains its
greatest luxuriance and vigour on the sea shore, and it is most
at home in the innumerable small islands of the Pacific seas,
of the vegetation of which it is eminently characteristic. Its
wide distribution, and its existence in even the smallest coral
islets of the Pacific, are due to the character of the fruit, which is
eminently adapted for distribution by sea. The fibrous husk
renders the fruit light and the leathery skin prevents water-
logging. The seed will germinate readily on the sea-shore, the
seedling growing out through the soft germ-pore on the upper

1 The spelling " cocoa-nut," which introduces a confusion with

cocoa (q.v.) or cacao, is a corruption of the original Portuguese form,

dating from (and largely due to) Johnson's Dictionary. The spelling

' coker-nut," introduced to avoid the same ambiguity, is common

in England.

end of the hard nut. The fruits dropping into the sea from trees
growing on any shores would be carried by tides and currents
to be cast up and to vegetate on distant coasts.

The coco-nut palm, being the most useful of its entire tribe
to the natives of the regions in which it grows, and furnishing
many valuable and important commercial products, is the subject
of careful cultivation in many countries. On the Malabar and
Coromandel coasts of India the trees grow in vast numbers;
and in Ceylon, which is peculiarly well suited for their cultivation,
it is estimated that twenty millions of the trees flourish. The
wealth of a native in Ceylon is estimated by his property in
coco-nut trees, and Sir J. Emerson Tennent noted a law case in a
district court in which the subject in dispute was a claim to the
2520th part of ten of the precious palms. The cultivation of
coco-nut plantations in Ceylon was thus described by Sir J. E.
Tennent. " The first operation in coco-nut planting is the forma-
tion of a nursery, for which purpose the ripe nuts are placed in
squares containing about 400 each; these are covered an inch
deep with sand and seaweed or soft mud from the beach, and
watered daily till they germinate. The nuts put down in April
are sufficiently grown to be planted out before the rains of
September, and they are then set out in holes 3 ft. deep and
20 to 30 ft. apart. . . . Before putting in the young plant it is
customary to bed the roots with soft mud and seaweed, and for
the first two years they must be watered and protected from
the glare of the sun under shades made of the plaited fronds of
the coco-nut palm, or the fan-like leaves of the palmyra." The
palm begins to bear fruit from the fifth to the seventh year of its
age, each stock carrying from 5 to 30 nuts, the tree maturing
on an average 60 nuts yearly.

The uses to which the various parts of the coco-nut palm are

applied in the regions of their growth are almost endless. The

nuts supply no inconsiderable proportion of the food of the

natives, and the milky juice enclosed within them forms a pleasant

and refreshing drink. The juice drawn from the unexpanded

flower spathes forms " toddy," which may be boiled down to

sugar, or it is allowed to ferment and is distilled, when it yields

a spirit which, in common with a like product from other sources,

is known as " arrack." As in other palms, the young bud cut

out of the top of the tree forms an esculent vegetable, " palm

cabbage." The trunk yields a timber (known in European

:ommerce as porcupine wood) which is used for building, furni-

:ure, firewood, &c.; the leaves are plaited into cajan fans and

)askets, and used for thatching the roofs of houses; the shell of

the nut is employed as a water- vessel; and the external husk or

ind yields the coir fibre, with which are fabricated ropes, cordage,

>rushes, &c. The coco-nut palm also furnishes very important

articles of external commerce, of which the principal is coco-nut

oil. It is obtained by pressure or boiling from the kernels, which

are first broken up into small pieces and dried in the sun, when

hey are known as copperah or copra. It is estimated that 1000

ull-sized nuts will yield upwards of 500 lb. of copra, from which

35 gallons of oil should be obtained. The oil is a white solid

ubstance at ordinary temperatures, with a peculiar, rather dis-

tgreeable odour, from the volatile fatty acids it contains, and a

mild taste. Under pressure it separates into a liquid and a

olid portion, the latter, coco-stearin, being extensively used in

he manufacture of candles. Coco-nut oil is also used in the manu -

acture of marine soap, which forms a lather with sea-water.

Coir is also an important article of commerce, being in large

emand for the manufacture of coarse brushes, door mats and

voven coir-matting for lobbies and passages. A considerable

quantity of fresh nuts is imported, chiefly from the West Indies,

nto Britain and other countries; they are familiar as the

eward of the popular English amusement of " throwing at the

oco-nuts "; and the contents are either eaten raw or used as

material for cakes, &c., or sweetmeats (" coker-nut ").

COCYTUS (mod. Vuvo), a tributary of the Acheron, a river of
'hesprotia (mod. pashalik of lannina), which flows into the
onian Sea about 20 m. N. of the Gulf of Arta. The name is also
pplied in Greek mythology to a tributary of the Acheron or of
he Styx, a river in Hades. The etymology suggested is from

632

COD CODE

v, to wail, in allusion to the cries of the dead. Virgil
describes it as the river which surrounds the underworld (Aen.
vi. 132).

COD, the name given to the typical fish of the family Gadidae,
of the Teleostean suborder Anacanthini, the position of which has
much varied in our classifications. Having no spines to their fins,
the Gadids used, in Cuvierian days, to be associated with the
herrings, Salmonids, pike, &c., in the artificially-conceived order
of Malacopterygians, or soft-finned bony fishes. But, on the
ground of their air-bladder being closed, or deprived of a pneu-
matic duct communicating with the digestive canal, such as is
characteristic of the Malacopterygians, they were removed from
them and placed with the flat-fishes, or Pleuronectidae, in a
suborder Anacanthini, regarded as intermediate in position
between the Acanthopterygians, or spiny-finned fishes, and the
Malacopterygians. It has, however, been shown that the flat-
fishes bear no relationship to the Gadids, but are most nearly
akin to the John Dories (see DORY).

The suborder Anacanthini is, nevertheless, maintained for the
Muraenolepididae Gadids and two related families, Macruridae
and Muraenolepididae, and may be thus defined: Air-bladder
without open duct. Parietal bones separated by the supra-
occipital; prootic and exoccipital separated by the enlarged
opisthotic. Pectoral arch suspended from the skull; no meso-
coracoid arch. Ventral fins below or in front of the pectorals,
the pelvic bones posterior to the clavicular symphysis and only
loosely attached to it by ligament. Fins without spines; caudal
fin, if present, without expanded hypural, perfectly symmetrical,
and supported by the neural and haemal spines of the posterior
vertebrae, and by basal bones similar to those supporting the
dorsal and anal rays. This type of caudal fin must be regarded as
secondary, the Gadidae being, no doubt, derived from fishes in
which the homocercal fin of the typical Teleostean had been lost.

About 1 20 species of Gadids are distinguished, mostly marine,
many being adapted to life at great depths; all are carnivorous.
They inhabit chiefly the northern seas, but many abyssal forms
occur between the tropics and in the southern parts of the Atlantic
and Pacific. They are represented in British waters by eight
genera, and about twenty species, only one of which, the burbot
(Lota vulgaris), is an inhabitant of fresh waters. Several of the
marine species are of first-rate economic importance. The genus
Gadus is characterized by having three dorsal and two anal fins,
and a truncated or notched caudal fin. In the cod and haddock
the base of the first anal fin is not, or but slightly, longer than
that of the second dorsal fin; in the whiting, pout, coal-fish,
pollack, hake, ling and burbot, the former is considerably longer
than the latter.

The cod, Gadus morrhua, possesses, in common with the other
members of the genus, three dorsal and two anal fins, and a single
barbel, at least half as long as the eye, at the chin. It is a widely-
distributed species, being found throughout the northern and
temperate seas of Europe, Asia and America, extending as far
south as Gibraltar, but not entering the Mediterranean, and
inhabits water from 25 to 50 fathoms deep, where it always feeds
close to the bottom. It is exceedingly voracious, feeding on the
smaller denizens of the ocean fish, crustaceans, worms and
molluscs, and greedily taking almost any bait the fisherman
chooses to employ. The cod spawns in February, and is exceed-
ingly prolific, the roe of a single female having been known to
contain upwards of eight millions of ova, and to form more than
half the weight of the entire fish. Only a small proportion of
these get fertilized, and still fewer ever emerge from the egg.
The number of cod is still further reduced by the trade carried
on in roe, large quantities of which are used in France as ground-
bait in the sardine fishery, while it also forms an article of human
food. The young are about an inch in length by the end of spring,
but are not fit for the market till the second year, and it has
been stated that they do not reach maturity, as shown by the
power of reproduction, till the end of their third year. They
usually measure about 3 ft. in length, and weigh from 1 2 to 20 Ib,
but specimens have been taken from 50 to 70 Ib in weight.

As an article of food the cod-fish is in greatest perfection during

the three months preceding Christmas. It is caught on all parts
of the British and Irish coasts, but the Dogger Bank, and Rockall,
off the Outer Hebrides, have been specially noted for their cod-
fisheries. The fishery is also carried on along the coast of Norfolk
and Suffolk, where great quantities of the fish are caught with
hook and line, and conveyed to market alive in " well-boats "
specially built for this traffic. Such boats have been in use since
the beginning of the i8th century. The most important cod-
fishery in the world is that which has been prosecuted for centuries
on the Newfoundland banks, where it is not uncommon for a
single fisherman to take over 500 of these fish in ten or eleven
hours. These, salted and dried, are exported to all parts of the
world, and form, when taken in connexion with the enormous
quantity of fresh cod consumed, a valuable addition to the food
resources of the human race.

The air-bladder of this fish furnishes isinglass, little, if at all,
inferior to that obtained from the sturgeon, while from the liver is
obtained cod-liver oil, largely used in medicine as a remedy in
scrofulous complaints and pulmonary consumption (see COD-
LIVER OIL). " The Norwegians," says Cuvier, " give cod-heads
with marine plants to their cows for the purpose of producing a
greater proportion of milk. The vertebrae, the ribs, and the bones
in general, are given to their cattle by the Icelanders, and by the
Kamtchatdales to their dogs. These same parts, properly dried,
are also employed as fuel in the desolate steppes of the Icy Sea."

At Port Logan in Wigtonshire cod-fish are kept in a large
reservoir, scooped out of the solid rock by the action of the sea,
egress from which is prevented by a barrier of stones, which does
not prevent the free access of the water. These cod are fed
chiefly on mussels, and when the keeper approaches to feed them
they may be seen rising to the surface in hundreds and eagerly
seeking the edge. They have become comparatively tame and
familiar. Frank Buckland, who visited the place, states that
after a little while they allowed him to take hold of them, scratch
them on the back, and play with them in various ways. Their
flavour is considered superior to that of the cod taken in the open
sea. (G. A. B.)

CODA (Ital. for "tail"; from the Lat. cauda), in music, a
term for a passage which brings a movement or a separate piece
to a conclusion. This developed from the simple chords of a
cadence into an elaborate and independent form. In a series
of variations on a theme or in a composition with a fixed order
of subjects, the " coda " is a passage sufficiently contrasted with
the conclusions of the separate variations or subjects, added to
form a complete conclusion to the whole. Beethoven raised the
" coda " to a feature of the highest importance.

CODE (Lat. codex), the term for a complete and systematic
body of law, or a complete and exclusive statement of some
portion of the law; and so by analogy for any system of rules
or doctrine; also for an arrangement in telegraphy, signalling,
&c., by which communications may be made according to rules
adopted for brevity or secrecy.

In jurisprudence the question of the reduction of laws to
written codes, representing a complete and readily accessible
system, is a matter of great historical and practical interest.
Many collections of laws, however, which are commonly known
as codes, 1 would not correspond to the definition given above.
The Code of Justinian (see JUSTINIAN I.; ROMAN LAW), the
most celebrated of all, is not in itself a complete and exclusive
system of law. It is a collection of imperial constitutions, just
as the Pandects are a collection of the opinions of jurisconsults.
The Code and the Pandects together being, as Austin says,
" digests of Roman law in force at the time of their conception,"
would, if properly arranged, constitute a code. Codification in
this sense is merely a question of the form of the laws, and has
nothing to do with their goodness or badness from an ethical or
political point of view. Sometimes codification only means the
changing of unwritten into written law; in the stricter sense
it means the changing of unwritten or badly- written law into
law well written.

1 The most ancient code known, that of Khammurabi, is dealt
with in the article BABYLONIAN LAW.

CODE

633

The same causes which made collections of laws necessary
in the time of Justinian have led to similar undertakings among
modern peoples. The actual condition of laws until the period
when they are consciously remodelled is one of confusion,
contradiction, repetition and disorder; and to these evils the
progress of society adds the burden of perpetually increasing
legislation. Some attempt must be made to simplify the task
of learning the laws by improving their expression and arrange-
ment. This is by no means an easy task in any country, but in
England it is surrounded with peculiar difficulties. The inde-
pendent character of English law has prevented an attempt to
do what has already been done for other systems which have the
basis of the Roman law to fall back upon.

The most celebrated modern code is the French. The necessity
of a code in France was mainly caused by the immense number
of separate systems of jurisprudence existing in that country
before 1789, justifying Voltaire's sarcasm that a traveller in
France had to change laws about as often as he changed horses.
At first published under the title of Code Civil des Franqais, it
was afterwards entitled the Code Napoleon (q.v.) the emperor
Napoleon wishing to attach his name to a work which he regarded
as the greatest glory of his reign. The code, it has been said,
is the product of Roman and customary law, together with the
ordinances of the kings and the laws of the Revolution. In form
it has passed through several changes caused by the political
vicissitudes of the country, and it has of course suffered from
time to time important alterations in substance, but it still
remains virtually the same in principle as it left the hands of
its framers. The code has produced a vast number of com-
mentaries, among which may be named those of A. Duranton,
R. T. Troplong and J. C. F. Demolombe. The remaining French
codes are the Code de procedure civile, the Code de commerce, the
Code d 'instruction criminelle and the Code penal. The merits of
the French code have entered into the discussion on the general
question of codification. Austin agrees with Savigny in con-
demning the ignorance and haste with which it was compiled.
" It contains," says Austin, " no definitions of technical terms
(even the most leading), no exposition of the rationale of dis-
tinctions (even the most leading), no exposition of the broad
principles and rules to which the narrower provisions expressed
in the code are subordinate; hence its fallacious brevity."
Codes modelled on the French code have, however, taken firm
root in most of the countries of continental Europe and in other
parts of the world as well, such as Latin America and several
of the British colonies.

The Prussian code (Code Frederic) was published by Frederick
the Great in 1 7 51. It was intended to take the place of "Roman,
common Saxon and other foreign subsidiary laws and statutes,"
the provincial laws remaining in force as before. One of the
objects of the king was to destroy the power of the advocates,
whom he hoped to render useless. This, with other systems of
law existing in Germany, has been replaced by the Civil Code
of 1900 (see GERMANY).

The object of all these codes has been to frame a common
system to take the place of several systems of law, rather than
to restate in an .exact and exhaustive form the whole laws of
a nation, which is the problem of English codification. The
French and Prussian codes, although they have been of great
service in simplifying the law, have failed to prevent outside
themselves that accumulation of judiciary and statute law
which in England has been the chief motive for codification.
A more exact parallel to the English problem may be found in
the Code of the State of New York. The revised constitution of
the state, as adopted in 1846, " ordered the appointment of two
commissions, one to reduce into a written and a systematic
code the whole body of the law of the state, and the other to
revise, reform, simplify and abridge the rules and practice,
pleadings, &c., of the courts of record." By an act of 1847,
the state legislature declared that the body of substantive law
should be contained in three codes the Political, the Civil
and the Penal. The works of both commissions, completed in
1865, filled six volumes, containing the Code of Civil Procedure

(including the law of evidence), the Book of Forms, the Code of
Criminal Procedure, the Political Code, the Penal Code and the
Civil Code. In the introduction to the Civil Code it was claimed
that in many departments of the law the codes " provided for
every possible case, so that when a new case arises it is better
that it should be provided for by new legislation." The New
York code was defective in the important points of definition
and arrangement. It formed the basis, however, of the present
codes of civil and criminal procedure in the state of New York.
Much interest has attached to the Penal Code drawn up by
Edward Livingston (q.v.) for the state of Louisiana! The
system consists of a Code of Crime and Punishments, a Code of
Procedure, a Code of Evidence, a Code of Reform and Prison
Discipline, and a Book of Definitions. " Though the state for
which the codes were prepared," said Chief Justice Chase,
" neglected to avail itself of the labours assigned and solicited
by itself, they have proved, together with their introductions,
a treasure of suggestions to which many states are indebted for
useful legislation." Most of the other states in the United
States have codes stating the law of pleading in civil actions,
and such states are often described as code states to distinguish
them from those adhering to the older forms of action,, divided
between those at law and those at equity. A few states have
general codes of political and civil rights. The general drift
of legislation and of public sentiment in the United States is
towards the extension of the principle of codification, but the
contrary view has been ably maintained (see J. C. Carter,
Provinces of the Written and the Unwritten Law, New York, 1889).
Since the time of Bentham, the codification pf the law of
England has been the dream of the most enlightened jurists
and statesmen. In the . interval between Bentham and our
own time there has been an immense advance in the scientific
study of law, but it may be doubted whether the problem of
codification is at all nearer solution. Interest has mainly been
directed to the historical side of legal science, to the phenomena
of the evolution of laws as part of the development of society,
and from this point of view the question of remodelling the
law is one of minor interest. To Bentham the problem presented
itself in the simplest and most direct form possible. What he
proposed to do was to set forth a body of laws, clearly expressed,
arranged in the order of their logical connexion, exhibiting their
own rationale and excluding all other law. On the other hand
the problem has in some respects become easier since the time
of Bentham. With the Benthamite codification the conception
of reform in the substantive law is more or less mixed up. If
codification had been possible in his day, it would, unless it had
been accompanied by the searching reforms which have been
effected since, and mainly through his influence, perhaps have
been more of an evil than a good. The mere dread that, under
the guise of codification or improvement in form, some change
in substance may secretly be effected has long been a practical
obstacle in the way of legal reform. But the law has now been
brought into a state of which it may be said that, if it is not the
best in all respects that might be desired, it is at least in most
respects as good as the conditions of legislation will permit it
to be. Codification, in fact, may now be treated purely as a
question of form. What is proposed is that the law, being, as
we assume, in substance what the nation wishes it to be, should
be made as accessible as possible, and as intelligible as possible.
These two essential conditions of a sound system of law are,
we need hardly say, far from being fulfilled in England. The
law of the land is embodied in thousands of statutes and tens of
thousands of reports. It is expressed in language which has
never been fixed by a controlling authority, and which has
swayed about v/ith every change of time, place and circumstance.
It has no definitions, no rational distinctions, no connexion of
parts. Until the passing of the Judicature Act of 1873 it was
pervaded throughout its entire sphere by the flagrant antinomy
of law and equity, and that act has only ordered, not executed,
its consolidation. No lawyer pretends to know more than a
fragment of it. Few practical questions can be answered by a
lawyer without a search into numberless acts of parliament and

CODE NAPOLEON

reported cases. To laymen, of course, the whole law is a sealed
book. As there are no authoritative general principles, it
happens that the few legal maxims known to the public, being
apprehended out of relation to their authorities, are as often
likely to be wrong as to be right. It is hopeless to think of
making it possible for every man to be his own lawyer, but we
can at least try to make it possible for a lawyer to know the
whole law. The earlier advocates of codification founded their
case mainly on the evils of judiciary law, i.e. the law contained
in the reported decisions of the judges. Bentham's bitter
antipathy to judicial legislation is well known. Austin's thirty-
ninth lecture (Lectures, ed. 1869) contains an exhaustive criticism
of the tenable objections to judiciary law. All such law is
embedded in decisions on particular cases, from which it must
be extracted by a tedious and difficult process of induction.
Being created for particular cases it is necessarily uncompre-
hensive, imperfect, uncertain and bulky. These are evils which
are incident to the nature of judiciary laws. The defective
form of the existing statute law, moreover, has also given rise
to loud complaints. Year by year the mass of legislation grows
larger, and as long as the basis of a system is judiciary law, it is
impossible that the new statutes can be completely integrated
therewith. The mode of framing acts of parliament, and
especially the practice of legislating by reference to previous
acts, likewise produce much uncertainty and disorder. Some
progress has, however, been made by the passing from time to
time of various acts codifying branches of law, such as the Bills
of Exchange Act 1882, the Partnership Act 1890, the Trusts
Act 1893, and the Interpretation Act 1889.

The Statute Law Revision Committee also perform a useful
work in excising dead law from the statute-book, partly by repeal
of obsolete and spent acts and parts of acts, and partly by
pruning redundant preambles and words. The construction of
a section of an act may depend on the preamble and the context,
and the repeal of the preamble and certain parts of the act may
therefore affect the construction of what is left. This is provided
for by a clause which is said to have been settled by Lord West-
bury. It provides (in effect) that the repeal of any words or
expressions of enactment shall not affect the construction of any
statute or part of a statute. The lawyer, therefore, cannot rely
on the revised edition of the statutes alone, and it is still necessary
for him to consult the complete act as it was originally enacted.

The process of gradual codification adopted in India has been
recommended for imitation in England by those who have had
some experience of its working. The first of the Indian codes
was the Penal Code (see CRIMINAL LAW), and there are also codes
of civil and criminal procedure.

Whether any attempt will ever be made to supersede this vast
and unarranged mass by a complete code seems very doubtful.
Writers on codification have for the most part insisted that the
work should be undertaken as a whole, and that the parts should
have relation to some general scheme of the law which should
be settled first. The practical difficulties in the way of an
undertaking so stupendous as the codification uno coetu of the
whole mass of the law hardly require to be stated.

In discussions on codification two difficulties are insisted on
by its opponents, which have some practical interest (i) What
is to be done in those cases for which the code has not provided?
and (2) How is new law to be incorporated with the code? The
objection that a code will hamper the opinions of the court,
destroy the flexibility and elasticity of the common law, &c.,
disappears when it is stated in the form of a proposition, that law
codified will cover a smaller number of cases, or will be less easily
adapted to new cases, than law uncodified. The French system
ordered the judges, under a penalty, to give a decision on all cases,
whether contemplated or not by the code, and referred them
generally to the following sources: (i) Equite naturelle, loi
naturelle; (2) loi remain; (3) loi coutumier; (4) usages,
exemples, jugements, jurisprudence; (5) droit commun; (6)
principes generaux, maximes, doctrine, science. The Prussian
code, on the other hand, required the judges to report new cases
to the head of the judicial department, and they were decided by

the legislative commission. No provision was made in either case
for incorporating the new law with the code, an omission which
Austin justly considers fatal to the usefulness of codification.
It is absurd to suppose that any code can remain long without
requiring substantial alteration. Cases will arise when its mean-
ing must be extended and modified by judges, and every year
will produce its quota of new legislation by the state. The courts
should be left to interpret a code as they now interpret statutes,
and provision should be made for the continual revision of
the code, so that the new Jaw created by judges or directly by the
state may from time to time be worked into the code.

CODE NAPOLEON, the first code of the French civil law,
known at first as the Code civil des Franfais, was promulgated
in its entirety by a law of the 3Oth Ventose in the year XII.
(3 ist of March 1804). On the 3rd of September 1807 it received
the official name of Code Napoleon, although the part that
Napoleon took in framing it was not very important. A law of
1818 restored to it its former name, but a decree of the 2-jih of
March 1852 re-established the title of Code Napoleon. Since
the 4th of September 1870 the laws have quoted it only under
the name of the Code Civil.

Never has a work of legislation been more national in the
exact sense of the word. Desired for centuries by the France of
the ancien regime, and demanded by the cahiers of 1789, this
" code of civil laws common to the whole realm " was promised
by the constitution of 1791. However, the two first assemblies
of the Revolution were able to prepare only a few fragments
of it. The preparation of a coherent plan began with the Con-
vention. The ancien regime had collected and adjusted some of
the material. There was, on the one hand, a vast juridical
literature which by eliminating differences of detail, had dis-
engaged from the various French " customs " the essential part
which they had in common, under the name of " common
customary law "; on the other hand, the Roman law current in
France had in like manner undergone a process of simplification
in 'numerous works, the chief of which was that of Domat;
while certain parts had already been codified in the Grandes
Ordonnances, which were the work of d' Aguesseau. This legacy
from the past, which it was desired to preserve within reason,
had to be combined and blended with the laws of the Revolution,
which had wrought radical reforms in the conditions affecting
the individual, the tenure of real property, the order of inherit-
ance and the system of mortgages. Cambaceres, as the repre-
sentative of a commission of the Convention, brought forward
two successive schemes for the Code Civil. As a member of one
of the councils, he drew up a third under the Directory, and
these projected forms came in turn nearer and nearer to what
was to be the ultimate form of the code. So great was the
interest centred in this work, that the law of the igth Brumaire,
year VIII., which, in ratification of the previous day's coup
d'etat nominated provisional consuls and two legislative com-
missions, gave injunctions to the latter to draw up a scheme for
the Code Civil. This was done in part by one of the members,
Jacqueminot, and finally under the constitution of the year
VIII., the completion of the work was taken in hand. The
legislative machinery established by this constitution, defective
as it was in other respects, was eminently suited for this task.
Indeed, all projected laws emanated from the government and
were prepared by the newly established council of state, which
was so well recruited that it easily furnished qualified men,
mostly veterans of the revolution, to prepare the final scheme.
The council of state naturally possessed in its legislative section
and its general assembly bodies both competent and sufficiently
limited to discuss the texts efficiently. The corps legislatif had
not the right of amendment, so could not disturb the harmony
of the scheme. It was in the discussions of the general assembly
of the council of state that Napoleon took part, in 97 cases out of
102 in the capacity of chairman, but, interesting as his observa-
tions occasionally are, he cannot be considered as a serious
collaborator in this great work.

Those responsible for the scheme have in the main been very
successful in their work; they have generally succeeded in fusing

CODIAEUM COD-LIVER OIL

635

the two elements which they had to deal with, namely ancient
French law, and that of the Revolution. The point in which
their work is comparatively weak is the system of hypothec (?..),
because they did not succeed in steering a middle course between
two opposite systems, and the law of the 23rd of March 1855
(sur la transcription en matiere hypothtcaire) was necessary to
make good the deficiency. A fault frequently found with the
Code Civil is that its general divisions show a lack of logic and
method, but the division is practically that of the Institutes
of Justinian, and is about as good as any other: persons, things,
inheritance, contracts and obligations, and finally, in place of
actions, which have no importance for French law except from
the point of view of procedure, privileges and hypothecs, as in
the ancient coutumes of France, and prescription. It is, mutatis
mutandis, practically the same division as that of Blackstone's
Commentaries.

Of late years other objections have been expressed; serious
omissions have been pointed out in the Code; it has not given
to personal property the importance which it has acquired in
the course of the igth century; it makes no provision for
dealing with the legal relations between employers,and employed
which modern complex undertakings involve; it does not treat
of life insurance, &c. But this only proves that it could not fore-
tell the future, for most of these questions are concerned with
economic phenomena and social relations which did not exist at
the time when it was framed. The Code needed revising .and
completing, and this was carried out by degrees by means of
numerous important laws. In 1904, after the celebration of the
centenary of the Code Civil, an extra-parliamentary commission
was nominated to prepare a revision of it, and at once began the
work.

The influence of the Code Civil has been very great, not only
in France but also abroad. Belgium has preserved it, and the
Rhine provinces only ceased to be subject to it on the promulga-
tion of the civil code of the German empire. Its ascendancy has
been due chiefly to the clearness of its provisions, and to the
spirit of equity and equality which inspires them. Numerous
more recent codes have also taken it as a model: the Dutch code,
the Italian, and the code of Portugal; and, more remotely, the
Spanish code, and those of the Central and South American
republics. In the present day it is rivalled by the German civil
code, which, having been drawn up at the end of the ipth
century, naturally does not show the same lacunae or omissions.
It is inspired, however, by a very different spirit, and the French
code does not suffer altogether by comparison with it either in
substance or hi form.

See Le Code Civil, livre du centenaire (Paris, 1904), a collection of
essays by French and foreign lawyers. (J. P. E.)

CODIAEUM, a small genus of plants belonging to the natural
order Euphorbiaceae. One species, C. variegalum, a native of
Polynesia, is cultivated in greenhouses, under the name of
croton, for the sake of its leaves, which are generally variegated
with yellow, and are often twisted or have the blades separated
into distinct portions.

CODICIL (Lat. codicillus, a little book or tablet, diminutive
of codex), a supplement to a will (q.v.), containing anything which
a testator desires to add, or which he wishes to retract, to explain
or to alter. In English law a codicil requires to be executed with
the same formalities as a will under the Wills Act 1837.

CODILLA, the name given to the broken fibres which are
separated from the flax during the scutching process. On this
account it is sometimes termed scutching tow. Quantities of this
material are used along with heckled tow in the production of
tow yarns.

CODINUS, GEORGE [GEORGIOS KODINOS], the reputed author
of three extant works in Byzantine literature. Their attribution
to him is merely a matter of convenience, two of them being
anonymous in the MSS. Of Codinus himself nothing is known;
it is supposed that he lived towards the end of the 1 5th century.
The works referred to are the following:

i. Patria (To. ndrpia TTJS KcowTOCTii'ou7r6Xa)s), treating
of the history, topography, and monuments of Constantinople.

It is divided into five sections: (a) the foundation of the city;
(6) its situation, limits and topography; (c) its statues, works
of art, and other notable sights; (d) its buildings; (e) the con-
struction of the church of St Sophia. It was written in the reign
of Basil II. (976-1025), revised and rearranged under Alexius I.
Comnenus (1081-1118), and perhaps copied by Codinus, whose
name it bears hi some (later) MSS. The chief sources are: the
Patria of Hesychius Illustrius of Miletus, an anonymous (c. 750)
brief chronological record (lIa.poaT&ffta avifrofux. \povuu>i),
and an anonymous account (Si^yrjow) of St Sophia (ed. T.
Preger in Scriptores originum Constantinopolitanarum, fasc. i.,
1901, to be followed by the Patria of Codinus). Procopius,
De Aedificiis and the poem of Paulus Silentiarius on the dedica-
tion of St Sophia should be read in connexion with this subject.

2. De Officiis (Ilepi rStv 'Q(t><j>ud<j)v), a sketch, written in an
unattractive style, of court and higher ecclesiastical dignities
and of the ceremonies proper to different occasions. It should
be compared with the De Cerimoniis of Constantine Porphyro-
genitus.

3. A chronological outline of events from the beginning of
the world to the taking of Constantinople by the Turks (called
Agarenes in the MS. title). It is of little value.

Complete editions are (by I. Bekker) in the Bonn Corpus scrip-
torum Hist. Byz. (1839-1843, where, however, some sections of the
Patria are omitted), and in J. P. Migne, Patrplogia graeca, clvii. ; see
also C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897).

COD-LIVER OIL (Oleum Morrhuae, or Oleum Jecoris Aselli),
the oil obtained from the liver of the common cod (Cadus
morrhua). In the early process for extracting the oil the livers
were allowed to putrefy hi wooden tubs, when oils of two qualities,
one called " pale oil," and the other " light brown oil," succes-
sively rose to the surface and were drawn off. A third oil was
obtained by heating the liver-residues to above the boiling-point
of water, whereupon a black product, technically called " brpwn
oil," separated. The modern practice consists hi heating the
perfectly fresh, cleaned livers by steam to a temperature above
that of boiling water, or, in more recent practice, to a lower
temperature, the livers being kept as far as possible from contact
with air. The oils so obtained are termed " steamed-liver oils."
The " pale " and " light brown " oils are used in pharmacy;
the " brown " oil, the cod oil of commerce, being obtained from
putrid and decomposing livers, has an objectionable taste and
odour and is largely employed by tanners. By boiling the livers
at a somewhat high temperature, " unracked " cod oil is obtained,
containing a considerable quantity of " stearine "; this fat,
which separates on cooling, is sold as " fish stearine " for soap-
making, or as " fish-tallow " for currying. The oil when freed
from the stearine is known as " racked oil." " Coast cod oil "
is the commercial name for the oil obtained from the livers of
various kinds of fish, e.g. hake, ling, haddock, &c. The most
important centres of the cod-liver oil industry are Lofoten and
Romsdal in Norway; the oil is also prepared in the United
States, Canada, Newfoundland, Iceland and Russia; and at
one time a considerable quantity was prepared in the Shetland
Islands and along the east coast of Scotland.

Cod-liver oil contains palmitin, stearin and other more complex
glycerides; the " stearine " mentioned above, however, contains
very little palmitin and stearin. Several'other acids have been
identified: P. M. Meyerdahl obtained 4% of palmitic acid,
20% of jecoleic acid, CwH3O 2 , and 20% of therapic acid,
Ci7H M O 2 ; other investigators have recognized jecoric acid,
CisHaoOz, asellic acid, CnHaOt, and physetoleic acid, CuH3oO 2 ,
but some uncertainty attends these last three acids. Therapic
and jecoleic acids apparently do not occur elsewhere in the
animal kingdom, and it is probable that the therapeutic
properties of the oil are associated with the presence of these
acids, and not with the small amount of iodine present as was at
one time supposed. Other constituents are cholesterol (0-46-
i'3 2 %)i traces of calcium, magnesium, sodium, chlorine and
bromine, and various aliphatic amines which are really secondary
products, being formed by the decomposition of the cellular tissue.

Cod-liver oil is used externally in medicine when its internal

6 3 6

CODRINGTON, C. CODRINGTON, SIR E.

administration is rendered impossible by idiosyncrasy or the
state of the patient's digestion. The oil is very readily absorbed
from the skin and exerts all its therapeutic actions when thus
exhibited. This method is often resorted to in the case of infants
or young children suffering from abdominal or other forms of
tuberculosis. Its only objection is the odour which the patient
exhales. When taken by the mouth, cod-liver oil shares with
other liver-oils the property of ready absorption. It often causes
unpleasant symptoms, which must always be dealt with and not
disregarded, more harm than good being done if this course is
not followed. Fortunately a tolerance is soon established in
the majority of cases. It has been experimentally proved that
this is more readily absorbed than any other oil including other
liver-oils. Much attention has been paid to the explanation of
this fact, since knowledge on this point might enable an artificial
product, without the disadvantages of this oil, to be substituted
for it. Very good results have been obtained from a preparation
named " lipanin," which consists of six parts of oleic acid and
ninety-four of pure olein. Cod-liver oil has the further peculiarity
of being more readily oxidizable than any other oil; an obviously
valuable property when it is remembered that the entire food-
value of oils depends on their oxidation.

Cod-liver oil may be given in all wasting diseases, and is
occasionally valuable in cases of chronic rheumatoid arthritis;
but its great therapeutic value is in cases of tuberculosis of
whatever kind, and notably in pulmonary tuberculosis or
consumption. Its reputation in this is quite inexpugnable. It
is essential to remember that " in phthisis the key of the situation
is the state of the alimentary tract," and the utmost care must
be taken to obviate the nausea, loss of appetite and diarrhoea,
only too easily induced by this oil. It is best to begin with only
one dose in the twenty-four hours, to be taken just before going
to sleep, so that the patient is saved its unpleasant " repetition "
from, an unaccustomed stomach. In general, it is therefore wise
to order a double dose at bedtime. The oil may be given in
capsules, or in the form of an emulsion, with or without malt-
extract, or success may be obtained by adding, to every two
drachms of the oil, ten minims of pure ether and a drop of
peppermint oil. The usual dose, at starting, is one or two
drachms, but the oil should be given eventually in the largest
quantities that the patient can tolerate.

CODRINGTON, CHRISTOPHER (1668-1710), British soldier
and colonial governor, whose father was captain-general of the
Leeward Isles, was born in the island of Barbados, West Indies,
in 1668. Educated at Christ Church, Oxford, he was elected a
fellow of All Souls, and subsequently served with the British
forces in Flanders, being rewarded in 1695 with a captaincy
in the Guards. In the same year he attended King William III.
on his visit to Oxford, and, in the absence of the public orator,
was chosen to deliver the University oration. In 1697, on the
death of his father, he was appointed captain-general and com-
mander-in-chief of the Leeward Isles. In 1703 he commanded the
unsuccessful British expedition against Guadeloupe. After this
he resigned his governorship, and spent the rest of his life in
retirement and study on his Barbados estates. He died on the
7th of April 1710, bequeathing these estates to the Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts for the foundation
of a college in Barbados. This college, known as the Codrington
college, was built in 1714-1742. To All Souls College, Oxford,
he bequeathed books worth 6000 and 10,000 in money, out
of which was built and endowed the Codrington library there.

CODRINGTON, SIR EDWARD (1770-1851), British admiral,
belonged to a family long settled at Dodington in Gloucester-
shire. He was the youngest of three brothers, who were left
orphans at an early age, and were educated by an uncle, Mr
Bethell. Edward Codrington was sent for a short time to Harrow,
and entered the navy in July 1783. Reserved on the American
station, in the Mediterranean and at home, till he was promoted
lieutenant on the 28th of May 1783. Lord Howe selected him
to be signal lieutenant on the flagship of the Channel fleet at
the beginning of the revolutionary war with France. In that
capacity he served in the " Queen Charlotte " (100) during the

operations which culminated in the battle of the ist of June 1794.
The notes he wrote on Barrow's account of the battle in his Life
of Howe, and the reminiscences he dictated to his daughter,
which are to be found in her memoir of him, are of great value for
the history of the action. On the 7th of October 1794 he was
promoted commander, and on the 6th of April 1795 attained the
rank of post-captain and the command of the " Babet " (22).
He continued to serve in the Channel, and was present at the
action off L'Orient on the 23rd of June 1795. Codrington wrote
notes on this encounter also, which are to be found in the memoir.
They are able and valuable, but, like all his correspondence
throughout his life, show that he was of a somewhat censorious
disposition, was apt to take the worst view of the conduct of
others, and was liable to be querulous. He next commanded the
" Druid " (32) in the Channel and on the coast of Portugal, till
she was paid off in 1797. Codrington now remained on shore and
on half-pay for some years. In December 1802 he married Jane,
daughter of Jasper Hall of Kingston, Jamaica.

On the renewal of the war after the breach of the peace of
Amiens he was appointed (May 1805) to the command of the
" Orion " (74) and was attached to the fleet on the coast of
Spain, then blockading Villeneuve in Cadiz. The " Orion "
took a conspicuous part in the battle of Trafalgar. Codrington's
correspondence contains much illuminative evidence as to the
preliminaries and the events of the victory. From 1805 till 1813
he continued to serve first in the " Orion " and then (1808) in
the " Blake " (74) in European waters. He was present on
the Walcheren expedition, and was very actively employed on
the Mediterranean coast of Spain in co-operating with the
Spaniards against the French. In 1814 he was promoted rear-
admiral, at which time he was serving on the coast of North
America as captain of the fleet to Sir Alexander Cochrane during
the operations against Washington, Baltimore and New Orleans.
In 1815 he was made K.C.B., and was promoted vice-admiral on
the loth of July 1821. In December 1826 he was appointed to
the Mediterranean command, and sailed on the ist of February
1827. From that date until his recall on the 2istof June 1828 he
was engaged in the arduous duties imposed on him by the Greek
War of Independence, which had led to anarchy and much
piracy in the Levant. On the 2oth of October 1827 he destroyed
the Turkish and Egyptian naval forces at Navarino (<?..), while
in command of a combined British, French and Russian fleet. As
the battle had been unforeseen in England, and its result was un-
welcome to the ministry of the day, Codrington was entangled in a
correspondence to prove that he had not gone beyond his instruc-
tions, and he was recalled by a despatch, dated the 4th of June.

After the battle Codrington went to Malta to refit his ships.
He remained there till May 1828, when he sailed to join his French
and Russian colleagues on the coast of the Morea. They en-
deavoured to enforce the evacuation of the peninsula by Ibrahim
peacefully. The Pasha made diplomatic difficulties, and on the
25th of July the three admirals agreed that Codrington should
go to Alexandria to obtain Ibrahim's recall by his father Mehemet
AH. Codrington had heard on the 22nd of June of his own
supersession, but, as his successor had not arrived, he carried out
the arrangement made on the 25th of July, and his presence at
Alexandria led to the treaty of the 6th of August 1828, by which
the evacuation of the Morea was settled. His services were
recognized by the grant of the grand cross of the Bath, but there
is no doubt that he was treated as a scape-goat at least to some
extent. After his return home he was occupied for a time in
defending himself, and then in leisure abroad. He commanded a
training squadron in the Channel in 1831 and became admiral
on the loth of January 1837. From November 1839 to December
1842 he was commander-in-chief at Portsmouth. He died on the
28th of April 1851.

Sir Edward Codrington left two sons, Sir William (1804-1884),
a soldier who commanded in the Crimea, and Sir John Henry
(1808-1877), a naval officer, who died an admiral of the fleet.

See Memoir of the Life of Admiral Sir Edward Codrington, by his
daughter Jane, Lady Bourchier, wife of Sir T. Bourchier, R. N.
(London, 1873). (D. H.)

CODRUS CO-EDUCATION

6 37

CODRUS, in Greek legend, the last king of Athens. According
to the story, it was prophesied at the time of the Dorian invasion
of Peloponnesus (c. 1068 B.C.) that only the death of their king at
the enemy's hands could ensure victory to the Athenians. De-
voting himself to his country, Codrus, in the disguise of a peasant,
made his way into the enemy's camp, and provoked a quarrel with
some Dorian soldiers. He fell, and the Dorians, on discovering that
Codrus had been slain, retreated homeward, despairing of success.
No one being thought worthy to succeed Codrus, the title of king
was abolished, and that of archon (q.v.) substituted for it.

See Lycurgus, Leocr. xx. [ = 84-87]; Justin ii. 6; Veil. Pat. i. 2:
Grote, Hist, of Greece, pt. i. ch. 18; Busolt, Griechische Geschichte, i.

CODY, WILLIAM FREDERICK (1846- ), American scout
and showman, known under the name of " Buffalo Bill," was born
in 1846 in Scott county, Iowa. He first became known as one of
the riders of the " Pony Express," a mail service established in
the spring of 1860 by the Central Overland California and Pike's
Peak Express Company to carry the mails overland from Saint
Joseph, Missouri, to Sacramento, California, a distance of 1950 m.,
by means of relays of ponies, each rider being expected to cover
about 75 m. daily. Owing to the wildness of the country and the
hostility of the Indians, both the riders and the station-keepers
led lives of great hardship and danger. The " Pony Express "
was discontinued in 1861 upon the completion of the Pacific
Telegraph company's line, and young Cody became a scout and
guide for the United States army. In 1863 he formally enlisted
in the 7th regiment of Kansas cavalry, in which he served until
the close of the Civil War. In 1867 he made a contract with the
Kansas Pacific railway to furnish its employees with buffalo
meat while the line was being extended through the wilderness,
and his name of " Buffalo Bill " was given him from this circum-
stance. In 1868-1872 he was again an army scout and guide,
serving against the Sioux and Cheyennes; and in 1872 was a
member of the Nebraska house of representatives. During the
Sioux-Cheyenne War of 1876 he served in the sth United States
Cavalry, and at the battle of Indian Creek killed the Cheyenne
chief Yellow Hand in single combat. In 1883 he organized his
" Wild West Show," a spectacular performance on a large scale,
his first European tour taking place in 1887. In the Nebraska
national guard he again served against the Sioux in 1890-1891.

CO-EDUCATION, the term applied to the instruction and
training of boys and girls, or of young people of both sexes, in
the same school or institution, in the same classes and through
the same courses of study. Examples of the thoroughgoing
application of this principle can be found in every grade of
education from the elementary school to the university. But
the term " Co-education " is sometimes used in a wider sense,
in order to include cases in which boys and girls, or young men
and young women of university age, are admitted to membership
of the same school or college but receive instruction wholly or in
part in separate classes and in different subjects. Other variable
factors in co-educational systems are the extent to which men
and women are mixed on the teaching staff, and the freedom of
intercourse permitted between pupils of the two sexes in class,
in games and in other activities of school life. In another form
of combined education (preferred by Comte, Systeme de politique
positive, iv. 266), pupils of the two sexes are taught successively
by the same teacher. By the English Board of Education, a
distinction is drawn between mixed schools and dual schools.
" Mixed schools " are those in which, for most subjects of the
curriculum, boys and girls are taught together by the same
teachers: in " dual schools " there are separate boys' and girls'
departments under a single principal, but with separate entrances,
classrooms and playgrounds for the two sexes.

History. Co-education in early times was occasional and
sporadic. For example, women were admitted by Plato to the
inner circle of the Academy on terms of equality with men.
The educational endowments of Teos provided that the professors
of literature should teach both boys and girls. It is uncertain
whether the Roman schools in classical times were attended by
both sexes. A tombstone found at Capua represents a school-
master with a boy on one side and a girl on the other. Probably

co-education was practised in country districts for economical
reasons; and also in the home schools organized by wealthier
families (Wilkins, Roman Education, pp. 42-43). At Charles the
Great's Palace School at Aachen (A.D. 782 onwards), Alcuin
taught together the young princes and their sisters, as well as
grown men and women. The Humanists of the Renaissance
made the full development of personality a chief aim of education,
and held up literary accomplishment as a desirable mark of
personal distinction both for men and women. This led to the
scholarly education of girls along with boys in the home schools
of some great families. Thus, at Mantua (1423 onwards),
Vittorino da Feltre taught Cecilia Gonzaga with her brothers
and the other boy pupils at his boarding-school; but there is no
evidence that the latter was otherwise co-educational. Luther
and other Reformers urged that girls as well as boys should be
taught to read the Bible. Hence came the tendency to co-educa-
tion of boys and girls in some elementary schools in Protestant
lands. This tendency can be traced both in Scotland and in the
northern parts of England. It is believed that, in the early days
of New England, district schools in smaller American towns were
open to boys and girls alike, but that few girls advanced beyond
reading and writing (Martin, Massachusetts Public School System,
p. 130). At Dorchester, Mass., it was left to the discretion
of the elders and schoolmen whether maids should be taught with
the boys or not; but in practice the girls seem to have been
educated apart. In 1602 the council of Ayr, Scotland, ordained
that the girls who were learning to read and write at the Grammar
School should be sent to the master of the Song School, " because
it is not seemly that sic lasses should be among the lads " (Grant,
History of the Burgh and Parish Schools of Scotland, p. 526 ff.).
Meriden, Connecticut, seems to have made common provision
for the elementary education of boys and girls in 1678. North-
ampton, Mass., did the same in 1680. Deerfield, Mass., in 1698
voted that " all families having children either male or female
between the ages of six and ten years shall pay by the poll for
their schooling " presumably in the common school.

Thus the beginnings of co-education in its modern organized
form may be traced back partly to Scotland and partly to the
United States. The co-education of boys and girls, carried
through in varying degrees of completeness, was not uncommon
in the old Endowed Schools of Scotland, and became more
frequent as increasing attention was given to the education of
girls. At the Dollar Institution, founded by John McNabb for
the benefit of the poor of the parish of Dollar and shire of Clack-
mannan (date of will, 1800), boys and girls have been educated
together in certain classes since the beginning of the school in
1 81 8. In the eastern pa rts of the United States, where the Puritan
tradition also prevailed, co-education struck firm root, and spread
chiefly for reasons of convenience and economy (Dexter, History
of Education in United States, p. 430). But throughout the west,
co-education was strongly preferred in elementary and secondary
schools and in universities on the further ground that it was
believed to be more in accordance with the democratic principle
of equal educational opportunity for the two sexes.

It should be added, however, that the leaven of Pestalozzi's
thought has worked powerfully both in Europe and America in
favour of the idea of co-education. His view was that all
educational institutions should, as far as possible, be modelled
upon the analogy of the family and of the home. At Stanz
(1798-1799) he educated together in one household boys and
girls ranging in age from five to fifteen. At Burgdorf (1799-
1804) his work was in part co-educational. At Yverdun (1804-
1825) Pestalozzi established a school for girls close to his school
for boys. The girls received instruction from some of the
masters of the boys' school, and girls and boys met at evening
worship, in short excursions and at other times.

In England, the Society of Friends have been the pioneers of
co-education in boarding schools, both for younger children
and for pupils up to fifteen or sixteen years of age. The practice
of the society, though not exclusively co-educational, has long
been favourable to co-education, either in its complete or
restricted form, as being more in harmony with the conditions

6 3 8

CO-EDUCATION

of family life. Ackworth school was established by the London
Yearly Meeting in 1779 for the education of boys and girls;
but the school has never been fully co-educational, the boys and
girls being taught separately except in a few classes. At Sidcot
school, which was founded in 1808 by the Associated Quarterly
Meetings in the west of England for the education of children of
Friends, boys and girls are taught together, except in certain
handicraft subjects. Several other co-educational schools were
founded by the Society of Friends during the first half of the igth
century.

Since that time the movement towards co-education in
secondary schools and universities has steadily gained strength
in England. It has been furthered by the diffusion of Pesta-
lozzian ideas and also by the influence of American example.
In England, private schools have made some of the most valu-
able co-educational experiments. A private boarding and day
secondary school on co-educational lines was instituted by Mr
W. A. Case in Hampstead in 1865. A co-educational boarding-
school was founded in 1869 by Miss Lushington at Kingsley near
Alton, Hants. In 1873 Mr W. H. Herford began the Ladybarn
school for boys and girls at Withington in the suburbs of Man-
chester. The passing of the Welsh Intermediate Education Act
1889 led to the establishment of a considerable number of new
mixed or dual secondary day-schools in Wales. Many English
teachers gained experience in these schools and subsequently
influenced English education. The work and writings of Mr
J. H. Badley at Bedales, Petersfield, a co-educational boarding-
school of the first grade, gave greatly increased weight to the
principle of co-education. Important additions have also been
made to the fund of co-educational experience by the King
Alfred's school (Hampstead), Keswick school, and West Heath
school (Hampstead). In 1907 a Public Co-educational Boarding
School was opened at Harpenden.

Since the Education Act 1902 became law, there has been a
rapid increase of co-educational secondary day-schools of the
lower grade, under county or borough education authorities,
in all parts of England. This increase is due to two chief causes,
viz. (i) The co-educational tradition of some of the higher
grade board schools, many of which have become secondary
schools; and (2) the economy effected by establishing one co-
educational secondary school, in place of two smaller schools for
boys and girls separately.

The idea of co-education in secondary schools has spread in
several other European countries, especially in Holland, Norway,
Sweden and Denmark. In Scandinavia, the new practice
appears to have begun with the establishment of a private higher
secondary school, the Palmgremska Samskolan, in Stockholm,
in 1876. A similar school, Nya Svenska Laroverket, was founded
upon the same model in Helsingfors, Finland, in 1880. In
Norway, the law of 1896 introduced co-education in all state
schools. In Denmark, as in Norway, co-education was begun in
private schools; on its proving a success there, it was intro-
duced into the state schools, with two exceptions; and it is now
obligatory in most state schools but optional in private schools
(J. S. Thornton, Schools Public and Private in the North of Europe,
1907, p. 97). In Holland, there is now a good deal of co-education
in lower secondary schools of the modern type. For example,
at Utrecht, the state higher burgher school provides the same
course of instruction, except in gymnastics, for boys and girls.
At Almeloo, the municipal higher burgher school, though co-
educational, differentiates the classes in several subjects. In
Belgium, France, Germany and Austria, co-education, though
frequent in elementary schools, is regarded as undesirable in
secondary; but the movement in its favour in many parts of
Germany seems to be gathering strength. All over Europe
the Roman Catholic populations prefer the older ideal of separate
schools for boys and girls.

Co-education in colleges and universities, which began at
Oberlin. Ohio, in 1833, was adopted almost without exception
by the state universities throughout the west of America from
1862 onwards. Since that time the idea has spread rapidly
throughout Europe, and the presence of women students at

universities originally confined to men is one of the most striking
educational facts of the age.

Co-education in the United Kingdom, (a) England and Wales.
The Board of Education does not possess any summary showing
the number of pupils in mixed public elementary schools or in
mixed departments of such schools. In 1901, out of 31,502
departments of public elementary schools in England and Wales,
nearly half (15,504) were mixed departments, in which boys and
girls were educated together. But as the departments were of
unequal size, it must not be inferred from this that half the
children in public elementary schools in that year (5,883,762)
were receiving co-education. Of the total number of departments
in public elementary schools in England and Wales, the per-
centage of mixed schools fell from 51-6 in 1881 to 49-4 in 1891
and 49-2 in 1901. But these percentages must not be taken to
prove an absolute decline in the number of children in mixed
departments.

In England, out of 492 public secondary schools which were
recognized by the Board of Education for the receipt of govern-
ment grant for the school year ending July 31, 1905, and which
contained 85,358 pupils, 108 schools, with 21,720 pupils, were
mixed; and 20 schools, with 8980 pupils, were dual schools.

Thus, of the total number of pupils in the secondary schools
referred to above, a little over 25% were in mixed schools, and
about 10% were in dual schools. It is not safe to assume,
however, that all the mixed schools were completely co-educa-
tional in their work, or that the dual schools were not co-
educational in respect of certain subjects or parts of the course.
It should also be remembered that, besides the secondary
schools recognized by the Board of Education for the receipt
of government grant, there is a considerable number of great
endowed secondary boarding-schools (" public schools " in the
English use of that expression) which are for boys only. There
are also at least 5000 private secondary schools, of which, in
1897 (since when no comprehensive statistical inquiry has been
made) , 970, with 26,02 7 pupils, were mixed schools. But the great
majority of the children in these mixed schools were under
twelve years of age. The number of boys and girls over
twelve years of age, in the mixed private secondary schools
which were included in the 1897 return, was only 5488.

In Wales, for the school year ending July 31, 1905, out of
84 state-aided public secondary schools, n were mixed and 44
were dual schools. The number of scholars in the Welsh schools
referred to above was 9340. Of these, 1457, or 15%, were in
mixed schools, and 5085, or 54%, were in dual schools. The
managers of dual schools in Wales have the power to arrange
that boys and girls shall be taught together in any or all the
classes; and, as a matter of fact, nearly all the dual schools
are worked as mixed schools, though they appear in these
figures under dual.

(b) Scotland. In the public elementary schools, including
the higher grade schools of Scotland, co-education is the almost
universal rule. The exceptions, which for the most part are
Roman Catholic or Episcopal Church schools, tend to diminish
year by year. In 1905, out of 3843 departments in the Scotch
public elementary and higher grade schools, 3783 were mixed.
These include the infant departments. Out of the total number of
children in the public elementary and higher grade schools, includ-
ing infants' departments, 98-43% were receiving co-education.

In the secondary schools of Scotland there has been in recent
years little perceptible movement either towards co-education
or away from it. What movement there is, favours the establish-
ment of separate secondary schools for girls in the large centres
of population. Out of 109 public secondary schools in Scotland
in 1905-1906, 29 schools were for boys only and 40 schools for
girls only. One school had- boys and girls in separate depart-
ments. In the remaining 39 schools, boys and girls were taken
together to an extent which varied with the subjects taken;
but there was nothing of the nature of a strict separation of the
sexes as regards the ordinary work of the school.

(c) Ireland. In Ireland, the percentage of pupils on the
rolls of mixed national schools (i.e. schools attended by boys and

CO-EDUCATION

6 39

girls), to the total number of pupils on the rolls of all national
schools, has slowly increased. In 1880 the percentage was
57-5; in 1898, 59-4; in 1905, 60-9.

The Commissioners of Intermediate Education in Ireland had
on their list in 1906, 38 secondary schools which were classified
by them as mixed schools. These schools were attended by
640 boys and 413 girls between 13 and 19 years of age. The
commissioners do not know to what extent the boys and girls
in these schools received instruction in the same classes. As,
however, the schools are small, they believe that in the great
majority of cases the boys and girls were taught together. In
one large school not classified as mixed, the boys (117) and girls
(60) were taught in the same classes.

Universities and University Colleges in the United Kingdom.
Women are admitted as members of the universities of London,
Durham, Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield,
Wales, Edinburgh, Aberdeen, St Andrews, Glasgow, Dublin
and the Royal University of Ireland. At Oxford and Cambridge
women are not admitted as members of the university, but by
courtesy enjoy entrance to practically all university lectures and
examinations. The social life of the men and women students
is more separate in the old than in the new universities. In no
grade of education in the United Kingdom has the principle of
co-education made more rapid advance than in the universities.
The university education of women began in London (Queen's
College 1848, Bedford College 1849, both being preceded by
classes in earlier years). The University of London in 1878
decided to accept from the crown a supplemental charter
making every degree, honour and prize awarded by the university
accessible to students of both sexes on perfectly equal terms.
By charter in 1880, the Victoria University (now broken up into
the universities of Manchester, Liverpool and Leeds) received
power to grant degrees to women as well as to men. The charter
of the university of Wales (1893) provides that " Women shall
be eligible equally with men for admittance to any degree which
our university is authorized to confer; every office created in
the university, and the membership of every authority con-
stituted by the charter shall be open to women equally with men."
In 1889 the Universities (Scotland) Act empowered the com-
missioners to make ordinances, enabling each university to admit
women in graduation in one or more faculties and to provide
for their instruction. At all the university colleges in the United
Kingdom women are educated as well as men.

United Slates. Co-education is a characteristic feature of the
educational system of the different states of the American Union.
Of elementary school pupils at least 96%, and of secondary
school pupils 95%, are in mixed schools. In 1903, out of a total
enrolment of 15,990,803 pupils in public elementary and second-
ary schools and training colleges, 15,387,734 were in schools
attended by pupils of both sexes. Out of 550,600 pupils on the
rolls of public secondary schools (high schools) in 1902, 523,300
were in co-educational schools. The same was true of 43%
of the pupils (numbering over 100,000) in private secondary
schools. In colleges and universities 62.% of all undergraduates
were in co-educational institutions, to which category thirty-four
American universities belong (U.S. Commissioner of Education,
Report for 1903, p. 2454). In America opinion is thus pre-
dominantly in favour of co-education, but there is a current of
adverse criticism, especially among some who have had experience
of school conditions in large cities.

General Review of the Question. In schools for infants and
younger children co-education is approved by all authorities.
It is increasingly favoured on educational grounds in smaller
schools for children up to 12 or 13 years of age or thereabouts.
But where elementary schools have to be large, separate depart-
ments for boys and girls are generally preferable, though mixed
schools are often established for reasons of economy. At
the other end of the educational scale, viz. in the universities,
the co-education of men and women in the same institution is
fast becoming the rule. This is due partly to the prohibitive cost
of duplicating teaching staff, laboratories, libraries and other
equipment, partly to the desire of women to qualify themselves

for professional life by passing through the same courses of
training as are prescribed for men. The degree, however, to
which social intercourse is carried on between men and women
students differs widely in the different co-educational univer-
sities. There are occasional signs, e.g. at Chicago, of a reaction
against the fullest form of academic co-education. And it is
probable that the universities will provide, among many courses
common to men and women, some (like engineering) suitable
for men only, and others (like advanced instruction in home-
science, or certain courses of professional preparation for teachers
of young children) which will rarely be attended by any but
women. Common use of the same university institutions is
compatible with much differentiation in courses of study and
with separately organized forms of collegiate life. It is with
regard to the part of education which lies between the elementary
schools and the universities that the sharpest division of opinion
upon the principle of co-education now exists. In Europe,
with the exception of Scandinavia, those who advocate co-
education of the sexes in secondary schools up to 18 or 19 years
of age are at present in a distinct minority, even as regards day
schools, and still more when they propose to apply the same
principle to boarding schools. But the application of the co-
educational principle to all schools alike is favoured by an
apparently increasing number of men and women. This move-
ment in opinion is connected with the increase in the number
of girls desiring access to secondary schools, a demand which
can most easily and economically be met by granting to girls
access to some of the existing schools for boys. The co-educa-
tional movement is also connected with a strong view of sex
equality. It is furthered by the rapidly increasing' number of
women teachers who are available for higher educational work.
Mixed secondary schools with mixed staffs are spreading for
reasons of economy in smaller towns and rural districts. In
large towns separate schools are usually recommended in pre-
ference, but much depends upon the social tradition of the
neighbourhood. Those who advocate co-education for boys
and girls in secondary schools urge it mainly on the ground of
its naturalness and closer conformity to the conditions of healthy,
unselfconscious home life. They believe it to be a protective
against uncleanness of talk and school immorality. They point
to its convenience and economy. They welcome co-education
as likely to bring with it a healthy radicalism in regard to the
older tradition of studies in boys' secondary schools. They
approve it as leading to mixed staffs of men and women teachers,
and as the most effectual way of putting girls in a position of
reasonable equality with boys in respect of intellectual and civic
opportunity. On the other hand, those who oppose co-education
in secondary schools rest their case upon the danger of the
intellectual or physical overstrain of girls during adolescence;
and upon the unequal rate of development of boys and girls
during the secondary school period, the girls being more forward
than the boys at first, but as a rule less able to work as hard
at a somewhat later stage. The critics further complain that
co-education is generally so organized that the girls' course of
study is more or less assimilated to that of the boys, with the
result that it cannot have the artistic and domestic character
which is suitable for the majority of girls. Complaint is also
made that the head of a co-educational school for pupils over
the age of 10 is usually a man, though the health and character
of girls need the care and control of a woman vested with complete
authority and responsibility. While demurring to the view that
co-education of the sexes would be a moral panacea, the critics
of the system admit that the presence of the girls would exert
a refining influence, but they believe that on the whole the boys
are likely to gain less from co-education than the girls are likely
to lose by it. In all these matters carefully recorded observation
and experiment are needed, and it may well be found that co-
education is best for some boys and for some girls, though not
for all. Temperaments and dispositions differ. Some boys seem
by nature more fitted for the kind of training generally given
to girls; some girls are by nature fitted for the kind of training
generally given to boys. The sex division does not mark off

640

COEFFETEAU COELENTERA

temperaments into two sharply contrasted groups. The intro-
duction of girls into boys' secondary schools may remove or
mitigate coarse traditions of speech and conduct where such
persist. But it would be unfortunate if stiff and pedantic
traditions of secondary education were now fixed upon girls
instead of being reconsidered and modified in the interests of
boys also. In any case, if co-education in secondary schools is
to yield the benefits which some anticipate from it, great vigil-
ance, careful selection of pupils and very liberal staffing will be
necessary. Without these securities the results of co-education
in secondary schools might be disappointing, disquieting or

even disastrous.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Plato in the Republic (v. 452-456) and Laws (vii.
804-805) argues that women should share as far as possible in educa-
tion with men. Mary Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of
Women (1792), contends that " both sexes ought, not only in private
families but in public schools, to be educated together." J. G.
Spurzheim, Principles of Education, pp. 272-288 (Edinburgh, 1821),
replies to this argument. In the Board of Education Special Reports
on Educational Subjects, vol. vi. (Wyman & Sons, 1900), J. H. Badley,
writing on The Possibility of Co-education in English Preparatory
and other Secondary Schools, is strongly in favour. " In co-education
. . . half-heartedness means failure. The more completely both
sexes can be brought together upon an equal and natural footing the
less the difficulties grow." In the Board of Education Special
Reports, vol. xi. (Wyman & Sons, 1902), Rev. Cecil Grant, writing on
Can American Education be grafted upon the English Public School
System 1 answers strongly in the affirmative ; co-education is
recommended on eight grounds: (i) Vast economy of expenditure;
(2) return to the natural s>stem; (3) discipline made easier; (4)
intellectual stimulus; (5) a better balance in instruction; (6) im-
proved manners; (7) prevention of extremes of masculinity or
Femininity; (8) a safeguard against the moral danger.

Co-education: a series of Essays (London, 1903), edited by Alice
Woods, is in favour of co-education, nine practical workers recording
their experience; this is one of the best books on the subject.
J. H. Badley's Co-education after Fifteen: its Value and Difficulties.
Child Life (London, January, 1906), is candid, judicious and practical.
M. E. Sadler in Reports on Secondary Education in Hampshire, Derby-
shire and Essex (1904, 1905 and 1906 respectively) gives details
of the curriculum of many co-educational secondary schools. In
the U.S. Commissioner of Education Report for lyoj, vol. i. pp. 1047-
1078, Anna Tolman Smith, writing on Co-education in the Schools
and Colleges of the United States, gives an historical review of the
subject with bibliography (compare bibliography in Report of U.S.
Commissioner of Education for 1900-1901, pp. 1310-1335). G.Stanley
Hall on Adolescence, its Psychology and its Relations to Physiology,
Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and Education, vol. li.
chap, xvii., on Adolescent Girls and their education (New York, D.
Appleton&Co., 1904), is strongly against co-education during adoles-
cence. In W. Rein's Encyklopadisches Handbuch der Padagogik (Lan-
gensalza, Beyer), art. " Gemeinsame Erziehung filr Knaben und
Madchen," K. E. Palmgren is in favour of co-education (vol. iii. of
2nd ed. 1905). See also W. Rein, Uber gemeinsame Erziehung von
Knaben und Madchen (Freiburg, 1903), and Bericht uber den I.
International Kongress fur Schulhygiene (Niirnberg, 1904), vol. ii.
pp. 140 ff., " Co-education in der hoheren Schulen. (M. E. S.)

COEFFETEAU, NICOLAS (1574-1623), French theologian,
poet and' historian, was born at Saint-Calais. He entered the
Dominican order and lectured on philosophy at Paris, being also
" ordinary preacher " to Henry IV., and afterwards ambassador
at Rome. In 1606 he was vicar-general of the 'congregation of
France, and received from Marie de' Medici the revenues of the
sees of Lombez and Saintes. He also administered the diocese of
Metz, and was nominated to that of Marseilles in 1621, but ill-
health obliged him here to take a coadjutor. Coeffeteau won
considerable distinction in the controversy against the Protestant
reformers and also wrote a History of Rome from Augustus to
Constantine. Many of his theological writings were collected in
one volume (Paris, 1622), and at the time of his death in 1623 he
was engaged on a translation of the New Testament which is
still in manuscript.

COEHOORN, MENNO, BARON VAN (1641-1704), Dutch
soldier and military engineer, of Swedish extraction, was born at
Leeuwarden in Friesland. He received an excellent military
and general education, and at the age of sixteen became a captain
in the Dutch army. He took part in the defence of Maastricht
in 1673 and in the siege of Grave in the same year, where the small
mortars (called coehorns) invented by him caused the French
garrison considerable trouble (Seydel, Nachrichten uber Festungs-
kriege, Leipzig, 1818). He was made a colonel for his gallant

conduct at the battle of Seneff (1674), and was present also at
the battles of Cassel (1677) and Saint Denis (1678).

The circumstances of the time and the country turned
Coehoorn's attention to the art of fortification, and the events of
the late war showed him that existing methods could no longer
be relied upon. His first published work, Versterckinge de
Vijfhoeks met alle syne Buytemverken (Leeuwarden, 1682), at once
aroused attention, and involved the author in a lively controversy
with a rival engineer, Louys Paan (Leeuwarden, 1682, 1683;
copies are in the library of the Dutch ministry of war). The
military authorities were much interested in this, and entrusted
Coehoorn with the reconstruction of several fortresses in the
Netherlands. This task he continued throughout his career;
and his experience in the work made him the worthy rival of his
great contemporary Vauban. He formulated his ideas a little
later in his chief work, Nieutve Veslingbouw op en nolle of lage
horizont, &c. (Leeuwarden, 1685), in which he laid down three
" systems," the characteristic feature of which was the multi-
plicity and great saliency of the works, which were calculated and
in principle are still eminently suited for flat and almost marshy
sites such as those of the Low Countries. He borrowed many
of the details from the works of his Dutch predecessor Freytag, of
Albrecht Diirer, and of the German engineer Speckle, and in
general he aimed rather at the adaptation of his principles to the
requirements of individual sites than at producing a geometrically
and theoretically perfect fortress; and throughout his career he
never hesitated to depart from his own rules in dealing with
exceptional cases, such as that of Groningen. Subsequent
editions of Nieuwe Veslingbouw appeared in Dutch (1702, and
frequently afterwards), English (London, 1705), French (Wesel,
1705), and German (Diisseldorf, 1709).

From 1688 to the treaty of Ryswick Coehoorn served as a
brigadier. At the battle of Fleurus he greatly distinguished
himself, and in 1692 he defended Namur, a fortress of his own
creation. Namur was taken by Vauban ; but the Dutch engineer
had his revenge three years later, when the place, on which in the
meantime Vauban had lavished his skill, fell to his attack.
Coehoorn became lieutenant-general and inspector-general of
the Netherlands fortresses, and the high- German peoples as well
as his own countrymen honoured him. He commanded a corps
in the army of the duke of Marlborough from 1701 to 1703, and
in the constant siege warfare of these campaigns in the Low
Countries his technical skill was of the highest value. The swift
reduction of the fortress of Bonn and the siege of Huy in 1 703
were his crowning successes. At the opening of his following
campaign he was on his way to confer with Marlborough when
he died of apoplexy at Wijkel on the i7th of March 1704.

His" first system " was applied to numerous places in Holland,
notably Nijmwegen, Breda and Bergen-op-Zoom. Mannheim in
Germany was also fortified in this way, while the" secondsystem "
was applied to Belgrade and Temesvar in eastern Europe.

His son, Gosewijn Theodor van Coehoorn, wrote his life (re-edited
Syperstein, Leeuwarden, 1860). See also v. Zastrow, G'schichte der
bestdndigen Befestigung (Leipzig, 1828); von Brese-Winiari, Uber
Enlstehen und Wesen der neueren Befestigungsmethode (1844);
Cosseran de Villenoisy, Essai historique sur la fortification (1869);
Mandar, Architecture des forteresses (1801); Krayenhoff, Verhande-
ling over de erste versterkingsmanier van Coehoorn (Hague, 1823):
Bosscha, Nederlandsche heldend te Land (Amsterdam, 1838) ; Dewez,
Histoire de Belgique (Brussels, 1823); Ypey, Narratio de rebus gestis
Mennonis Cohorni (1771); Hennert, Dissertation sur la fortification
permanente (1795); Bohms, Crundliche Anleitung zur Kriegsbau-
kunst (1776); Axiomatas of allgemeene bekentnisse over de Vestingh-
bouw door Menno Baron van Coehoorn, Uytgewerkt door E. W. Berg
(MS. in Dutch Ministry of War) ; Bousmard, Essai general at forti-
fication (1797); also the article FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT.

COELENTERA, a group or grade of the animal kingdom, the
zoological importance of which has risen considerably since the
time (1887) of the publication of the first article under that
heading in the Ency. Brit, (gth edit.), even though their numbers
have been reduced by the elevation of the Sponges or Porifera to
the rank of an independent Phylum under the title Parazoa
(W. J. Sollas, 1884). For the Coelentera thus restricted, the
term Enterocoela, in contrast to Coelomocoela (the old Coelo-
mata), was suggested by E. R. Lankester (1900).

COELENTERA

641

From the more complex colonial Protozoa the Coelentera are
readily separated by their possession of two distinct sets of cells,
with diverse functions, arranged in two definite layers, a
condition found in no Protozoan. The old criterion by which
they and other Metazoa were once distinguished from Protozoa,
namely, the differentiation of large and small sexual cells from
each other and from the remaining cells of the body, has been
broken down by the discovery of numerous cases of such
differentiation among Protozoa. The Coelentera, as contrasted
with other Metazoa (but not Parazoa), consist of two layers
of cells only, an outer layer or ectoderm, an inner layer or
endoderm. They have hence been described as Diploblastica.
In the remaining Metazoa certain cells are budded off at an
early stage of development from one or both of the two original
layers, to form later a third layer, the mesoderm, which lies
between the ectoderm and endoderm; such forms have therefore
received the name Triploblastica. At the same time it is necessary
to observe that it is by no means certain that the mesoderm found
in various groups of Metazoa is a similar or homologous formation
in all cases. A second essential difference between Coelentera
and other Metazoa (except Parazoa) is that in the former all
spaces in the interior of the body are referable to a single cavity
of endodermal origin, the " gastro-vascular cavity," often termed
the coelenteron: the spaces are always originally continuous
with one another, and are in almost every case permanently so.
This single cavity and its lining serve apparently for all those
functions (digestion, excretion, circulation and often repro-
duction) which in more complex organisms are distributed
among various cavities of independent and often very diverse
origin.

In the Coelentera the ectoderm and endoderm are set apart
from one another at a very early period in the life-history;
generally either by delamination or invagination, processes
described in the article EMBRYOLOGY. Between these two cell-
layers a mesogloea (G. C. Bourne, 1887) is always intercalated
as a secretion by one or both of them; this is a gelatinoid, primi-
tively structureless lamella, which in the first instance serves
merely as a basal support for the cells. In many cases, as, for
example, in the Medusae or jelly-fish, the mesogloea may be so
thick as to constitute the chief part of the body in bulk and
weight. The ectoderm rarely consists of more than one layer
of cells: these are divisible by structure and function into
nervous, muscular and secretory cells, supported by interstitial
cells. The endoderm is generally also an epithelium one cell in
thickness, the cells being digestive, secretory and sometimes
muscular. Reproductive sexual cells may be found in either of
these two layers, according to the class and sub-class in question.
The mesogloea is in itself an inert non-cellular secretion, but the
immigration of muscular and other cells into its substance,
from both ectoderm and endoderm, gives it in many cases a
strong resemblance to the mesoderm of Triploblastica, a
resemblance which, while probably superficial, may yet serve to
indicate the path of evolution of the mesoderm.

The Coelentera may thus be briefly defined as Metazoa which
exhibit two embryonic cell-layers only, the ectoderm and
endoderm, their body-cavities being referable to a single cavity
or coelenteron in the endoderm. Their position in the animal
kingdom and their main subdivisions may be expressed in the
following table:

I. PROTOZOA.

II. PARAZOA or PORIFERA.
III. METAZOA.

Ceolentera
= Diploblastica.

Triploblastica
(including Coelomata).

Hydromedusae.

Scyphozoa.

Ctenophora.

Scyphomedusae.

Anthozoa.

In the above-given classification, the Scyphomedusae, formerly
included with the Hydromedusae as Hydrozoa, are placed
nearer the Anthozoa. The reasons for this may be stated
briefly.

The HYDROMEDUSAE are distinguished from the Scyphozoa
chiefly by negative characters; they have no stomodaeum,
that is, no ingrowth of ectoderm at the mouth to form an oeso-
phagus; they have no mesenteries (radiating partitions) which
incompletely subdivide the coelenteron; and they have no
concentration of digestive cells into special organs. Their
ectodermal muscles are mainly longitudinal, their endodermal
muscles are circularly arranged on the body-wall. Their sexual
cells are (probably in all cases) produced from the ectoderm,
and lie in those radii which are first accentuated in development.
They typically present two structural forms, the non-sexual
hydroid and the sexual medusoid; in such a case there is an
alternation of generations (metagenesis), the hydroid giving rise
to the medusoid by a sexual gemmation, the medusoid bearing
sexual cells which develop into a hydroid. In some other cases
medusoid develops directly from medusoid (hypogenesis),
whether by sexual cells or by gemmation. The medusoids have
a muscular velum of ectoderm and mesogloea only.

The SCYPHOZOA have the following features in common:
They typically exhibit an ectodermal stomodaeum; partitions
or mesenteries project into their coelenteron from the body-wall,
and on these are generally concentrated digestive cells (to form
mesenterial filaments, phacellae or gastric filaments, &c.); the
external musculature of the body-wall is circular (except in
Cerianthus); the internal, longitudinal; and the sexual cells
probably always arise in the endoderm.

The SCYPHOMEDUSAE, like the Hydromedusae, ' typically
present a metagenesis, the non-sexual scyphistomoid (corre-
sponding to the hydroid) alternating with the sexual medusoid.
In other cases the medusoid is hypogenetic, medusoid producing
medusoid. The sexual cells of the medusoid lie in the endoderm
on interradii, that is, on the second set of radii accentuated in
the course of development. The medusoids have no true velum ;
in some cases a structure more or less resembling this organ,
termed a velarium, is present, permeated by endodermal canals.

The ANTHOZOA differ from the Scyphomedusae in having
no medusoid form; they all more or less resemble a sea-anemone,
and may be termed actinioid. They are (with rare excep-
tions, probably secondarily acquired) hypogenetic, the offspring
resembling the parent, and both being sexual. The sexual cells
are borne on the mesenteries in positions irrespective of obvious
developmental radii.

The CTENOPHORA are so aberrant in structure that it has been
proposed to separate them from the Coelentera altogether:
they are, however, theoretically deducible from an ancestor
common to other Coelentera, but their extreme specialization
precludes the idea of any close relationship with the rest.

As regards the other three groups, however, it is easy to
conceive of them as derived from an ancestor, represented to-day
to some extent by the planula-larva, which was Coelenterate in
so far as it was composed of an ectoderm and endoderm, and
had an internal digestive cavity (I. of the table).

At the point of divergence between Scyphozoa and Hydro-
medusae (II. of the table of hypothetical descent), we may
conceive of its descendant as tentaculate, capable of either
floating (swimming) or fixation at will like Lucernaria to-day;
and exhibiting incipient differentiation of myoepithelial cells
(formerly termed neuro-muscular cells). At the parting of the
ways which led, on the one hand, to modern Scyphomedusae, on
the other to Anthozoa (III.), it is probable that the common
ancestor was marked by incipient mesenteries and by the limita-
tion of the sexual cells to endoderm. The lines of descent II.
to Hydromedusae, and III. to Scyphomedusae represent periods
during which the hypothetical ancestors II. and III., capable of
either locomotion or fixation at will, were either differentiated
into alternating generations of fixed sterile nutritive hydroids
(scyphistomoids) and locomotor sexual medusoids, or abandoned
the power of fixation in hypogenetic cases. During the period

VI. 21

642

COELLO COELOM

represented by the line of descent III. to Anthozoa this group
abandoned its power of adult locomotion by swimming. During

Hydromedusae. Scyphomedusae. Anthozoa.

Ctcnophora ?

these periods were also attained those less important structural
characters which these three groups present to-day. (G.H.Fo.)

COELLO, ALONSO SANCHEZ (1515-1590), Spanish painter,
according to some authorities a native of Portugal, was born,
according to others, at Benifacio, near the city of Valencia.
He studied many years in Italy; and returning to Spain in 1541
he settled at Madrid, and worked on religious themes for most
of the palaces and larger churches. He was a follower of Titian,
and, like him, excelled in portraits and single figures, elaborating
the textures of his armours, draperies, and such accessories in a
manner so masterly as strongly to influence Velazquez in his
treatment of like objects. Many of his pictures were destroyed
in the fires that consumed the Madrid and Prado palaces, but
many good examples are yet extant, among which may be noted
the portraits of the infantes Carlos and Isabella, now in the
Madrid gallery, and the St Sebastian painted in the church of
San Ger6nimo, also in Madrid. Coello left a daughter, Isabella
Sanchez, who studied under him, and painted excellent portraits.

COELLO, ANTONIO (i6io?-i6s2), Spanish dramatist and
poet, was born at Madrid about the beginning of the 1 7th century.
He entered the household of the duke de Albuquerque, and after
some years of service in the army received the order of Santiago
in 1648. He was a favourite of Philip IV., who is reported to
have collaborated with him; this rumour is not confirmed, but
there is ample proof of Coello's collaboration with Calder6n,
Rojas Zorrilla, Soils and Velez de Guevara, the most dis-
tinguished dramatists of the age. The best of his original
plays, Los Empenos de seis horas, has been wrongly ascribed
to Calder6n; it was adapted by Samuel Tuke, under the title of
The Adventures of five Hours, and was described by Pepys as
superior to Othello. It is an excellent example of stagecraft
and animated dialogue. Coello died on the 2oth of October
1652, shortly after his nomination to a post in the household
of Philip IV.

COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES. In human anatomy
the body-cavity or coelom (Gr. KotXoJ, hollow) is divided into the
pericardium, the two pleurae, the peritoneum and the two tunicae
vaginales.

The pericardium is a closed sac which occupies the central
part of the thorax and contains the heart. Like all the serous
membranes it has a visceral and a parietal layer, the former of
which is closely applied to the heart and consists of endothelial
cells with a slight fibrous backing: to it is due the glossy appear-
ance of a freshly removed heart. The parietal layer is double;
externally there is a strong fibrous protective coat which is con-
tinuous with the other fibrous structures in the neighbourhood,
especially with the sheaths of the great vessels at the root of the
heart, with prolongations of the fascia of the neck, and with the
central tendon of the diaphragm, while internally is the serous
layer which is reflected from the surface of the heart, where the

great vessels enter, so that everywhere the two layers of the
serous membrane are in contact, and the only thing within the
cavity is a drop or two of the fluid secreted by the serous walls.
When the parietal layer is laid open and the heart removed by
cutting through the great vessels, it will be seen that there are
two lines of reflection of the serous layer, one common to the aorta
and pulmonary artery, the other to all the pulmonary veins and
the two venae cavae.

The pleurae very closely resemble the pericardium except that
the fibrous outer coat of the parietal layer is not nearly as strong;
it is closely attached to the inner surface of the chest walls and
mesially to the outer layer of the pericardium; above it is
thickened by a fibrous contribution from the scalene muscles,
and this forms the dome of the pleura which fits into the concavity
of the first rib and contains the apex of the lung. The reflection
of the serous layer of the pleura, from the parietal to the visceral
part, takes place at the root of the lung, where the great vessels
enter, and continues for some distance below this as the liga-
mentum latum pulmonis. The upper limit of the pleural cavity
reaches about half an inch above the inner third of the clavicle,
while, below, it may be marked out by a line drawn from the
twelfth thoracic spine to the tenth rib in the mid axillary line,
the eighth rib in the nipple line, and the sixth rib at its junction
with the sternum. There is probably very little difference in
the lower level of the pleurae on the two sides.

The peritoneum is a more extensive and complicated membrane
than either the pericardium or pleura; it surrounds the abdominal
and pelvic viscera, and, like the other sacs, has a parietal and
visceral layer. The line of reflection of these, though a con-
tinuous one, is very tortuous. The peritoneum consists of a
greater and lesser sac which communicate through an opening
known as the foramen of Winslow, and the most satisfactory way
of understanding these is to follow the reflections first in a vertical
median (sagittal) section and then
in a horizontal one, the body
being supposed to be in the up-
right position. If a median
sagittal section be studied first,
and a start be made at the
umbilicus (see fig. i), the parietal
peritoneum is seen to run upward,
lining the anterior abdominal
wall, and then to pass along the
under surface of the diaphragm
till its posterior third is reached;
here there is a reflection on to
the liver (L), forming the anterior
layer of the coronary ligament
of that viscus, while the mem-
brane now becomes visceral and
envelops the front of the liver
as far back as the transverse
fissure on its lower surface; here
it is reflected on to the stomach
(St) forming the anterior layer
of the gastro-hepatic or lesser
amentum. It now covers the
front of the stomach, and at the
lower border runs down as the
anterior layer of an apron-like
fold, the great amentum, which
in some cases reaches as low as
the pubes; then it turns up again
as the posterior or fourth layer of
the great omentum until the trans-
verse colon (C) is reached, the posterior surface of which it covers
and is reflected, as the posterior layer of the transverse meso-colon,
to the lower part of the pancreas (P) ; after this it turns down and
covers the anterior surface of the third part of the duodenum
(D) till the posterior wall of the .abdomen is reached, from
which it is reflected on to the small intestine (I) as the anterior
layer of the mesentery, a fold varying from 5 to 8 in. between its

FIG. i. Diagram of vertical
median section of Abdomen.

A, Aorta.
P, Pancreas..
I, Intestine.
R, Rectum.
L, Liver.

D, Duodenum.

B, Bladder.
St, Stomach.

C, Colon.
V, Vagina.

(The fine dots represent the
great sac of the peritoneum , the
coarse dots the lesser sac.)

COELOM

643

attachments. After surrounding the small intestine it becomes
the posterior layer of the mesentery and so again reaches the
posterior abdominal wall, down which it runs until the rectum
($) is reached. The anterior surface of this tube is covered by
peritoneum to a point about 3 in. from the anus, where it is
reflected on to the uterus and vagina (V) in the female and then
on to the bladder (B); in the male, on the other hand, the
reflection is directly from the rectum to the bladder. At the apex
of the bladder, after covering the upper surface of that organ,
it is lifted off by the urachus and runs up the anterior abdominal
wall to the umbilicus, from which the start was made. All this
is the greater sac. The tracing of the lesser sac may be con-
veniently started at the transverse fissure of the liver, whence
the membrane runs down to the stomach (St) as the posterior
layer of the lesser omentum, lines the posterior surface of the
stomach, passes down as the second layer of the great omentum
and up again as the third layer, covers the anterior surface of the
transverse colon (C) and then reaches the pancreas (P) as the
anterior layer of the transverse mesocolon. After this it covers
the front of the pancreas and in the middle line of the body
runs up below the diaphragm to within an inch of the anterior
layer of the coronary ligament of the liver; here it is reflected
on to the top of the Spigelian lobe of the liver to form the posterior
H,A. P.V. .B.D. layer of the coronary liga-

ment, covers the whole
Spigelian lobe, and so
reaches the transverse
fissure, the starting-point.
This section, therefore,
shows two completely
closed sacs without any
visible communication. In
the female, however, the
great sac is not absolutely
closed, for the Fallopian
Vic. tubes open into it by their

2. Diagram of Horizontal minute ostia abdominalia,
through upper part of 1st while at the other ends

they communicate with

FIG.
Section

Lumbar Vertebra.

A, Aorta. H.A, Hepatic Artery

Sp, Spleen. K, Kidney.
B.D, Bile duct. L, Liver.
V.C, Vena Cava. St, Stomach.
P, Pancreas. P.V, Portal Vein.

The dotting of the peritoneum
as in fig. i.

the cavity of the uterus
and so with the vagina
and exterior.

A horizontal section
' s through the upper part of
the first lumbar vertebra
will, if a fortunate one (see fig. 2), pass through the foramen
of Winslow and show the communication of the two sacs.
A starting-point may be made from the mid-ventral line and the
parietal peritoneum traced round the left side of the body wall
until the outer edge of the left kidney (K) is reached; here it
passes in front of the kidney and is soon reflected off on to the
spleen, which it nearly surrounds; just before it reaches the
hilum of that organ, where the vessels enter, it is reflected on to
the front of the stomach (St), forming the anterior layer of the
gastro-splenic omentum; it soon reaches the lesser curvature of
the stomach and then becomes the anterior layer of the lesser
omentum, which continues until the bile duct (B.D) and portal
vein (P.V) are reached at its right free extremity; here it turns
completely round these structures and runs to the left again, as
the posterior layer of the lesser omentum, behind the stomach
(St) and then to the spleen (Sp) as the posterior layer of the
gastro-splenic omentum. From the spleen it runs to the right
once more, in front of the pancreas (P), until the inferior vena
cava (V.C) is reached, and this point is just behind the portal vein
and is the place where the lesser and greater sacs communicate,
known as the foramen of Winslow. From this opening the lesser
sac runs to the left, while all the rest of the peritoneal cavity in the
section is greater sac. From the front of the vena cava the
parietal peritoneum passes in front of the right kidney (K) and
round the right abdominal wall to the mid-ventral line. The right
part of this section is filled by the liver (L), which is completely
surrounded by a visceral layer of peritoneum, and no reflection

is usually seen at this level between it and the parietal layer.
Some of the viscera, such as the kidneys and pancreas, art
retro-peritoneal; others, such as the small intestines and trans-
verse colon, are surrounded, except at one point where they are
attached to the dorsal wall by a mesentery or mesocolon as the
reflections are called; others again are completely surrounded,
and of these the caecum is an example; while some, like the liver
and bladder, have large uncovered areas, and the reflections of the
membrane form ligaments which allow considerable freedom of
movement.

The tunica vaginalis is the remains of a process of the peritoneum
(processus vaginalis) which descends into the scrotum during
foetal life some little time before the testis itself descends.
After the descent of the testis the upper part usually becomes
obliterated, while the lower part forms a serous sac which nearly
surrounds the testis, but does not quite do so. Posteriorly the
epididymis is in close contact with the testis, and here the visceral
layer is not in contact; there is, however, a pocket called the
digital fossa which squeezes in from the outer side between the
testis and epididymis. The parietal layer lines the inner wall
of its own side of the scrotum.

For a full description of the topography of the serous membranes
see any of the standard text-books of anatomy, by Gray, Quain,
Cunningham or Macalister. Special details will be found in Sir F.
Treves' Anatomy of the Intestinal Canal and Peritoneum (London,
1885); C. B. Lockwood, Hunterian Lectures on Hernia (London,
1889); C. Addison, "Topographical Anatomy of the Abdominal
Viscera in Man," Jour. Anal., vols.34,35; F. Dixon and A. Birming-
ham, Peritoneum of the Pelvic Cavity, Jour. A nat. vol. 34 p. 127 ;
W. Waldeyer, " Das Becken " (1899), and " Topographical Sketch
of the Lateral Wall of the Pelvic Cavity," Jour. Anal. vol. 32;
B. Moynihan, Retroperitoneal Hernia (London, 1899). 'A complete
bibliography of the subject up to 1895 w i'l be found in Quain's
Anatomy, vol. 3, part 4, p. 69.

Embryology. As the mesoderm is gradually spreading over
the embryo it splits into two layers, the outer of which is known
as the somalopleure and lines the parietal or ectodermal wall,

After Young and Robinson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 3. Diagram of Longitudinal Section, showing the different
areas of the Blastodermic Vesicle.

a. Pericardium. c, Ectoderm. e, Placental area.

b, Bucco-pharyngeal area. d, Entoderm.

while the inner lines the entoderm and is called the splanchno-
pleure; between the two is the coelom. The pericardia! area
is early differentiated from the rest of the coelom and at first
lies in front of the neural and bucco-pharyngeal area; here the

After Young and Robinson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.

FIG. 4. Diagram of a DevelopingOvum.seen in Longitudinal Section.

/, Spinal cord. ', Brain.

Notochord. k, Extra embryonic coelom.

Dorsal wall of alimentary canal. Other numbers as in fig. 3.

mesoderm stretches right across the mid-line, which it does not
in front and behind. As the head fold of the embryo is formed
the pericardium is gradually turned right over, so that the dorsal
side becomes the ventral and the anterior limit the posterior;
this will be evident on referring to the two accompanying
diagrams.
The two primitive aortae lie at first in the ventral wall of the

644

COEN COENACULUM

pericardium, but with the folding over they come to lie in
the dorsal wall and gradually bulge into the cavity as they
coalesce to form the heart, so that the heart drops into the dorsal
side of the pericardium and draws down a fold of the membrane
called the dorsal tnesocardium. In mammals .A. Robinson
(Jour. Anal, and, Phys., xxxvii. i) has shown that no ventral
mesocardium exists, though in more lowly vertebrates it is
present. Laterally the pericardial cavity communicates with
the general cavity of the coelom, but with the growth of the
Cuvierian ducts (see development of veins) these communica-
tions disappear. Originally the mesocardium runs the whole
length of the pericardium from before backward, but later on
the middle part becomes obliterated, and so the two separate
reflections from the parietal to the visceral layer, already noticed,
are accounted for.

Just behind the pericardium and in front of the umbilicus,
which at first are close together, the mesoderm forms a mass
which is called the septum transfer sum, and into this the develop-
ing lungs push bag-like protrusions of the coelom, consisting of
visceral and parietal layers, and these eventually lose their
connexion with the rest of the coelom, as the diaphragm develops,
and become the pleural cavities. After the pericardium and
pleurae have been separated off the remainder of the coelom
becomes the peritoneum. At first the stomach and intestine
form a straight tube, which is connected to the dorsum of the
embryo by a dorsal mesentery and to the mid-ventral wall in
front of the umbilicus by a ventral mesentery. Into the ventral
mesentery the liver grows as diverticula from the duodenum,
so that some of the mesentery remains as the falciform ligament
of the liver and some as the lesser omentum. Into the dorsal
mesentery the pancreas grows, also as diverticula, from the
duodenum, while the spleen is developed from the mesoderm
contained in the same fold. As the stomach turns over so that
its left side becomes ventral, the dorsal mesentery attached to
it becomes pulled out, in such a way that part of it forms the
great omentum and part the gastro-splenic omentum. After
the caecum is formed as a diverticulum from the intestine it is
situated close to the liver and gradually travels down into the
right iliac fossa. This passage to the right is accompanied by a
throwing over of the duodenal loop to the right, so that the right
side of its mesentery becomes pressed against the dorsal wall of
the abdomen and obliterated. This accounts for the fact that
the pancreas and duodenum are only covered by peritoneum
on their anterior surfaces in man. The formation of the lesser
sac is due to the turning over of the stomach to the right, with
the result that a cave, known sometimes as the bursa omentalis,
is formed behind it. Originally, of course, the whole colon had a
dorsal mesocolon continuous with the mesentery, but in the
region of the ascending and descending colon this usually dis-
appears and these parts of the gut arc uncovered by peritoneum
posteriorly. The transverse mesocolon persists and at first
is quite free from the great omentum, but later, in man, the two
structures fuse 1 and the fourth layer of the great omentum
becomes continuous with the posterior layer of the transverse
mesocolon.

For further details see Quain's Anatomy (London, 1908).

Comparative Anatomy. In the Amphioxus the coelom is
developed in the embryo as a series of bilateral pouches, called
enter ocoeles, from the sides of the alimentary canal; these are
therefore entodermal in their origin, as in Sagitta and the Echino-
dermata among the invertebrates. In the adult the development
of the atrium causes a considerable reduction of the coelom,
represented by two dorsal coelomic canals communicating with
a ventral canal by means of branchial canals which run down
the outer side of the primary gill bars. Into the dorsal canals
the nephridia open. In the intestinal region the coelom is only
present on the left side.

In the higher vertebrates (Craniata) the coelom is developed
by a splitting of the mesoderm into two layers, and a peri-

1 Some authorities hold that this alteration is not brought about
by fusion, but by a dragging away of the posterior layer of the great
omentum from the dorsal wall of the abdomen.

cardium is constricted off from the general cavity. In all cases
the ova burst into the coelom before making their way to the
exterior, and in some cases, e.g. amphioxus, lamprey (Cyclo-
stomata), eels and mud-fish (Dipnoi), the sperm cells do so too.
The Cyclostomata have a pair of genital pores which lead
from the coelom into the urino-genital sinus, and so to the
exterior.

In the Elasmobranch fish there is a pericardia-peritoneal canal
forming a communication between these two parts of the coelom ;
also a large common opening for the two oviducts in the region
of the liver, and two openings, called abdominal pores, on to the
surface close to the cloacal aperture. In the Teleostomi (Teleo-
stean and Ganoid fish) abdominal pores are rare, but in most
Teleostei (bony fish) the ova pass directly down oviducts, as
they do in Arthropods, without entering the peritoneal cavity;
there is little doubt, however, that these oviducts are originally
coelomic in origin. In the Dipnoi (mud-fish) abdominal pores
are found, and probably serve as a passage for the sperm cells,
since there are no vasa deferentia. In fishes a complete dorsal
mesentery is seldom found in the adult; in many cases it only
remains as a tube surrounding the vessels passing to the aliment-
ary canal.

In the Amphibia, Reptilia and Aves, one cavity acts as pleura
and peritoneum, though in the latter the lungs are not com-
pletely surrounded by a serous membrane. In many lizards
the comparatively straight intestine, with its continuous dorsal
mesentery and ventral mesentery in the anterior part of the
abdomen, is very like a stage in the development of the human
and other mammalian embryos. In the mammalia the dia-
phragm is complete (see DIAPHRAGM) and divides the pleuro-
peritoneal cavity into its two constituent parts. In the
lower mammals the derivatives of the original dorsal mesentery
do not undergo as much fusion and obliteration as they do in
adult man; the ascending and descending mesocolon is retained,
and the transverse mesocolon contracts no adhesion to the great
omentum. It is a common thing, however, to find a fenestrated
arrangement of the great omentum which shows that its layers
have been completely obliterated in many places.

In those animals, such as the rabbit, in which the tests are
sometimes in the scrotum and sometimes in the abdomen, the
communication between the peritoneum and the tunica vaginalis
remains throughout life.

For further details and literature up to 1902, see R. Wiedersheim's
Vergleichende Anatomic der Wirbeltiere (Jena, 1902). (F. G. P.)

COEN, JAN PIETERSZOON (1587-1630), fourth governor-
general of the Dutch East Indies, was born at Hoorn, and spent
his youth at Rome in the house of the famous merchants the
Piscatori. In 1607 he sailed from Amsterdam to the Indies as
second commercial agent, and remained away four years. He had
proved so capable that in 1612 he was sent out a second time at
the head of a trading expedition. In the following year he was
made a councillor and director-general of the East Indian trade.
Afterwards he became president at Bantam, and on the 3ist of
October 1617 he was promoted in succession to Laurens Reaal
to the post of governor-general. To his vigour and intrepidity
the Dutch in no small measure owed the preservation and estab-
lishment of their empire in the East. He took and destroyed
Jacatra, and founded on its ruins the capital of the Dutch East
Indies, to which he gave the name of Batavia. In 1622 Coen
obtained leave to resign his post and return to Holland, but in his
absence great difficulties had arisen with the English at Amboina
(the so-called massacre of Amboina), and in 1627 under pressure
from the directors of the East India Company he again returned
as governor-general to Batavia. In 1629 he was able to beat off
a formidable attack of vhe sultan of Mataram, sometimes styled
emperor of Java, upon Batavia. He died the following year.

COENACULUM, the term applied to the eating-room of a
Roman house in which the supper (coena) or latest meal was
taken. It was sometimes placed in an upper storey and reached
by an external staircase. The Last Supper in the New Testament
was taken in the Coenaculum, the " large upper room " cited in
St Mark (xiv. 15) and St Luke (xxii. 12).

CCENWULF CCEUR

645

CCENWULF (d. 821), king of Mercia, succeeded to the throne
in 796, on the death of Ecgfrith, son of Offa. His succession is
somewhat remarkable, as his direct ancestors do not seem to have
held the throne for six generations. In 798 he invaded Kent,
deposed and imprisoned Eadberht Pram, and made his own
brother Cuthred king. Cuthred reigned in Kent from 798 to 807,
when he died, and Ccenwulf seems to have taken Kent into his
own hands. It was during this reign that the archbishopric of
Lichfield was abolished, probably before 803, as the Hygeberht
who signed as an abbot at the council of Cloveshoe in that year
was presumably the former archbishop. Ccenwulf appears from
the charters to have quarrelled with Wulfred of Canterbury, who
was consecrated in 806, and the dispute continued for several
years. It was probably only settled at Cloveshoe in 8 2 5 , when the
lawsuit of Cwcenthryth, daughter and heiress of Ccenwulf, with
Wulfred was terminated. Ccenwulf may have instigated the
raid of ^thelmund, earl of the Hwicce, upon the accession of
Ecgberht. He died in 821, and was succeeded by his brother
Ceolwulf I.

See Earle and Plummer's edition of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,
796, 819 (Oxford, 1892); W. de G. Birch, Cartularium Saxonicum,
378 (London, 1885-1893). (F. G. M. B.)

COERCION (from Lat. coercere, to restrain) , an application of
moral or physical compulsion by which a person is forced to do or
refrain from doing some act or set of acts apart from his own
voluntary motion. Where the coercion is direct or positive, i.e.
where the person is compelled by physical force to do an act
contrary to his will, for example, when a man is compelled to
join a rebel army, and to serve as a soldier under threats of
death, his act is not legally a crime. Where the coercion is
implied, as when a person is legally under subjection to another,
the person coerced, having no will on the subject, is not responsible.
But this principle is applied only within narrow limits, and
does not extend to the command of a superior to an inferior;
of a parent to a child; of a master to his servant or a principal
to his agent. Where, however, a married woman commits a
crime in the presence of her husband, she is generally presumed
to have acted by his coercion, and to be entitled to acquittal,
but this presumption does not extend to grave crimes, nor to
those in which the principal part may be supposed to be taken by
the woman, such as keeping a brothel. In civil matters, such as
the making of a contract, where the law requires the free assent
of the person who undertakes the obligation, coercion is a ground
for invalidating the instrument.

The term " coercion " is inevitably somewhat ambiguous, and
depends on the circumstances of the case. In a political sense,
the application of the Crimes Act of 1887 to Ireland was called
" coercion " by those opposed to the English Unionist party and
government, as being special legislation differing from the
ordinary law applicable in the United Kingdom.

COJUR, JACQUES (c. 1395-1456), founder of the trade between
France and the Levant, was born at Bourges, in which city his
father, Pierre Coeur, was a rich merchant. Jacques is first heard
of about 1418, when he married Macee de Leodepart, daughter
of Lambert de Leodepart, an influential citizen, provost of
Bourges, and a former valet of John, duke of Berry. About 1429
he formed a commercial partnership with two brothers named
Godard; and in 1432 he was at Damascus, buying and bartering,
and transporting the wares of the Levant gall-nuts, wools and
silks, goats' hair, brocades and carpets to the interior of France
by way of Narbonne. In the same year he established himself
at Montpellier, and there began those gigantic operations which
have made him illustrious among financiers. Details are wanting ;
but it is certain that in a few years he placed his country in a
position to contend not unsuccessfully with the great trading
republics of Italy, and acquired such reputation as to be able,
mere trader as he was, to render material assistance to the
knights of Rhodes and to Venice herself.

In 1436 Cceur was summoned to Paris by Charles VII., and
made master of the mint that had been established in that city.
The post was of vast importance, and the duties onerous. The
country was deluged with the base moneys of three reigns, charged

with superscriptions both French and English, and Charles had
determined on a sweeping reform. In this design he was ably
seconded by the merchant, who, in fact, inspired or prepared
all the ordinances concerning the coinage of France issued
between 1435 and 1451. In 1438 he was made steward of the
royal expenditure; in 1441 he and his family were ennobled by
letters patent. In 1444 he was sent as one of the royal com-
missioners to preside over the new parlement of Languedoc,
a dignity he bore till the day of his disgrace. In 1445 his agents
in the East negotiated a treaty between the sultan of Egypt and
the knights of Rhodes; and in 1447, at his instance, Jean de
Village, his nephew by marriage, was charged with a mission
to Egypt. The results were most important; concessions were
obtained which greatly improved the position of the French
consuls in the Levant, and that influence in the East was thereby
founded which, though often interrupted, was for several
centuries a chief commercial glory of France. In the same year
Cceur assisted in an embassy to Amadeus VIII., former duke of
Savoy, who had been chosen pope as Felix V. by the council of
Basel; and in 1448 he represented the French king at the court
of Pope Nicholas V., and was able to arrange an agreement
between Nicholas and Amadeus, and so to end the papal schism.
Nicholas treated him with the utmost distinction, lodged him in
the papal palace, and gave him a special licence to traffic with the
infidels. From about this time he made large advances to Charles
for carrying on his wars; and in 1449, after fighting at the
king's side through the campaign, he entered Rouen in his train.

At this moment the great trader's glory was at its height.
He had represented France in three embassies, and had supplied
the sinews of that war which had ousted the English from
Normandy. He was invested with various offices of dignity,
and possessed the most colossal fortune that had ever been
amassed by a private Frenchman. The sea was covered with his
ships; he had 300 factors in his employ, and houses of business
in all the chief cities of France. He had built houses and chapels,
and had founded colleges in Paris, at Montpellier and at Bourges.
The house at Bourges (see HOUSE, Plate II. figs. 7 and 8) was of
exceptional magnificence, and remains to-day one of the finest
monuments of the middle ages in France. He also built there
the sacristy of the cathedral and a sepulchral chapel for his
family. His brother Nicholas was made bishop of Lugon, his
sister married Jean Bochetel, the king's secretary, his daughter
married the son of the viscount of Bourges, and his son Jean
became archbishop of Bourges. But Cceur's gigantic monopoly
caused his ruin. Dealing in everything, money and arms,
peltry and jewels, brocades and woollens a broker, a banker,
a farmer he had absorbed the trade of the country, and
merchants complained they could make no gains on account of
" that Jacquet." He had lent money to needy courtiers, to
members of the royal family, and to the king himself, and his
debtors, jealous of his wealth, were eager for a chance to cause
his overthrow.

In February 1450 Agnes Sorel, the king's mistress, suddenly
died. Eighteen months later it was rumoured that she had been
poisoned, and a lady of the court who owed money to Jacques
Cceur, Jeanne de Vend6me, wife of Francois de Montberon, and
an Italian, Jacques Colonna, formally accused him of having
poisoned her. There was not even a pretext for such a charge,
but for this and other alleged crimes the king, on the 3ist of July
1451, gave orders for his arrest and for the seizure of his goods,
reserving to himself a large sum of money for the war in Guiennc.
Commissioners extraordinary, the merchant's declared enemies,
were chosen to conduct the trial, and an inquiry began, the judges
in which were either the prisoner's debtors or the holders of his
forfeited estates. He was accused of having paid French gold
and ingots to the infidels, of coining light money, of kidnapping
oarsmen for his galleys, of sending back a Christian slave who
had taken sanctuary on board one of his ships, and of committing
frauds and exactions in Languedoc to the king's prejudice. He
defended himself with all the energy of his nature. His innocence
was manifest; but a conviction was necessary, and in spite of
strenuous efforts on the part of his friends, after twenty-two

646

CCEUR D'ALENE COFFEE

months of confinement in five prisons, he was condemned to
do public penance for his fault, to pay the king a sum equal to
about 1,000,000 of modern money, and to remain a prisoner till
full satisfaction had been obtained; his sentence also embraced
confiscation of all his property, and exile during royal pleasure.
On the sth of June 1453 the sentence took effect; at Poitiers
the shameful form of making honourable amends was gone
through; and for nearly three years nothing is known of him.
It is probable that he remained in prison; it is certain that his
vast possessions were distributed among the intimates of Charles.
In 1455 Jacques Cceur, wherever confined, contrived to escape
into Provence. He was pursued; but a party, headed by Jean
de Village and two of his old factors, carried him off to Tarascon,
whence, by way of Marseilles, Nice and Pisa, he managed to reach
Rome. He was honourably and joyfully received by Nicholas V. ,
who was fitting out an expedition against the Turks. On the
death of Nicholas, Calixtus III. continued his work, and named
his guest captain of a fleet of sixteen galleys sent to the relief
of Rhodes. Cceur set out on this expedition, but was taken
ill at Chios, and died there on the zsth of November 1456.
After his death Charles VII. showed himself well disposed to the
family, and allowed Jacques Coeur's sons to come into possession
of whatever was left of their father's wealth.

See the admirable monograph of Pierre Cle'ment, Jacques Cceur
et Charles VII (1858, 2nd ed. 1874); A. Valet de Viriville, Charles
Sept et son epoque (3 vols., 1862-1865) ; and Louisa Costello, Jacques
Cceur, the French Argonaut (London, 1847).

COEUR D'ALENE ("awl-heart," the French translatipn of
the native name skitswish), a tribe of North American Indians
of Salishan stock. The name is said to have been originally that
of a chief noted for his cruelty. The tribe has given its name
to a lake, river and range of mountains in Idaho, where on a
reservation the survivors, some 400, are settled.

COFFEE (Fr. cafe, Ger. Kaffee). This important and valu-
able article of food is the produce chiefly of Cojjea arabica,

a Rubiaceous plant indigenous
to Abyssinia, which, however,
as cultivated originally, spread
outwards from the southern
parts of Arabia. The name is
probably derived from the Arabic
K'hawah, although by some it
has been traced to Kaffa, a
province in Abyssinia, in which
the tree grows wild.

The genus Cofea, to which
the common coffee tree belongs,
contains about 25 species in the
tropics of the Old World, mainly
African. Besides being found
wild in Abyssinia, the common
coffee plant appears to be widely
disseminated in Africa, occurring
wild in the Mozambique district,
on the shores of the Victoria
Nyanza, and in Angola on the
west coast. The coffee leaf
disease in Ceylon brought into
prominence Liberian coffee (C.
liberica), a native of the west
coast of Africa, now extensively
grown in several parts of the
world. Other species of economic
importance are Sierra Leone

coffee (C. stenophylla) and Congo coffee (C. robusta), both of
which have been introduced into and are cultivated on a small
scale in various parts of the tropics. C. excelsa is another species
of considerable promise.

The common Arabian coffee shrub is an evergreen plant,
which under natural conditions grows to a height of from 18 to
20 ft., with oblong-ovate, acuminate, smooth and shining leaves,
measuring about 6 in. in length by 2 wide. Its flowers, which

FIG. i. Branch of Coffea
arabica.

are produced in dense clusters in the axils of the leaves, have a
five-toothed calyx, a tubular five-parted corolla, five stamens
and a single bifid style. The flowers are pure white in colour,
with a rich fragrant odour, and the plants in blossom have a
lovely and attractive appearance, but the bloom is very evan-
escent. The fruit is a fleshy berry, having the appearance and
size of a small cherry, and as it ripens it assumes a dark red
colour. Each fruit contains two seeds embedded in a yellowish
pulp, and the seeds are enclosed in a thin membranous endocarp
(the "parchment"). Between each seed and the parchment
is a delicate covering called the " silver skin." The seeds which
constitute the raw coffee " beans " of commerce are plano-convex
in form, the flat surfaces which are laid against each other
within the berry having a longitudinal furrow or groove. When
only one seed is developed in a fruit it is not flattened on one side,
but circular in cross section. Such seeds form " pea-berry "
coffee.

'The seeds are of a soft, semi-translucent, bluish or greenish
colour, hard and tough in texture. The regions best adapted
for the cultivation of coffee are well-watered mountain slopes
at an elevation ranging from 1000 to 4000 ft. above sea-level,
within the tropics, and possessing a mean annual temperature
of about 65 to 70 F.

The Liberian coffee plant (C. liberica) has larger leaves, flowers
and fruits, and is of a more robust and hardy constitution, than
Arabian coffee. The seeds yield a highly aromatic and well-
flavoured coffee (but by no means equal to Arabian), and the
plant is very prolific and yields heavy crops. Liberian coffee
grows, moreover, at low altitudes, and flourishes in many situa-
tions unsuitable to the Arabian coffee. It grows wild in great
abundance along the whole of the Guinea coast.

History. The early history of coffee as an economic product
is involved in considerable obscurity, the absence of fact being
compensated for by a profusion of conjectural statements and
mythical stories. The use of coffee (C. arabica) in Abyssinia was
recorded in the i jth century, and was then stated to have been
practised from time immemorial. Neighbouring countries, how-
ever, appear to have been quite ignorant of its value. Various
legendary accounts are given of the discovery of the beneficial
properties of the plant, one ascribing it to a flock of sheep
accidentally browsing on the wild shrubs, with the result that
they became elated and sleepless at night! Its physiological
action in dissipating drowsiness and preventing sleep was taken
advantage of in connexion with the prolonged religious service
of the Mahommedans, and its use as a devotional antisoporific
stirred up fierce opposition on the part of the strictly orthodox
and conservative section of the priests. Coffee by them was
held to be an intoxicating beverage, and therefore prohibited
by the Koran, and severe penalties were threatened to those
addicted to its use. Notwithstanding threats of divine retribu-
tion and other devices, the coffee-drinking habit spread rapidly
among the Arabian Mahommedans, and the growth of coffee and
its use as a national beverage became as inseparably connected
with Arabia as tea is with China.

Towards the close of the i6th century the use of coffee was
recorded by'a European resident in Egypt, and about this epoch
it came into general use in the near East. The appreciation of
coffee as a beverage in Europe dates from the I7th century.
" Coffee-houses " were soon instituted, the first being opened
in Constantinople and Venice. In London coffee-houses date
from 1652, when one was opened in St Michael's Alley, Cornhill.
They soon became popular, and the role played by them in the
social life of the 1 7 th and i Sth centuries is well known. Germany,
France, Sweden and other countries adopted them at about the
same time as Great Britain. In Europe, as in Arabia, coffee at
first made its way into favour in the face of various adverse and
even prohibitive restrictions. Thus at one time in Germany
it was necessary to obtain a licence to roast coffee. In England
Charles II. endeavoured to suppress coffee-houses on the ground
that they were centres of political agitation, his royal pro-
clamation stating that they were the resort of disaffected persons
" who devised and spread abroad divers false, malicious and

COFFEE

647

scandalous reports, to the defamation of His Majesty's govern-
ment, and to the disturbance of the peace and quiet of the
nation."

Up to the close of the iyth century the world's entire, although
limited, supply of coffee was obtained from the province of Yemen
in south Arabia, where the true celebrated Mocha or Mokka
coffee is still produced. At this time, however, plants were
successfully introduced from Arabia to Java, where the cultiva-
tion was immediately taken up. The government of Java
distributed plants to various places, including the botanic garden
of Amsterdam. The Portuguese introduced coffee into Ceylon.
From Amsterdam the Dutch sent the plant to Surinam in 1718,
and in the same year Jamaica received it through the governor
Sir Nicholas Lawes. Within a few years coffee reached the other
West Indian islands, and spread generally through the tropics
of the New World, which now produce by far the greater portion
of the world's supply.

Cultivation and Preparation for Market. Coffee plants are
grown from seeds, which, as in the case of other crops, should be
obtained from selected trees of desirable characteristics. The
seeds may be sown " at stake," i.e. in the actual positions the
mature plants are to occupy, or raised in a nursery and after-
wards transplanted. The choice of methods is usually determined
by various local considerations. Nurseries are desirable where
there is risk of drought killing seedlings in the open. Whilst
young the plants usually require to be shaded, and this may be
done by growing castor oil plants, cassava (Manihof), maize or
Indian corn, bananas, or various other useful crops between
the coffee, until the latter develop and occupy the ground.
Sometimes, but by no means always, permanent shading is
afforded by special shade trees, such as species of the coral tree
(Erythrina) and other leguminous trees. Opinions as to the
necessity of shade trees varies in different countries; e.g. in
Brazil and at high elevations in Jamaica they are not employed,
whereas in Porto Rico many look on them as absolutely essential.
It is probable that in many cases where shade trees are of ad-
vantage their beneficial .action may be indirect, in affording
protection from wind, drought or soil erosion, and, when
leguminous plants are employed, in enriching the soil in nitrogen.
The plants begin to come into bearing in their second or third
year, but on the average the fifth is the first year of considerable
yield. There may be two, three, or even more " flushes " of
blossom in one year, and flowers and fruits in all stages may
thus be seen on one plant. The fruits are fully ripe about seven
months after the flowers open; the ripe fruits are fleshy, and of
a deep red colour, whence the name of " cherry." When mature
the fruits are picked by hand, or allowed to fall of their own
accord or by shaking the plant. The subsequent preparation
may be according to (i) the dry or (2) the wet method.

In the dry method the cherries are spread in a thin layer, often
on a stone drying floor, or barbecue, and exposed to the sun.
Protection is necessary against heavy dew or rain. The dried
cherries can be stored for any length of time, and later the dried
pulp and the parchment are removed, setting free the two beans
contained in each cherry. This primitive and simple method is
employed in Arabia, in Brazil and other countries. In Brazil
it is giving place to the more modern method described below.

In the wet, or as it is sometimes called, West Indian method,
the cherries are put in a tank of water. On large estates galvan-
ized spouting is often employed to convey the beans by the help
of running water from the fields to the tank. The mature cherries
sink, and are drawn off from the tank through pipes to the pulping
machines. Here they are subjected to the action of a roughened
cylinder revolving closely against a curved iron plate. The
fleshy portion is reduced to a pulp, and the mixture of pulp and
liberated seeds (each still enclosed in its parchment) is carried
away to a second tank of water And stirred. The light pulp is
removed by a stream of water d the seeds allowed to settle.
Slight fermentation and subsequent washings, accompanied
by trampling with bare feet and stirring by rakes or special
machinery, result in the parchment coverings being left quite
clean. The beans are now dried on barbecues, in trays, &c.,

or by artificial heat if climatic conditions render this necessary.
Recent experiments in Porto Rico tend to show that if the
weather is unfavourable during the crop period the pulped coffee
can be allowed to remain moist and even to malt or sprout
without injury to the final value of the product when dried
later. The product is now in the state known as parchment
coffee, and may be exported. Before use, however, the parch-
ment must be removed. This may be done on the estate, at the
port of shipment, or in the country where imported. The coffee
is thoroughly dried, the parchment broken by a roller, and re-
moved by winnowing. Further rubbing and winnowing removes
the silver skin, and the beans are left in the condition of ordinary
unroasted coffee. Grading into large, medium and small beans,
to secure the uniformity desirable in roasting, is effected by
the use of a cylindrical or other pattern sieve, along which the
beans are made to travel, encountering first small, then medium,
and finally large apertures or meshes. Damaged beans and
foreign matter are removed by hand picking. An average yield
of cleaned coffee is from ij to 2 ft per tree, but much greater
crops are obtained on new rich lands, and under special conditions.

Production. The centre of production has shifted greatly since
coffee first came into use in Europe. Arabia formerly supplied the
world; later the West Indies and then Java took the lead, to be
supplanted in turn by Brazil, which now produces about three-
quarters of the world's supply and controls the market.

Brazil. Coffee planting is the chief industry of Brazil, and coffee
the principal export. The states of Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas
GeraesandSantos.containthechiefcoffee-producinglands. Theannual
output ranges from about 10,000,000 to 16,000,000 bags (of 120 lb
each), whilst the world's annual consumption is more or less station-
ary at about 16,000,000 bags. The overwhelming importance of the
Brazilian output is thus evident. Recently efforts havfe been made
to restrict production to maintain prices, and the Coffee Convention
scheme came into force in Sao Paulo on December I, 1906, and in Rio
de Janeiro and Minas Geraes on January I, 1907. The cultivation
in general is very primitive in character, periodical weeding being
almost all the attention the plants receive. Manuring is commonly
confined to mulches of the cut weeds and addition of the coffee husks.
New lands in Sao Paulo yield from 80 cwt. to 100 cwt. of cleaned
coffee per 1000 trees (700 go to the acre) ; the average yield, however,
is not more than 15 cwt. The plants are at their best when from
10 to 15 years old, but continue yielding for 30 years or even more.

Other South ^American Countries. Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador,
Peru, and to a much less degree Bolivia and Paraguay, produce
coffee, the annual crops of the two former countries being each of
about 1,500,000 in value.

Central America. Guatemala produces the most in this region;
the coffee estates are mainly controlled by Germans, who have
brought them to a high pitch of perfection. The crop ranges in
value from about 1,000,000 to 1,500,000 per annum. Costa Rica
and San Salvador produce about half this amount In Nicaragua,
Honduras and Panama, coffee is extensively cultivated, and all
export the product.

West Indies. Coffee is grown in most of the islands, often only
for local use. Haiti produces the largest amount, the annual value
of the crop being about 500,000. Porto Rico formerly had a
flourishing industry, but it has declined owing to various causes.
The interior is still expected to be devoted largely to coffee, and
the U.S. Department of Agriculture has carried out experiments
to improve methods and ensure the cultivation of better varieties.
Jamaica produces the famous Blue Mountain Coffee, which com-
pares favourably with the best coffees of the world, and also ordinary
or " plain grown "; the Blue Mountain is cultivated at elevations
of from 3000 to 4500 ft. Coffee usually ranks third or fourth in value
amongst the exports of the island.

Africa, the native country of the coffees,' does not now contribute
any important amount to the world's output. In Liberia, the Gold
Coast and elsewhere on the West Coast are many plantations, but
the low prices ruling of recent years have caused coffee to be neglected
for more remunerative crops. Coffee is, however, still the principal
export of Nyasaland (British Central Africa), where it was intro-
duced as recently as 1894. The area under coffee has been greatly
reduced, owing partly to more attention being paid to cotton,
partly to droughts and other causes. In Somaliland and Abyssinia
coffee cultivation is of very ancient date. Two kinds are exported,
Harrari and Habashi. The former compares favourably with Mocha
coffee. The industry could be very considerably extended. In
Natal, Rhodesia, &c., coffee is grown, but not in sufficient quantity
to supply the local demand.

Arabia. The name " Mocha " is applied generally to coffee
produced in Arabia. Turkey and Egypt obtain the best grades.
Traders from these countries go to Arabia, buy the crops on the
trees, and supervise its picking and preparation themselves. The
coffee is prepared by the " dry method."

COFFEE

India is the principal coffee-growing region in the British empire,
and produces about one-fifth of the total supply of the United
Kingdom. There are some 213,000 acres under coffee, mostly in
southern India. The official report states that the production of
coffee is restricted for the most part to a limited area in the elevated
region above the south-western coast, the coffee lands of Mysore,
Coorg.andtheMadrasdistrictsofMalabarandtheNilgiris.comprising
86% of the whole area under the plant in India. About one-half of
the whole coffee-producing area is in Mysore. In Burma, Assam
and Bombay, coffee is of minor importance. During 1904-1906
there was a reduction of the area under coffee in India by 21,554
acres.

Ceylon. The history of coffee in Ceylon is practically that of the
coffee-leaf disease (see below). The Dutch introduced Arabian
coffee in 1720, but abandoned its cultivation later. It was revived
by the British, and developed very rapidly between 1836 and 1845,
when there was a temporary collapse owing to financial crisis in the
United Kingdom. In 1880 the exports of coffee were of the value
of about 2,784,163. Ten years later they had fallen to 430,633,
owing to the ravages of the coffee-leaf disease. The output continued
to decrease, and the value of the crop in 1906 was only 17,258.
Liberian coffee, which is hardier and more resistant to disease, was
introduced, but met with only partial success.

Dutch East Indies. Coffee from this source passes under the
general name of "Java," that island producing the greatest amount;
Sumatra, Borneo and the Celebes, &c., however, also contribute.
The Java plantations are largely owned by the government. Much
of the coffee from these islands is of a high quality.

Australasia. Coffee can be cultivated in the northern territories
of Australia, but comparatively little is done with this crop; Queens-
land produces the largest amount.

Hawaii, &c. In all the islands of the Hawaiian group coffee is
grown, but nine-tenths or more is raised in Hawaii itself, the Kona
district being the chief seat of production. The exports go mostly
to the United States, and there is also a large local consumption.

Coffee thrives well also in the Philippines and Guam.

The World's Trade. The following figures, from the Year-book of
the U. S. Department of Agriculture, indicate the relative importance
of the coffee-exporting countries.

1904. 1905.

Country. Exports coffee Exports coffee

in Ib. in lb.

America

Brazil . . .

Colombia

Venezuela

Haiti ....

Salvador

Guatemala .

Mexico ....

Costa Rica .

Nicaragua

Porto Rico .

Jamaica
Asia

Dutch East Indies

British India

Singapore (port of export)
Other countries .

1,326,027,795
130,000,000
128,000,000
81,407,346
75,314,003
71,653,700
41-855-368
27,730,672
21,661,621
I5,33 ,590
5,781,440

77,168,254
36,920,464
12,367,156
216,891,567

1,431,328,038
(est.) 70,000,000
94-370,090
45,244,232
61,822,223
81,081,600
42,456,491
39,788,002
18,171,515

9,046,464

72,864,649
40,340,384

",935-034
220,132,690

Total . 2,268,109,976 2,238,581,412

In 1906 there was an increased total of 2,680, 855, 878 ft, due to
the Brazil export rising to 1,847,367,771 lb. The aggregate value of
the coffee annually entering the world's markets is about 40,000,000.

Coffee Consumption. The United States of America consume
nearly one half of all the coffee exported from the producing
countries of the world. This might of course be due merely to
the States containing more coffee-drinkers than other countries,
but the average consumption per head in the country is about
it to 12 lb per annum, an amount equalled or excelled only in
Norway, Sweden and Holland. Whilst one great branch of the
Anglo-Saxon stock is near the head of the list, it is interesting
to note that the United Kingdom and also Canada and Australia
are almost at the foot, using only about i lb of coffee per head
each year. Germany, with a consumption of about 6 to 7 lb per
person per annum uses considerably less than a quarter of the
world's commercial crop. France, about 5 lb per head, takes
about one eighth; and Austria-Hungary, about 2 lb, uses some
one-sixteenth. Holland consumes approximately as much, but
with a much smaller population, the Dutch using more per head
than any other people 14 lb to 15 lb per annum. Their taste
is seen also in the relatively high consumption in South Africa.
Sweden, Belgium and the United Kingdom, follow next in order
of total amount used.

In many tropical countries much coffee is drunk, but as it is
often produced locally exact figures are not available. The
average consumption in the United Kingdom is about 50,000,000
lb per annum; about one-fifth only is produced in the British
empire, and of this about nineteen-twentieths come from India
and one-twentieth from the British West Indies.

Coffee-leaf Disease. The coffee industry in Ceylon was ruined
by the attack of a fungoid disease (Hemileia vastatrix) known as
the Ceylon coffee-leaf disease. This has since extended its ravages
into every coffee-producing country in the Old World, and added
greatly to the difficulties of successful cultivation. The fungus
is a microscopic one, the minute spores of which, carried by the
wind, settle and germinate upon the leaves of the plant. The

FIG. 2. Coffee-leaf Disease, Hemileia vastatrix.

Part of leaf showing diseased
patches.

Cluster of uredospores.

Transverse section of a
diseased patch in the leaf
showing the hyphae of the
fungus pushing between the
leaf-cells and tapping them
for nourishment. The hy-
phae have broken through
in the upper face and

are forming a cluster of
spores.

4, Ripe uredospores.

5, A teleutospore.

6, A uredospore germinating,

the germ-tube is penetrating
the leaf.

7, Uredospore germinating.
u, Uredospore.

/, Teleutospcre.

2-7, Highly magnified.

fungal growth spreads through the substance to the leaf, robbing
the leaf of its nourishment and causing it to wither and fall.
An infected plantation may be cleansed, and the fungus in its
nascent state destroyed, by powdering the trees with a mixture
of lime and sulphur, but, unless the access of fresh spores brought
by the wind can be arrested, the plantations may be readily
reinfected when the lime and sulphur are washed off by rain.
The separation of plantations by belts of trees to windward is
suggested as a check to the spread of the disease.

Microscopic Structure. Raw coffee seeds are tough and horny
in structure, and are devoid of the peculiar aroma and taste which
are so characteristic of the roasted seeds. The minute structure
of coffee allows it to be readily recognized by means of the
microscope, and as roasting does not destroy its distinguishing
peculiarities, microscopic examination forms the readiest means
of determining the genuineness of any sample. The substance
of the seed, according to Dr Hassall, consists " of an assemblage

COFFER COFFEYVILLE

649

of vesicles or cells of an angular form, which adhere so firmly to-
gether that they break up into pieces rather than separate into
distinct and perfect cells. The cavities of the cells include, in the
form of little drops, a considerable quantity of aromatic volatile

oil, on the presence of
which the fragrance and
many of the active prin-
ciples of the berry depend "
(see fig. 3).

Physiological Action.
Coffee belongs to the medi-
cinal or auxiliary class of
food substances, being
solely valuable for its
stimulant effect upon the
nervous and vascular sys-
tem. It produces a feeling
of buoyancy and exhilara-
tion comparable to a

FIG. 3. Microscopic structure of
Coffee.

certain stage of alcoholic
intoxication, but which
does not end in depression
or collapse. It increases the frequency of the pulse, lightens the
sensation of fatigue, and it sustains the strength under prolonged
and severe muscular exertion. The value of its hot infusion under
the rigours of Arctic cold has been demonstrated in the experience
of all Arctic explorers, and it is scarcely less useful in tropical
regions, where it beneficially stimulates the action of the skin.

The physiological action of coffee mainly depends on the pre-
sence of the alkaloid caffeine, which occurs also in tea, Paraguay
tea, and cola nuts, and is very similar to theobromine, the active
principle in cocoa. The percentage of caffeine present varies
in the different species of Cojfea. In Arabian coffee it ranges
from about 0-7 to 1-6%; in Liberian coffee from i-o to 1-5%.
Sierra Leone coffee (C. stenophylld) contains from 1-52 to 1-70%;
in C. excelsa 1-89% is recorded, and as much as 1-97% in C.
canephora. Four species have been shown by M. G. Bertrand
to contain no caffeine at all, but instead a considerable quantity
of a bitter principle. All these four species are found only in
Madagascar or the neighbouring islands. Other coffees grown
there contain caffeine as usual. Coffee, with the caffeine ex-
tracted, has also been recently prepared for the market. The
commercial value of coffee is determined by the amount of the
aromatic oil, caffeone, which develops in it by the process of
roasting. By prolonged keeping it is found that the richness of
any seeds in this peculiar oil is increased, and with increased
aroma the coffee also yields a blander and more mellow beverage.
Stored coffee loses weight at first with great rapidity, as much as
8% having been found to dissipate in the first year of keeping,
5% in the second, and 2% in the third; but such loss of weight
is more than compensated by improvement in quality and con-
sequent enhancement of value.

Roasting. In the process of roasting, coffee seeds swell up by
the liberation of gases within their substance, their weight
decreasing in proportion to the extent to which the operation
is carried. Roasting also develops with the aromatic caffeone
above alluded to a bitter soluble principle, and it liberates a
portion of the caffeine from its combination with the caffetannic
acid. Roasting is an operation of the greatest nicety, and one,
moreover, of a crucial nature, for equally by insufficient and by
excessive roasting much of the aroma of the coffee is lost; and
its infusion is neither agreeable to the palate nor exhilarating
in its influence. The roaster must judge of the amount of heat
required for the adequate roasting of different qualities, and while
that is variable, the range of roasting temperature proper for
individual kinds is only narrow. In continental countries it is
the practice to roast in small quantities, and thus the whole
charge is well under the control of the roaster; but in Britain
large roasts are the rule, in dealing with which much difficulty
is experienced in producing uniform torrefaction, and in stopping
the process at the proper moment. The coffee-roasting apparatus
is usually a malleable iron cylinder mounted to revolve over the

fire on a hollow axle which allows the escape of gases generated
during torrefaction. Theroastingof coffee should be dont as short
a time as practicable before the grinding for use, and as ground
coffee especially parts rapidly with its aroma, the grinding should
only be done when coffee is about to be prepared.

Adulteration. Although by microscopic, physical and chemical
tests the purity of coffee can be determined with perfect certainty,
yet ground coffee is subjected to many and extensive adultera-
tions (see also ADULTERATION). Chief among the adulterant
substances, if it can be so called, is chicory; but it occupies a
peculiar position, since very many people on the European
continent as well as in Great Britain deliberately prefer a mixture
of chicory with coffee to pure coffee. Chicory is indeed destitute
of the stimulant alkaloid and essential oil for which coffee is
valued; but the facts that it has stood the test of prolonged and
extended use, and that its infusion is, in some localities, used
alone, indicate that it performs some useful function in connexion
with coffee, as used at least by Western communities. For one
thing, it yields a copious amount of soluble mattei in infusion
with hot water, and thus gives a specious appearance of strength
and substance to what maybe really only a very weak preparation
of coffee. The mixture of chicory with coffee is easily detected
by the microscope, the structure of both, which they retain
after torrefaction, being very characteristic and distinct. The
granules of coffee, moreover, remain hard and angular when mixed
with water, to which they communicate but little colour; chicory,
on the other hand, swelling up and softening, yields a deep brown
colour to water in which it is thrown. The specific gravity of
an infusion of chicory is also much higher than that of coffee.
Among the numerous other substances used to adulterate coffee
are roasted and ground roots of the dandelion, carrot, parsnip
and beet; beans, lupins and other leguminous seeds; wheat,
rice and various cereal grains; the seeds of the broom, fenugreek
and iris; acorns; " negro coffee," the seeds of Cassia occidentalis,
the seeds of the ochro (Hibiscus esculentus) , and also the soja
or soy bean (Glycine Soya). Not only have these with many
more similar substances been used as adulterants, but under
various high-sounding names several of them have been introduced
as substitutes for coffee; but they have neither merited nor
obtained any success, and their sole effect has been to bring
coffee into undeserved disrepute with the public.

Not only is ground coffee adulterated, but such mixtures as
flour, chicory and coffee, or even bran and molasses, have been
made up to simulate coffee beans and sold as such.

The leaves of the coffee tree contain caffeine in larger propor-
tion than the seeds themselves, and their use as a substitute for
tea has frequently been suggested. The leaves are actually so
used in Sumatra, but being destitute of any attractive aroma
such as is possessed by- both tea and coffee, the infusion is not
palatable. It is, moreover, not practicable to obtain both seeds
and leaves from the same plant, and as the commercial demand
is for the seed alone, no consideration either of profit or of any
dietetic or economic advantage is likely to lead to the growth of
coffee trees on account of their leaves. (A. B. R.; W. G. F.)

COFFER (Fr. coffre, O. Fr. cofre or cofne, Lat. cophinus, cf.
" coffin "), in architecture, a sunk panel in a ceiling or vault;
also a casket or chest in which jewels or precious goods were kept,
and, if of large dimensions, clothes. The marriage coffers in Italy
were of exceptional richness in their carving and gilding and
were sometimes painted by great artists.

COFFERDAM, in engineering. To enable foundations (q.v.)
to be laid in a site which is under water, the engineer sometimes
surrounds it with an embankment or dam, known as a cofferdam,
to form an enclosure from which the water is excluded. Where
the depth of water is small and the current slight, simple clay
dams may be used, but in general cofferdams consist of two rows
of piles, the space between which is packed with clay puddle.
The dam must be sufficiently strong to withstand the exterior
pressure to which it is exposed when the enclosed space is
pumped dry.

COFFEYVILLE, a city of Montgomery county, Kansas, U.S.A.,
on the Verdigris river, about 150 m. S. of Topeka and near the

650

COFFIN COGERS HALL

southern boundary of the state. Pop. (1890) 2282; (1900)
4953, of whom 803 were negroes; (1905) 13,196; (1910) 12,687.
Coffeyville is served by the Missouri Pacific, the Atchison,
Topeka & Santa F6, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the
Saint Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railways, and by inter-
urban electric railway to Independence. It is in the Kansas
natural-gas field, ships large quantities of grain, and has a large
zinc oxide smelter and a large oil refinery, and various manu-
factures, including vitrified brick and tile, flour, lumber,
chemicals, window glass, bottles, pottery and straw boards.
The municipality owns and operates its water-works and electric
lighting plant. Coffeyville, named in honour of A. M. Coffey,
who was a member of the first legislature of the territory of
Kansas, was founded in 1869, but in 1871 it was removed about
i m. from its original site, now known as " old town." It was
incorporated as a city of the third class in 1872 and received
a new charter in 1887. Coffeyville became a station on the
Leavenworth, Lawrence & Galveston railway (now part of the
Atchison, .Topeka & Santa Fe), and for several years large
numbers of cattle were driven here from Indian Territory and
Texas for shipment; in fact, the city's chief importance was
as a trade centre for the north part of Indian Territory until
natural gas was found here in large quantities in 1892.

COFFIN (from Lat. cophinus, Gr. Kofrvos, a. coffer, chest or
basket, but never meaning " coffin " in its present sense), the
receptacle in which a corpse is confined. The Greeks and Romans
disposed of their dead both by burial and by cremation. Greek
coffins varied in shape, being in the form of an urn, or like the
modern coffins, or triangular, the body being in a sitting posture.
The material used was generally burnt clay, and in some cases
this had obviously been first moulded round the body, and so
baked. Cremation was the commonest method of disposing of
the dead among the Romans, until the Christian era, when stone
coffins came into use. Examples of these have been frequently
dug up in England. In 1853, during excavations for the founda-
tions of some warehouses in Hayden Square, Minories, London,
a Roman stone coffin was found within which was a leaden
shell. Others have been found at Whitechapel, Stratford-le-Bow,
Old Kent Road and Battersea Fields, and in great numbers at
Colchester, York, Southfleet and Kingsholme near Gloucester.
In early England stone coffins were only used by the nobles and
the wealthy. Those of the Romans who were rich enough had
their coffins made of a limestone brought from Assos in Troas,
which it was commonly believed " ate the body "; hence arose
the name sarcophagus (q.v.).

The coffins of the Chaldaeans were generally clay urns with the
top left open, resembling immense jars. These, too, must have
been moulded round the body, as the size of the mouth would not
admit of its introduction after the clay was baked. The Egyptian
coffins, or sarcophagi, as they have been improperly called, are
the largest stone coffins known and are generally highly polished
and covered with hieroglyphics, usually a history of the deceased.
Mummy chests shaped to the form of the body were also used.
These were made of hard wood or papier macht painted, and like
the stone coffins bore hieroglyphics. The Persians, Parthians,
Medes and peoples of the Caspian are not known to have had any
coffins, their usual custom being to expose the body to be devoured
by beasts and birds of prey. Unhewn flat stones were sometimes
used by the ancient European peoples to line the grave. One
was placed at the bottom, others stood on their edges to form
the sides, and a large slab was put on top, thus forming a rude
cist. In England after the Roman invasion these rude cists
gave place to the stone coffin, and this, though varying much in
shape, continued in use until the i6th century.
The most primitive wooden coffin was formed of a tree-trunk
split down the centre, and hollowed out. The earliest specimen
of this type is in the Copenhagen museum, the implements found
in it proving that it belonged to the Bronze Age. This type of
coffin, more or less modified by planing, was used in medieval
Britain by those of the better classes who could not afford stone,
but the poor were buried without coffins, wrapped simply in
cloth or even covered only with hay and flowers. Towards the

end of the I7th century, coffins became usual for all classes. It
is worth noting that in the Burial Service in the Book of Common
Prayer the word " coffin " is not used.

Among the American Indians some tribes, e.g. the Sacs', Foxes
and Sioux, used rough hewn wooden coffins; others, such as the
Seris, sometimes enclosed the corpse between the carapace and
plastron of a turtle. The Seminoles of Florida used no coffins,
while at Santa Barbara, California, canoes containing corpses
have been found buried though they may have been intended
for the dead warrior's use in the next world. Rough stone cists,
too, have been found, especially in Illinois and Kentucky. In
their tree and scaffold burial the Indians sometimes used wooden
coffins, but oftener the bodies were simply wrapped in blankets.
Canoes mounted on a scaffold near a river were used as coffins
by some tribes, while others placed the corpse hi a canoe or
wicker basket and floated them out into the stream or lake
(see FUNERAL RITES). The aborigines of Australia generally
used coffins of bark, but some tribes employed baskets of wicker-
work.

Lead coffins were used in Europe in the middle ages, shaped
like the mummy chests of ancient Egypt. Iron coffins were
more rare, but they were certainly used in England and Scotland
as late as the i7th century, when an order was made that upon
bodies so buried a heavier burial fee should be levied. The
coffins used in England to-day are generally of elm or oak lined
with lead, or with a leaden shell so as to delay as far as possible
the 'process of disintegration and decomposition. In America
glass is sometimes used for the lids, and the inside is lined with
copper or zinc. The coffins of France and Germany and the
continent generally, usually differ from those of England in not
being of the ordinary hexagonal shape but having sides and ends
parallel. Coffins used in cremation throughout the civilized
world are of some light material easily consumed and yielding
little ash. Ordinary thin deal and papier mache are the favourite
materials. Coffins for what is known as Earth to Earth Burial
are made of wicker-work covered with a thin layer of papier
machi over cloth.

See also FUNERAL RITES; CREMATION; BURIAL AND BURIAL
ACTS; EMBALMING; MUMMY, &c.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Dr H. C. Yarrow, " Study of the Mortuary
Customs of the North American Indians," Report of Bureau oj
Amer. Ethnol. vol. i. (Washington.U.S.A., 1881) ; Rev. Thomas Hugo,
" On the Hayden Square Sarcophagus," Journ. of Archaeol. Soc.
vol. ix. (London, 1854) ; C. V. Creagh, " On Unusual Forms of Burial
by People of the East Coast of Borneo," J.A.I, vol. xxvi. (London,
1896-1897) ; Rev. J. Edward Vaux, Church Folk-lore (1894).

COG. (i) (From an older cogge, a word which appears in
various forms in Teutonic languages, as in O. Ger. kogge or
kocke, and also in Romanic, as in O. Fr. cogue, or coque, from
which the Eng. " cock-boat " is derived; the connexion between
the Teutonic and the Romanic forms is obscure), a broadly built,
round-shaped ship, used as a trader and also as a ship of war
till the 1 5th century. (2) (A word of obscure origin, possibly
connected with Fr. cache, and Ital. cocca, a notch; the Celtic
forms cog and cocas come from the English), a tooth in a series
of teeth, morticed on to, or cut out of the circumference of a
wheel, which works with the tooth in a corresponding series
on another wheel (see MECHANICS). (3) (Also of quite obscure
origin), a slang term for a form of ch'eating at dice. The early
uses of the word show that this was done not by " loading "
the dice, as the modern use of the expression of " cogged dice "
seems to imply, but by sleight of hand in directing the fall or in
changing the dice.

COGERS HALL, a London tavern debating society. It was
instituted in 1755 at the White Bear Inn (now St Bride's Tavern),
Fleet Street, moved about 1850 to Discussion Hall, Shoe Lane,
and in 1871 finally migrated to the Barley Mow Inn, Salisbury
Square, E.G., its present quarters. The name is often wrongly
spelt Codgers and Coggers; the " o " is really long, the accepted
derivation being from Descartes' Cogito, ergo sum, and thus
meaning " The society of thinkers." The aims of the Cogers
were " the promotion of the liberty of the subject and the
freedom of the Press, the maintenance of loyalty to the laws,

COGHLAN COHN, F. J.

651

the rights and claims of humanity and the practice of public
and private virtue." Among its early members Cogers Hall
reckoned John Wilkes, one of its first presidents, and Curran, who
in 1773 writes to a friend that he spent a couple of hours every
night at the Hall. Later Dickens was a prominent member.

See Peter Rayleigh, History of Ye Anlient Society of Cogers
(London, 1904).

COGHLAN, CHARLES FRANCIS (1841-1809), Irish actor,
was born in Paris, and was educated for the law. He made his
first London appearance in 1860, and became the leading actor
at the Prince of Wales's. He went to America in 1876, where
he remained for the rest of his life, playing first in Augustin
Daly's company and then in the Union Square stock company,
during the long run of The Celebrated Case. He also played with
his sister, and in support of Mrs Langtry and Mrs Fiske, and in
1898 produced a version of Dumas' Kean, called The Royal Box,
in which he successfully starred during the last years of his life.
He died in Galveston, Texas, on the 27th of November 1899.

His sister, the actress ROSE COGHLAN (1853- ), went to
America in 1871, was again in England from 1873 to 1877,
playing with Barry Sullivan, and then returned to America,
where she became prominent as Countess Zicka in Diplomacy,
and Stephanie in Forget-me-not. She was at Wallack's almost
continuously until 1888, and subsequently appeared in melo-
drama in parts like the title-role of The Sporting Duchess.

COGNAC, a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Charente, on the left
bank of the river Charente, 32 m. W. of Angouleme on the
Ouest-Etat railway, between Angouleme and Saintes. Pop. (1906)
18,389. The streets of the old town which borders the river
are narrow and tortuous, but the newer parts are well provided
with open spaces. The chief of these is the beautiful Pare
Frangois I er overlooking the Charente. In one of the squares
there is a statue of Francis I., who was born here. The chief
building is a church of the 1 2th century dedicated to St Leger,
which preserves a fine Romanesque facade and a tower of the
1 5th century. A castle of the i5th and i6th centuries, once the
residence of the counts of Angouleme, now a storehouse for
brandy, and a medieval gate stand in the older part of the
town. Cognac is the seat of a subprefect and has tribunals of
first instance and of commerce, a council of trade arbitrators,
a chamber of commerce, and consulates of the United States,
Spain and Portugal. Its most important industry is the distil-
lation of the brandy (q.v.) to which the town gives its name.
Large quantities are carried, by way of the river, to the neigh-
bouring port of Tonnay-Charente. The industries subsidiary
to the brandy trade, such as the making of cases and bottles,
occupy many hands. Ironware is also manufactured, and a
considerable trade is maintained in grain and cattle. In 1526
Cognac gave its name to a treaty concluded against Charles V.
by Francis I., the pope, Venice and Milan. Its possession was
contested during the wars of rtligion, and in 1570 it became one
of the Huguenot strongholds. In 1651 it successfully sustained
a siege against Louis II., prince of Conde, leader of the Fronde.

See Le Pays du Cognac, by L. Ravaz, for a description of the
district and its viticulture.

COGNITION (Latin cognitio, from cognoscere, to become
acquainted with), in psychology, a term used in its most general
sense for all modes of being conscious or aware of an object,
whether material or intellectual. It is an ultimate mode of
consciousness, strictly the presentation (through sensation or
otherwise) of an object to consciousness; in its complete form,
however, it seems to involve a judgment, i.e. the separation
from other objects of the object presented. The psychological
theory of cognition takes for granted the dualism of the mind
that knows and the object known; it takes no account of the
metaphysical problem as to the possibility of a relation between
the ego and the non-ego, but assumes that such a relation does
exist. Cognition is therefore distinct from emotion and conation ;
it has no psychological connexion with feelings of pleasure and
pain, nor does it tend as such to issue in action.

For the analysis of cognition-reactions see O. Kiilpe, Outlines of

Psychology (Eng. trans., 1895), pp. 411 foil.; E. B. Titchener,
Experimental Psychology (1905), it. 187 foil. On cognition gener-
ally, G. F. Stout's Analytic Psychology and Manual of Psychology,
W. James's Principles of Psychology (1890), i. 216 foil.; also article
PSYCHOLOGY.

COGNIZANCE (Lat. cognoscere, to know), knowledge, notice,
especially judicial notice, the right of trying or considering a
case judicially, the exercise of jurisdiction by a court of law.
In heraldry a " cognizance " is an emblem, badge or device,
used as a distinguishing mark by the body of retainers of a
royal or noble house.

COHEN (Hebrew for " priest "), a Jewish family name,
implying descent from the ancient Hebrew priests. Many
families claiming such descent are, however, not named Cohen.
Other forms of the name are Cohn, Cowen, Kahn.

See J. Jacobs, Jewish Encyclopedia, iv. 144.

COHN, FERDINAND JULIUS (1828-1898), German botanist,
was bom on the 24th of January 1828 at Breslau. He was
educated at Breslau and Berlin, and in 1859 became extra-
ordinary, and in 1871 ordinary, professor of botany at Breslau
University. He had a remarkable career, owing to his Jewish
origin. He was contemporary with N. Pringsheim, and worked
with H. R. Goeppert, C. G. Nees von Esenbeck, C. G. Ehrenberg
and Johannes Mtiller. At an early date he exhibited astonishing
ability with the microscope, which he did much to improve, and
his researches on cell-walls and the growth and contents of
plant-cells soon attracted attention, especially as he made
remarkable advances in the establishment of an improved cell-
theory, discovered the cilia in, and analysed the movements of,
zoospores, and pointed out that the protoplasm of the plant-cell
and the sarcode of the zoologists were one and the same physical
vehicle of life. Although these early researches were especially
on the Algae, in which group he instituted marked reforms of the
rigid system due to F. T. Kutzing, Cohn had already displayed
that activity in various departments which made him so famous
as an all-round naturalist, his attention at various times being
turned to such varied subjects as Aldorovanda, torsion in trees,
the nature of waterspouts, the effects of lightning, physiology
of seeds, the proteid crystals in the potato, which he discovered,
the formation of travertin, the rotatoria, luminous worms, &c.

It is, however, in the introduction of the strict biological and
philosophical analysis of the life-histories of the lower and most
minute forms of life that Cohn's greatest achievements consist,
for he applied to these organisms the principle that we can only
know the phases of growth of microscopic plants by watching
every stage of development under the microscope, just as we
learn how different are the youthful and adult appearances of
an oak or a fern by direct observation. The success with which .
he attempted and carried out the application of cultural and
developmental methods on the Algae, Fungi and Bacteria can
only be fully appreciated by those familiar with the minute size
and elusive evolutions of these organisms, and with the limited
appliances at Cohn's command. Nevertheless his account of
the life-histories of Protococcus (1850), Stephanosphaera (1852),
Vohox (1856 and 1875), Hydrodictyon (1861), and Sphaeroplea
(1855-1857) among the Algae have never been put aside. The
first is a model of what a study in development should be; the
last shares with G. Thuret's studies on Fucus and Pringsheim 's
on Vaucheria, the merit of establishing the existence of a sexual
process in Algae. Among the Fungi Cohn contributed important
researches on Pilobolus (1851), Empusa (1855), Tarichium (1869),
as well as valuable work on the nature of parasitism of Algae
and Fungi.

It is as the founder of bacteriology that Cohn's most striking
claims to recognition will be established. He seems to have
been always attracted particularly by curious problems of
fermentation and coloration due to the most minute forms of
life, as evinced by his papers on Monas prodigiosa (1850) and
" Uber blutahnliche Farbungen " (1850), on infusoria (1851
and 1852), on organisms in drinking-water (1853), " Die Wunder
des Blutes " (1854), and had already published several works on
insect epidemics (1869-1870) and on plant diseases, when his
first specially bacteriological memoir (Crenothrix) appeared in

652

COHN, G. COIMBATORE

the journal, BeUrage zur Biologie, which he then started (1870-
1871), and which has since become so renowned. Investigations
on other branches of bacteriology soon followed, among which
" Organismen der Pockenlymphe " (1872) and " Untersuchungen
iiber Bacterien " (1872-1875) are most important, and laid the
foundations of the new department of science which has now
its own laboratories,' literature and workers specially devoted
to its extension in all directions. When it is remembered that
Cohn brought out and helped R. Koch in publishing his celebrated
paper on Anthrax (1876), the first clearly worked out case of a
bacterial disease, the significance of his influence on bacteriology
becomes apparent.

Among his most striking discoveries during his studies of the
forms and movements of the Bacteria may be mentioned the
nature of Zoogloea, the formation and germination of true spores
which he observed for the first time, and which he himself
discovered in Bacillus subtilis and their resistance to high
temperatures, and the bearing of this on the fallacious experi-
ments supposed to support abiogenesis; as well as works on
the bacteria of air and water, the significance of the bright
sulphur granules in sulphur bacteria, and of the iron oxide
deposited in the walls of Crenothrix. His discoveries in these and
in other departments all stand forth as mementoes of his acute
observation and reasoning powers, and the thoughtful (in every
sense of the word) consideration of the work of others, and
suggestive ideas attached to his principal papers, bear the same
characteristics. If we overcome the always difficult task of
bridging in imagination the interval between our present plat-
form of knowledge and that on which bacteriologists stood in,
say, 1870, we shall not undervalue the important contributions
of Cohn to the overthrow of the then formidable bugbear known
as the doctrine of " spontaneous generation," a dogma of despair
calculated to impede progress as much in its day as that of
" vitalism " did in other periods. Cohn had also clear percep-
tions of the important bearings of Mycology and Bacteriology
in infective diseases, as shown by his studies in insect-killing
fungi, microscopic analysis of water, &c. He was a foreign
member of the Royal Society and of the Linnean Society, and
received the gold medal of the latter in 1895. He died at Breslau
on the 25th of June 1898.

Lists of his papers will be found in the Catalogue of Scientific
Papers of the Royal Society, and in Ber. d. d. bot. Gesellsch., 1899,
vol. xvii. p. (196). The latter also contains (p. (172)) a full memoir by
F. Rosen. (H. M. W.)

COHN, GUSTAV (1840- ), German economist, was born
on the i2th of December 1840 at Marienwerder, in West Prussia.
He was educated at Berlin and Jena universities. In 1869 he
obtained a post at the polytechnic in Riga, and in 1875 was
elected a professor at the polytechnic at Zurich. In 1873 he
went to England for a period of study, and as a result published
his Untersuchungen iiber die englische Eisenbahnpolitik (Leipzig,
1874-1875). In 1884 he was appointed professor of political
science at Gottingen. Cohn's best-known works are System der
Nationalokonomie (Stuttgart, i&8$);'Finanzwissenschaft (1889);
Nationalokonomische Studien (1886), and Zur Geschichte und
Politik des Verkehrswesens (1900).

COHOES, a city of Albany county, New York, U.S.A., about
9 m. N. of Albany, at the confluence of the Mohawk and Hudson
rivers. Pop. (1890) 22,509; (1900) 23,910, of whom 7303
were foreign-born; (1910) 24,709. It is served by the New
York Central & Hudson River and the Delaware & Hudson
railways, by electric lines to Troy and Albany, and by the Erie
and Champlain canals. It is primarily a manufacturing city.
Hosiery and knit goods, cotton cloth, cotton batting, shoddy,
underwear and shirts and collars are the principal products,
but there are also extensive valve works and manufactories of
pulp, paper and paper boxes, beer, pins and needles, tools and
machinery, and sash, doors and blinds. The value of the factory
products in 1905 was $10,289, 822, of which $4,126,873, or 40-1%,
was the value of hosiery and knit goods, Cohoes ranking fifth
among the cities of the United States (of 20,000 inhabitants or
more) in this industry, and showing a higher degree of specializa-

tion in it than any other city in the United States except Little
Falls, N.Y. The Falls of the Mohawk, which furnish power for
the majority of the manufacturing establishments, are 75 ft.
high and 900 ft. broad, a large dam above the falls storing the
water, which is conveyed through canals to the mills. Below the
falls the river is crossed by two fine iron bridges. The city has
a public library, a normal training school and the St Bernard's
(Roman Catholic) Academy. Cohoes was a part of the extensive
manorial grant made to Killian Van Rensselaer in 1629 and it
was probably settled very soon afterwards. It was incorporated
as a village in 1848 and was chartered as a city in 1870.

COHORT (Lat. cohors), originally a place enclosed: in the
Roman army, the name of a unit of infantry. The troops of
the first grade, the legions, were divided into cohorts, of which
there were ten in each legion: the cohort thus contained 600
men. Among the troops of the second grade (the auxtiia) the
cohorts were independent foot regiments 500 or 1000 strong,
corresponding to the aloe, which were similar regiments of
cavalry; they were generally posted on the frontiers of the
Empire in small forts of four to eight acres, each holding one
cohort or ala. The special troops of Rome itself, the Praetorian
Guard, the Urbanae Cohortes, and the Vigiles (fire brigade),
were divided into cohorts (see further ROMAN ARMY). The
phrase cohors praetoria or cohors amicorum was sometimes used,
especially during the Roman republic, to denote the suite of the
governor of a province; hence developed the Praetorian cohorts
which formed the emperor's bodyguard.

In biology, " cohort " is a term for a group of allied orders or
families of plants or animals.

COIF (from Fr. coiffe, Ital. cuffia, a cap), a close-fitting covering
for the head. Originally it was the name given to a head-cover-
ing worn in the middle ages, tied like a night-cap under the chin,
and worn out of doors by both sexes; this was later worn by
men as a kind of night-cap or skull-cap. The coif was also a
close-fitting cap of white lawn or silk, worn by English serjeants-
at-law as a distinguishing mark of their profession. It became
the fashion to wear on the top of the white coif a small skull-cap
of black silk or velvet; and on the introduction of wigs at the
end of the I7th century a round space was left on the top of the
wig for the display of the coif, which was afterwards covered
by a small patch of black silk edged with white (see A. Pulling,
Order of the Coif, 1897). The random conjecture of Sir H.
Spelman (Glossarium archaiologicum) that the coif was originally
designed to conceal the ecclesiastical tonsure has unfortunately
been quoted by annotators of Blackstone's Commentaries as
well as by Lord Campbell in his Lives of the Chief Justices. It
may be classed with the curious conceit, recorded in Brand's
Popular Antiquities, that the coif was derived from the child's
caul, and was worn on the advocate's head for luck.

COIMBATORE, a city and district of British India, in the
Madras presidency. The city is situated on the left bank of the
Noyil river, 305 m. from Madras by the Madras railway. In
1901 it had a population of 53,080, showing an increase of 14%
in the decade. The city stands 1437 ft. above sea-level, is well
laid out and healthy, and is rendered additionally attractive
to European residents by its picturesque position on the slopes
of the Nilgiri hills. It is an important industrial centre, carrying
on cotton weaving and spinning, tanning, distilling, and the
manufacture of coffee, sugar, manure and saltpetre. It has
two second-grade colleges, a college of agriculture, and a school
of forestry.

The DISTRICT OF COIMBATORE has an area of 7860 sq. m. It
may be described as a flat, open country, hemmed in by moun-
tains on the north, west and south, but opening eastwards on
to the great plain of the Carnatic; the average height of the plain
above sea-level is about 900 ft. The principal mountains are the
Anamalai Hills, in the south of the district, rising at places to a
height of between 8000 and 9000 ft. In the west the Palghat
and Vallagiri Hills form a connecting link between the Anamalai
range and the Nilgiris, with the exception of a remarkable gap
known as the Palghat Pass. This gap, which completely inter-
sects the Ghats, is about 20 m. wide. In the north is a range

COIMBRA COINAGE OFFENCES

653

of primitive trap-hills known as the Cauvery chain, extending
eastwards from the Nilgiris, and rising in places to a height of
4000 ft. The principal rivers are the Cauvery, Bhavani, Noyil,
and Amravati. Numerous canals are cut from the rivers for
the purpose of affording artificial irrigation, which has proved
of immense benefit to the country. Well and tank water is also
largely used for irrigation purposes. Coimbatore district was
acquired by the British in 1799 at the close of the war which
ended with the death of Tippoo. In 1901 the population was
2,201,782, showing an increase of io%in the preceding decade.
The principal crops are millet, rice, other food grains, pulse,
oilseeds, cotton and tobacco, with a little coffee. Forests cover
nearly ij million acres, yielding valuable timber (teak, sandal-
wood, &c.), and affording grazing-ground for cattle. There are
several factories for pressing cotton, and for cleaning coffee, oil-
cake presses, tanneries and saltpetre refineries. Cereals, cotton,
forest products, cattle and hides, and brass and copper vessels
are the chief exports from the district. The south-west line of
the Madras railway runs through the district, and the South
Indian railway (of metre gauge) joins this at Erode.

COIMBRA, the capital of an administrative district formerly
included in the province of Beira, Portugal; on the north bank
of the river Mondego, 115 m. N.N.E. of Lisbon, on the Lisbon-
Oporto railway. Pop. (1900) 18,144. Coimbra is built for the
most part on rising ground, and presents from the other side
of the river a picturesque and imposing appearance; though in
reality its houses have individually but little pretension, and its
streets are, almost without exception, narrow and mean. It
derives its present importance from being the seat of the
only university in the kingdom an institution which was
originally established at Lisbon in 1291, was transferred to
Coimbra in 1306, was again removed to Lisbon, and was finally
fixed at Coimbra in 1527. There are five faculties theology,
law, medicine, mathematics and philosophy with more than
1300 students. The library contains about 150,000 volumes,
and the museums and laboratories are on an extensive scale.
In connexion with the medical faculty there are regular hospitals;
the mathematical faculty maintains an observatory from which
an excellent view can be obtained of the whole valley of the
Mondego; and outside the town there is a botanic garden
(especially rich in the flora of Brazil), which also serves as a
public promenade. Among the other educational establishments
are a military college, a royal college of arts, a scientific and
literary institute, and an episcopal seminary.

The city is the seat of a bishop, suffragan to the archbishop
of Braga; its new cathedral, founded in 1580, is of little interest;
but the old is a fine specimen of 12th-century Romanesque, and
retains portions of the mosque which it replaced. The principal
churches are Santa Cruz, of the i6th century, and San Salvador,
founded in 1169. On the north bank of the Mondego stand the
ruins of the once splendid monastery of Santa Clara, established
in 1286; and on the south bank is the celebrated Quinta das
lagrimas, or Villa of Tears, where Inez de Castro (q.v.) is believed
to have been murdered in 1355. The town is supplied with
water by means of an aqueduct of 20 arches. The Mondego
is only navigable in flood, and the port of Figueira da Foz is
20 m. W. by S., so that the trade of Coimbra is mainly local;
but there are important lamprey fisheries and manufactures of
pottery, leather and hats.

A Latin inscription of the 4th century identifies Coimbra
with the ancient Aeminium; while Condeixa (3623), 8 m. S.S.W.,
represents the ancient Conimbriga or Conembrica. In the gth
century, however, when the bishopric of Conimbriga was re-
moved hither, its old title was transferred to the new see, and
hence arose the modern name Coimbra. The city was for a
long time a Moorish stronghold, but in 1064 it was captured by
Ferdinand I. of Castile and the Cid. Until 1 260 it was the capital
of the country, and no fewer than six kings Sancho I. and II.,
Alphonso II. and III., Pedro and Ferdinand were born within
its walls. It was also the birthplace of the poet Francisco Sa
de Miranda (1495-1558), and, according to one tradition, of the
more famous Luiz de Camoens (1524-1580), who was a student

at the university between 1537 and 1542. In 1755 Coimbra
suffered considerably from the earthquake. In 1810 it was
sacked by the French under Marshal Massfina. In 1834 Dom
Miguel made the city his headquarters; and in 1846 it was the
scene of a Miguelist insurrection.

The administrative district of Coimbra coincides with the
south-western part of Beira; pop. (1900) 332,168; area 1508
sq. m.

COIN, a town of southern Spain in the province of Malaga;
18 m. W.S.W. of the city of Malaga. Pop. (1900) 1 2,326. Coin
is finely situated on the northern slope of the Sierra de Mijas,
overlooking the small river S6co and surrounded by vineyards
and plantations of oranges and lemons. There are marble
quarries in the neighbourhood, and, despite the lack of a railway,
Coin has a thriving agricultural trade. The population increased
by more than half between 1880 and 1900.

COIN (older forms of the word are coyne, quoin and coign,
all derived through the O. Fr. coing, and cuigne from Lat. cuneus,
a wedge), properly the term for a wedge-shaped die used for
stamping money, and so transferred to the money so stamped;
hence a piece of money. The form " quoin " is used for the
external angle of a building (see QUOINS), and " coign," also a
projecting angle, survives in the Shakespearean phrase " a coign
of vantage."

COINAGE OFFENCES. The coinage of money is in all states
a prerogative of the sovereign power; consequently any in-
fringement of that prerogative is always severely punished, as
being an offence likely to interfere with the well-being of the
state.

In the United Kingdom the statute law against .offences re-
lating to the coin was codified by an act of 1861. The statute
provides that whoever, falsely makes or counterfeits any coin
resembling or apparently intended to resemble or pass for any
current gold or silver coin of the realm (s. 2), or gilds, silvers,
washes, cases over or colours with materials capable of producing
the appearance of gold or silver a coin or a piece of any metal or
mixture of metals, or files or alters it, with intent to make it
resemble or pass for any current gold or silver coin (s. 3), or who
buys, sells, receives or pays a false gold or silver coin at a lower
rate than its denomination imports, or who receives into the
United Kingdom any false coin knowing it to be counterfeit
(ss. 6, 7), or who, without lawful authority or excuse, knowingly
makes or mends, buys or sells, or has in his custody or possession,
or conveys out of the Royal Mint any coining moulds, machines
or tools, is guilty of felony (ss. 24, 25). The punishment for
such offences is either penal servitude for life or for not less than
three years, or imprisonment for not more than two years, with
or without hard labour. Whoever impairs, diminishes or
lightens current gold or silver coin, with mtent to pass same, is
liable to penal servitude for from three to fourteen years (s. 4),
and whoever has in his possession filings or clippings obtained
by impairing or lightening current coin is liable to the same
punishment, or to penal servitude for from three to seven years.
The statute also makes provision against tendering or uttering
false gold or silver coin, which is a misdemeanour, punishable by
imprisonment with or without hard labour.. Provision is also
made with respect to falsely making, counterfeiting, tendering
or uttering copper coin, exporting false coin, or defacing current
coin by stamping names or words on it, and counterfeiting,
tendering or uttering coin resembling or meant to pass as that
of some foreign state. The act of 1861 applies to offences
with respect to colonial coins as well as to those of the United
Kingdom.

By the constitution of the United States, Congress has the
power of coining money, regulating the value thereof and of
foreign coin (Art. i. s. viii.), and the states are prohibited from
coining money, or making anything but gold and silver money
a tender in payment of debts (Art. i. s. x.). The counterfeiting
coin or money, uttering the same, or mutilating or defacing it,
is an offence against the United States, and is punishable by fine
and imprisonment with hard labour for from two to ten years.
It has also been made punishable by state legislation.

654

COIR COKE, SIR E.

COIR (from Malay Kayar, cord, Kayaru, to be twisted), a
rough, strong, fibrous substance obtained from the outer husk
of the coco-nut. (See Coco-Nux PALM.)

COIRE (Ger. Chur or Cur, Ital. Coira, Lat. Curia Raelorum,
Romonsch Cuera), the capital of the Swiss canton of the Grisons.
It is built, at a height of 1949 ft. above the sea-level, on the right
bank of the Plessur torrent, just as it issues from the Schanfigg
valley, and about a mile above its junction with the Rhine. It
is overshadowed by the Mittenberg (east) and Pizokel (south),
hills that guard the entrance to the deep-cut Schanfigg valley.
In 1900 it contained 11,532 inhabitants, of whom 9288 were
German-speaking, 1466 Romonsch-speaking, and 677 Italian-
speaking; while 7561 were Protestants, 3962 Romanists and
one a Jew. The modern part of the city is to the west, but the
old portion, with all the historical buildings, is to the east. Here
is the cathedral church of St Lucius (who is the patron of Coire,
and is supposed to be a 2nd-century British king, though really
the name has probably arisen from a confusion between Lucius
of Cyrene miswritten " curiensis " with the Roman general
Lucius Munatius Plancus, who conquered Raetia). Built between
1178 and 1282, on the site of an older church, it contains many
curious medieval antiquities (especially in the sacristy), as well
as a picture by Angelica Kaufmann, and the tomb of the great
Grisons political leader (d. 1637) Jenatsch (q.v.). Opposite is
the Bishop's Palace, and not far off is the Episcopal Seminary
(built on the ruins of a 6th-century monastic foundation). Not
far from these ancient monuments is the new Raetian Museum,
which contains a great collection of objects relating to Raetia
(including the geological collections of the Benedictine monk of
Disentis, Placidus a Spescha (1752-1833), who explored the high
snowy regions around the sources of the Rhine). One of the
hospitals was founded by the famous Capuchin philanthropist,
Father Theodosius Florentini (1808-1865), wno was l n g the
Romanist cure of Coire, and whose remains were in 1906 trans-
ferred from the cathedral here to Ingenbohl (near Schwyz), his
chief foundation. Coire is 74 m. by rail from Zurich, and is the
meeting-point of the routes from Italy over many Alpine passes
(the Lukmanier, the Spliigen, the San Bernardino) as well as
from the Engadine (Albula, Julier), so that it is the centre of an
active trade (particularly in wine from the Valtelline), though
it possesses also a few local factories.

The episcopal see is first mentioned in 452, but probably
existed a century earlier. The bishop soon acquired great
temporal powers, especially after his dominions were made, in
831, dependent on the Empire alone, of which he became a prince
in 1170. In 1392 he became head of the league of God's House
(originally formed against him in 1367), one of the three Raetian
leagues, but, in 1526, after the Reformation, lost his temporal
powers, having fulfilled his historical mission (see GRISONS).
The bishopric still exists, with jurisdiction over the Cantons of
the Grisons, Glarus, Zurich, and the three Forest Cantons, as well
as the Austrian principality of Liechtenstein. The gild con-
stitution of the city of Chur lasted from 1465 to 1839, while in
1874 the Burgergemeinde was replaced by an Einwohnergemeinde.

AUTHORITIES. A. Eichhorn, Episcopates Curiensis (St Blasien,
1797); W. von Juvalt, Forschungen iiber die Feudalzeit im Curischen
Raetien, 2 parts (Zurich, 1871); C. Kind, Die Reformation in den
Bisthiimern Chur und Como (Coire, 1858); Conradin von Moor,
Geschichte von Curraetien (2 vols., Coire, 1870-1874); P. C. von
Planta, Das alte Raetien (Berlin, 1872); Idem, Die Curraetischen
Herrschaften in der Feudalzeit (Bern, 1881); Idem, Verfassungs-
geschichte der Stadt Cur im Mittelalter (Coire, 1879) ; Idem, Geschichte
von Graubilnden (Bern, 1892). (W. A. B. C.)

COKE, SIR EDWARD (1552-1634), English lawyer, was born
at Mileham, in Norfolk, on the ist of February 1552. From the
grammar school of Norwich he passed to Trinity College, Cam-
bridge; and in 1572 he entered Lincoln's Inn. In 1578 he was
called to the bar, and in the next year he was chosen reader at
Lyon's Inn. His extensive and exact legal erudition, and the
skill with which he argued the intricate libel case of Lord Crom-
well (4 Rep. 13), and the celebrated real property case of Shelley
(i Rep. 94, 104), soon brought him a practice never before
equalled, and caused him to be universally recognized as the

greatest lawyer of. his day. In 1 586 he was made recorder of
Norwich, and in 1592 recorder of London, solicitor-general, and
reader in the Inner Temple. In 1593 he was returned as member
of parliament for his native county, and also chosen speaker
of the House of Commons. In 1594 he was promoted to the
office of attorney-general, despite the claims of Bacon, who was
warmly supported by the earl of Essex. As crown lawyer his
treatment of the accused was marked by more than the harshness
and violence common in his time; and the fame of the victim
has caused his behaviour in the trial of Raleigh to be lastingly
remembered against him. While the prisoner defended himself
with the calmest dignity and self-possession, Coke burst into the
bitterest invective, brutally addressing the great courtier as
if he had been a servant, in the phrase, long remembered for its
insolence and its utter injustice " Thou hast an English face,
but a Spanish heart!"

In 1582 Coke married the daughter of John Paston, a gentle-
man of Suffolk, receiving with her a fortune of 30,000; but in
six months he was left a widower. Shortly after he sought the
hand of Lady Elizabeth Hatton, daughter of Thomas, second
Lord Burghley, and granddaughter of the great Cecil. Bacon
was again his rival, and again unsuccessfully; the wealthy young
widow became not, it is said, to his future comfort Coke's
second wife.

In 1606 Coke was made chief justice of the common pleas,
but in 1613 he was removed to the office of chief justice of the
king's bench, which gave him less opportunity of interfering
with the court. The change, though it brought promotion in
dignity, caused a diminution of income as well as of power;
but Coke received some compensation in being appointed a
member of the privy council. The independence of his conduct
as a judge, though not unmixed with the baser elements of
prejudice and vulgar love of authority, has partly earned for-
giveness for the harshness which was so prominent in his sturdy
character. Full of an extreme reverence for the common law
which he knew so well, he defended it alike against the court
of chancery, the ecclesiastical courts, and the royal prerogative.
In a narrow spirit, and strongly influenced, no doubt, by his
enmity to the chancellor, Thomas Egerton (Lord Brackley), he
sought to prevent the interference of the court of chancery with
even the unjust decisions of the other courts. In the case of an
appeal from a sentence given in the king's bench, he advised the
victorious, but guilty, party to bring an action of praemunire
against all those who had been concerned in the appeal, and his
authority was stretched to the utmost to obtain the verdict he
desired. On the other hand, Coke has the credit of having
repeatedly braved the anger of the king. He freely gave his
opinion that the royal proclamation cannot make that an offence
which was not an offence before. An equally famous but less
satisfactory instance occurred during the trial of Edmund
Peacham, a divine in whose study a sermon had been found
containing libellous accusations against the king and the govern-
ment. There was nothing to give colour to the charge of high
treason with which he was charged, and the sermon had never
been preached or published; yet Peacham was put to the
torture, and Bacon was ordered to confer with the judges
individually concerning the matter. Coke declared such con-
ference to be illegal, and refused to give an opinion, except in
writing, and even then he seems to have said nothing decided.
But the most remarkable case of all occurred in the next year
(1616). A trial was held before Coke in which one of the counsel
denied the validity of a grant made by the king to the bishop of
Lichfield of a benefice to be held in commendam. James, through
Bacon, who was then attorney-general, commanded the chief
justice to delay judgment till he himself should discuss the
question with the judges. At Coke's request Bacon sent a letter
containing the same command to each of the judges, and Coke
then obtained their signatures to a paper declaring that the
attorney-general's instructions were illegal, and that they were
bound to proceed with the case. His Majesty expressed his
displeasure, and summoned them before him in the council-
chamber, where he insisted on his supreme prerogative, which,

COKE, SIR J. COKE

655

he said, ought not to be discussed in ordinary argument. Upon
this all the judges fell on their knees, seeking pardon for the form
of their letter; but Coke ventured to declare his continued belief
in the loyalty of its substance, and when asked if he would in the
future delay a case at the king's order, the only reply he would
vouchsafe was that he would do what became him as a judge.
Soon after he was dismissed from all his offices on the following
charges, the concealment, as attorney-general, of a bond
belonging to the king, a charge which could not be proved,
illegal ' interference with the court of chancery and disrespect
to the king in the case of commendams. He was also ordered
by the council to revise his book of reports, which was said to
contain many extravagant opinions (June 1616).

Coke did not suffer these losses with patience. He offered
his daughter Frances, then little more than a child, in marriage
to Sir John Villiers, brother of the favourite Buckingham. Her
mother, supported at first by her husband's great rival and her
own former suitor, Bacon, objected to the match, and placed her
in concealment. But Coke discovered her hiding-place; and
she was forced to wed the man whom she declared that of all
others she abhorred. The result was the desertion of the husband
and the fall of the wife. It is said, however, that after his
daughter's public penance in the Savoy church, Coke had heart
enough to receive her back to the home which he had forced her
to leave. Almost all that he gained by his heartless diplomacy
was a seat in the council and in the star-chamber.

In 1620 a new and more honourable career opened for him.
He was elected member of parliament for Liskeard; and hence-
forth he was one of the most prominent of the constitutional
party. It was he who proposed a remonstrance against the
growth of popery and the marriage of Prince Charles to the
infanta of Spain, and who led the Commons in the decisive step
of entering on the journal of the House the famous petition of
the 1 8th of December 1621, insisting on the freedom of parlia-
mentary discussion, and the liberty of speech of every individual
member. In consequence, together with Pym and Sir Robert
Philips, he was thrown into confinement; and, when in the
August of the next year he was released, he was commanded to
remain in his house at Stoke Poges during his Majesty's pleasure.
Of the first and second parliaments of Charles I. Coke was again
a member. From the second he was excluded by being appointed
sheriff of Buckinghamshire. In 1628 he was at once returned
for both Buckinghamshire and Suffolk, and he took his seat for
the former county. After rendering other valuable support to
the popular cause, he took a most important part in drawing
up the great Petition of Right. The last act of his public career
was to bewail with tears the ruin which he declared the duke
of Buckingham was bringing upon the country. At the close of
the session he retired into private life; and the six years that
remained to him were spent in revising and improving the works
upon which, at least as much as upon his public career, his fame
now rests. He died at Stoke Poges on the 3rd of September 1634.

Coke published Institutes (1628), of which the first is also
known as Coke upon Littleton; Reports (1600-1615), m thirteen
parts; A Treatise of Bail and Mainprize (1635); The Complete
Copyholder (1630); A Reading on Fines and Recoveries (1684).

See Johnson, Life of Sir Edward Coke (1837); H. W. Woolrych,
The Life of Sir Edward Coke (1826); Foss, Lives of the Judges;
Campbell, Lives of the Chief Justices; also ENGLISH LAW.

COKE, SIR JOHN (1563-1644), English politician, was born
on the sth of March 1563, and was educated at Trinity College,
Cambridge. After leaving the university he entered public life
as a servant of William Cecil, Lord Burghley, afterwards
becoming deputy-treasurer of the navy and then a commissioner
of the navy, and being specially commended for his labours on
behalf of naval administration. He became member of parlia-
ment for Warwick in 1621 and was knighted in 1624, afterwards
representing the university of Cambridge. In the parliament
of 1625 Coke acted as a secretary of state; in this and later
parliaments he introduced the royal requests for money, and
defended the foreign policy of Charles I. and Buckingham, and
afterwards the actions of the king. His actual appointment as

secretary dates from September 1625. Disliked by the leaders
of the popular party, his speeches in the House of Commons did
not improve the king's position, but when Charles ruled without
a parliament he found Coke's industry very useful to him. The
secretary retained nis post until 1630, when a scapegoat was
required to expiate the humiliating treaty of Berwick with the
Scots, and the scapegoat was Coke. Dismissed from office, he
retired to his estate at Melbourne in Derbyshire, and then resided
in London, dying at Tottenham on the Sth of September 1644.
Coke's son, Sir John Coke, sided with the parliament in its
struggle with the king, and it is possible that in later life Coke's
own sympathies were with this party, although in his earlier
years he had been a defender of absolute monarchy. Coke, who
greatly disliked the papacy, is described by Clarendon as " a
man of very narrow education and a narrower mind "; and
again he says, " his cardinal perfection was industry and his
most eminent infirmity covetousness."

COKE, THOMAS (1747-1814), English divine, the first
Methodist bishop, was born at Brecon, where his father was
a well-to-do apothecary. He was educated at Jesus College,
Oxford, taking the degree of M.A. in 1770 and that of D.C.L. in
1775. From 1772 to 1776 he was curate at South Petherton in
Somerset, whence his rector dismissed him for adopting the
open-air and cottage services introduced by John Wesley, with
whom he had become acquainted. After serving on the London
Wesleyan circuit he was in 1782 appointed president of the con-
ference in Ireland, a position which he frequently held, in the
intervals of his many voyages to America. He first visited that
country in 1784, going to Baltimore as " superintendent " of the
Methodist societies in the new world and, in 1787 the American
conference changed his title to " bishop," a nomenclature which
he tried in vain to introduce into the English conference, of
which he was president in 1797 and 1805. Failing this, he asked
Lord Liverpool to make him a bishop in India, and he was
voyaging to Ceylon when he died on the 3rd of May 1814. Coke
had always been a missionary enthusiast, and was the pioneer
of such enterprise in his connexion. He was an ardent opponent
of slavery, and endeavoured also to heal the breach between the
Methodist and Anglican communions. He published a History
of the West Indies (3 vols., 1808-1811), several volumes of sermons,
and, with Henry Moore, a Life of Wesley (1792).

COKE (a northern English word, possibly connected with
" colk," core), the product obtained by strongly heating coal
out of contact with the air until the volatile constituents are
driven off; it consists essentially of carbon, the so-called " fixed
carbon," together with the incombustible matters or ash con-
tained in the coal from which it is derived. In addition to these
it almost invariably contains small quantities of hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen, the whole, however, not exceeding 2 or
3%. It also contains water, the amount of which may vary
considerably according to the method of manufacture. When
produced rapidly and at a low heat, as in gas-making, it is of a
dull black colour, and a loose spongy or pumice-like texture,
and ignites with comparative ease, though less readily than
bituminous coal, so that it may be burnt in open fire-places;
but when a long-continued heat is used, as in the preparation of
coke for iron and steel melting, the product is hard and dense,
is often prismatic in structure, has a brilliant semi-metallic lustre
and silvery-grey colour, is a conductor of heat and electricity,
and can only be burnt in furnaces provided with a strong chimney
draught or an artificial blast. The strength and cohesive
properties are also intimately related to the nature and com-
position of the coals employed, which are said to be caking or
non-caking according to the compact or fragmentary character
of the coke produced.

Formerly coke was made from large coal piled in heaps with
central chimneys like those of the charcoal burner, or in open
rectangular clamps or kilns with air flues in the enclosing walls;
but these methods are now practically obsolete, closed chambers
or ovens being generally used. These vary considerably in
construction, but may be classified into three principal types:
(i) direct heated ovens, (2) flue-heated ovens, (3) condensing

656

COKE

Beehive
oven.

ovens. In the first class the heating is done by direct contact
or by burning the gases given off in coking within the oven, while
in the other two the heating is indirect, the gas being burned
in cellular passages or flues provided in the walls dividing the
coking chambers, and the heat transmitted through the sides
of the latter which are comparatively thin. The arrangement
is somewhat similar to that of a gas-works retort, whence the
name of " retort ovens " is sometimes applied to them. The
difference between the second and third classes is founded on the
treatment of the gases. In the former the gas is fired in the side
flues immediately upon issuing from the oven, while in the latter
the gases are first subjected to a systematic treatment in con-
densers, similar to those used in gas-works, to remove tar,
ammonia and condensable hydrocarbons, the incondensable
gases being returned to the oven and burned in the heating flues.
These are generally known as " by-product ovens."

The simplest form of coke oven, and probably that still most
largely used, is the so-called " beehive oven." This is circular in
plan, from 7 to 12 ft. in diameter, with a cylindrical wall
about aj ft. high and a nearly hemispherical roof with a
circular hole at the top. The floor, made of refractory
bricks or slabs, is lajd with a slight slope towards an arched opening
in the ring wall, which is stopped with brickwork during the coking
but opened for drawing the finished charge. The ovens are usually
arranged in rows or banks of 20 to 30 or more, with their doors
outwards, two rows being often placed with a longitudinal flue
between them connected by uptakes with the individual ovens on
either side. A railway along the top of the bank brings the coal from
the screens or washery. The largest ovens take a charge of about
5 tons, which is introduced through the hole in the roof, the brick-
work of the empty oven being still red hot from the preceding charge,
and when levelled fills the cylindrical part nearly to the springing
of the roof. The gas fires as it is given off and fills the dome with
flame, and the burning is regulated by air admitted through holes
in the upper part of the door stopping. The temperature being
very high, a proportion of the volatile hydrocarbons is decomposed,
and a film of graphitic carbon is deposited on the coke, giving it a
semi-metallic lustre and silvery grey colour. When the gas is burned
off, the upper part of the door is opened and the glowing charge
cooled by jets of water thrown directly upon it from a hose, and it
is subsequently drawn out through the open door. The charge
breaks up into prisms or columns whose length corresponds to the
depth of the charge, and as a rule is uniform in character and free
from dull black patches or " black ends." The time of burning is
either 48 or 72 hours, the turns being so arranged as to avoid the
necessity of drawing the ovens on Sunday. The longer the heat
is continued the denser the product becomes, but the yield also
diminishes, as a portion of the finished coke necessarily burns to waste
when the gas is exhausted. For this reason the yield on the coal
charged is usually less than that obtained in retort ovens, although
the quality may be better. Coals containing at most about 35 % of
volatile matter are best suited for the beehive oven. With less than
25% the gas is not sufficient to effect the coking completely, and
when there is a higher percentage the coke is brittle and spongy and
unsuited for blast furnace or foundry use. The spent flame from the
ovens passes to a range of steam boilers before escaping by the
chimney.

The retort oven, which is now generally displacing the beehive
form in new installations, is made in a great variety of forms, the
differences being mainly in the arrangement of the
heating flues, but all have the central feature, the coking
chamber, in common. This is a tubular chamber with
vertical sides and cylindrical roof, about 30 ft. long, from 17 to 20 in.
wide, and 6 or 7 ft. high, and closed at both ends by sliding doors
which are raised by crab winches when the charge is to be drawn.
The general arrangements of such an oven are shown in fig. I , which
represents one of the earliest and most popular forms, that of Evence
Copp^e of Brussels. The coking chambers A B connect by rect-
angular posts at the springing of the roof, where the gas given off
from the top of the charge is fired by air introduced through c c.
The flames pass downwards through the parallel flues //along the
bottom flue of one oven, and return in the opposite direction under
the next to the chimney flue, a further part of the heat being inter-
cepted by placing a range of steam boilers between the ovens and
the chimney stack. The charging of the oven is done through the
passages D D in the roof from small wagons on transverse lines of
rails, the surface being raked level before the doors are closed and
luted up. The time of coking is much less than in the beehive
ovens and may be from 24 to 36 hours, according to the proportion
of volatile matter present. When the gas is completely given off
the doors are lifted and the charge is pushed out by the ram a
cast-iron plate of the shape of the cross section of the oven, at the
end of a long horizontal bar, which is driven by a rack and pinion
movement and pushes the block of coke out of the oven on to the
wharf or bank in front where it falls to pieces and is immediately

Retort
oven.

quenched by jets of water from a hose pipe. When sufficiently
cooled it is loaded into railway wagons or other conveyances for
removal. The ram, together with its motor, and boiler when steam
is used, is mounted upon a carriage running upon a line of rails of
about 2 ft. gauge along the back of the range of ovens, so that it can
be brought ur> to any one of them in succession.

In some cases, instead of the small coal being charged through the
roof of the oven and levelled by hand, it is formed into blocks by

Trauutrse Section
c c c c e

Tvy'. if]; ' in. ,'.:[...'. V' ^"^ ...'

FIG. i. CoppeVs Coke Oven.

being stamped in a slightly moistened condition in a mould consisting
of a bottom plate or peel on a racked rod like that of the ram, with
movable sides and ends. This, when the ends are removed, is pushed
forward into the oven, and the bottom plate is withdrawn by revers-
ing the rack motion. The moulding box is mounted on a carriage
like that of the ram, the two being sometimes carried on the same
framing. The moulding is done at a fixed station in the centre of the
range of ovens by a series of cast-iron stampers driven by an electric
motor. This system is useful for coals low in volatile matter, which
do not give a coherent coke under ordinary conditions.

In the distilling or by-product ovens the gases, instead of being
burned at the point of origin, pass by an uptake pipe in the roof
about the centre of the oven into a water-sealed collecting
trough or hydraulic main, whence they are drawn by :
exhausters through a series of air and water cooled con- "B 01
densers and scrubbers. In the first or atmospheric condensers the
tar is removed, and in the second ammoniacal water, which is
further enriched by a graduated system of scrubbing with weak
ammoniacal liquor until it is sufficiently concentrated to be sent
to the ammonia stills. The first treatment by scrubbing with creosote
or heavy tar oil removes benzene, after which the permanent gaseous
residue consisting chiefly of hydrogen and marsh gas is returned
to the ovens as fuel.

In the Otto-Hoffmann oven, one of the most generally used forms,
vertical side flues like those of Coppe'e are adopted. The returned
gas enters by a horizontal flue along the bottom of the coking
chamber, divided into two parts by a mid-feather wall, and is fired
by heated air from a Siemens regenerator on the substructure at one
end, and the flame rising through one half of the side flues to a
parallel collector at the top returns downwards through the flues
of the other half and passes out to the chimney through a similar
regenerator at the other end. The course of the gases is reversed
at intervals of about an hour, as in the ordinary Siemens furnace,
each end of the oven having its own gas supply. In the later modi-
fication known as the Otto-Hilgenstock, the regenerators are aban-
doned, but provision is made for more perfect distribution of the
heat by a line of sixteen Bunsen burners in each wall ; each of these
serves two flues, the course of the flame being continuously upwards
without reversal. In the newest Otto ovens the same system of
burners is combined with regenerators. In the Bauer system,
another vertical flue oven, each flue has its own burner, which is of
a simplified construction.

In the Carve's oven, tha earliest of the by-product ovens, the
heating flues are arranged horizontally in parallel series along the
entire length of the side walls, the gas being introduced from both
ends but at different levels. This system was further developed by
H. Simon of Manchester, who added a continuous air " recuperator "
heated by the spent flame; this Simon-Carves system has been
extensively adopted in Great Britain. Another horizontal flue oven,
the Semet-Solvay, is distinguished by the structure of the flues,
which are independent of the dividing walls of the ovens, so that
the latter can be made with thinner sides than those of the earlier
systems, and are more readily repaired. In the horizontal ovens
it is sometimes difficult to maintain the heat when the flues arc
continuous along the whole length of the wall, especially when the
heating value of the gas is reduced by the removal of the heavy
hydrocarbons. This difficulty is met by dividing the flues in the
middle so as to shorten the length of travel of the flame, and working
each end independently. The Hussener and Koppers systems are
two of the best-known examples of this modification.

Coke from retort ovens is not so dense or brilliant as that made

COL COLBERT

657

in beehive ovens, but the waste being less there is a decided saving,
apart from the value of the condensed products. In one instance
the coke was found to be about 5 % less efficient in the blast furnace,
while the yield on the coal charged was increased 10%. In the
further treatment of the condensed products by distillation the tar
gives burning oil and pitch, the benzene is separated from the creosote
oil by steam-heated stills, and the ammoniacal liquor, after some
lime has been added to decompose fixed ammonium compounds,
is heated to vaporize the ammonia, which is condensed in lead or
copper-lined tanks containing strong sulphuric acid to produce a
crystalline powder of ammonium sulphate, which accumulates
in the receiver and is fished out from time to time. The yield of
by-products averages about I % of ammonium sulphate, about
3$% of tar, and 0-6 to 0-9% of benzene, of the weight of the coal
carbonized. After the ovens have been heated and steam supplied
for the machinery of the-condensing plant and the coke ovens, there
is usually a surplus of gas, which may be used for lighting or driving
gas-engines. For the latter purpose, however, it is necessary to
remove the last traces of tar, which acts very prejudicially in fouling
the valves when the gas is not completely purified. The gas given
off during the earlier part of the coking process is richer in heavy
hydrocarbons and of a higher illuminating value than that of the
later period when the temperature is higher. This property is
utilized in several large coking plants in America, where the gas
from the first ten hours' working is drawn off by a second hydraulic
main and sent directly to town gas-works, where it passes through
the ordinary purifying treatment, the gas from the second period
being alone used for heating the ovens.

Coke is essentially a partially graphitized carbon, its density
being about midway between that of coal and graphite, and it
should therefore occupy less space than the original coal; but
owing to the softening of the charge a spongy structure is set
up by the escaping gases, which acts in the other direction, so
that for equal bulk coke is somewhat lighter than coal. It is
this combination of properties that gives it its chief value in
iron smelting, the substance being sufficiently dense to resist
oxidation by carbon dioxide in the higher regions of the furnace,
while the vesicular structure gives an extended surface for the
action of heated air and facilitates rapid consumption at the
tuyeres. Compact coke, such as that formed on the inner sides
of gas retorts (retort carbon), can only be burned with great
difficulty in small furnaces of special construction, but it gives
out a great amount of heat.

The most deleterious constituents of coke are ash, sulphur
and volatile constituents including water. As the coke yield
is only from two-thirds to three-quarters of that of the coal,
the original proportion of ash is augmented by one-third or one-
half in the product. For this reason it is now customary to
crush and wash the coal carefully to remove intermingled
patches of shale and dirt before coking, so that the ash may not
if possible exceed 10% in the coke. About one-half of the
sulphur in the coal is eliminated in coking, so that the percentage
in the coke is about the same. It should not be much above i %.
According to the researches of F. Wuest (Journ. Iron and Steel
Inst., 1906) the sulphur is retained in a complex carbon compound
which is not destroyed until the coke is actually consumed.

The older methods of coking and the earlier forms of retort ovens
are described in J. Percy, Metallurgy, Jordan, Album du cows de
metallurgie; Phillips and Bauerman, Handbook of Metallurgy, and
other text-books. A systematic series of articles on the newer forms
will be found in The Engineer, vol. 82, pp. 205-303 and vol. 83, pp. 207-
231; see also Diirre, Die neuern Koksofen (Leipzig, 1892); D. A.
Louis, " Von Bauer and Briinck Ovens, Journ. Iron and Steel Inst.,
1904, ii. p. 293; C. L. Bell, " Hiissener Oven," id., 1904, i. p. 188;
Hurez, " A Comparison of Different Systems of Vertical and Hori-
zontal Flue Ovens," Bull. soc. Industrie minerale, 1903, p. 777. A
well-illustrated description of the Otto system in its American
modification was issued by the United Gas & Coke Company of
New York, in 1906. (H. B.)

COL (Fr. for " neck," Lat. collum), in physical geography,
generally any marked depression upon a high and rugged water-
parting over which passage is easy from one valley to another.
Such is the Col de Balme between the Trient and Chamounix
valleys, where the great inaccessible wall crowned with aiguilles
running to the massif of Mt. Blanc is broken by a gentle down-
ward curve with smooth upland slopes, over which a footpath
gives easy passage. The col is usually formed by the head-waters
of a stream eating backward and lowering the water-parting
at the head of its valley. In early military operations, the march
of an army was always over a col, which has at all times con-

siderable commercial importance in relation to roads in high
mountain regions.

COLBERT, JEAN BAPTISTS (1610-1683), French statesman,
was born at Reims, where his father and grandfather were
merchants. He claimed to be the descendant of a noble Scottish
family, but the evidence for this is lacking. His youth is said
to have been spent in a Jesuit college, in the office of a Parisian
banker, and in that of a Parisian notary, Chapelain, the father
of the poet. But the first fact on which we can rely with confidence
is that, when not yet twenty, he obtained a post in the war-office,
by means of the influence that he possessed through the marriage
of one of his uncles to the sister of Michel Le Tellier, the secretary
of state for war. During some years he was employed in the
inspection of troops and other work of the kind, but at length
his ability, his extraordinary energy and his untiring laboriousness
induced Le Tellier to make him his private secretary. These
qualities, combined, it must be confessed, with a readiness to
seize every opportunity of advancement, soon brought Colbert
both wealth and influence. In 1647 we find him receiving the
confiscated goods of his uncle Pussort, in 1648 obtaining 40,000
crowns with his wife Marie Charron, in 1649 appointed councillor
of state.

It was the period of the wars of the Fronde; and in 1651 the
triumph of the Condi family drove Cardinal Mazarin from Paris.
Colbert, now aged thirty-two, was engaged to keep him acquainted
with what should happen in the capital during his absence. At
first Colbert's position was far from satisfactory; for the close
wary Italian treated him merely as an ordinary agent. On one
occasion, for example, he offered him 1000 crowns. The gift was
refused somewhat indignantly; and by giving proof of the
immense value of his services, Colbert gained all that he desired.
His demands were not small; for, with an ambition mingled, as
his letters show, with strong family affection, he aimed at placing
all his relatives in positions of affluence and dignity; and many
a rich benefice and important public office was appropriated by
him to that purpose. For these favours, conferred upon him
by his patron with no stinted hand, his thanks were expressed in
a most remarkable manner; he published a letter defending the
cardinal from the charge of ingratitude which was often brought
against him, by enumerating the benefits that he and his family
had received from him (April 1655). Colbert obtained, besides,
the higher object of his ambition; the confidence of Mazarin, so
far as it was granted to any one, became his, and he was entrusted
with matters of the gravest importance. In 1659 he was giving
directions as to the suppression of the revolt of the gentry
which threatened in Normandy, Anjou and Poitou, with
characteristic decision arresting those whom he suspected and
arranging every detail of their trial, the immediate and arbitrary
destruction of their castles and woods, and the execution of
their chief, Bonnesson. In the same year we have evidence that
he was already planning his great attempt at financial reform.
His earliest tentative was the drawing up of a mtmoire to Mazarin,
showing that of the taxes paid by the people not one-half reached
the king. The paper also contained an attack upon the super-
intendent Nicholas Fouquet (q.v.), and being opened by the
postmaster of Paris, who happened to be a spy of Fouquet's, it
gave rise to a bitter quarrel, which, however, Mazarin repressed
during his lifetime.

In 1 66 1 the death of Mazarin allowed Colbert to take the first
place in the administration, and he made sure of the king's
favour by revealing to him some of Mazarin's hidden wealth. It
was some time before he assumed official dignities; but in
January 1 664 he obtained the post of superintendent of buildings ;
in 166^ he was made controller-general; in 1669 he became
minister of the marine; and he was also appointed minister of
commerce, the colonies and the lung's palace. In short, he soon
acquired power hi every department except that of war.

A great financial and fiscal reform at once claimed all his
energies. Not only the nobility, but many others who had no
legal claim to exemption, paid no taxes; the weight of the burden
fell on the wretched country-folk. Colbert sternly and fearlessly
set about his task. Supported by the young king, Louis XIV..

658

COLBERT

he aimed the first blow at the greatest of the extortioners the
bold and powerful superintendent, Fouquet; whose fall, in
addition, secured his own advancement.

The office of superintendent and many others dependent upon
it being abolished the supreme control of the finances was vested
in a royal council. The sovereign was its president; but Colbert,
though for four years he only possessed the title of intendant,
was its ruling spirit, great personal authority being conferred
upon him by the .king. The career on which Colbert now entered
must not be judged without constant remembrance of the utter
rottenness of the previous financial administration. His ruth-
lessness in this case, dangerous precedent as it was, was perhaps
necessary; individual interests could not be respected. Guilty
officials having been severely punished, the fraudulent creditors
of the government remained to be dealt with. Colbert's method
was simple. Some of the public loans were totally repudiated,
and from others a percentage was cut off, which varied, at first
according to his own decision, and afterwards according to that
of the council which he established to examine all claims against
the state.

Much more serious difficulties met his attempts to introduce
equality in the pressure of the taxes on the various classes. To
diminish the number of the privileged was impossible, but false
claims to exemption were firmly resisted, and the unjust direct
taxation was lightened by an increase of the indirect taxes, from
which the privileged could not escape. The mode of collection
was at the same time immensely improved.

Order and economy being thus introduced into the working
of the government, the country, according to Colbert's vast yet
detailed plan, was to be enriched by commerce. Manufactures
were fostered in every way he could devise. New industries
were established, inventors protected, workmen invited from
foreign countries, French workmen absolutely prohibited to
emigrate. To maintain the character of French goods in
foreign markets, as well as to afford a guarantee to the home
consumer, the quality and measure of each article were fixed
by law, breach of the regulations being punished by public
exposure of the delinquent and destruction of the goods, and, on
the third offence, by the pillory. But whatever advantage re-
sulted from this rule was more than compensated by the dis-
advantages it entailed. The production of qualities which would
have suited many purposes of consumption was prohibited, and
the odious supervision which became necessary involved great
waste of time and a stereotyped regularity which resisted all
improvements. And other parts of Colbert's schemes deserve
still less equivocal condemnation. By his firm maintenance of
the corporation system, each industry remained in the hands of
certain privileged bourgeois; in this way, too, improvement was
greatly discouraged; while to the lower classes opportunities of
advancement wereclosed. Withregardtointernational commerce
Colbert was equally unfortunate in not being in advance of his
age; the tariffs he published were protective to an extreme.
The interests of internal commerce were, however, wisely
consulted. Unable to abolish the duties on the passage of goods
from province to province, he did what he could to induce the
provinces to equalize them. The roads and canals were improved.
The great canal of Languedoc was planned and constructed by
Pierre Paul Riquet (1604-1680) under his patronage. To
encourage trade with the Levant, Senegal, Guinea and other
places, privileges were granted to companies; but, like the more
important East India Company, all were unsuccessful. The
chief cause of this failure, as well as of the failure of the colonies,
on which he bestowed so much watchful care, was the narrowness
and rigidity of the government regulations.

The greatest and most lasting of Colbert's achievements was
the establishment of the French marine. The royal navy owed
all to him, for the king thought only of military exploits. For
its use, Colbert reconstructed the works and arsenal of Toulon,
founded the port and arsenal of Rochefort, and the naval schools
of Rochefort, Dieppe and Saint-Malo, and fortified, with some
assistance from Vauban (who, however, belonged to the party
of his rival Louvois), among other ports those of Calais, Dunkirk,

Brest and Havre. To supply it with recruits he invented his
famous system of classes, by which each seaman, according to
the class in which he was placed, gave six months' service every
three or four or five years. For three months after his term of
service he was to receive half -pay; pensions were promised;
and, in short, everything was done to make the navy popular.
There was one department, however, that was supplied with
men on a very different principle. Letters exist written by
Colbert to the judges requiring them to sentence to the oar as
many criminals as possible, including all those who had been
condemned to death; and the convict once chained to the bench,
the expiration of his sentence was seldom allowed to bring him
release. Mendicants also, against whom no crime had been
proved, contraband dealers, those who had been engaged in
insurrections, and others immeasurably superior to the criminal
class, nay, innocent men Turkish, Russian and negro slaves,
and poor Iroquois Indians, whom the Canadians were ordered
to entrap) were pressed into that terrible service. By these
means the benches of the galleys were filled, and Colbert took
no thought of the long unrelieved agony borne by those who
filled them.

Nor was the mercantile marine forgotten. Encouragement
was given to the building of ships in France by allowing a
premium on those built at home, and imposing a duty on those
brought from abroad; and as French workmen were forbidden
to emigrate, so French seamen were forbidden to serve foreigners
on pain of death.

Even ecclesiastical affairs, though with these he had no official
concern, did not altogether escape Colbert's attention. He took
a subordinate part in the struggle between the king and Rome
as to the royal rights over vacant bishoprics; and he seems
to have sympathized with the proposal that was made to seize
part of the wealth of the clergy. In his hatred of idleness, he
ventured to suppress no less than seventeen fetes, and he had
a project for lessening the number of those devoted to clerical
and monastic life, by fixing the age for taking the vows some
years later than was then customary. With heresy he was at
first unwilling to interfere, for he was aware of the commercial
value of the Huguenots; but when the king resolved to make
all France Roman Catholic, he followed him and urged his
subordinates to do all that they could to promote conversions.

In art and literature Colbert took much interest. He possessed
a remarkably fine private library, which he delighted to fill with
valuable manuscripts from every part of Europe where France
had placed a consul. He has the honour of having founded the
Academy of Sciences (now called the Ins ti tut de France), the
Observatory, which he employed Claude Perrault to build and
brought G. D. Cassini (1625-1712) from Italy to superintend,
the Academies of Inscriptions and Medals, of Architecture and
of Music, the French Academy at Rome, and Academies at
Aries, Soissons, Nimes and many other towns, and he reorganized
the Academy of Painting and Sculpture which Richelieu had
established. He was a member of the French Academy; and
one very characteristic rule, recorded to have been proposed
by him with the intention of expediting the great Dictionary, in
which he was much interested, was that no one should be
accounted present at any meeting unless he arrived before the
hour of commencement and remained till the hour for leaving.
In 1673 he presided over the first exhibition of the works of
living painters; and he enriched the Louvre with hundreds of
pictures and statues. He gave many pensions to men of letters,
among whom we find Moliere, Corneille, Racine, Boileau, P. D.
Huet (1630-1721) and Antoine Varillas (1626-1696), and even
foreigners, as Huyghens, Vossius the geographer, Carlo Dati the
Dellacruscan, and Heinsius the great Dutch scholar. There is
evidence to show that by this munificence he hoped to draw out
praises of his sovereign and himself; but this motive certainly
is far from accounting for all the splendid, if in some cases
specious, services that he rendered to literature, science and
art.

Indeed to everything that concerned the interests of France
Colbert devoted unsparing thought and toil. Besides all that

COLBERT DE CROISSY COLBURN, H.

659

has been mentioned, he found time to do something for the
better administration of justice (the codification of ordinances,
the diminishing of the number of judges, the reduction of the
expense and length of trials for the establishment of a superior
system of police) and even for the improvement of the breed of
horses and the increase of cattle. As superintendent of public
buildings he enriched Paris with boulevards, quays and
triumphal arches; he relaid the foundation-stone of the Louvre,
and brought Bernin from Rome to be its architect; and he
erected its splendid colonnade upon the plan of Claude Perrault,
by whom Bernin had been replaced. He was not permitted,
however, to complete the work, being compelled to yield to the
king's preference for residences outside Paris, and to devote
himself to Marly and Versailles.

Amid all these public labours his private fortune was never
neglected. While he was reforming the finances of the nation,
and organizing its navy, he always found time to direct the
management of his smallest farm. He died extremely rich, and
left fine estates all over France. He had been created marquis
de Seignelay, and for his eldest son he obtained the reversion of
the office of minister of marine; his second son became arch-
bishop of Rouen; and a third son, the marquis d'Ormoy, became
superintendent of buildings.

\ To carry out his reforms, Colbert needed peace; but the war
department was in the hands of his great rival Louvois, whose
influence gradually supplanted that of Colbert with the king.
Louis decided on a policy of conquest. He was deaf also to all
the appeals against the other forms of his boundless extravagance
which Colbert, with all his deference towards his sovereign,
bravely ventured to make. 1 Thus it came about that, only a
few years after he had commenced to free the country from the
weight of the loans and taxes which crushed her to the dust,
Colbert was forced to heap upon her a new load of loans and taxes
more heavy than the last. Henceforth his life was a hopeless
struggle, and the financial and fiscal reform which, with the
great exception of the establishment of the navy, was the most
valuable service to France contemplated by him, came to nought.

Depressed by his failure, deeply wounded by the king's favour
for Louvois, and worn out by overwork, Colbert's strength gave
way at a comparatively early age. In 1680 he was the constant
victim of severe fevers, from which he recovered for a time
through the use of quinine prescribed by an English physician.
But in 1683, at the age of sixty-four, he was seized with a fatal
illness, and on the 6th of September he expired. It was said
that he died of a broken heart, and a conversation with the king
is reported in which Louis disparagingly compared the buildings
of Versailles, which Colbert was superintending, with the works
constructed by Louvois in Flanders. He took to bed, it is true,
immediately afterwards, refusing to receive all messages from
the king; but his constitution was utterly broken before, and a
post-mortem examination proved that he had been suffering
from stone. His body was interred in the secrecy of night, for
fear of outrage from the Parisians, by whom his name was
cordially detested.

Colbert was a great statesman, who did much for France.
Yet his insight into political science was not deeper than that of
his age; nor did he possess any superiority in moral qualities.
His rule was a very bad example of over-government. He did
not believe in popular liberty; the parlements and the states-
general received no support from him. The technicalities of
justice he never allowed to interfere with his plans; but he did
not hesitate to shield his friends. He trafficked in public offices
for the profit of Mazarin and in his own behalf. He caused the
suffering of thousands in the galleys; he had no ear, it is said,
for the cry of the suppliant. There was indeed a more human
side to his character, as is shown in his letters, full of wise advice
and affectionate care, to his children, his brothers, his cousins
even. Yet to all outside he was " the man of marble." Madame
de S6vigne called him " the North." To diplomacy he never
pretended; persuasion and deceit were not the weapons he

1 See especially a Memoire presented to the king in 1666 pub-
lished in the Letlres, &c., de Colbert, vol. ii.

employed; all his work was carried out by the iron hand of
authority. He was a great statesman in that he conceived a
magnificent yet practicable scheme for making France first
among nations, and in that he possessed a matchless faculty for
work, neither shrinking from the vastest undertakings nor
scorning the most trivial details.

Numerous vies and iloges of Colbert have been published; but
the most thorough student of his life and administration was Pierre
Clement, member of the Institute, who in 1846 published his Vie
de Colbert, and in 1861 the first of the 9 vols. of the Lettres, instruc-
tions, et memmres de Colbert. The historical introductions prefixed
to each of these volumes have been published by Mme. Clement
under the title of the Histoire de Colbert et de son administration
(3rd ed., 1892). The best short account of Colbert as a statesman
is that in Lavisse, Histoire de France (1005), which gives a thorough
study ot the administration. Among Colbert's papers are Memoires
sur les affaires de finance de France (written about 1663), a fragment
entitled Particularites secretes de la vie du Roy, and other accounts
of the earlier part of the reign of Louis XIV. (J. T. S.)

COLBERT DE CROISSY, CHARLES, MARQUIS (1625-1696),
French diplomatist, like his elder brother Jean Baptiste Colbert,
began his career in the office of the minister of war Le Tellier.
In 1656 he bought a counsellorship at the parlement of Metz,
and in 1658 was appointed intendant of Alsace and president of
the newly-created sovereign council of Alsace. In this position
he had to re-organize the territory recently annexed to France.
The steady support of his brother at court gained for him several
diplomatic missions to Germany and Italy (1650-1661). In
1662 he became marquis de Croissy and president d morlier of
the parlement of Metz. After various intendancies, at Soissons
(1665), at Amiens (1666), and at Paris (1667), he turned definitely
to diplomacy. In 1668 he represented France at the conference
of Aix-la-Chapelle; and in August of the same year was sent as
ambassador to London, where he was to negotiate the definite
treaty of alliance with Charles II. He arranged the interview
at Dover between Charles and his sister Henrietta of Orleans,
gained the king's personal favour by finding a mistress for him,
Louise de Keroualle, maid of honour to Madame, and persuaded
him to declare war against Holland. The negotiation of the
treaty of Nijmwegen (1676-1678) still further increased his
reputation as a diplomatist and Louis XIV. made him secretary
of state for foreign affairs after the disgrace of Arnauld de
Pompomie, brought about by his brother, 1679. He at once
assumed the entire direction of French diplomacy. Foreign
ambassadors were no longer received and diplomatic instructions
were no longer given by other secretaries of state. It was he,
not Louvois, who formed the idea of annexation during a time of
peace, by means of the chambers of reunion. He had outlined
this plan as early as 1658 with regard to Alsace. His policy at
first was to retain the territory annexed by the chambers of
reunion without declaring war, and for this purpose he signed
treaties of alliance with the elector of Brandenburg (1681), and
with Denmark (1683); but the troubles following upon the
revocation of the edict of Nantes (1685) forced him to give up
his scheme and to prepare for war with Germany (1688). The
negotiations for peace had been begun again when he died, on
the a8th of July 1696. His clerk, Bergeret, was his invaluable
assistant.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. His papers, preserved in the A rchives des affaires
etrangeres at Paris, have been partially published in the Recueil des
instructions donnees aux ambassadeurs et ministres de France (since
1884). See especially the volumes: Autriche (t. i.), Suede (t. ii.),
Rome (t. vi.), Baviere (t. viii.), Savoie (t. xiv.), Prusse (t. xvi.). Other
documents have been published in Mignet's Negotiations relatives a
la^ succession d'Espagne, vol. iy., and m the collection of Lettres et
negotiations .... pour la paix de Nimegue, 1676-1677 (La Haye,
1710). In addition to the Memoires of the time, see Spanheim,
Relation de la cour de France en 1690, ed. E. Bourgeois (Paris and
Lyons, 1900); Baschet, Histoire du depot des affaires etrangeres;
C. Rousset, Histoire de Louvois ( vols., Paris, 1863) ; E. Bourgeois,
" Louvois, et Colbert de Croissy, in the Revue historique, vol. xxxiv.
(1887); A. Waddington, Le Grand Electeur et Louis XIV (Paris,
1905) ; G. Pagis, Le Grand Electeur et Louis XIV (Paris, 1905).

COLBURN, HENRY (d. 1855), British publisher, obtained his
earliest experience of bookselling in London at the establishment
of W. Earle, Albemarle Street, and afterwards as an assistant at
Morgan's Library, Conduit Street, of which in 1816 he became

66o

COLBURN, Z. COLCHESTER

proprietor. He afterwards removed to New Burlington Street,
where he established himself as a publisher, resigning the Conduit
Street Library to Messrs Saunders & Otley. In 1814 he originated
the New Monthly Magazine, of which at various times Thomas
Campbell, Bulwer Lytton, Theodore Hook and Harrison
Ainsworth were editors. Colburn published in 1818 Evelyn's
Diary, and in 1825 the Diary of Pepys, edited by Lord Bray-
brooke, paying 2 200 for the copyright. He also issued Disraeli's
first novel, Vivian Grey, and a large number of other works by
Theodore Hook, G. P. R. James, Marryat and Bulwer Lytton.
In 1829 Richard Bentley (q.v.) was taken into partnership; and
in 1832 Colburn retired, but set up again soon afterwards in-
dependently in Great Marlborough Street; his business was
taken over in 1841 by Messrs Hurst & Blackett. Henry Colburn
died on the i6th of August 1855, leaving property to the value

of 35,.

COLBURN, ZERAH (1804-1840), American mathematical
prodigy, was born at Cabot, Vermont, on the ist of September
1804. At a very early age he developed remarkable powers of
calculating with extreme rapidity, and in 1810 his father began
to exhibit him. As a performing prodigy he visited Great Britain
and France. From 1816 to 1819 he studied in Westminster
school, London. After the death of his father in 1824 he returned
to America, and from 1825 to 1834 he was a Methodist preacher.
As he grew older his extraordinary calculating powers diminished.
From 1835 until his death, on the 2nd of March 1840, he was
professor of languages at the Norwich University in Vermont.
He published a Memoir of his life in 1833.

His nephew, also named ZERAH COLBURN (1832-1870), was a
well-known mechanical engineer; the editor successively of the
Railroad Advocate, in New York, The Engineer, in London, and
Engineering, in London; and the author of a work entitled The
Locomotive Engine (1851).

COLBY, THOMAS FREDERICK (1784-1852), British major-
general and director of ordnance survey , was born at St Margaret's,
Rochester, on the ist of September 1784, a member of a South
Wales family. Entering the Royal Engineers he began in 1802
a life-long connexion with the Ordnance Survey department.
His most important work was the survey of Ireland. This he
planned in 1824, and was engaged upon it until 1846. The last
sheets of this survey were almost ready for issue in that year
when he reached the rank of major-general, and according to the
rules of the service had to vacate his survey appointment. He
was the inventor of the compensation bar, an apparatus used in
base-measurements. He died at New Brighton on the Qth of
October 1852.

COLCHAGUA, a province of central Chile, bounded N. by
Santiago and O'Higgins, E. by Argentina, S. by Curic6, and W.
by the Pacific. Its area is officially estimated at 3856 sq. m.;
pop. (1895) 157,566. Extending across the great central valley
of Chile, the province has a considerable area devoted to agri-
culture, but much attention is given to cattle and mining. Its
principal river is the Rapel, sometimes considered as the southern
limit of the Inca empire. Its greatest tributary is the Cachapoal,
in the valley of which, among the Andean foothills, are the
popular thermal mineral baths of Cauquenes, 2306 ft. above
sea-level. The state central railway from Santiago to Puerto
Montt crosses the province and has two branches within its
borders, one from Rengo to Peumo, and one from San Fernando
via Palmilla to Pichilemu on the coast. The principal towns are
the capital, San Fernando, Rengo and Palmilla. San Fernando
is one of the several towns founded in 1742 by the governor-
general Jose de Manso, and had a population of 7447 in 1895.
Rengo is an active commercial town and had a population of
6463 in 1895.

COLCHESTER, CHARLES ABBOT, IST BARON (1757-1829),
born at Abingdon, was the son of Dr John Abbot, rector of All
Saints, Colchester, and, by his mother's second marriage, half-
brother of the famous Jeremy Bentham. From Westminster
school Charles Abbot passed to Christ Church, Oxford, at which
he gained the chancellor's medal for Latin verse as well as the
Vinerian scholarship) In 1795, after having practised twelve

years as a barrister, and published a treatise proposing the
incorporation of the judicial system of Wales with that of
England, he was appointed to the office previously held by his
brother of clerk of the rules' in the king's bench; and in June
of the same year he was elected member of parliament for Helston,
through the influence of the duke of Leeds. In 1796 Abbot
commenced his career as a reformer in parliament by obtaining
the appointment of two committees the one to report on the
arrangements which then existed as to temporary laws or laws
about to expire, the other to devise methods for the better
publication of new statutes. To the latter committee, and a
second committee which he proposed some years later, it is owing
thatcopiesof newstatutes were thenceforth sent to all magistrates
and municipal bodies. To Abbot's efforts were also due the
establishment of the Royal Record Commission, the reform of
the system which had allowed the public money to lie for some
time at long interest in the hands of the public accountants,
by charging them with payment of interest, and, most important
of all, the act for taking the first census, that of 1801. On the
formation of the Addington ministry in March 1801 Abbot
became chief secretary and privy seal for Ireland; and in the
February of the following year he was chosen speaker of the
House of Commons a position which he held with universal
satisfaction till 1817, when an attack of erysipelas compelled him
to retire. In response to an address of the Commons, he was raised
to the peerage as Baron Colchester, with a pension of 4000, of
which 3000 was to be continued to his heir. He died on the 8th
of May 1829. His speeches against the Roman Catholic claims
were published in 1828.

He was succeeded by his eldest son CHARLES (d. 1867), post-
master-general in 1858; and the latter by his son REGINALD
CHARLES EDWARD (b. 1842), as 3rd baron.

COLCHESTER, a market town, river port and municipal and
parliamentary borough of Essex, England; 52 m. N.E. by E.
from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 38,373.
It lies on the river Colne, 12 m. from the open sea. Among
numerous buildings of antiquarian interest the first is the ruined
keep of the castle, a majestic specimen of Norman architecture,
the largest of its kind in England, covering nearly twice the area
of the White Tower in London. It was erected in the reign of
William I. or William II., and is quadrangular, turreted at the
angles. As in other ancient buildings in Colchester there are
evidences of the use of material from the Roman town which
occupied the site, but it is clearly of Norman construction. Here
is the museum of the Essex Archaeological Society, with a remark-
able collection of Roman antiquities, and a library belonging to
the Round family, who own the castle. Among ecclesiastical
buildings are remains of two monastic foundations the priory
of St Botolph, founded early in the I2th century for Augustinian
canons, of which part of the fine Norman west front (in which
Roman bricks occur), and of the nave arcades remain; and the
restored gateway of the Benedictine monastery of St John,
founded by Eudo, steward to William II. This is a beautiful
specimen of Perpendicular work, embattled, flanked by spired
turrets, and covered with panel work. The churches of Holy
Trinity, St Martin and St Leonard at Hythe are of antiquarian
interest; the first has an apparently pre-Norman tower and the
last preserves some curious frescoes.

The principal modern buildings are the town hall, corn ex-
change, free library, the Eastern Counties' asylum, Essex county
hospital and barracks. The town has long been an important
military centre with a large permanent camp. There are a free
grammar school (founded 1539), a technical and university
extension college, a literary institute and medical and other
societies. Castle Park is a public ground surrounding the castle.
Colchester is the centre of an agricultural district, and has
extensive corn and cattle markets. Industries include founding,
engineering, malting, flour-milling, rose-growing and the making
of clothing and boots and shoes. The oyster fisheries at the
mouth of the Colne, for which the town has been famous for
centuries, belong to the corporation, and are held on a ninety-
nine years' lease by the Colne Fishery Company, incorporated

COLCHESTER COLCHICUM

661

under an act of 1870. The harbour, with quayage at the suburb
of Hythe, is controlled by the corporation. The parliamentary
borough, which is co-extensive with the municipal, returns one
member. The municipal corporation consists of a mayor, 8
aldermen and 24 councillors. Area 11,333 acres.

The Roman town, Colonia Victricensis Camalodunum (or
Camulodunum), was of great importance. It was founded by
Claudius, early in the period of the Roman conquest, as a
municipality with discharged Roman soldiers as citizens, to
assist the Roman dominion and spread its civilization. Under
Queen Boadicea the natives burned the town and massacred the
colonists; but Camalodunum soon rose to fresh' prosperity and
flourished throughout the Roman period. Its walls and some
other remains, including the guardroom at the principal gate,
can still be clearly traced, and many such relics as sculptures,
inscriptions, pavements and pottery have been discovered.
When the borough originated is not known, but Domesday Book
mentions two hundred and seventy-six burgesses and land in
commune burgensium, a phrase that may point to a nascent
municipal corporation. The first charter given by Richard I.
in 1189 granted the burghers leave to choose their bailiffs and a
justice to hold the pleas of the crown within the borough, freedom
from the obligation of duel, freedom of passage and pontage
through England, free warren, fishery and custom as in the time
of Henry I., and other privileges. An inspeximus of this charter
by Henry III. in 1252 granted the burgesses the return of certain
writs. The charters were confirmed by various kings, and new
grants obtained in 1447 and 1535. In 1635 Charles I. granted a
fresh charter, which replaced the bailiffs by a mayor, and in
1653 Cromwell altered it to secure a permanent majority for his
party on the corporation. But his action was undone in 1659,
and in 1663 Charles II. granted a new charter. In 1684 the
charters were surrendered, and a new one obtained reserving to
the crown power to remove the mayor and alderman, and this
one was further modified by James II. But the charter of 1663
was confirmed in 1693 an d remained in force till 1741, when the
liberties were allowed to lapse. In 1763 George III. made the
borough a renewed grant of its liberties. Colchester returned
two members to parliament from 1295 until 1885. Fairs were
granted by Richard I. in 1189 to the hospital of St Mary
Magdalene, and by Edward II. in 1319 to the town for the eve of
and feast of St Denis and the six following days a fair which is
still held. In the i3th century Colchester was sufficiently im-
portant as a port to pay a fee-farm of 46, its ships plying to
Winchelsea and France. Elizabeth and James I. encouraged
Flemish settlers in the manufacture of baize (" bays and says "),
which attained great importance, so that a charter of Charles I.
speaks of burgesses industriously exercising the manufacture of
cloth. Both Camden and Fuller mention the trade in barrelled
oysters and candied cringe-root. The most notable event in the
history of the town was its siege by Fairfax in 1648, when the
raw levies of the Royalists in the second civil war held his army
at bay for nearly eleven weeks, only surrendering when starved
out, and when Cromwell's victory in the north made further
resistance useless. Colchester was made the see of a suffragan
bishop by King Henry VIII., and two bishops were in succession
appointed by him; no further appointments, however, were
made until the see was re-established under Queen Victoria.

See Victoria County History, Essex; Charters and Letters Patent
grantee 1 to the Borough of Colchester (Colchester, 1903) ; Morant,
History of Colchester (1748); Harrod's Report on the Records of
Colchester (1865); Cutts, Colchester (Historic Towns) 1888; J. H.
Round, " Colchester and the Commonwealth " in Eng. Hist. Rev.
vol. xv.; Benham, Red Paper Book of Colchester (1902), and Oath
Book of Colchester (1907).

COLCHESTER, a township of Chittenden county, Vermont,
U.S.A., on Lake Champlain, immediately N.E. of Burlington,
from which it is separated by the Winooski river. Pop. (1900)
5352; (1910) 6450. It is served by the Central Vermont railway.
The surface is generally gently rolling, and in places along the
banks of the Winooski or Onion river, the shore of the lake,
and in the valleys, it is very picturesque. At Mallett's Bay,
an arm of Lake Champlain, 2 m. long and ij m. wide, several

large private schools hold summer sessions. The soil is varied,
much of it being good meadow land or well adapted to the
growing of grain and fruit. The township has two villages:
Colchester Centre, a small, quiet settlement, and Winooski
(pop. in 1900, 3783) on the Winooski river. This stream
furnishes good water power, and the village has manufactories
of cotton and woollen goods, lumber, woodenware, gold and silver
plated ware, carriages, wagons and screens. Within the town-
ship there is a United States military reservation, Fort Ethan
Allen. The village was founded in 1772 by Ira Allen and for
many years it was known as " Allen's Settlement "; but later
it was called Winooski Falls, and in 1866 it was incorporated
as the Village of Winooski.

COLCHICUM, the Meadow Saffron, or Autumn Crocus (Col-
chicum autumnale), a perennial plant of the natural order
Liliaceae, found wild in rich moist meadow-land in England and
Ireland, in middle and southern Europe, and in the Swiss Alps.
It has pale-purple flowers, rarely more than three in number;
the perianth is funnel-shaped, and produced below into a long
slender tube, in the upper part of which the six stamens are
inserted. The ovary is three-celled, and lies at the bottom of
this tube. The leaves are three or four in number, flat, lanceolate,
erect and sheathing; and there is no stem. Propagation is by
the formation of new conns from the parent corm, and by seeds.
The latter are numerous, round, reddish-brown, and of the size
of black mustard-seeds. The corm of the meadow-saffron attains
its full size in June or early in July. A smaller corm is then
formed from the old one, close to its root; and this in September
and October produces the crocus-like flowers. In the succeeding
January or February it sends up its leaves, together with the
ovary, which perfects its seeds during the summer. The young
corm, at first about the diameter of the flower-stalk, grows
continuously, till in the following July it attains the size of a
small apricot. The parent corm remains attached to the new
one, and keeps its form and size till April in the third year of its
existence, after which it decays. In some cases a single conn
produces several new plants during its second spring by giving
rise to immature corms.

C. autumnale and its numerous varieties as well as other
species of the genus, are well known in cultivation, forming
some of the most beautiful of autumn-flowering plants. They
are very easy to cultivate and do not require lifting. The most
suitable soil is a light, sandy loam enriched with well decomposed
manure, in a rather moist situation. The conns should be planted
not less than 3 in. deep. Propagation is effected by seed or
increase of corms; the seed should be sown as soon as it is ripe
in June or July.

Colchicum was known to the Greeks under the name of
Ko\xu<6v, from KoXxis, or Colchis, a country in which the
plant grew; and it is described by Dioscorides as a poison. In
the 1 7th century the corms were worn by some of the German
peasantry as a charm against the plague. The drug was little
used till 1763, when Baron Storck of Vienna introduced it for
the treatment of dropsy. Its use in febrile diseases, at one time
extensive, is now obsolete. As a specific for gout colchicum
was early employed by the Arabs; and the preparation known
as eau medicinale, much resorted to in the i8th century for the
cure of gout, owes its therapeutic virtues to colchicum; but
general attention was first directed by Sir Everard Home to the
use of the drug in gout.

For medical purposes the corm should be collected in the
early summer and, after the outer coat has been removed,
should be sliced and dried at a temperature of 130 to 150 F.

The chief constituents of colchicum are two alkaloids, colchicine
and veratrine. Colchicine is the active principle and may be
given in full form in doses of -fa to -fa grain. It is a yellow, micro-
crystalline powder, soluble in water, alcohol and chloroform,
and forming readily decomposed salts with acids. It is the
methyl ester of a neutral body colchicein, which may be obtained
in white acicular crystals.

The official dose of powdered colchicum is 2 to 5 grains, which
may be given in a cachet. The British Pharmacopoeia contains

662

COLCHIS

(1) an extract of the fresh com, having doses of 1 to i grain, and

(2) the Vinum Colchici, made by treating the dried conn with
sherry and given in doses of 10 to 30 minims. This latter is the
preparation still most generally used, though the presence of
veratrine both in the corm and the seeds renders the use of
colchicine itself theoretically preferable. The dried ripe seeds of
this plant are also used in medicine. They are exceedingly hard
and difficult to pulverize, odourless, bitter and readily confused
with black mustard seeds. They contain a volatile oil which
does not occur in the corm, and their proportion of colchicine
is higher, for which reason the Tinctura Colchici Seminiim
dose 5 to 15 minims is preferable to the wine prepared from the
corm. At present this otherwise excellent preparation is not
standardized, but the suggestion has been made that it should
be standardized to contain o- 1 % of colchicine. The salicylate
of colchicine is stable in water and may be given in doses of about
one-thirtieth of a grain. It is often known as Colchi-Sal.

Pharmacology. Colchicum or colchicine, when applied to
the skin, acts as a powerful irritant, causing local pain and
congestion. When inhaled, the powder causes violent sneezing,
similar to that produced by veratrine itself, which is, as already
stated, a constituent of the corm. Taken internally, colchicum
or colchicine markedly increases the amount of bile poured into
the alimentary canal, being amongst the most powerful of known
cholagogues. Though this action doubtless contributes to its
remarkable therapeutic power, it is very far from being an
adequate explanation of the virtues of the drug in gout. In
larger doses colchicum or colchicine acts as a most violent gastro-
intestinal irritant, causing terrible pain, colic,vomiting, diarrhoea,
haemorrhage from the bowel, thirst and ultimately death from
collapse. This is accelerated by a marked depressant action
upon the heart, similar to that produced by veratrine and
aconite. Large doses also depress the nervous system, weakening
the anterior horns of grey matter in the spinal cord so as ulti-
mately to cause complete paralysis, and also causing a partial
insensibility of the cutaneous nerves of touch and pain. The
action of colchicum or colchicine upon the kidneys has been
minutely studied, and it is asserted on the one hand that the
urinary solids are much diminished and, on the other hand,
that they are markedly increased, the specific gravity of the
secretion being much raised. These assertions, and the total
inadequacy of the pharmacology of colchicum, as above detailed,
to explain its specific therapeutic property, show that the secret
of colchicum is as yet undiscovered.

The sole but extremely important use of this drug is as a
specific for gout. It has an extraordinary power over the pain
of acute gout; it lessens the severity and frequency of the attacks
when given continuously between them, and it markedly controls
such symptoms of gout as eczema, bronchitis and neuritis,
whilst it is entirely inoperative against these conditions when
they are not of gouty origin. Despite the general recognition
of these facts, the pharmacology of colchicum has hitherto
thrown no light on the pathology of gout, and the pathology of
gout has thrown no light upon the manner in which colchicum
exerts its unique influence upon this disease. Veratrine is
useless in the treatment of gout. A further curious fact, doubtless
of very great significance, but hitherto lacking interpretation,
is that the administration of colchicum during an acute attack
of gout may often hasten the oncoming of the next attack; and
this property, familiar to many gouty patients,may not be affected
by the administration of small doses after the attack. Altogether
colchicum is a puzzle, and will remain so until the efficient poison
of gout is isolated and defined. When that is done, colchicine
may be found to exhibit a definite chemical interaction with
this hitherto undiscovered substance.

In colchicum poisoning, empty the stomach, give white of
egg, olive or salad oil, and water. Use hot bottles and stimulants,
especially trying to counteract the cardiac depression by atro-
pine, caffeine, strophanthin, &c.

COLCHIS, in ancient geography, a nearly triangular district
of Asia Minor, at the eastern extremity of the Black Sea, bounded
on the N. by the Caucasus, which separated it from Asiatic

Sarmatia, E. by Iberia, S. by the Monies Moschici, Armenia and
part of Pontus, and W. by the Euxine. The ancient district is
represented roughly by the modern province of Kutais (formerly
Mingrelia). The name of Colchis first appears in Aeschylus and
Pindar. It was inhabited by a number of tribes whose settle-
ments lay chiefly along the shore of the Black Sea. The chief of
those were the Lazi, Moschi, Apsilae, Abasci, Sagadae, Suani
and Coraxi. These tribes differed so completely in language and
appearance from the surrounding nations, that the ancients
originated various theories to account for the phenomenon.
Herodotus, who states that they, with the Egyptians and the
Ethiopians, were the first to practise circumcision, believed them
to have sprung from the relics of the army of Sesostris (?..),
and thus regarded them as Egyptians. Apollonius Rhodius
(Argon, iv. 279) states that the Egyptians of Colchis preserved
as heirlooms a number of wooden /cup/Stis (tablets) showing seas
and highways with considerable accuracy. Though this theory
was not generally adopted by the ancients, it has been defended,
but not with complete success, by some modern writers. It is
quite possible that there was an ancient trade connexion between
the Colchians and the Mediterranean peoples. We learn that
women were buried, while the corpses of men were suspended on
trees. The principal coast town was the Milesian colony of
Dioscurias (Roman Sebastopolis; mod. Sukhum Kaleh), the
ancient name being preserved in the modern C. Iskuria. The
chief river was the Phasis (mod. Rion). From Colchis is derived
the name of the plant Colchicum (q.v.).

Colchis was celebrated in Greek mythology as the destination of
the Argonauts, the home of Medea and the special domain of
sorcery. Several Greek colonies were founded there by Miletus.
At a remote period it seems to have been incorporated with the
Persian empire, though the inhabitants evidently enjoyed a
considerable degree of independence; in this condition it was
found by Alexander the Great, when he invaded Persia. From
this time till the era of the Mithradatic wars nothing is known
of its history. At the time of the Roman invasion it seems to
have paid a nominal homage to Mithradates the Great and to have
been ruled over by Machares, his second son. On the defeat of
Mithradates by Pompey, it became a Roman province. After
the death of Pompey, Pharnaces, the son of Mithradates, rose in
rebellion against the Roman yoke, subdued Colchis and Armenia,
and made head, though but for a short time, against the Roman
arms. After this Colchis was incorporated with Pontus, and the
Colchians are not again alluded to in ancient history till the
6th century, when, along with the Abasci or Abasgi, under their
king Gobazes, whose mother was a Roman, they called in the aid
of Chosroes I. of Persia (541). The importance of the district,
then generally called Lazica from the Lazi (cf. mod. Lazistan)
who led the revolt, was due to the fact that it was the only remain-
ing bar which held the Persians, already masters of Iberia, from
the Black Sea. It had therefore been specially garrisoned by
Justinian under first Peter, a Persian slave, and subsequently
Johannes Tzibos, who built Petra on the coast as the Roman
Headquarters. Tzibos took advantage of the extreme poverty of
the Lazi to create a Roman monopoly by which he became a
middleman for all the trade both export and import. Chosroes
at once accepted the invitation of Gobazes and succeeded in
capturing Petra (A.D. 541). The missionary zeal of the Zoroastrian
priests soon caused discontent among the Christian inhabitants
of Colchis, and Gobazes, perceiving that Chosroes intended to
Persianize the district, appealed to Rome, with the result that in
549 one Dagisthaeus was sent out with 7000 Romans and 1000
auxiliaries of the Tzani (Zani, Sanni). The " Lazic War " lasted
till 556 with varying success. Petra was recaptured in 551 and
Archaeopolis was held by the Romans against the Persian general
Mermeroes. Gobazes was assassinated in 552, but the Persian
general Nachoragan was heavily defeated at Phasis in 553.

By the peace of 562 the district was left in Roman possession,
but during the next 150 years it is improbable that the Romans
exercised much authority over it. In 697 we hear of a revolt
against R6"me led by Sergius the Patrician, who allied himself
with the Arabs. Justinian II. in his second period of rule sent

COLCOTHAR GOLDEN

663

Leo the Isaurian, afterwards emperor, to induce the Alans to
attack the Abasgi. The Alans, having gained knowledge of
the district by a trick, invaded Lazica, and, probably in 712, a
Roman and Armenian army laid siege to Archaeopolis. On the
approach of a Saracen force they retired, but a small plundering
detachment was cut off. Ultimately Leo joined this band and
aided by the Apsilian chief Marinus escaped with them to the
coast.

From the beginning of the i4th to the end of the i?th century
the district under the name Mingrelia (q.v.) was governed by an
independent dynasty, the Dadians, which was succeeded by a
semi-independent dynasty, the Chikovans, who by 1838 had
submitted to Russia, though they retained a nominal sovereignty.
In 1866 the district was finally annexed by Russia.

For the kings see Stokvis, Manuel d'histoire, i. 83. (J. M. M.)

COLCOTHAR (adapted in Romanic languages from Arabic
golgotar, which was probably a corruption of the Gr. xo^ii^os,
from \a\Kbs, copper, avQas, flower, i.e. copper sulphate), a name
given to the brownish-red ferric oxide formed in the preparation
of fuming sulphuric (Nordhausen) acid by distilling ferrous
sulphate. It is used as a polishing powder, forming the rouge of
jewellers, and as the pigment Indian red. It is also known as
Crocus Martis.

COLD (in O. Eng. cold and ceald, a word coming ultimately
from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidtts, and common in
the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms
for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kdlte, kalt, Dutch
koude, koud), subjectively the sensation which is excited by contact
with a substance whose temperature is lower than the normal;
objectively a quality or condition of material bodies which gives
rise to that sensation. Whether cold, in the objective sense, was
to be regarded as a positive quality or merely as absence of heat
was long a debated question. Thus Robert Boyle, who does not
commit himself definitely to either view, says, in his New Experi-
ments and Observations touching Cold, that " the dispute which is
the primum frigidum is very well known among naturalists,
some contending for the earth, others for water, others for the air,
and some of the moderns for nitre, but all seeming to agree that
there is some body or other that is of its own nature supremely
cold and by participation of which all other bodies obtain that
quality." But with the general acceptance of the dynamical
theory of heat, cold naturally came to be regarded as a negative
condition, depending on decrease in the amount of the molecular
vibration that constitutes heat.

The question whether there is a limit to the degree of cold
possible, and, if so, where the zero must be placed, was first
attacked by the French physicist, G. Amontons, in 1702-1703,
in connexion with his improvements in the air-thermometer.
In his instrument temperatures were indicated by the height
at which a column of mercury was sustained by a certain mass
of air, the volume or " spring " of which of course varied with
the heat to which it was exposed. Amontons therefore argued
that the zero of his thermometer would be that temperature at
which the spring of the air in it was reduced to nothing. On the
scale he used the boiling-point of water was marked at 73 and the
melting-point of ice at 515, so that the zero of his scale was
equivalent to about -240 on the centigrade scale. This remark-
ably close approximation to the modern value of -273 for the
zero of the air-thermometer was further improved on by J. H.
Lambert (Pyrometrie, 1779), who gave the value -270 and
observed that this temperature might be regarded as absolute
cold. Values of this order for the absolute zero were not,
however, universally accepted about this period. Laplace and
Lavoisier, for instance, in their treatise on heat (1780), arrived
at values ranging from 1500 to 3000 below the freezing-point
of water, and thought that in any case it must be at least 600
below, while John Dalton in his Chemical Philosophy gave ten
calculations of this value, and finally adopted -3000 C. as the

natural zero of temperature. After J. P. Joule had determined
the mechanical equivalent of heat, Lord Kelvin approached
the question from an entirely different point of view, and in
1848 devised a scale of absolute temperature which was inde-

pendent of the properties of any particular substance and was
based solely on the fundamental laws of thermodynamics (see
HEAT and THERMODYNAMICS). It followed from the principles
on which this scale was constructed that its zero was placed at
-273, at almost precisely the same point as the zero of the
air-thermometer!

In nature the realms of space, on the probable assumption
that the interstellar medium is perfectly transparent and diather-
manous, must, as was pointed out by W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
be incapable of acquiring any temperature, and must therefore
be at the absolute zero. That, however, is not to say that if a
suitable thermometer could be projected into space it would
give a reading of -273. On the contrary, not being a trans-
parent and diathermanous body, it would absorb radiation
from the sun and other stars, and would thus become wanned.
Professor J. H. Poynting (" Radiation in the Solar System,"
Phil. Trans., A, 1903, 202, p. 525) showed that as regards bodies
in the solar system the effects of radiation from the stars are
negligible, and calculated that by solar radiation alone a small
absorbing sphere at the distance of Mercury from the sun would
have its temperature raised to 483 Abs. (210 C.), at the distance
of Venus to 358 Abs. (85 C.),of the earth to 300 Abs. (27 C.),
of Mars to 243 Abs. (- 30 C.), and of Neptune to only 54 Abs.
(- 219 C.). The French physicists of the early part of the igth
century held a different view, and rejected the hypothesis of the
absolute cold of space. Fourier, for instance, postulated a
fundamental temperature of space as necessary for the explana-
tion of the heat-effects observed on the surface of the earth, and
estimated that in the interplanetary regions it was little less
than that of the terrestrial poles and below the freezing-point of
mercury, though it was different in other parts of space (Ann.
chim. phys., 1824, 27, pp. 141, 150). C. S. M. Pouillet, again,
calculated the temperature of interplanetary space as - 142 C.
(Comptes rendus, 1838, 7, p. 61), and Sir John Herschel as
-150 (Ency. Brit., 8th ed., art. "Meteorology," p. 643).

To attain the absolute zero in the laboratory, that is, to
deprive a substance entirely of its heat, is a thermodynamical
impossibility, and the most that the physicist can hope for is an
indefinitely close approach to that point. The lowest steady
temperature obtainable by the exhaustion of liquid hydrogen
is about - 262 C. (11 Abs.), and the liquefaction of helium by
Professor Kamerlingh Onnes in 1908 yielded a liquid having a
boiling-point of about 4-3 Abs., which on exhaustion must
bring us to within about 23 degrees of the absolute zero. (See
LIQUID GASES.)

For a "cold," in the medical sense, see CATARRH and RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM: Pathology.

COLDEN, CADWALLADER (1688-1776), American physician
and colonial official, was born at Duns, Scotland, on the I7th of
February 1688. He graduated at the university of Edinburgh
in 1705, spent three years in London in the study of medicine,
and emigrated to America in 1708. After practising medicine
for ten years in Philadelphia, he was invited to settle in New
York by Governor Hunter, and in 1718 was appointed the first
surveyor-general of the colony. Becoming a member of the
provincial council in 1720, he served for many years as its presi-
dent, and from 1761 until his death was lieutenant-governor;
for a considerable part of the time, during the interim between
the appointment of governors, he was acting-governor. About
1755 he retired from medical practice. As early as 1729 he had
built a country house called Coldengham on the line between
Ulster and Orange counties, where he spent much of his time
until 1761. Aristocratic and extremely conservative, he had a
violent distrust of popular government and a strong aversion
to the popular party in New York. Naturally he came into
frequent conflict with the growing sentiment in the colony in
opposition to royal taxation. He was acting-governor when in
1765 the stamped paper to be used under the Stamp Act arrived
in the port of New York ; a mob burned him in effigy in his
own coach in Bowling Green, in sight of the enraged acting-
governor and of General Gage; and Golden was compelled to
surrender the stamps to the city council, by whom they were

66 4

COLD HARBOR COLE, SIR H.

locked up in the city hall until all attempts to enforce the new
law were abandoned. Subsequently Golden secured the sus-
pension of the provincial assembly by an act of parliament.
He understood, however, the real temper of the patriot party,
and in 1775, when the outbreak of hostilities seamed inevitable,
he strongly advised the ministry to act with caution and to
concede some of the colonists' demands. When the war began,
he retired to his Long Island country seat, where he died on the
28th of September 1776. Golden was widely known among
scientists and men of letters in England and America. He was
a life-long student of botany, and was the first to introduce in
America the classification system of Linnaeus, who gave the
name " Coldenia " to a newly recognized genus. He was an
intimate friend of Benjamin Franklin. He wrote several medical
works of importance in their day, the most noteworthy being
A Treatise on Wounds and Fevers (1765); he also wrote The
History of the Five Indian Nations depending on the Province
of New York (1727, reprinted 1866 and 1905), and an elaborate
work on The Principles of Action in Matter (1751), which, with
his Introduction to the Study of Physics (c, 1756), his Enquiry into
the Principles of Vital Motion (1766), and his Reflections (c. 1770),
mark him as the first of American materialists and one of the
ablest material philosophers of his day. I. Woodbridge Riley,
in American Philosophy (New York, 1907), made the first
critical study of Colden's philosophy, and said of it that it
combined " Newtonian mechanics with the ancient hylozoistic
doctrine ..." and " ultimately reached a kind of dynamic
panpsychism, substance being conceived as a self-acting and
universally diffused principle, whose essence is power and force."

See Alice M. Keys, Cadwallader Golden, A Representative i8th
Century Official (New York, 1906), a Columbia University doctoral
dissertation; J. G. Mumford, Narrative of Medicine in America
(New York, 1903); and Asa Gray, "Selections from the Scientific
Correspondence of Cadwallader Golden " in American Journal of
Science, vol. 44, 1843.

His grandson, CADWALLADER DAVID GOLDEN (1769-1834),
lawyer and politician, was educated in London, but returned
in 1785 to New York, where he attained great distinction at the
bar. He was a colonel of volunteers during the war of 1812, and
from 1818 to 1821 was the successor of Jacob Radcliff as mayor
of New York City. He was a member of the state assembly
(1818) and the state senate (1825-1827), and did much to secure
the construction of the Erie Canal and the organization of the
state public school system; and in 1821-1823 he was a repre-
sentative in Congress. He wrote a Life of Robert Fulton (1817)
and a Memoir of the Celebration of the Completion of the New York
Canals (1825).

COLD HARBOR, OLD and NEW, two localities in Hanover
county, Virginia, U.S.A., 10 m. N.E. of Richmond. They were
the scenes of a succession of battles, on May 3i-June 12, 1864,
between the Union forces under command of General U. S.
Grant and the Confederates under General R. E. Lee, who
held a strongly entrenched line at New Cold Harbor. The
main Union attack on June 3 was delivered by the II.
(Hancock), VI. (Wright), and XVIII. (W. F. Smith) corps, and
was brought to a standstill in eight minutes. An order from army
headquarters to renew the attack was ignored by the officers and
men at the front, who realized fully the strength of the hostile
position. These troops lost as many as 5000 men in an hour's
fighting, the greater part in the few minutes of the actual assault.
In the constant fighting of 3ist of May to i2th of June on this
ground Grant lost 14,000 men. (See WILDERNESS and AMERICAN
CIVIL WAR.)

COLDSTREAM, a police burgh of Berwickshire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901) 1482. It is situated on the north bank of the Tweed,
here spanned by John Smeaton's fine bridge of five arches,
erected in 1763-1766, 13$ m. south-west of Berwick by the
North Eastern railway. The chief public buildings are the town
hall, library, mechanics' institute, and cottage hospital. Some
brewing is carried on. Owing to its position on the Border and
also as the first ford of any consequence above Berwick, the
town played a prominent part in Scottish history during many
centuries. Here Edward I. crossed the stream in 1296 with his

invading host, and Montrose with the Covenanters in 1640.
Of the Cistercian priory, founded about 1165 by Cospatric of
Dunbar, and destroyed by the ist earl of Hertford in 1545, which
stood a little to the east of the present market-place, no trace
remains; but for nearly four hundred years it was a centre of
religious fervour. Here it was that the papal legate, in the reign
of Henry VIII., published a bull against the printing of the
Scriptures; and by the irony of fate its site was occupied in the
igth century by an establishment, under Dr Adam Thomson,
for the production of cheap Bibles. At Coldstream General
Monk raised in 1659 the celebrated regiment of Foot Guards
bearing its name. Like Gretna Green, Coldstream long enjoyed
a notoriety as the resort of runaway couples, the old toll-house
at the bridge being the usual scene of the marriage ceremony.
" Marriage House," as it is called, still exists in good repair.
Henry Brougham, afterwards lord chancellor, was married in
this clandestine way, though in an inn and not at the bridge, in
1821. Birgham, 3 m. west, was once a place of no small import-
ance, for there in 1 188 William the Lion conferred with the bishop
of Durham concerning the attempt of the English Church to
impose its supremacy upon Scotland; there in 1289 was held the
convention to consider the question of the marriage of the Maid
of Norway with Prince Edward of England; and there, too, in
1290 was signed the treaty of Birgham, which secured the inde-
pendence of Scotland. Seven miles below Coldstream on the
English side, though 6 m. north-east of it, are the massive ruins
of Norham Castle, made famous by Scott's Marmion, and from
the time of its building by Ranulph Flambard in 1121 a focus
of Border history during four centuries.

COLDWATER, a city and county-seat of Branch county,
Michigan, U.S.A., on Coldwater Stream (which connects two
of the group of small lakes in the vicinity), about 80 m.
S.S.E. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890) 5247; (1900) 6216, of
whom 431 were foreign-born; (1904) 6225; (1910) 5945. It
is served by the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern railway. It is
the seat of a state public school and temporary home (opened
in 1874) for dependent, neglected or ill-treated children, who
are received at any age under twelve. The city is situated in
a fine farming region, has an important flouring and grist mill
industry, and also manufactures Portland cement, liniment,
lumber, furniture, sashes, doors and blinds, brass castings, sleighs,
shoes, &c. The municipality owns and operates the water-works
and electric lighting plant. Coldwater was settled in 1829, was
laid out as a town under the name of Lyons in 1832, received its
present name in the following year, was incorporated as a village
in 1837, was reached by railway and became the county-seat in
1851, and was chartered as a city in 1861.

COLE, SIR HENRY (1808-1882), English civil servant, was
born at Bath on the isth of July 1808, and was the son of an
officer in the army. At the age of fifteen he became clerk to
Sir Francis Palgrave, then a subordinate officer in the record
office, and, helped by Charles Buller, to whom he had been intro-
duced by Thomas Love Peacock, and who became chairman
of a royal commission for inquiry into the condition of the
public records, worked his way up until he became an assistant
keeper. He largely assisted in influencing public opinion in
support of Sir Rowland Hill's reforms at the post office. A
connexion with the Society of Arts caused him to drift gradually
out of the record office: he was a leading member of the com-
mission that organized the Great Exhibition of 1851, and upon
the conclusion of its labours was made secretary to the School
of Design, which by a series 'of transformations became in 1853
the Department of Science and Art. Under its auspices the
South Kensington (now Victoria and Albert) Museum was
founded in 1855 upon land purchased out of the surplus of the
exhibition, and Cole practically became its director, retiring in
1873. His proceedings were frequently criticized, but the
museum owes much to his energy. Indefatigable, genial and
masterful, he drove everything before him, and by all sorts of
schemes and devices built up a great institution, whose variety
and inequality of composition seemed imaged in the anomalous
structure in which it was temporarily housed. He also, though

COLE, T. COLEMANITE

665

to the financial disappointment of many, conferred a great
benefit upon the metropolis by originating the scheme for the
erection of the Royal Albert Hall. He was active in founding
the national training schools for cookery and music, the latter
the germ of the Royal College of Music. He edited the works of
his benefactor Peacock; and was in his younger days largely
connected with the press, and the author of many useful topo-
graphical handbooks published under the pseudonym of " Felix
Summerly." He died on the i8th of April 1882.

COLE, THOMAS (1801-1848), American landscape painter,
was born at Bolton-le-Moors, England, on the ist of February
1801. In 1819 the family emigrated to America, settling first in
Philadelphia and then at Steubenville, Ohio, where Cole learned
the rudiments of his profession from a wandering portrait painter
named Stein. He went about the country painting portraits,
but with little financial success. Removing to New York (1825),
he displayed some landscapes in the window of an eating-house,
where they attracted the attention of the painter Colonel
Trumbull, who sought him out, bought one of his canvases, and
found him patrons. From this time Cole was prosperous. He 5s
best remembered by a series of pictures consisting of four canvases
representing " The Voyage of Life," and another series of five
canvases representing " The Course of Empire," the latter now
in the gallery of the New York Historical Society. They were
allegories, in the taste of the day, and became exceedingly popular,
being reproduced in engravings with great success. The work,
however, was meretricious, the sentiment false, artificial and
conventional, and the artist's genuine fame must rest on his
landscapes, which, though thin in the painting, hard in the
handling, and not infrequently painful in detail, were at least
earnest endeavours to portray the world out of doors as it
appeared to the painter; their failings were the result of Cole's
environment and training. He had an influence on his time and
his fellows which was considerable, and with Durand he may be
said to have founded the early school of American landscape
painters. Cole spent the years 1829-1832 and 1841-1842 abroad,
mainly in Italy, and at Florence lived with the sculptor
Greenough. After 1827 he had a studio in the Catskills which
furnished the subjects of some of his canvases, and he died at
Catskill, New York, on the nth of February 1848. His pictures
are in many public and private collections. His " Expulsion from
Eden " is in the Metropolitan Museum in New York.

COLE, TIMOTHY (1852- ), American wood engraver, was
born in London, England, in 1852, his family emigrating to the
United States in 1858. He established himself in Chicago, where
in the great fire of 1871 he lost everything he possessed. In 1875
he removed to New York, finding work on the Century (then
Scribner's) magazine. He immediately attracted attention by
his unusual facility and his sympathetic interpretation of illustra-
tions and pictures, and his publishers sent him abroad in 1883 to
engrave a set of blocks after the old masters in the European
alleries. These achieved for him a brilliant success. His repro-
ductions of Italian, Dutch, Flemish and English pictures were
published in book form with appreciative notes by the engraver
nself. Though the advent of new mechanical processes had
endered wood engraving almost a lost art and left practically
no demand for the work of such craftsmen, Mr Cole was thus
nabled to continue his work, and became one of the foremost
ontemporary masters of wood engraving. He received a
nedal of the first class at the Paris Exhibition of 1900, and the
>nly grand prize given for wood engraving at the Louisiana
Purchase Exposition at St Louis, Missouri, in 1904.

COLE, VICAT (1833-1893), English painter, born at Ports-
nouth on the I7th of April 1833, was the son of the landscape
ainter, George Cole, and in his practice followed his father's
with marked success. He exhibited at the British Institu-
on at the age of nineteen, and was first represented at the Royal
Academy in 1853. His election as an associate of this institution
ok place in 1870, and he became an Academician ten years later,
le died in London on the 6th of April 1893. The wide popularity
: his work was due partly to the simple -directness of his technical
nethod, and partly to his habitual choice of attractive material.

Most of his subjects were found in the counties of Surrey and
Sussex, and along the banks of the Thames. One of his largest
pictures, " The Pool of London," was bought by the Chantrey
Fund Trustees in 1888, and is now in the Tate Gallery.

See Robert Chignell, The Life and Paintings of Vicat Cole, R.A.
(London, 1899).

COLEBROOKE, HENRY THOMAS (1765-1837), English
Orientalist, the third son of Sir George Colebrooke, 2nd baronet,
was born in London on the isth of June 1765. He was educated
at home; and when only fifteen he had made considerable
attainments in classics and mathematics. From the age of
twelve to sixteen he resided in France, and in 1782 was appointed
to a writership in India. About a year after his arrival there he
was placed in the board of accounts in Calcutta; and three years
later he was removed to a situation in the revenue department
at Tirhut. In 1789 he was removed to Purneah, where he investi-
gated the resources of that part of the country, and published his
Remarks on the Husbandry and Commerce of Bengal, privately
printed in 1795, in which he advocated free trade between Great
Britain and India. After eleven years' residence in India,
Colebrooke began the study of Sanskrit; and to him was confided
the translation of the great Digest of Hindu Laws, which had been
left unfinished by Sir William Jones. He translated the two
treatises Mitacshara and Dayabhaga under the title Law of In-
heritance. He was sent to Nagpur in 1799 on a special mission,
and on his return was made a judge of the new court of appeal,
over which he afterwards presided. In 1805 Lord Wellesley
appointed him professor of Hindu Law and Sanskrit at the college
of Fort William. During his residence at Calcutta he wrote his
Sanskrit Grammar (1805), some papers on the religious ceremonies
of the Hindus, and his Essay on the Vedas (1805), for a long time
the standard work on the subject. He became member of council
in 1807 and returned to England seven years later. He died on
the i8th of March 1837. He was a director of the Asiatic Society,
and many of the most valuable papers in the society's Transac-
tions were communicated by him.

His life was written by his son, Sir T. E. Colebrooke, in 1873.

COLEMANITE, a hydrous calcium borate, CazB 6 O u -f5HA
found in California as brilliant monoclinic crystals. It contains
50-9% of boron trioxide, and is an important source of com-
mercial borates and boracic acid. Beautifully developed
crystals, up to 2 or 3 in. in length, encrust cavities in compact,
white colemanite; they are colourless and transparent, and
the brilliant lustre of their faces is vitreous to adamantine in
character. There is a perfect cleavage parallel to the plane of
symmetry of the crystals. Hardness 4-45; specific gravity
2-42. The mineral was first discovered in 1882 in Death Valley,
Inyo county, California, and in the following year it was found
in greater abundance near Daggett in San Bernardino county,
forming with other borates and borosilicates a bed in sedi-
mentary strata of sandstones and clays; in more recent years
very large masses have been found and worked in these localities,
and also in Los Angeles county (see Special Report, 1905, of
U.S. Census Bureau on Mines and Quarries; and Mineral
Resources of the U.S., 1907).

Priceite and pandermite are hydrous calcium borates with very
nearly the same composition as colemanite, and they may really
be only impure forms of this species. They are massive white
minerals, the former friable and chalk-like, and the latter firm
and compact in texture. Priceite occurs near Chetco in Curry
county, Oregon, where it forms layers between a bed of slate and
one of tough blue steatite; embedded in the steatite are rounded
masses of priceite varying in size from that of a pea to masses
weighing 200 Ib. Pandermite comes from Asia Minor, and is shipped
from the port of Panderma on the Sea of Marmora: it occurs as
large nodules, up to a ton in weight, beneath a thick'.bed of gypsum.

Another borate of commercial importance found abundantly in
the Californian deposits is ulexite, also known as boronatrocalcite
or " cotton-ball," a hydrous calcium and sodium borate,

NaBsOs+SHzO, which forms rounded masses consisting of a
loose aggregate of fine fibres. It is the principal species in the
borate deposits in the Atacama region of South America. (L. J . S.)

666

COLENSO COLEOPTERA

COLENSO, JOHN WILLIAM (1814-1883), English bishop of
Natal, was born at St Austell, Cornwall, on the 24th of January
1814. His family were in embarrassed circumstances, and he was
indebted to relatives for the means of university education. In
1836 he was second wranglerand Smith's prizeman at Cambridge,
and in 1837 he became fellow of St John's. Two years later he
went to Harrow as mathematical tutor, but the step proved an un-
fortunate one. The school was just then at the lowest ebb, and
Colenso not only had few pupils, but lost most of his property
by a fire. He went back to Cambridge, and in a short time paid
off heavy debts by diligent tutoring and the proceeds of his
series of manuals of algebra (1841) and arithmetic (1843), which
were adopted all over England. In 1846 he became rector of
Forncett St Mary, Norfolk, and in 1853 he was appointed
bishop of Natal. He at once devoted himself to acquiring the
Zulu language, of which he compiled a grammar and a dictionary,
and into which he translated the New Testament and other
portions of Scripture. He had already given evidence, in a
volume of sermons dedicated to Maurice, that he was not satisfied
with the traditional views about the Bible. The puzzling
questions put to him by the Zulus strengthened him in this
attitude and led him to make a critical examination of the
Pentateuch. His conclusions, positive and negative, were
published in a series of treatises on the Pentateuch, extending
from 1862 to 1879, and, being in advance of his time, were
naturally disputed in England with a fervour of conviction
equal to his own. On the continent they attracted the
notice of Abraham Kuenen, and furthered that scholar's in-
vestigations.

While the controversy raged in England, the South African
bishops, whose suspicions Colenso had already incurred by the
liberalityof his views respecting polygamy among native converts
and by a commentary upon the Epistle to the Romans (1861),
in which he combated the doctrine of eternal punishment, met
in conclave to condemn him, and pronounced his deposition
(December 1863). Colenso, who had refused to appear before
their tribunal otherwise than as sending a protest by proxy,
appealed to the privy council, which pronounced that the
metropolitan of Cape Town (Robert Gray) had no coercive
jurisdiction and no authority to interfere with the bishop of
Natal. No decision, therefore, was given upon the merits of the
case. His adversaries, though unable to obtain his condemna-
tion, succeeded in causing him to be generally inhibited from
preaching in England, and Bishop Gray not only excommunicated
him but consecrated a rival bishop for Natal (W. K. Macrorie),
who, however, took his title from Maritzburg. The con-
tributions of the missionary societies were withdrawn, but an
attempt to deprive him of his episcopal income was frustrated
by a decision of the courts. Colenso, encouraged by a handsome
testimonial raised in England, to which many clergymen sub-
scribed, returned to his diocese, and devoted the latter years of
his life to further labours asa biblical commentator and translator.
He also championed the cause of the natives against Boer op-
pression and official encroachments, a course by which he made
more enemies among the colonists than he had ever made among
the clergy. He died at Durban on the 2oth of June 1883.
His daughter Frances Ellen Colenso (1849-1887) published two
books on the relations of the Zulus to the British (1880 and
1885), taking a pro-Zulu view; and an elder daughter, Harriette
E. Colenso (b. 1847), became prominent as an advocate of the
natives in opposition to their treatment by Natal, especially in
the case of Dinizulu in 1888-1889 an <i ' n 1908-1909.
See his Life by Sir G. W. Cox (2 vols., London, 1888).

COLENSO, a village of Natal on the right or south bank of
the Tugela river, 16 m. by rail south by east of Ladysmith. It
was the scene of an action fought on the isth of December
1899 between the British forces under Sir Redvers Buller and the
Boers, in which the former were repulsed. (See LADYSMITH.)

COLEOPTERA, a term used in zoological classification for the
true beetles which form one of the best-marked and most natural
of the orders into which the class Hexapoda (or Insecta) has been
divided. For the relationship of the Coleoptera to other orders

of insects see HEXAPODA. The name (Gr. icoXeds, a sheath, and
TTTtpa, wings) was first used by Aristotle, who noticed the firm
protective sheaths, serving as coverings for the hind-wings
which alone are used for flight, without recognizing their cor-
respondence with the fore-wings of other insects.

These firm fore-wings, or elytra (fig. i, A), are usually convex
above, with straight hind margins (dorsa.)', when the elytra are
closed, the two hind margins come together along the mid-dorsal
line of the body, forming a suture. In many beetles the hind-
wings are reduced to mere vestiges useless for flight, or are
altogether absent, and in such cases the two elytra are often
fused together at the suture; thus organs originally intended
for flight have been transformed into an armour-like covering
for the beetle's hind-body. In correlation with their heavy build
and the frequent loss of the power of flight, many beetles are
terrestrial rather than aerial in habit, though a large proportion
of the order can fly well.

Aristotle's term was adopted by Linnaeus (1758), and has been
universally used by zoologists. The identification of the elytra
of beetles with the fore-wings of other insects has indeed been
questioned (1880) by F. Meinert, who endeavoured to compare
them with the tegulae of Hymenoptera, but the older view was
securely established by the demonstration in pupal elytra by J.
G. Needham (1898) and W. L. Tower (1903), of nervures similar
to those of the hind-wing, and by the proof that the small mem-
branous structures present beneath the elytra of certain beetles,
believed by Meinert to represent the whole of the true fore- wings,
are in reality only the alulae.

Structure. Besides the conspicuous character of the elytra,
beetles are distinguished by the adaptation of the jaws for
biting, the mandibles (fig. i, Bft) being powerful, and the first
pair of maxillae (fig. i, Be) usually typical in form. The maxillae
of the second pair (fig. i, Ed) are very intimately fused together
to form what is called the " lower lip " or labium, a firm trans-
verse plate representing the fused basal portions of the maxillae,
which may carry a small median " ligula," representing appar-
ently the fused inner maxillary lobes, a pair of paraglossae
(outer maxillary lobes), and a pair of palps. The feelers of
beetles differ greatly in the different families (cf. figs. 2b,gb and
26 b, c) ; the number of segments is usually eleven, but may vary
from two to more than twenty.

The head is extended from behind forwards, so that the
crown (epicranium) is large, while the face (clypeus) is small.
The chin (gula) is a very characteristic sclerite in beetles, absent
only in a few families, such as the weevils. There is usually a
distinct labrum (fig. i, Ba).

The prothorax is large and " free," i.e. readily movable on the
mesothorax, an arrangement usual among insects with the
power of rapid running. The tergite of the prothorax (pronotum)
is prominent in all beetles, reaching back to the bases of the
elytra and forming a substantial shield for the front part of the
body. The tergal regions of the mesothorax and of the meta-
thorax are hidden under the pronotum and the elytra when the
latter are closed, except that the mesothoracic scutellum is
often visible a small triangular or semicircular plate between
the bases of the elytra (fig. i, A). The ventral region of the
thoracic skeleton is complex, each segment usually possessing
a median sternum with paired episterna (in front) and epimera
(behind) . The articular surfaces of the haunches (coxae) of the
fore-legs are often conical or globular, so that each limb works
in a ball-and-socket joint, while the hind haunches are large,
displacing the ventral sclerites of the first two abdominal seg-
ments (fig. i, C). The legs themselves (fig. i, A) are of the usual
insectan type, but in many families one, two, or even three of
the five foot-segments may be reduced or absent. In beetles
of aquatic habit the intermediate and hind legs are modified
as swimming-organs (fig. 2, a), while in many beetles that burrow
into the earth or climb about on trees the fore-legs are broadened
and strengthened for digging, or lengthened and modified for
clinging to branches. The hard fore-wings (elytra) are
strengthened with marginal ridges, usually inflected ventrally
to form epipleura which fit accurately along the edges of the

COLEOPTERA

667

abdomen. The upper surface of the elytron is sharply folded
inwards at intervals, so as to give rise to a regular series of
external longitudinal furrows (striae) and to form a set of supports
between the two chitinous layers forming the elytron. The
upper surface often shows a number of impressed dots (punctures) .
Along the sutural border of the elytron, the chitinous lamella
forms a tubular space within which are numerous glands. The
glands occur in groups, and lead into common ducts which open

Oryunscfrte mautfu
a

usually so much reduced that the foremost apparent ventral
sclerite of the abdomen represents the third sternite. From
this point backwards the successive abdominal segments, as
far as the seventh or eighth, can be readily made out. The
ninth and tenth segments are at most times retracted within the
eighth. The female can protrude a long flexible tube in connexion
with the eighth segment, carrying the sclerites of the ninth at
its extremity, and these sclerites may carry short hairy processes
A

Under side.

y&*

FIG. i. Structure of Male Stag-Beetle (Lucanus cervus). A, Dorsal view; B, mouth organs; C, under side.

in several series along the suture. Sometimes the glands are
found beneath the disk of the elytron, opening by pores on the
surface. The hind-wings, when developed, are characteristic
in form, possessing a sub-costal nervure with which the reduced
radial nervure usually becomes associated. There are several
curved median and cubital nervures and a single anal, but few
cross nervures or areolets. The wing, when not in use, is folded

Pupa of
Dyticus.

Larva of Dyticus
Cybister sp. (Water-Beetle).

FIG. 2. Water Beetles (Dyticidae). a, Beetle; 6, head of beetle
with feelers and palps; c, larva; d, pupa.

both lengthwise and transversely, and doubled up beneath
the elytron; to permit the transverse folding, the longitudinal
nervures are interrupted.

Ten segments can be recognized according to the studies
of K. W. Verhoeff (1894-1896) in a beetle's abdomen, but the
tenth sternite is usually absent. On account of the great
extension of the metathorax and the haunches of the large hind-
legs, the first abdominal sternite is wanting, and the second is

the stylets. This flexible tube is the functional ovipositor,
the typical insectan ovipositor with its three pairs of processes
(see HEXAPODA) being undeveloped among the Coleoptera. In
male beetles, however, the two pairs of genital processes (para-
mera) belonging to the ninth abdominal segment are always
present, though sometimes reduced. Between them is situated,
sometimes asymmetrically, the prominent intromittent organ.

In the structure of the digestive system, beetles resemble
most other mandibulate insects, the food-canal consisting of
gullet, crop, gizzard, mid-gut oj stomach, intestine and rectum.
The stomach is beset throughout its length with numerous
small, finger-like caecal tubes. The excretory (malpighian)
tubes are few in number, either four or six. Many beetles have,
in connexion with the anus, glands which secrete a repellent
acid fluid, serving as a defence for the insect when attacked.
The " bombardier " ground beetles (fig. 5) have this habit.
Oil-beetles (figs. 23 and 24) and ladybirds (fig. 32) defend them-
selves by ejecting drops of fluid from the knee-joints. The
nervous system is remarkably concentrated in some beetles, the
abdominal ganglia showing a tendency to become shifted
forward and crowded together, and in certain chafers all the
thoracic and abdominal ganglia are fused into a single nerve-
centre situated in the thorax, a degree of specialization only
matched in the insectan class among the Hemiptera and some
muscid flies.

Development. The embryonic development (see HEXAPODA) has
been carefully studied in several genera of beetles. As regards growth
after hatching, all beetles undergo a " complete " metamorphosis,
the wing-rudiments developing beneath the cuticle throughout the
larval stages, and a resting pupal stage intervening between the last
larval instar 1 and the imago. The coleopterous pupa (figs. 2d, 3 c)
is always " free," the legs, wings and other appendages not being

1 Instar is a convenient term suggested by D. Sharp to indicate
a stage in the life-history of an insect between two successive castings
of the cuticle.

668

COLEOPTERA

fixed to the body as in the pupa of a moth, and the likeness of pupa
to perfect insect is very close.

The most striking feature in the development of beetles is the
great diversity noticeable in the outward form of the larva in different
families. The larva of a ground-beetle or a carnivorous water-
beetle (fig. 2 c) is an active elongate grub with well-armoured
cuticle. The head carrying feelers, mandibles and two pairs of
maxillae is succeeded by the three thoracic segments, each bearing
a pair of strong five-segmented legs, whose feet, like those of the adult,
carry two claws. Ten segments can be distinguished in the tapering
abdomen, the ninth frequently bearing a pair of tail-feelers (cerci),
and the tenth, attached ventrally to the ninth, having the anal
opening at its extremity and performing the function of a posterior
limb, supporting and temporarily fixing the tail end of the insect
on the surface over which it crawls. Such a typically " cam-
podeiform " grub, moving actively about in pursuit of prey, is the
one extreme of larval structure to be noticed among the Coleoptera.
The other is exemplified by the white, wrinkled, soft-skinned, legless
grub of a weevil, which lives underground feeding on roots, or
burrows in the tissues of plants (fig. 3 b). Between these two

From Chittendcn, Yearbook, 1894, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.
FIG. 3. Grain Weevils, a, Calandra granaria ; b, larva ; c, pupa ;
d, C. oryzae.

extremes we find various transitional forms: an active larva, as
described above, but with four-segmented, single-clawed legs, as
among the rove-beetles and their allies; the body well armoured,
but slender and worm-like, with very short legs as in wireworms
and mealworms (figs. 1 8, 21 6); the body shortened, with the abdo-
men swollen, but protected with tubercles and spines, and with
longish legs adapted for an active life, as in the predaceous larvae
of ladybirds; the body soft-skinned, swollen and caterpillar-like,
with legs well developed, but leading a sluggish underground life, as
in the grub of a chafer; the body soft-skinned and whitish, and the
legs greatly reduced in size, as in the wood-feeding grub of a long-
horn beetle. In the case of certain beetles whose larvae do not find
themselves amid appropriate food from the moment of hatching,
but have to migrate in search of it, an early larval stage, with legs,
is followed by later sluggish stages in which legs have disappeared,
furnishing examples of what is called hypermetamorphosis. For
example, the grub of a pea or bean beetle (Bruchus) is hatched, from
the egg laid by its mother on the carpel of a leguminous flower,
with three pairs of legs and spiny processes on the prpthorax. It
bores through and enters the developing seed, where it undergoes
a moult and becomes legless. Similarly the newly-hatched larva
of an oil-beetle (Meloe) is an active little campodeiform insect, which,
hatched from an egg laid among plants, waits to attach itself to a
passing bee. Carried to the bee's nest, it undergoes a moult, and
becomes a fat-bodied grub, ready to lead a quiet life feeding on the
bee's rich food-stores.

Distribution and Habits. The Coleoptera are almost world-
wide in their distribution, being represented in the Arctic
regions and on almost all oceanic islands. Most of the dominant
families such as the Carabidae (ground-beetles), Scarabaeidae
(chafers), or Curcidionidae (weevils) have a distribution as wide
as the order. But while some large families, such as the Staphy-
linidae (rove-beetles) are especially abundant on the great
northern continents, becoming scarcer in the tropics, others, the
Cicindelidae (tiger-beetles), for example, are most strongly
represented in the warmer regions of the earth, and become

scarce as the collector journeys far to south or north. The
distribution of many groups of beetles is restricted in corre-
spondence with their habits; the Cerambycidae (longhorns),
whose larvae are wood-borers, are absent from timberless
regions, and most abundant in the great tropical forests. Some
families are very restricted in their range. The Amphizoidae,
for example, a small family of aquatic beetles, are known only
from western North America and Eastern Tibet, while an allied
family, the Pdobiidae, inhabit the British Isles, the Mediter-
ranean region, Tibet and Australia. The beetles of the British
islands afford some very interesting examples of restricted
distribution among species. For example, large and conspicuous
European beetles, such as the stag-beetle (fig. i, Lucanus cervus)
and the great water-beetle (Hydrophilus piceus, fig. 20), are
confined to eastern and southern Britain, and are unknown
in Ireland. On the other hand, there are Arctic species like the
ground-beetle, Pelophila borealis, and south-western species
like the boring weevil, Mesites Tardyi, common in Ireland, and
represented in northern or western Britain, but unknown in
eastern Britain or in Central Europe. Careful study of insular
faunas, such as that of Madeira by T. V. Wollaston, and of the
Sandwich Islands by D. Sharp, and the comparison of the species
found with those of the nearest continental land, furnish the
student of geographical distribution with many valuable and
suggestive facts.

Notes on habit are given below in the accounts of the various
families. In general it may be stated that beetles live and feed
in almost all the diverse ways possible for insects. There are
carnivores, herbivores and scavengers among them. Various
species among those that are predaceous attack smaller insects,
hunt in packs crustaceans larger than themselves, insert their
narrow heads into snail-shells to pick out and devour the occu-
pants, or pursue slugs and earthworms underground. The
vegetable-feeders attack leaves, herbaceous or woody stems
and roots; frequently different parts of a plant are attacked
in the two active stages of the life-history; the cockchafers,
for example, eating leaves, and their grubs gnawing roots.
Some of the scavengers, like the burying beetles, inter the
bodies of small vertebrates to supply food for themselves and
their larvae, or, like the " sacred " beetle of Egypt, collect for
the same purpose stores of dung. Many beetles of different
families have become the "unbidden guests" of civilized man,
and may be found in dwelling-houses, stores and ships' cargoes,
eating food-stuffs, paper, furniture, tobacco and drugs. Hence
we find that beetles of some kind can hold their own anywhere
on the earth's surface. Some climb trees and feed on leaves,
while others tunnel between bark and wood. Some fly through
the air, others burrow in the earth, while several families have
become fully adapted to life in fresh water. A large number
of beetles inhabit the deep limestone caves of Europe and North
America, while many genera and some whole families are at
home nowhere but in ants' nests. Most remarkable is the
presence of a number of beetles along the seashore betwee
tide-marks, where, sheltered in some secure nook, they undergo
immersion twice daily, and have their active life confined to the
few hours of the low ebb.

Stridulating Organs. Many beetles make a hissing or chirping
sound by rubbing a " scraper," formed by a sharp edge or
prominence on some part of their exoskeleton, over a " file "
formed by a number of fine ridges situate on an adjacent region.
These Stridulating organs were mentioned by C. Darwin as prob-
able examples of the action of sexual selection; they are, however,
frequently present in both sexes, and in some families also in
the larvae. An account of the principal types of stridulators
that have been described has been published by C. J. Gahan
(1900). The file may be on the head either upper or lower
surface and the scraper formed by the front edge of the pro-
thorax, as in various wood-boring beetles (Anobium and Scolytus) .
Or ridged areas on the sides of the prothorax may be scraped by
" files " on the front thighs, as in some ground-beetles. Among
the longhorn beetles, the prothorax scrapes over a median file
on the mid-dorsal aspect of the mesothorax. In a large number

COLEOPTERA

669

of beetles of different families, stridulating areas occur on various
segments of the abdomen, and are scraped by the elytra. It is
remarkable that these organs are found in similar positions in
genera belonging to widely divergent families, while two genera
of the same family may have them in different positions. It
follows, therefore, that they have been independently acquired
in the course of the evolution of the Coleoptera.

Stridulating organs among beetle-larvae have been noted,
especially in the wood-feeding grub of the stag-beetles (Lucan-
idae) and their allies the Passalidae, and in the dung-eating
grubs of the dor-beetles (Geotrupes), which belong to the
chafer family (Scarabaeidae). These organs are described by
J. C. Schiodte and D. Sharp; in the stag-beetle larva a series
of short tubercles on the hind-leg is drawn across the serrate edge
of a plate on the haunch of the intermediate legs, while in the
Passalid grub the modified tip of the hind-leg acts as a scraper,
being so shortened that it is useless for locomotion, but highly
specialized for producing sound. Whatever may be the true
explanation of stridulating organs in adult beetles, sexual
selection can have had nothing to do with the presence of these
highly-developed larval structures. It has been suggested that
the power of stridulation would be advantageous to wood-boring
grubs, the sound warning each of the position of its neighbour,
so that adjacent burrowers may not get in each other's way.
The root-feeding larvae of the cockchafer and allied members
of the Scarabaeidae have a ridged area on the mandible, which
is scraped by teeth on the maxillae, apparently forming a
stridulating organ.

Luminous Organs. The function of the stridulating organs
just described is presumably to afford means of recognition
by sound. Some beetles emit a bright light from a portion of
their bodies, which leads to the recognition of mate or comrade
by sight. In the wingless female glow-worm (Lampyris, fig. is/)
the luminous region is at the hinder end, the organ emitting
the light consisting, according to H. von Wielowiejski (1882),
of cells similar to those of the fat-body, containing a substance
that undergoes oxidation. The illumination is intermittent,
and appears to be under the control of the insect's nervous
system. The well-known " fire-flies " of the tropics are large
click-beetles (Elateridae) , that emit light from paired spots on
the prothorax and from the base of the ventral abdominal
region. The luminous organs of these beetles consist of a
specialized part of the fat-body, with an inner opaque and an
outer transparent layer. Its structure has been described by
C. Heinemann, and its physiology by R. Dubois (1886), who
considers that the luminosity is due to the influence of an enzyme
in the cells of the organ upon a special substance in the blood.
The eggs and larvae of the fire-flies are luminous as well as the
perfect beetles.

Fossil History. The Coleoptera can be traced back farther
in time than any other order of insects with complete trans-
formations, if the structures that have been described from the
Carboniferous rocks of Germany are really elytra. In the
Triassic rocks of Switzerland remains of weevils (Curculionidae)
occur, a family which is considered by many students the most
specialized of the order. And when we know that the Chrysomel-
idae and Buprestidae also lived in Triassic, and the Carabidae,
Elateridae, Cerambycidae and Scarabaeidae, in Liassic times,
we cannot doubt that the great majority of our existing families
had already been differentiated at the beginning of the Mesozoic
epoch. Coming to the Tertiary we find the Oligocene beds of
Aix, of east Prussia (amber) and of Colorado, and the Miocene
of Bavaria, especially rich in remains of beetles, most of which
can be referred to existing genera.

Classification. The Coleoptera have been probably more
assiduously studied by systematic naturalists than any other
order of insects. The number of described species can now hardly
be less than 100,000, but there is little agreement as to the main
principles of a natural classification. About eighty-five families
are generally recognized; the difficulty that confronts the
zoologists is the arrangement of these families in " superfamilies "
or " sub-orders." Such obvious features as the number of

segments in the foot and the shape of the feeler were used by
the early entomologists for distinguishing the great groups of
beetles. The arrangement dependent on the number of tarsal
segments the order being divided into tribes Pentamera,
Tetramera, Heleromera and Trimera was suggested by E. L.
Geoff roy in 1762, adopted by P. A. Latreille, and used largely
through the igth century. W. S. Macleay's classification (1825),
which rested principally on the characters of the larvae, is
almost forgotten nowadays, but it is certain that in any sys-
tematic arrangement which claims to be natural the early stages
in the life-history must receive due attention. In recent years
classifications in part agreeing with the older schemes bul largely
original, in accord with researches on the comparative anatomy
of the insects, have been put forward. Among the more con-
servative of these may be mentioned that of D. Sharp (1899),
who divides the order into six great series of families: Lamelli-
cornia (including the chafers and stag-beetles and their allies
with five-segmented feet and plate-like terminal segments to
the feelers); Adephaga (carnivorous, terrestrial and aquatic
beetles, all with five foot-segments); Polymer pha (including
a heterogeneous assembly of families that cannot be fitted into
any of the other groups) ; Heleromera (beetles with the fore and
intermediate feet five-segmented, and the hind-feet four-seg-
mented) ; Phytophaga (including the leaf-beetles, and longhorns,
distinguished by the apparently four-segmented feet), and
Rhynchophora (the weevils and their allies, with head prolonged
into a snout, and feet with four segments). L. Ganglbauer (1892)
divides the whole order into two sub-orders only, the Caraboidea
(the Adephaga of Sharp and the older writers) and the Canthari-
doidea (including all other beetles), since the larvae of Caraboidea
have five-segmented, two-clawed legs, while those of all other
beetles have legs with four segments and a single claw. A.
Lameere (1900) has suggested three sub-orders, the Cantharidi-
formia (including the Phytophaga, the Heteromera, the Rhyn-
chophora and most of the Polymorpha of Sharp's classification),
the Staphyliniformia (including the rove-beetles, carrion-beetles
and a few allied families of Sharp's Polymorpha), and the Cara-
bidiformia (Adephaga). Lameere's classification is founded on
the number of abdominal sterna, the nervuration of the wings,
the number of malpighian tubules (whether four or six) and other
structural characters. Preferable to Lameere's system, because
founded on a wider range of adult characters and taking the
larval stages into account, is that of H. J. Kolbe (1001), who
recognizes three sub-orders: (i.) the Adephaga; (ii.) the
Heterophaga, including the Staphylinoidea, the Aclinorhabda
(Lamellicornia), the Heterorhabda (most of Sharp's Polymorpha),
and the Anchistopoda (the Phytophaga, with the ladybirds
and some allied families which Sharp places among the Poly-
morpha) ; (iii.) the Rhynchophora.

Students of the Coleoptera have failed to agree not only on a
system of classification, but on the relative specialization of
some of the groups which'they all recognize as natural. Lameere,
for example, considers some of his Cantharidiformia as the most
primitive Coleoptera. J. L. Leconte and G. H. Horn placed
the Rhynchophora (weevils) in a group distinct from all other
beetles, on account of their supposed primitive nature. Kolbe,
on the other hand, insists that the weevils are the most modified
of all beetles, being highly specialized as regards their adult
structure, and developing from legless maggots exceedingly
different from the adult; he regards the Adephaga, with their
active armoured larvae with two foot-claws, as the most primitive
group of beetles, and there can be little doubt that the likeness
between larvae and adult may safely be accepted as a primitive
character among insects. In the Coleoptera we have to do with
an ancient yet dominant order, in which there is hardly a family
that does not show specialization in some point of structure
or life-history. Hence it is impossible to form a satisfactory
linear series.

In the classification adopted in this article, the attempt has
been made to combine the best points in old and recent schemes,
and to avoid the inconvenience of a large heterogeneous group
including the vast majority of the families.

6yo

COLEOPTERA

ADEPHAGA. This tribe includes beetles of carnivorous habit with
five segments on every foot, simple thread-like feelers with none of
the segments enlarged to form club or pectination, and the outer
lobs (galea) of the first maxilla usually two-segmented and palpiform
(fig. 4 ft). The transverse fold of the hind-wing is towards the tip,
about two-thirds of the wing-length from the base. At this fold
the median nervure stops and is joined by a cross nervure to the
radial, which can be distinguished throughout its length from the
subcostal. There are four malpighian tubules. In the ovarian

FIG. 4. Mormolyce phyllodes. Java, a, Labium ; b, maxilla ;
c, labrum; d, mandible.

tubes of Adephaga small yolk-chambers alternate with the egg-
chambers, while in all other beetles there is only a single large yolk-
chamber at the narrow end of the tube. The larvae (fig. 2 c) are
active, with well-chitinized cuticle, often with elongate tail-feelers
(cerci), and with five-segmented legs, the foot-segment carrying two
claws.

The generalized arrangement of the wing-nervure and the nature
of the larva, which is less unlike the adult than in other beetles,
distinguish this tribe as primitive, although the perfect insects are,
in the more dominant families, distinctly specialized. Two very
small families of aquatic beetles seem to stand at the base of the series,
the Amphizoidae, whose larvae are broad and well armoured with

FIG. 5. Pheropsophus
Jurinei. W. Africa.

FIG. 6. Carabus rtttilans.
Spain.

short cerci, and the Pelobiidae, which have elongate larvae, tapering
to the tail end, where are long paired cerci and a median process,
recalling the grub of a Mayfly.

The Dyticidae (fig. 2) are Adephaga highly specialized for life in
the water, the hind-legs having the segments short, broad and fringed,
so as to be well adapted for swimming, and the feet without claws.
The metasternum is without the transverse linear impression that
is found in most families of Adephaga. The beetles are ovoid in
shape, with smooth contours, and the elytra fit over the edges of the
abdomen so as to enclose a supply of air, available for use when the
insect remains under water. The fore-legs of many male dyticids
have the three proximal foot-segments broad and saucer-shaped, and

covered with suckers, by means of which they secure a firm hold of
their mates. Larval dyticids (fig. 2 6) possess slender, curved,
hollow mandibles, which are perforated at the tip and at the base,
being thus adapted for sucking the juices of victims. Large dyticid
larvae often attack small fishes and tadpoles. They breathe by
piercing the surface film with the tail, where a pair of spiracles are
situated. The pupal stage is passed in an earthen cell, just beneath
the surface of the ground. Nearly 2000 species of Dyticidae are
known: they are universally distributed, but are most abundant in
cool countries. The Haliplidae form a small aquatic family allied
to the Dyticidae.

The Carabidae, or ground-beetles, comprising 13,000 species, form

FIG. 7. Cicindela sylvatica
(Wood Tiger-Beetle). Europe.

FIG. 8. Manticora luberculata.
S. Africa.

the largest and most typical family of the Adephaga (figs. 4, 5, 6), the
legs of all three pairs being alike and adapted for rapid running. In
many Carabidae the hind-wings are reduced or absent, and the elytra
fused together along the suture. Many of our native species spend
the day lurking beneath stones, and sally forth at night in pursuit of
their prey, which consistsof small insects, earth worms and snails. But
a number of the more brightly coloured ground-beetles run actively
in the sunshine. The carabid larva is an active well-armoured grub
with the legs and cerci variable in length. Great differences in the
general form of the body may be observed in the family. For
example, the stout, heavy body of Carabus (fig. 6) contrasts markedly
with the wonderful flattened abdomen and elytra of Mormolyce
(fig. 4), a Malayan genus found beneath fallen trees, a situation for
which its compressed shape is admirably adapted. Blind Carabidae
form a large proportion of cave-
dwelling beetles, and several
species of great interest live
between tide-marks along the
seashore.

The Cicindelidae, or tiger-
beetles (figs. 7, 8) are the most
highly organized of all the
Adephaga. The inner lobe
(lacinia) of the first maxilla
terminates in an articulated
hook, while in the second
maxillae (labium) both inner

and outer lobes (" ligula " and
para-glossae ") are much

Gyrinus sulcatus

- . -

reduced. The face (clypeus) is (Grooved Whirh-

t-urope.

broad, extending on either side
in front of the insertion of the
feelers. The beetles are elegant
insects with long, slender legs,
running quickly, and flying in
the sunshine. The pronotum
and elytra are often adorned
with bright colours or metallic
lustre, and marked with stripes

or spots. The beetles are fierce Antenna of Larva of Gyrinus.
in nature and predaceous in Gyrinus.

habit, their sharp toothed FIG. o.

mandibles being well adapted

for the capture of small insect-victims. The larvae are more
specialized than those of other Adephaga, the head and prothorax
being very large and broad, the succeeding segments slender and in-
completely chitinized. The fifth abdominal segment has a pair of
strong dorsal hook-like processes, by means of which the larva
supports itself in the burrow which it excavates in the earth, the
great head blocking the entrance with the mandibles ready to seize
on any unwary insect that may venture within reach.

Two or three families may be regarded as aberrant Adephaga.

COLEOPTERA

671

The Paussidae are a very remarkable family of small beetles, mostly
tropical, found only in ants' nests, or flying by night, and apparently
migrating from one nest to another. The number of antennal
segments varies from eleven to two. It is supposed that these
beetles secrete a sweet substance on which the ants feed, but they
have been seen to devour the ants' eggs and grubs. The Gyrinidae,
or whirligig beetles (fig. 9), are a curious aquatic family with the
feelers (fig. 9, b) short and reduced as in most Paussidae. They are
flattened oval in form, circling with gliding motion over the surface
film of the water, and occasionally diving, when they carry down
with them a bubble of air. The fore-legs are elongate and adapted
for clasping, while the short and flattened intermediate and hind
legs form very perfect oar-like propellers. The larva of Gyrinus
(fig. 9, c) is slender with elongate legs, and the abdominal segments
carry paired tracheal gills.

STAPHYLINOIDEA. The members of this tribe may be easily
recognized by their wing-nervuration. Close to a transverse fold
near the base of the wing, the median neryure divides into branches
which extsnd to the wing-margin ; there is a second transverse fold
near the tip of the wing, and cross nervures are altogether wanting.
There are four malpighian tubes, and all five tarsal segments are
usually recognizable. With very few exceptions, the larva in this
group is active and campodeiform, with cerci and elongate legs as in
the Adephaga, but the leg has only four segments and one claw.

FIG. 10. Silpha quadri-
punctata. Europe.

FIG. n. Necrophorus vespillo
(Sexton Beetle). Europe.

The Silphidae, or carrion beetles, form one of the best-known
families of this group. They are rotund or elongate insects with
conical front haunches, the elytra generally covering (fig. 10) the
whole dorsal region of the abdomen, but sometimes leaving as many
as four terga exposed (fig. n). Some of these beetles are brightly
coloured, while others are dull black. They are usually found in
carrion, and the species of Necrophorus (fig. 1 1) and Necrophaga are
valuable scavengers from their habit of burying small vertebrate
carcases which may serve as food for their larvae. At this work a
number of individuals are associated together. The larvae that live
underground have spiny dorsal plates, while those of the Silpha
(fig. 10) and other genera that go openly about in search of food
resemble wood-lice. About 1000 species of Silphidae are known.
Allied to the Silphidae are a number of small and obscure families,
for which reference must be made to monographs of the order.
Of special interest among these are the HisterJdae, compact beetles
(fig. 12) with very hard cuticle and somewhat abbreviated elytra,
with over 2000 species, most of which live on decaying matter, and

FIG. 12. FIG. 13.

Hister iv-maculatus Oxyporus rufus.
(Mimic Beetle). Europe. Europe.

FIG. 14.

Stenus biguttatus.
Europe.

the curious little Pselaphidae, with three-segmented tarsi, elongate
palpi, and shortened abdomen ; the latter are usually found in ants'
nests, where they are tended by the ants, which take a sweet fluid
secreted among little tufts of hair on the beetles' bodies; these
beetles, which are carried about by the ants, sometimes devour
their larvae. The Trichopterygidae, with their delicate narrow
fringed wings, are the smallest of all beetles, while the Platypsyttidae
consist of only a single species of curious form found on the beaver.
The Staphylinidae, or rove-beetles a large family of nearly
10,000 species may be known by their very short elytra, which
cover only two of the abdominal segments, leaving the elongate
hind-body with seven or eight exposed, firm terga (figs. 13, 14).
These segments are very mobile, and as the rove-beetles run along
they often curl the abdomen upwards and forwards like the tail of a
scorpion. The Staphylinid larvae are typically campodeiform.
Beetles and larvae are frequently carnivorous in habit, hunting for
small insects under stones, or pursuing the soft-skinned grubs of

beetles and flies that bore in woody stems or succulent roots. Many
Staphylinidae are constant inmates of ants' nests.

MALACODERMATA. In this tribe may be included a number of
families distinguished by the softness of the cuticle, the presence of
seven or eight abdominal sterna and of four malpighian tubes,
and the firm, well-arm-
oured larva (fig. 15, c)
which js often predaceous
m habit. The mesothor-
acic epimera bound the
coxal cavities of the inter-
mediate legs. The Lym-
exylonidae, a small family
of this group, character-
ized by its slender, un-
difFcrentiated feelers and
feet, is believed by
Lameere to comprise the
most primitive of all living

of the

FIG. 15. Glow-worm. Lampyrisnocti-
tf'h l uca - ".Male; b, female; c, larva (ven-
tral view). Europe.

structure
generally.

The Lampyridae are a

large family, of which the glow-worm (Lampyris) and the " soldier
beetles " (Telephorus) are familiar examples. The female " glow-
worm " (fig. 15, 6), emitting the well-known light (see above), is
wingless and like a larva; the luminosity seems to be an attraction
to the male, whose eyes are often exceptionally well developed.
Some male members of the family have remarkably complex feelers.
In many genera of Lampyridae the female can fly as well as the
male; among these are the South European " fireflies."

TRICHODERMATA. Several families of rather soft-skinned beetles,
such as the Melyridae, Cleridae (fig. 16), Corynelidae, Dermestidae
(fig. 17), and Das-
ciUidae, are included
in this tribe. They
may be distin-
guished from the
Malacodermata by
the presence of only
five or six abdominal
sterna, while six mal-
pighian tubes are
present in some of
the families. The
beetles are hairy
and their larvae
well-armoured and often predaceous. Several species of Dermestidae
are commonly found in houses, feeding on cheeses, dried meat,
skins and other such substances. The bacon beetle " (Dermestes
lardarius), and its hard hairy larva, are well known. _ According to
Sharp, all Dermestid larvae probably feed on dried animal matters ;
he mentions one species that can find sufficient food in the horsehair
of furniture, and another that eats the dried insect-skins hanging in
old cobwebs.

STERNOXIA. This is an important tribe of beetles, including
families with four malpighian tubes and only five or six abdominal
sterna, while in the thorax there is a backwardly directed process
of the prosternum that fits into a mesosternal cavity. The larvae
are elongate and worm-like, with short legs but often with hard strong
cuticle.

The Elateridae or click beetles (fig. 18) have the prosternal process

FIG. 16. Clerus
apiarus(Hive Beetle).
Europe.

FIG. 17. Dermesles
lardarius (Bacon
Beetle).

FIG. 18. A, Wireworm; B, pupa of Click Beetle ; C, adult Click
Beetle (Agriotes lineatum).

just mentioned, capable of movement in and out of the mesosternal
cavity, the beetles being thus enabled to leap into the air, hence their
popular name of " click-beetles " or " skip-jacks." The prothorax
is convex in front, and is usually drawn out behind into a prominent
process on either side, while the elytra are elongate and tapering.

672

COLEOPTERA

Many of the tropical American Elateridae emit light from the spots
on theprothorax and an area beneath the base of the abdomen;
these are "fireflies" (see above). The larvae of Elateridae are
elongate, worm-like grubs, with narrow bodies, very firm cuticle,
short legs, and a distinct anal proleg. They are admirably adapted
for moving through the soil, where some of them live on decaying
organic matter, while others are predaceous. Several of the elaterid
larvae, however, gnaw roots and are highly destructive to farm crops.
These arc the well-known " wire-worms ' (?..).

The Buprestidae are distinguished from the Elateridae by the im-
mobility of the prosternal process in the mesosternal cavity and by
the absence of the lateral processes at the hind corners of the

prothorax. Many
tropical Buprestidae
are of large size (fig.
19), and exhibit
magnificent metallic
colours; their elytra
are used as orna-
ments in human
dress. The larvae
are remarkable for
their small head,
very broad thorax,
with reduced legs,
and narrow elongate
abdomen. They
feed by burrowing in
the roots and stems
of plants.

BOSTRYCHOIDEA.

This tribe is dis-
tinguished from the
Malacoderma and
allied groups by the
mesothoracic epi-
mera not bounding
the coxal cavities
of the intermediate
legs. The down-
wardly directed
head is covered by
the pronotum, and
the three terminal
antennal segments
form a distinct club.
To this group belong the Bostrychidae and Ptinidae, well known
(especially the latter family) for their ravages in old timber. The
larvae are stout and soft-skinned, with short legs in correlation
with their burrowing habit. The noises made by some Ptinidae
(Antjbium) tapping on the walls of their burrows with their man-
dibles give rise to the " death tick " that has for long alarmed the
superstitious.

CLAVICORNIA. This is a somewhat heterogeneous group, most of
whose members are characterized by clubbed feelers and simple,

unbroadened tarsal segments usually
five on each foot but in some families
and genera the males have less than the
normal number on the feet of one pair.
There are either four or six malpighian
tubes. A large number of families,
distinguished from each other by more
or less trivial characters, are included
here, and there is considerable diversity
in the form of the larvae. The best-
known family is the Hydrophilidae, in
which the feelers are short with less
than eleven segments and the maxillary

FIG. 19. Catoxanthabicolor. Java.

palpi very long. Some members of this
family the

family the large black Hydrophilus
piceus (fig. 20), for example are
specialized for an aquatic life, the body
being convex and smooth as in the
Dyticidae, and the intermediate and
hind-legs fringed for swimming. When
Hydrophilus dives it carries a supply
of air between the elytra and the dorsal
surface of the abdomen, while air is
FIG. 20. H y d rophilus also entangled in the pubescence which
piceus (Black Water Beetle), extends beneath the abdomen on either
Europe. side, being scooped in bubbles by the

terminal segments of the feelers when

the insect rises to the surface. Many of the Hydrophilidae construct,
for the protection of their eggs, a cocoon formed of a silky
material derived from glands opening at the tip of the abdomen.
That of Hydrophilus is attached to a floating leaf, and is pro-
vided with a hollow, tapering process, which projects above the
surface and presumably conveys air to the enclosed eggs. Other
Hydrophilidae carry their egg-cocoons about with them beneath
the abdomen. Many Hydrophilidae, unmodified for aquatic life,

inhabit marshes. The larvae in this family are well-armoured,
active and predaceous. Of the numerous other families of the
Clavicornia may be mentioned the Cucujidae and Cryptophagidae,
small beetles, examples of which may be found feeding on stored
seeds or vegetable refuse, and the Mycetophagidae, which devour
fungi. The Nitidulidae are a large family with 1600 species,
among which members of the genus Meligethes are often found in
numbers feeding on blossoms, while others live under the bark of
trees and prey on the grubs of boring beetles.

HETEROMERA. This tribe is distinguished by the presence of the
normal five segments in the feet of the fore and intermediate legs,
while only four segments are visible in the hind-foot. Considerable
diversity is to be noticed in details of structure within this group,
and for an enumeration of all the various families which have been
proposed and their distinguishing characters the reader is referred
to one of the monographs mentioned below. Some of the best-
known members of the group belong to the Tenebrionidae, a large

FIG. 21. (a) Tenebrio molitor
(Flour Beetle). Europe. (6)
Larva, or mealworm.

FIG. 22. Blaps mortisaga
(Churchyard Beetle). Europe.

family containing over 10,000 species and distributed all over the
world. The tenebrionid larva is elongate, with well-chitinized
cuticle, short legs and two stumpy tail processes, the common meal-
worm (fig. 21) being a familiar example. Several species of this
family are found habitually in stores of flour or grain. The beetles
have feelers with eleven segments, whereof the terminal few are
thickened so as to form a club. The true " black-beetles " or
" churchyard beetles " (Blaps) (fig. 22) belong to this family; like
members of several allied genera they are sooty in colour, and some-
what resemble ground beetles (Carabi) in general appearance.

The most interesting of the Heteromera, and perhaps of all the
Coleoptera, are some beetles which pass through two or more larval
forms in the course of the life-history (hypermetamorphosis). These
belong to the families Rhipidophoridae and Meloidae. The latter are
the oil beetles (fig. 23) or blister beetles (fig. 24), insects with rather
soft cuticle, the elytra (often abbreviated) not fitting closely to the
sides of the abdomen, the head constricted behind the eyes to form

FIG. 23. Meloe proscarabaeus
(Oil Beetle). Europe.

FIG. 24. Lylta vesicatoria
(Blister Beetle). Europe.

a neck, and the claws of the feet divided to the base. Several of the
Meloidae (such as the " Spanish fly," fig. 24) are of economic
importance, as they contain a vesicant substance used for raising
medicinal blisters on the human skin. The wonderful transforma-
tions of these insects were first investigated by G. Newport in 1851,
and have recently been more fully studied by C. V. Riley (1878)
and J. H. Fabre. The first larval stage is the " triungulin, a tiny,
active, armoured larva with long legs (each foot with three claws)
and cercopods. In the European species of Sitaris and Meloe these
little larvae have the instinct of clinging to any hairy object. All
that do not happen to attach themselves to a bee of the genus
Anthophora perish, but those that succeed in reaching the right
host are carried to the nest, and as the bee lays an egg in the cell the
triungulin slips off her body on to the egg, which floats on the surface
of the honey. After eating the contents of the egg, the larva moults
and becomes a fleshy grub with short legs and with paired spiracles
close to the dorsal region, so that, as it floats in and devours the

COLEOPTERA

673

honey, it obtains a supply of air. After a resting (pseudo-pupal)
stage and another larval stage, the pupa is developed. In the
American Epicauta vittata the larva is parasitic on the eggs and egg-
cases of a locust. The triungulin searches for the eggs, and, after a
moult, becomes changed into a soft-skinned tapering larva. This is
followed by a resting (pseudo-pupal) stage, and this by two successive
larval stages like the grub of a chafer. The Rhip-idophoridae are
beetles with short elytra, the feelers pectinate in the males and serrate
in the females. The life-history of Metoecus has been studied by
T. A. Chapman, who finds that the eggs are laid in old wood, and that
the triungulin seeks to attach itself to a social wasp, who carries it
to her nest. There it feeds first as an internal parasite of the wasp-
grub, then bores its way out, moults and devours the wasp larva
from outside. The wasps are said to leave the larval or pupal
Metoecus unmolested, but they are hostile to the developed beetles,
which hasten to leave the nest as soon as possible.

STREPSIPTERA. Much difference of opinion has prevailed with
regard to the curious, tiny, parasitic insects included in this division,
some authorities considering that they should be referred to a distinct
order, while others would group them in the family Meloidae just
described. While from the nature of their life-history there is no
doubt that they have a rather close relationship to the Meloidae,
their structure is so remarkable that it seems advisable to regard
them as at least a distinct tribe of Coleoptera.

They may be comprised in a single family, the Stylopidae. The
males are very small, free-flying insects with the prothorax, meso-
thorax and elytra greatly reduced, the latter appearing as little,
twisted strips, while the metathprax is relatively large, with its
wings broad and capable of longitudinal folding. The feelers are
branched and the jaws vestigial. The female is a segmented, worm-
like creature, spending her whole life within the body of the bee,
wasp or bug on which she is parasitic. One end of her body pro-
trudes from between two of the abdominal segments of the host;
it has been a subject of dispute whether this protruded end is the
head or the tail, but there can be little doubt that it is the latter.
While thus carried about by the host-insect, the female is fertilized
by the free-flying male, and gives birth to a number of tiny triungulin
larvae. The chief points in the life-history of Stylops and Xenos,
which are parasitic on certain bees (Andrena) and wasps (Polistes),
have been investigated by K. T. E. von Siebold (1843) and N.
Nassonov (1892). The little triungulins escape on to the body of
the bee or wasp; then those that are to survive must leave their
host for a non-parasitized insect. Clinging to her hairs they are
carried to the nest, where they bore into the body of a bee or wasp
larva, and after a moult become soft-skinned legless maggots. The
growth of the parasitic larva does not stop the development of the
host-larva, and when the latter pupates and assumes the winged
form, the stylopid, which has completed its transformation, is
carried to the outer world. The presence of a Stylops causes de-
rangement in the body of its host, and can be recognized by various
external signs. Other genera of the family are parasitic on Hemiptera
bugs and frog-hoppers but nothing is known as to the details of
their life-history.

LAMELLICORNIA. This is a very well-marked tribe of beetles,
characterized by the peculiar elongation and flattening of three or
more of the terminal antennal segments, so that the feeler seems to
end in a number of leaf-like plates, or small comb-teeth (fig. 26, b, c).
The wings are well developed for flight, and there is a tendency
in the group, especially among the males, towards an excessive
development of the mandibles or the presence of enormous, horn-like
processes on the head or pronotum. There are four malpighian tubes.
The larvae are furnished with large heads, powerful mandibles and
well-developed legs, but the body-segments are feebly chitinized,
and the tail-end is swollen. They feed in wood or spend an under-
ground life devouring roots or animal excrement.

The Lucanidae or stag beetles (figs. I and 25) have the terminal
antennal segments pectinate, and so arranged that the comb-like
part of the feeler cannot be curled up, while the elytra completely
cover the abdomen. There are about 600 species in the family,
the males being usually larger than the females, and remarkable
for the size of their mandibles. In the same species, however, great
variation occurs in the development of the mandibles, and the
breadth of the head varies correspondingly, the smallest type of
male being but little different in appearance from the female. The
larvae of Lucanidae live within the wood of trees, and may take
three or four years to attain their full growth. The Passalidae are a
tropical family of beetles generally considered to be intermediate
between stag-beetles and chafers, the enlarged segments of the feeler
being capable of close approximation.

The Scarabaeidae or chafers are an enormous family of about
15,000 species. The plate-like segments of the feeler (fig. 26, b, c)
can be brought close together so as to form a club-like termination ;
usually the hinder abdominal segments are not covered by the elytra.
In this family there is often a marked divergence between the sexes;
the terminal antennal segments are larger in the male than in the
female, and the males may carry large spinous processes on the head
Dr prothorax, or both. These structures were believed by C. Darwin
to be explicable by sexual selection. The larvae have the three pairs
>f legs well developed, and the hinder abdominal segments swollen.
Most of the Scarabaeidae are vegetable-feeders, but one section

of the family represented in temperate countries by the dor-
beetles (Geotrupes) (fig. 28) and Aphodius, and in warmer regions
by the " sacred " beetles of the Egyptians (Scarabaeus) (fig. 27),
and allied genera feed both in the adult and larval stages, on dung
or decaying animal matter. The heavy grubs of Geotrupes, their

FIG. 26.Melolonthafullo

FIG. 25. Cladognathus cinnamomeus. (Cockchafer). S. Europe, b,
Java. Antenna of male ; c, antenna

of female.

swollen tail-ends black with the contained food-material, are often
dug up in numbers in well-manured fields. The habits of Scarabaeus
have been described in detail by J. H. Fabre. The female beetle in
spring-time collects dung, which she forms into a ball by continuous
rolling, sometimes assisted by a companion. This ball is buried in a
suitable place, and serves the insect as a store of food. During
summer the insects rest in their underground retreats, then in autumn

FIG. 27. Scarabaeus
Aegyptiorum. Africa.

FIG. a8.Geolrupes Black-
burnei. N. America.

they reappear to bury another supply of dung, which serves as food
for the larvae. Fabre states that the mother-insect carefully
arranges the food-supply so that the most nutritious and easily
digested portion is nearest the egg, to form the first meal of the
young larva. In some species of Copris it is stated that the female

FIG. 29. Phaneu: Imperator.
S. America.

FIG. 30. Cetonia Baxii.
W. Africa.

ays only two or three eggs at a time, watching the offspring grow to
maturity, and then rearing another brood.

Among the vegetable-feeding chafers we usually find that while
:he perfect insect devours leaves, the larva lives underground and
r eeds on roots. Such are the habits of the cockchafer (Melolontha
vulgaris) and other species that often cause great injury to farm and

VI. 22

674

COLEOPTERA

garden crops (see CHAFER). Many of these insects, such as the species
of Phanaeus (fig. 29) and Cetonia (fig. 30), are adorned with metallic
or other brilliant colours. The African " goliath-beetles " (fig. 31)
and the American " elephant-beetles " (Dynastes) are the largest of
all insects.

ANCHISTOPODA. The families of beetles included by Kolbe in this
group are distinguished by the possession of six malpighian tubes,
and a great reduction in one or two of the tarsal segments, so that
there seem to be only four or three segments in each foot; hence the
names Tetramera and Trimera formerly applied to them. The larvae
have soft-skinned bodies sometimes protected by rows of spiny
tubercles, the legs being fairly developed in some families and greatly

segments to the foot, but there are really five, the fourth being
greatly reduced. The mandibles are strong, adapted for biting the
vegetable substances on which these beetles feed, and the palps of
the second maxillae have three segments. Most of the Chrysomelidae
are metallic in colour and convex in form; in some the head is
concealed beneath the prothorax, and the so-called " tortoise "
beetles (Cassidinae) have the elytra raised into a prominent median-
ridge. The most active form of larva found in this family resembles
in shape that of a ladybird, tapering towards the tail end, and
having the trunk segments protected by small firm sclerites. Such
larvae, and also many with soft cuticle and swollen abdomen
those of the notorious " Colorado beetle," for example feed openly

FIG. 32. Anatio ocel-
lata (Eyed Ladybird).
Europe.

FIG. 33. Endomychus
coccineus. Europe.

*' "^ P^ ^-

FIG. 34. Sagra cyanea. FIG. 35. Eumorphus iv-
W. Africa. gultatus. Sumatra.

FIG. 31. Goliathus giganteus (Goliath Beetle).

reduced or absent in others. As might be expected, degeneration in
larval structure is correlated with a concealed habit of life.

The Coccinellidae, or ladybirds (fig. 32), are a large family of
beetles^ well known by their rounded convex bodies, usually shining
and hairless. They have eleven segments to the feeler, which is
clubbed at the tip, and apparently three segments only in each foot.
Ladybirds are often brightly marked with spots and dashes, their
coloration being commonly regarded as an advertisement of in-
edibility. The larvae have a somewhat swollen abdomen, which is
protected by bristle-bearing tubercles. Like the perfect insects,
they are predaceous, feeding on plant-lice (Aphidae) and scale insects
(Coccidae). Their r&le in nature is therefore beneficial to the culti-
vator. The Endomychidae (fig. 33), an allied family, are mostly
fungus-eaters. In the Erotyltdae and a few other small related
families the feet are evidently four-segmented.

The Chrysomelidae, or leaf -beetles (figs. 34, 35), are a very large
family, with " tetramerous " tarsi; there seem to be only four

FIG. 36. Lophonocerus barbicornis. S. America.

on foliage. Others.'with soft, white, cylindrical bodies, which recall
the caterpillars of moths, burrow in the leaves or stems of plants.
The larvae of the tortoise-beetles have the curious habit of forming
an umbrella-like shield out of their own excrement, held in position
by the upturned tail-process. The larvae of the beautiful, elongate,
metallic Donaciae live in the roots and stems of aquatic plants,
obtaining thence both food and air. The larva pierces the vessels
of the plant with sharp processes at the hinder end of its body.
In this way it is believed that the sub-aqueous cocoon in which the
pupal stage is passed becomes filled with air.

The Cerambycidae, or longhorn beetles, are recognizable by their
slender, elongate feelers, which are never clubbed and rarely serrate.
The foot has apparently four segments, as in the Chrysomelidae.
The beetles are usually elongate and elegant in form, often adorned
with bright bands of colour, and some of the tropical species attain
a very large size (figs. 36, 37). The feelers are usually longer in th
male than in the female, exceeding in some cases by many times th

COLEPEPER

675

length of the body. The larvae have soft, fleshy bodies, with the
head and prothorax large and broad, and the legs very much reduced.
They live and feed in the wood of trees. Consequently, beetles of
this family are most abundant in forest regions, and reach their
highest development in the dense virgin forests of tropical countries,
South America being particularly rich in peculiar genera.

FIG. 37. Phryneta aurocincta. West Africa.

The Bruchidae, or seed-beetles, agree with the two preceding
imilics in tarsal structure; the head is largely hidden by the
pronotum, and the elytra are short enough to leave the end of the
abdomen exposed (fig. 38). The development of the pea and bean-
beetles has been carefully studied by C. V. Riley, who finds that the
young larva, hatched from the egg laid on the pod, has three pairs
of legs, and that these are lost after the moult that occurs when the
grub has bored its way into the seed. In Great Britain the beetle,
after completing its development, winters in the seed, waiting to
"Tierge and lay its eggs on the blossom in the ensuing spring.

FIG. 38. Bruchus piei
(Pea Beetle.) Europe.

FIG. 39. Platyrrhinus
lalirostris. Europe.

IHYNCHOPHORA. The Rhynchophora are a group of beetles easily
recognized by the elongation of the head into a beak or snout, which
carries the feelers at its sides and the jaws at its tip. The third tarsal
segment is broad and bi-lobed, and the fourth is so small that the
feet seem to be only four-segmented. There are six malpighian
tubes. The ventral scleriteof the head-skeleton (gula), well developed
in most families of beetles, is absent among the Rhynchophora, while
the palps of the maxillae are much reduced. The larvae have soft,
white bodies and, with very few exceptions, no legs.

FIG. 40. Bren- FIG. 41. Otiorrhyn- FIG. 42. Lixus para-
anchor ago. chus ligustici. Europe. plecticus. Europe,
opical Countries.

Of the four families included in this group, the Anthribidae (fig. 39)
ave jointed, flexible palps, feelers often of excessive length
"th a short basal segment, and the three terminal segments forming

FIG. 43. Scolytus ulmi.
(Bark Beetle). Europe.

a club, and, in some genera, larvae with legs. There are nearly 1000
known specie?, most of which live in tropical countries. The
Brenthidae are a remarkable family almost confined to the tropics;
they are elongate and narrow in form (fig. 40), with a straight,
cylindrical snout which in some male beetles of the family is longer
than the rest of the body.

The Curculionidae, or weevils (q.v.), comprising 23,000 species,
are by far the largest family of the group. The maxillary palps are
short and rigid, and there is no distinct
labrum, while the feelers are usually of
an " elbowed " form, the basal segment
being very elongate (figs. 41, 42). They
are vegetable feeders, both in the perfect
and larval stages, and are often highly
injurious. The female uses her snout
as a boring instrument to prepare a
suitable place for egg-laying. The larvae
(fig. 3) of some weevils live in seeds;
others devour roots, while the parent-
beetles eat leaves; others, again, are
found in wood or under bark. The Scolytidae, or bark-beetles, are
a family of some 1500 species, closely allied to the Curculionidae,
differing only in the feeble development of the snout. They have
clubbed feelers, and their cylindrical bodies (fig. 43) are well adapted
for their burrowing habits under the bark of trees. Usually the
mother-beetle makes a fairly straight tunnel along which, at short
intervals, she lays her eggs. The grubs, when hatched, start galleries
nearly_ at right angles to this, and when fully grown form oval cells
in which they pupate; from these the young beetles emerge by
making circular holes directly outward through the bark.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. In addition to what may be found in numerous
important works on the Hexapoda (q.v.) as a whole, such as J. O.
Westwood's Modern Classification of Insects, vol. i. (London, 1838) ;
J. H. Fabre's Souvenirs Entomologiques (Paris, 18791891); D.
Sharp's contribution to the Cambridge Natural History (vol. vi.,
London, 1899); and L. C. Miall's Aquatic Insects (London, 1895),
the special literature of the Coleoptera is enormous. Classical
anatomical memoirs are those of L. Dufour (Ann. Sci. Nat. ii., iii.,
iv., vi., viii., xiv., 1824-1828); 76. (ser. 2, Zool.) i., 1834; and
H. E. Strauss-Durkheim, Anatomic comparee des animaux articulees
(Paris, 1828).

The wings of Colepptera (including the elytra) are described and
discussed by F. Meinert (Entom. Tijdsk. \., 1880); C. Hoffbauer
(Zeit.f. wissen. goal, liv., 1892) ; J. H. Comstock and I. G. Needham
(Amer. Nat. xxxii., 1898); and W. L. Tower (Zool. Jahrb. Anal.
xvii., 1903). The morphology of the abdomen, ovipositor and genital
armature is dealt with by K. W. Verhoeff (Ent. Nachtr. xx., 1894,
and Arch.f. Naturg. Ixi., Ixii., 1895-1896) ; and B. Wandolleck (Zool.
Jahrb. Anat. xxii., 1905).

Luminous organs are described by H. von Wielowiejski (Zeits. f.
wissen. Zool. xxxvii., 1882); C. Heinemann (Arch.f. mikr. Anat.
xxvii., 1886); and R. Dubois (Bull. soc. zoo/. France, 1886); and
stridulating organs by C. J. Gahan (Trans. Entom. Soc., 1900). See
also C. Darwin's Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex
(London, 1871).

Many larvae of Coleoptera are described and beautifully figured by
J. C. Schiodte [Naturh. Tidsskr. i.-xiii., 1861-1872). Hyper-
metamorphosis in the Meloidae is described by G. Newport (Trans.
Linn. Soc. xx., xxi., 1851-1853); C. V. Riley (Rep. U.S. Entom.
Comm. i., 1878); J. H. Fabre (Ann. Sci. Nat. (4), ix., xix., 1848-
1853); H. Beauregard (Les Insectes vesicants, Paris, 1890); and
A. Chabaud (Ann. Soc. Ent. France, Ix., 1891); in the Bruchidat
by Riley (Insect Life, iv., v., 1892-1893; and in the Strepsiptera
(Stylopidae) by K. T. E. von Siebold (Arch. f. Naturg. ix., 1843) ;
N. Nassonov (Bull. Univ. Narsovie, 1892); and C. T. Brues (Zool.
Jahrb. Anat. xiii., 1903).

For various schemes of classification of the Coleoptera see E. L.
Geoff roy (Insectes qui se trouvent aux environs de Pans, Paris, 1762) ;
A. G. Olivier (Coleopleres, Paris, 1789-1808); W. S. MacLeay
(Annulosa Javanica, London, 1825) ; the general works of Westwood
and Sharp, mentioned above; M. Gemminger and B. de Harold
(Catalogus Coleopterorum, 12 vols., Munich, 1868-1872); T.
Lacordaire and F. Chapuis (Genera des Coltopteres, 10 vols., Paris,
1854-1874) ; J. L. Leconte and G. H. Horn (Classification of Coleop-
tera of N. America, Washington, Smithsonian Inst., 1883); L.
Ganglbauer (Die Kdfer von Mitteleuropa, Vienna, 1802, &c.); A.
Lameere (Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. xliv., xlvii., 1900-1903) ; and H. J.
Kolbe (Arch.f. Naturg. Ixvii., 1901).

For the British species, W. W. Fowler (Coleoptera of the British
Islands, 5 vols., London, 1887-1891) is the standard work; and W. F.
Johnson and J. N. Halbert's " Beetles of Ireland " (Proc. R. Irish
Acad., 3, vi., 1902) is valuable faunistically. Among the large
number of systematic writers on the order generally, or on special
families, may be mentioned D. Sharp, T. V. Wollaston, H. W. Bates,
G. C. Champion, E. Reitter, G. C. Crotch, H. S. Gorham, M. Jacoby,
L. Fairmaire and C. O. Waterhouse. (G. H. C.)

COLEPEPER, JOHN COLEPEPER (or CULPEPPER), ist
BARON (d. 1660), English politician, was the only son of Sir
John Colepeper of Wigsell, Sussex. He began his career in

6 7 6

COLERAINE COLERIDGE, HARTLEY

military service abroad, and came first into public notice at
home through his knowledge of country affairs, being summoned
often before the council board to give evidence on such matters.
He was knighted, and was elected member for Kent in the Long
Parliament, when he took the popular side, speaking against
monopolies on the pth of November 1640, being entrusted with
the impeachment of Sir Robert Berkeley on the I2th of February
1641, supporting Strafford's attainder, and being appointed to
the committee of defence on the I2th of August 1641. He
separated, Jiowever, from the popular party on the Church
question, owing to political rather than religious objections,
fearing the effect of the revolutionary changes which were now
contemplated. He opposed the London petition for the abolition
of episcopacy, the project of religious union with the Scots, and
the Root and Branch Bill, and on the ist of September he
moved a resolution in defence of the prayer-book. In the
following session he opposed the militia bill and the Grand
Remonstrance, and finally on the 2nd of January 1642 he
joined the king's party, taking office as chancellor of the ex-
chequer. He highly disapproved of the attempt upon the five
members, which was made without his knowledge, but advised
the enterprise against Hull. On the 25th of August 1642 he
appeared at the bar of the House of Commons to deliver the
king's final proposals for peace, and was afterwards present at
Edgehill, where he took part in Prince Rupert's charge and
opposed the retreat of the king's forces from the battlefield.
In December he was made by Charles master of the rolls. He
was a leading member of the Oxford Parliament, and was said,
in opposition to the general opinion, to have counselled consider-
able concessions to secure peace. His influence in military
affairs caused him to be much disliked by Prince Rupert and
the army, and the general animosity against him was increased
by his advancement to the peerage on the 2ist of October 1644
by the title of Baron Colepeper of Thoresway in Lincolnshire.

He was despatched with Hyde in charge of the prince of Wales
to the West in March 1645, and on the 2nd of March 1646, after
Charles's final defeat, embarked with the prince for Scilly, and
thence to France. He strongly advocated the gaining over
of the Scots by religious concessions, a policy supported by the
queen and Mazarin, but opposed by Hyde and other leading
royalists, and constantly urged this course upon the king, at the
same time deprecating any yielding on the subject of the militia.
He promoted the mission of Sir John Berkeley in 1647 to secure
an understanding between Charles and the army. In 1648 he
accompanied the prince in his unsuccessful naval expedition,
and returned with him to the Hague, where violent altercations
broke out among the royalist leaders, Colepeper going so far, on
one occasion in the council, as to challenge Prince Rupert, and
being himself severely assaulted in the streets by Sir Robert
Walsh. He continued after the execution of the king to press
the acceptance on Charles II. of the Scottish proposals. He was
sent to Russia in 1650, where he obtained a loan of 20, coo
roubles from the tsar, and, soon after his return, to Holland, to
procure military assistance. By the treaty, agreed to between
Cromwell and Mazarin, of August 1654, Colepeper was obliged
to leave France, and he appears henceforth to have resided in
Flanders. He accompanied Charles II. to the south of France
in September 1659, at the time of the treaty of the Pyrenees.
At the Restoration he returned to England, but only survived
a few weeks, dying on the nth of June 1660.

Several contemporary writers agree in testifying to Colepeper's
great debating powers and to his resources as an adviser, but
complain of his want of stability and of his uncertain temper.
Clarendon, with whom he was often on ill terms, speaks generally
in his praise, and repels the charge of corruption levelled against
him. That he was gifted with considerable political foresight
is shown by a remarkable letter written on the 2oth of September
1658 on the death of Cromwell, in which he foretells with
uncommon sagacity the future developments in the political
situation, advises the royalists to remain inactive till the right
moment and profit by the division of their opponents, and
distinguishes Monck as the one person willing and capable of

effecting the Restoration (Clarendon State Papers, iii. 412).
Colepeper was twice married, (i) to Philippa, daughter of Sir
John Snelling, by whom he had one son, who died young, and
a daughter, and (2) to Judith, daughter of Sir J. Colepeper
of Hollingbourn, Kent, by whom he had seven children. Of
these Thomas (d. 1719; governor of Virginia 1680-1683) was
the successor in the title, which became extinct on the death
of his younger brother Cheney in 1725. (P. C. Y.)

COLERAINE, a seaport and market town of Co. Londonderry,
Ireland, in the north parliamentary division, on the Bann, 4 m.
from its mouth, and 6ij m. N.W. by N. from Dublin by the
Northern Counties (Midland) railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 6958. The town stands upon both sides of the river,
which is crossed by a handsome stone bridge, connecting the
town and its suburb, Waterside or Killowen. The principal
part is on the east bank, and consists of a central square called
the Diamond, and several diverging streets. Among institutions
may be mentioned the public schools founded in 1613 and
maintained by the Honourable Irish Society, and the Academical
Institution, maintained by the Irish Society and the London
Clothworkers' Company. The linen trade has long been
extensively carried on in the town, from which, indeed, a fine
description of cloth is known as " Coleraines." Whisky-distilling,
pork-curing, and the salmon and eel fisheries are prosecuted.
The mouth of the river was formerly obstructed by a bar, but
piers were constructed, and the harbours greatly improved by
grants from the Irish Society of London and from a loan under
the River Bann Navigation Act 1879. Coleraine ceased to
return one member to the Imperial parliament in 1885; having
previously returned two to the Irish parliament until the Union.
It was incorporated by James I. It owed its importance mainly
to the Irish Society, which was incorporated as the Company
for the New Plantation of Ulster in 1613. Though fortified only
by an earthen wall, it managed to hold out against the rebels,
in 1641. There are no remains of a former priory, monastery
and castle. A rath or encampment of large size occupies Mount
Sandel, i m. south-east.

COLERIDGE, HARTLEY (1796-1849), English man of letters,
eldest son of the poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, was born on the
i9th of September 1796, near Bristol. His early years were
passed under Southey's care at Greta Hall, Keswick, and he was '
educated by the Rev. John Dawes at Ambleside. In 1815 he
went to Oxford, as scholar of Merton College. His university
career, however, was very unfortunate. He had inherited the
weakness of purpose, as well as the splendid conversational
powers, of his father, and lapsed into habits of intemperance.
He was successful in gaining an Oriel fellowship, but at the
close of the probationary year (1820) was judged to have forfeited
it. The authorities could not be prevailed upon to reverse
their decision; but they awarded to him a free gift of 300.
Hartley Coleridge then spent two years in London, where he
wrote short poems for the London Magazine. His next step was
to become a partner in a school at Ambleside, but this scheme
failed. In 1830 a Leeds publisher, Mr. F. E. Bingley, made a
contract with him to write biographies of Yorkshire and Lanca-
shire worthies. These were afterwards republished under the
title of Biographia Borealis (1833) and Worthies of Yorkshire
and Lancashire (1836). Bingley also printed a volume of his
poems in 1833, and Coleridge lived in his house until the contract
came to an end through the bankruptcy of the publisher. From
this time, except for two short periods in 1837 an'd 1838 when
he acted as master at Sedbergh grammar school, he lived quietly
at Grasmere and (1840-1849) Rydal, spending his time in
study and wanderings about the countryside. His figure was as
familiar as Wordsworth's, and his gentleness and simplicity of
manner won for him the friendship of the country-people. In
1839 appeared his edition of Massinger and Ford, with bio-
graphies of both dramatists. The closing decade of Coleridge's
life was wasted in what he himself calls " the woeful impotence
of weak resolve." He died on the 6th of January 1849. The
prose style of Hartley Coleridge is marked by much finish and
vivacity; but his literary reputation must chiefly rest on the

COLERIDGE, LORD

677

sanity of his criticisms, and above all on his Prometheus, an
unfinished lyric drama, and on his sonnets. As a sonneteer he
achieved real excellence, the form being exactly suited to his
sensitive genius. Essays and Marginalia, and Poems, with a
memoir by his brother Derwent, appeared in 1851.

COLERIDGE, JOHN DUKE COLERIDGE, IST BARON (1820-
1894), lord chief justice of England, was the eldest son of Sir
John Taylor Coleridge. He was born at Heath's Court, Ottery
St Mary, on the 3rd of December 1820. He was educated at
Eton and Balliol College, Oxford, of which he was a scholar,
ie was called to the bar in 1846, and went the western circuit,
Qg steadily, through more than twenty years of hard work,
till in 1865 he was returned as member for Exeter in the Liberal
iterest. The impression which he made on the heads of his
irty was so favourable that they determined, early in the
sion of 1867, to put him forward as the protagonist of their
attack on the Conservative government. But that move
emed to many of their staunchest adherents unwise, and it
was frustrated by the active opposition of a section, including
Hastings Russell (later ninth duke of Bedford), his brother
rthur, member for Tavistock, Alexander Mitchell of Stow,
W. Kinglake and Henry Seymour. They met to deliberate
the tea-room of the House, and were afterwards sometimes
onfounded with the tea-room party which was of subsequent
ormation and under the guidance of a different group. The
otest was sufficient to prevent the contemplated attack being
iade, but the Liberals returned to power in good time with a
rge majority behind them in 1868. Coleridge was made, first
ilicitor-, and then attorney-general.

As early as 1863 a small body of Oxford men in parliament
ad opened fire against the legislation which kept their university
ound by ecclesiastical swaddling clothes. They had made a
deal of progress in converting the House of Commons to
heir views before the general election of 1865. That election
iving brought Coleridge into parliament, he was hailed as a
st valuable ally, whose great university distinction, brilliant
uccess as an orator at the bar, and hereditary connexion with
lie High Church party, entitled him to take the lead in a move-
lent which, although gathering strength, was yet very far
Dm having achieved complete success. The clerically-minded
ection of the Conservative party could not but listen to the son
Sir John Coleridge, the godson of Keble, and the grand-
nephew of the man who had been an indirect cause of the Anglican
evival of 1833, for John Stuart Mill was right when he said
it the poet Coleridge and the philosopher Bentham were,
far as England was concerned, the leaders of the two chief
novements of their times: " it was they who taught the teachers,
ad who were the two great seminal minds."
Walking up one evening from the House of Commons to dine
it the Athenaeum with Henry Bruce (afterwards Lord Aberdare)
nd another friend, Coleridge said: " There is a trial coming
on which will be one of the most remarkable causes celebres
hat has ever been heard of." This was the Tichborne case,
vhich led to proceedings in the criminal courts rising almost to
the dignity of a political event. The Tichborne trial was the
most conspicuous feature of Coleridge's later years at the bar,
and tasked his powers as an advocate to the uttermost, though
he was assisted by the splendid abilities and industry of Charles
(afterwards Lord) Bowen. In November 1873 Coleridge suc-
ceeded Sir W. Bovill as chief justice of the common pleas, and
was immediately afterwards raised to the peerage as Baron
Coleridge of Ottery St Mary. In 1880 he was made lord chief
justice of England on the death of Sir Alexander Cockburn.

In jury cases his quickness in apprehending facts and his
acidity in arranging them were very remarkable indeed. He
*as not one of the most learned of lawyers, but he was a great
deal more learned than many people believed him to be, and as
ecclesiastical lawyer had perhaps few or no superiors. His
lull a natural fault in one who had been so successful as an
ivocate was that of being too apt to take one side. He
owed, also, certain political or personal prepossessions to colour
ae tone of his remarks from the bench. A game-preserving

landlord had not to thank the gods when his case, however
buttressed by generally accepted claims, came before Coleridge.
Towards the end of his life his health failed, and he became
somewhat indolent. On the whole, he was not so strong a man
in his judicial capacity as Campbell or Cockburn; but it must
be admitted that his scholarship, his refinement, his power of
oratory, and his character raised the tone of the bench while he
sat upon it, and that if it has been adorned by greater judicial
abilities, it has hardly ever known a greater combination of
varied merits. It is curious to observe that of all judges the
man whom he put highest was one very unlike himself, the
great master of the rolls, Sir William Grant. Coleridge died in
harness on the I4th of June 1894.

Coleridge's work, first as a barrister, and then as a judge,
prevented his publishing as much as he otherwise would have
done, but his addresses and papers would, if collected, fill a
substantial volume and do much honour to his memory. One
of the best, and one most eminently characteristic of the man,
was his inaugural address to the Philosophical Institution at
Edinburgh in 1870; another was a paper on Wordsworth (1873).
He was an exceptionally good letter-writer. Of travel he had
very little experience. He had hardly been to Paris; once,
quite near the end of his career, he spent a few days in Holland,
and came back a willing slave to the genius of Rembrandt; but
his longest absence from England was a visit, which had some-
thing of a representative legal character, to the United States.
It is strange that a man so steeped in Greek and Roman poetry,
so deeply interested in the past, present and future of Christi-
anity, never saw Rome, or Athens, or the Holy Land. A sub-
sidiary cause, no doubt, was the fatal custom of rfeglecting
modern languages at English schools. He felt himself at a
disadvantage when he passed beyond English-speaking lands,
and cordially disliked the situation. No notice of Coleridge
should omit to make mention of his extraordinary store of
anecdotes, which were nearly always connected with Eton,
Oxford, the bar or the bench. His exquisite voice, considerable
power of mimicry, and perfect method of narration added
greatly to the charm. He once told, at the table of Dr Jowett,
master of Balliol, anecdotes through the whole of dinner on
Saturday evening, through the whole of breakfast, lunch and
dinner the next day, through the whole journey on Monday
morning from Oxford to Paddington, without ever once repeating
himself. He was frequently to be seen at the Athenaeum, was
a member both of Grillion's and The Club, as well as of the
Literary Society, of which he was president, and whose meetings
he very rarely missed. Bishop Copleston is said to have divided
the human race into three classes, men, women and Coleridges.
If he did so, he meant, no doubt, to imply that the family of
whom the poet of Christabel was the chief example regarded
themselves as a class to themselves, the objects of a special
dispensation. John Duke Coleridge was sarcastic and critical,
and at times over-sensitive. But his strongest characteristics
were love of liberty and justice. By birth and connexions a
Conservative, he was a Liberal by conviction, and loyal to his
party and its great leader, Mr Gladstone.

Coleridge had three sons and a daughter by his first wife,
Jane Fortescue, daughter of the Rev. George Seymour of
Freshwater. She was an artist of real genius, and her portrait
of Cardinal Newman was considered much better than the one
by Millais. She died in February 1878; a short notice of her
by Dean Church of St Paul's was published in the Guardian,
and was reprinted in her husband's privately printed collection
of poems. Coleridge remained for some years a widower, but
married in 1885 Amy Augusta Jackson Lawford, who survived
him. He was succeeded in the peerage by his eldest son, Bernard
John Seymour (b. 1851), who went to the bar and became a K.C.
in 1892. In 1907 he was appointed a judge of the Supreme
Court. The two other sons were Stephen (b. 1854), a barrister,
secretary to the Anti-Vivisection Society, and Gilbert James
Duke (b. 1859).

His Life and Correspondence, edited by E. H. Coleridge, was
published in 1904; see further E. Manson, Builders of our Law

6 7 8

COLERIDGE, SIR J. T. COLERIDGE, S. T.

(1904) ; and for the history of the Coleridge family see Lord Coleridge,
The Story of a Devonshire House (1907). (M. G. D.)

COLERIDGE, SIR JOHN TAYLOR (1790-1876), English
judge, the second son of Captain James Coleridge and nephew
of the poet S. T. Coleridge, was born at Tiverton, Devon, and
was educated at Corpus Christ! College, Oxford, where he had
a brilliant career. He graduated in 1812 and was soon after
made a fellow of Exeter; in 1819 he was called to the bar at the
Middle Temple and practised for some years on the western
circuit. In 1824, on Gifford's retirement, he assumed the
editorship of the Quarterly Review, resigning it a year afterwards
in favour of Lockhart. In 1825 he published his excellent
edition of Blackstone's Commentaries, and in 1832 he was made
a serjeant-at-law and recorder of Exeter. In 1835 he was
appointed one of the judges of the king's bench. In 1852 his
university created him a D.C.L., and in 1858 he resigned his
judgeship, and was made a member of the privy council. In
1869, although in extreme old age, he produced his pleasant
Memoir of the Rev. John Keble, whose friend he had been since
their college days, a third edition of which was issued within
a year. He died on the i ith of February 1876 at Ottery St Mary,
Devon, leaving two sons and a daughter; the eldest son, John
Duke, ist Baron Coleridge (g.v.), became lord chief justice of
England; the second son, Henry James (1822-1893), left the
Anglican for the Roman Catholic church in 1852, and became
well-known as a Jesuit divine, editor of The Month, and author
of numerous theological works. Sir John Taylor Coleridge's
brothers, James Duke and Henry Nelson (husband of Sara
Coleridge), are referred to in other articles; his brother Francis
George was the father of Arthur Duke Coleridge, (b. 1830), clerk
of assizes on the midland circuit and author of Eton in the Forties,
whose daughter Mary E. Coleridge (1861-1907) became a
well-known writer of fiction.

COLERIDGE, SAMUEL TAYLOR (1772-1834), English poet
and philosopher, was born on the 2ist of October 1772, at his
father's vicarage of Ottery St Mary's, Devonshire. His father,
the Rev. John Coleridge (1719-1781), was a man of some mark.
He was known for his great scholarship, simplicity of character,
and affectionate interest in the pupils of the grammar school,
of which he was appointed master a few months before becoming
vicar of the parish (1760), reigning in both capacities till his
death. He had married twice. The poet was the youngest
child of his second wife, Anne Bowdon (d. 1809), a woman of
great good sense, and anxiously ambitious for the success of
her sons. On the death of his father, a presentation to Christ's
Hospital was procured for Coleridge by the judge, Sir Francis
Buller, an old pupil of his father's. He had already begun to
give evidence of a powerful imagination, and he has described
in a letter to his valued friend, Tom Poole, the pernicious effect
which the admiration of an uncle and his circle of friends had
upon him at this period. For eight years he continued at Christ's
Hospital. Of these school-days Charles Lamb has given delight-
ful glimpses in the Essays of Elia. The headmaster, Bowyer
(as he was called, though his name was Boyer), was a severe
disciplinarian, but respected by his pupils. Middleton, after-
wards known as a Greek scholar, and bishop of Calcutta, reported
Coleridge to Bowyer as a boy who read Virgil for amusement,
and from that time Bowyer began to notice him and encouraged
his reading. Sofoe compositions in English poetry, written at
sixteen, and not without a touch of genius, give evidence of the
influence which Bowles, whose poems were then in vogue, had
over his mind at this time. Before he left school his constitu-
tional delicacy of frame, increased by swimming the New River
in his clothes, began to give him serious discomfort.

In February ijgl he was entered at Jesus College, Cambridge.
A school-fellow who followed him to the university has described
in glowing terms evenings in his rooms, " when Aeschylus, and
Plato, and Thucydides were pushed aside, with a pile of lexicons
and the like, to discuss the pamphlets of the day. Ever and
anon a pamphlet issued from the pen of Burke. There was no
need of having the book before us; Coleridge had read it in
the morning, and in the evening he would repeat whole pages

verbatim." William Frend, a fellow of Jesus, accused of sedition
and Unitarianism, was at this time tried and expelled from
Cambridge. Coleridge had imbibed his sentiments, and joined
the ranks of his partisans. He grew discontented with university
life, and in 1793, pressed by debt, went to London. Perhaps
he was also influenced by his passion for Mary Evans, the sister
of one of his school-fellows. A poem in the Morning Chronicle
brought him a guinea, and when that was spent he enlisted in
the isth Dragoons under the name of Silas Tomkyn Comber-
bache. One of the officers of the dragoon regiment, finding a
Latin sentence inscribed on a wall, discovered the condition of
the very awkward recruit. Shortly afterwards an old school-
fellow (G. L. Tuckett) heard of his whereabouts, and by the
intervention of his brother, Captain James Coleridge, his discharge
was procured. He returned for a short time to Cambridge, but
quitted the university without a degree in 1794. In the same
year he visited Oxford, and after a short tour in Wales went to
Bristol, where he met Southey. The French Revolution had
stirred the mind of Southey to its depths. Coleridge received
with rapture his new friend's scheme of Pantisocracy. On the
banks of the Susquehanna was to be founded a brotherly com-
munity, where selfishness was to be extinguished, and the
virtues were to reign supreme. No funds were forthcoming,
and in 1795, to the chagrin of Coleridge, the scheme was dropped.
In 1794 The Fall of Robespierre, of which Coleridge wrote the
first act and Southey the other two, appeared. At Bristol
Coleridge formed the acquaintance of Joseph Cottle, the book-
seller, who offered him thirty guineas for a volume of poems.
In October of 1795 Coleridge married Sarah Fricker, and took
up his residence at Clevedon on the Bristol Channel. A few
weeks afterwards Southey married a sister of Mrs Coleridge, and
on the same day quitted England for Portugal.

Coleridge began to lecture in Bristol on politics and religion.
He embodied the first two lectures in his first prose publication,
Condones ad Populum (1795). The book contained much
invective against Pitt, and hi after life .Coleridge declared that,
with this exception, and a few pages involving philosophical
tenets which he afterwards rejected, there was little or nothing
he desired to retract. The first volume of Poems was published
by Cottle early in 1 796. Coleridge projected a periodical called
The Watchman, and in 1796 undertook a journey, well described
in the Biographia Literaria, to enlist subscribers. The Watchman
had a brief life of two months, but at this time Coleridge began
to think of becoming a Unitarian preacher, and abandoning
literature for ever. Hazlitt has recorded his very favourable
impression of a remarkable sermon delivered at Shrewsbury;
but there are other accounts of Coleridge's preaching not so
enthusiastic. In the summer of 1795 he met for the first time
the brother poet with whose name his own will be for ever
associated. Wordsworth and his sister had established them-
selves at Racedown in the Dorsetshire hills, and here Coleridge
visited them in 1797. There are few things in literary history
more remarkable than this friendship. The gifted Dorothy
Wordsworth described Coleridge as " thin and pale, the lower
part of the face not good, wide mouth, thick lips, not very good
teeth, longish, loose, half-curling, rough, black hair," but all
was forgotten in the magic charm of his utterance. Wordsworth,
who declared, " The only wonderful man I ever knew was
Coleridge," seems at once to have desired to see more of his new
friend. He and his sister removed in July 1797 to Alfoxden,
near Nether Stowey, to be in Coleridge's neighbourhood, and
in the most delightful and unrestrained intercourse the friends
spent many happy days. It was the delight of each one to
communicate to the other the productions of his mind, and the
creative faculty of both poets was now at its best. One evening,
at Watchett on the British Channel, The Ancient Mariner first
took shape. Coleridge was anxious to embody a dream of a
friend, and the suggestion of the shooting of the albatross came
from Wordsworth, who gamed the idea from Shelvocke's Voyage
(1726). A joint volume was planned. Wordsworth was to
show the real poetry that lies hidden in commonplace subjects,
while Coleridge was to treat supernatural subjects to illustrate

COLERIDGE, S. T.

679

the common emotions of humanity. From this sprang the
Lyrical Ballads, to 'which Coleridge contributed The Ancient
Mariner, the Nightingale and two scenes from Osorio, and after
much cogitation the book was published in 1798 at Bristol by
Cottle, to whose reminiscences, often indulging too much in
detail, we owe the account of this remarkable time. A second
edition of the Lyrical Ballads in 1800 included another poem
by Coleridge Love, to which subsequently the sub-title was
given of An Introduction to the Tale of the Dark Ladie. To the
Stowey period belong also the tragedy of Osorio (afterwards
known as Remorse), Kubla Khan and the first part of Christabel.
1798 an annuity, granted him by the brothers Wedgwood,
Coleridge to abandon his reluctantly formed intention of

coming a Unitarian minister. For many years he had desired
to see the continent, and in September 1798, in company with
Wordsworth and his sister, he left England for Hamburg.
Satyrane's Letters (republished in Biog. Lit. 1817) give an account
of the tour. i

A new period in Coleridge's life now began. He soon left the
^ordsworths to spend four months at Ratzeburg, whence he
emoved to Gottingen to attend lectures. A great intellectual
movement had begun in Germany. Coleridge was soon in the

1 whirl of excitement. He learnt much from BlumenbacR and
Jichhorn, and took interest in all that was going on around him.
)uring his stay of nine months in Germany, he made himself
master of the language to such purpose that the translation of
Wallenstein his first piece of literary work after his return to
England was actually accomplished in six weeks. It was
published in 1800, and, although it failed to make any impression
on the general public, it became at once prized by Scott and
others as it deserved. It is matter for regret that a request to
Coleridge that he should undertake to translate Faust never
received serious attention from him. During these years Cole-
ridge wrote many newspaper articles and some poems, among
them " Fire, Famine and Slaughter," for the Morning Post
(January 8, 1798). He had vehemently opposed Pitt's policy,
but a change came over his way of thought, and he found
himself separated 'from Fox on the question of a struggle with
Napoleon. He had lost his admiration for the Revolutionists,
as his " Ode to France " shows {Morning Post, April 16, 1798).
Like many other Whigs, he felt that all questions of domestic
olicy must at a time of European peril be postponed. From
tiis time, however, his value for the ordered liberty of constitu-
tional government increased; and though never exactly to be
found among the ranks of old-fashioned Constitutionalists,
during the remainder of his life he kept steadily in view the
principles which received their full exposition in his well-
known work on Church and State. In the year 1800 Coleridge left
London for the Lakes. Here in that year he wrote the second
part of Christabel. In 1803 Southey became a joint lodger with
Coleridge at Greta Hall, Keswick, of which in 1812 Southey
became sole tenant and occupier.

In 1801 begins the period of Coleridge's life during which, in
pile of the evidence of work shown in his compositions, he sank
nore and more under the dominion of opium, in which he may
have first indulged at Cambridge. Few things are so sad to
read as the letters in which he details the consequences of his
transgression. He was occasionally seen in London during the
first years of the century, and wherever he appeared he was the
delight of admiring circles. He toured in Scotland with the
Wordsworths in 1803, visited Malta in 1804, when for ten
months he acted as secretary to the governor, and stayed nearly
eight months at Naples and Rome in 1805-1806. In Rome he
received a hint that his articles in the Morning Post had been
brought to Napoleon's notice, ad he made the voyage from
Leghorn in an American ship. On a visit to Somersetshire in
1807 he met De Quincey for the first time, and the younger man's
admiration was shown by a gift of 300, " from an unknown
friend." In 1809 he started a magazine called The Friend,
which continued only for eight months. At the same time
Coleridge began to contribute to the Courier. In 1808 he
lectured at the Royal Institution, but with little success, and

two years later he gave his lectures on Shakespeare and other
poets. These lectures attracted great attention and were
followed by two other series. In 1812 his income from the
Wedgwoods was reduced, and he settled the remainder on his
wife. His friends were generous in assisting him with money.
Eventually Mackintosh obtained a grant of 100 a year for him
in 1824 during the lifetime of George IV., as one of the royal
associates of the Society of Literature, and at different times
he received help principally from Stuart, the publisher, Poole,
Sotheby, Sir George Beaumont, Byron and Wordsworth, while
his children shared Southey's home at Keswick. But between
1812 and 1817 Coleridge made a good deal by his work, and was
able to send money to his wife in addition to the annuity she
received. The tragedy of Remorse was produced at Drury
Lane in 1813, and met with considerable success. Three years
after this, having failed to conquer the opium habit, he deter-
mined to enter the family of Mr James Gillman, who lived at
Highgate. The letter in which he discloses his misery to this
kind and thoughtful man gives a real insight into his character.
Under judicious treatment the hour of mastery at last arrived.
The shore was reached, but the vessel had been miserably
shattered in its passage through the rocks. For the rest of his
life he hardly ever left his home at Highgate. During his
residence there, Christabel, written many years before, and
known to a favoured few, was first published in a volume with
Kubla Khan and the Pains of Sleep in 1816. He read widely
and wisely, in poetry, philosophy and divinity. In 1816 and the
following year, he gave his Lay Sermons to the world. Sibylline
Leaves appeared in 1817; the Biographia Literaria and a revised
edition of The Friend soon followed. Seven years a'fterwards
his most popular prose work The Aids to Reflection first
appeared. His last publication, in 1830, was the work on Church
and State. It was not till 1 840 that his Confessions of an Inquiring
Spirit, by far his most seminal work, was posthumously published.
In 1833 he appeared at the meeting of the British Association
at Cambridge, but he died in the following year (25th of July
1834), and was buried in the churchyard close to the house of
Mr Gillman, where he had enjoyed every consolation which
friendship and love could render. Coleridge died in the com-
munion of the Church of England, of whose polity and teaching
he had been for many years a loving admirer. An interesting
letter to his god-child, written twelve days before his death,
sums up his spiritual experience in a most touching form.

Of the extraordinary influence which he exercised in conversa-
tion it is impossible to speak fully here. Many of the most
remarkable among the younger men of that period resorted to
Highgate as to the shrine of an oracle, and although one or two
disparaging judgments, such as that of Carlyle, have been
recorded, there can be no doubt that since Samuel Johnson
there had been no such power in England. His nephew, Henry
Nelson Coleridge, gathered together some specimens of the
Table Talk of the few last years. But remarkable as these are
for the breadth of sympathy and extent of reading disclosed,
they will hardly convey the impressions furnished in a dramatic
form, as in Boswell's great work. Four volumes of Literary
Remains were published after his death, and these, along with the
chapters on the poetry of Wordsworth in the Biographia Literaria,
may be said to exhibit the full range of Coleridge's power as
a critic of poetry. In this region he stands supreme. With
regard to the preface, which contains Wordsworth's theory,
Coleridge has honestly expressed his dissent: " With many
parts of this preface, in the sense attributed to them, and which
the words undoubtedly seem to authorize, I never concurred;
but, on the contrary, objected to them as erroneous in principle,
and contradictory (in appearance at least) both to other parts
of the same preface, and to the author's own practice in the
greater number of the poems themselves." This disclaimer of
perfect agreement renders the remaining portion of what he
says more valuable. Coleridge was in England the creator of
that higher criticism which had already in Germany accomplished
so much in the hands of Lessing and Goethe. It is enough
to refer here to the fragmentary series of his Shakespearian

68o

COLERIDGE, S. T.

criticisms, containing evidence of the truest insight, and a
marvellous appreciation of the judicial " sanity " which raises
the greatest name in literature far above even the highest of
the poets who approached him.

As a poet Coleridge's own place is safe. His niche in the great
gallery of English poets is secure. Of no one can it be more
emphatically said that at his highest he was " of imagination
all compact." He does not possess the fiery pulse and humane-
ness of Burns, but the exquisite perfection of his metre and the
subtle alliance of his thought and expression must always
secure for him the warmest admiration of true lovers of poetic
art. In his early poems may be found traces of the fierce struggle
of his youth. The most remarkable is the Monody on the Death
of Chatterton and the Religious Musings. In what may be
called his second period, the ode entitled France, considered
by Shelley the finest in the language, is most memorable. The
whole soul of the poet is reflected in the Ode to Dejection. The
well-known lines

" O Lady! we receive but what we give,
And in our life alone does nature live ;
Ours is her wedding garment, ours her shroud,"

with the passage which follows, contain more vividly, perhaps,
than anything which Coleridge has written, the expression of
the shaping and colouring function which he assigns, in the
Biographia Literaria, to imagination. Christabel and the Ancient
Mariner have so completely taken possession of the highest place,
that it is needless to do more than allude to them. The super-
natural has never received such treatment as in these two wonder-
ful productions of his genius, and though the first of them
remains a torso, it is the loveliest torso in the gallery of English
literature. Although Coleridge had, for many years before his
death, almost entirely forsaken poetry, the few fragments of
work which remain, written in later years, show little trace of
weakness, although they are wanting in the unearthly melody
which imparts such a charm to Kubla Khan, Love and Youth
and Age. (G. D. B.; H. CH.)

In the latter part of his life, and for the generation which
followed, Coleridge was ranked by many young English church-
men of liberal views as the greatest religious thinker of their
time. As Carlyle has told in his Life of Sterling, the poet's
distinction, in the eyes of the younger churchmen with philo-
sophic interests, lay in his having recovered and preserved his
Christian faith after having passed through periods of rationalism
and Unitarianism, and faced the full results of German criticism
and philosophy. His opinions, however, were at all periods
somewhat mutable, and it would be difficult to state them in
any form that would hold good for the whole even of his later
writings. He was, indeed, too receptive of thought impressions
of all kinds to be a consistent systematizer. As a schoolboy, by
his own account, he was for a time a Voltairean, on the strength
of a perusal of the Philosophical Dictionary. At college, as we
have seen, he turned Unitarian. From that position he gradu-
ally moved towards pantheism, a way of thought to which he
had shown remarkable le'anings when, as a schoolboy, he dis-
coursed of Neo-Platonism to Charles Lamb, or if we may trust
his recollection translated the hymns of Synesius. Early in
life, too, he met with the doctrines of Jacob Behmen, of whom,
in the Biographia Literaria, he speaks with affection and grati-
tude as having given him vital philosophic guidance. Between
pantheism and Unitarianism he seems to have balanced till his
thirty-fifth year, always tending towards the former in virtue
of the recoil from " anthropomorphism " which originally took
him to Unitarianism. In 1796, when he named his first child
David Hartley, but would not have him baptized, he held by
the " Christian materialism " of the writer in question, whom in
his Religious Musings he terms " wisest of mortal kind."

When, again, he met Wordsworth in 1797, the two poets freely
and sympathetically discussed Spinoza, for whom Coleridge
always retained a deep admiration; and when in 1798 he gave
up his Unitarian preaching, he named his second child Berkeley,
signifying a new allegiance, but still without accepting Christian
rites otherwise than passively. Shortly afterwards he went to

Germany, where he began to study Kant, and was much capti-
vated by Lessing. In the Biographia he avows that the writings
of Kant " more than any other work, at once invigorated and
disciplined my understanding"; yet the gist of his estimate
there is that Kant left his system undeveloped, as regards Jus
idea of the Noumenon, for fear of orthodox persecution a
judgment hardly compatible with any assumption of Kant's
Christian orthodoxy, which was notoriously inadequate. But
after his stay at Malta, Coleridge announced to his friends that
he had given up his " Socinianism " (of which ever afterwards
he spoke with asperity), professing a return to Christian faith,
though still putting on it a mystical construction, as when he told
Crabb Robinson that " Jesus Christ was a Platonic philosopher."
At this stage he was much in sympathy with the historico-
rationalistic criticism of the Old Testament, as carried on in
Germany; giving his assent, for instance, to the naturalistic
doctrine of Schiller's Die Sendung Moses. From about 1810
onwards, however, he openly professed Christian orthodoxy,
while privately indicating views which cannot be so described.
And even his published speculations were such as to draw from
J. H. Newman a protest that they took " a liberty which no
Christian can tolerate," and carried him to " conclusions which
were often heathen rather than Christian." This would apply
to some of his positions concerning the Logos and the Trinity.
After giving up Unitarianism he claimed that from the first he
had been a Trinitarian on Platonic lines; and some of his latest
statements of the doctrine are certainly more pantheistic than
Christian.

The explanation seems to be that while on Christian grounds
he repeatedly denounced pantheism as being in all its forms
equivalent to atheism, he was latterly much swayed by the
thought of Schelling in the pantheistic direction which was
natural to him. To these conflicting tendencies were probably
due his self-contradictions on the problem of original sin and the
conflicting claims of feeling and reason. It would seem that,
in the extreme spiritual vicissitudes of his life, conscious alter-
nately of personal weakness and of the largest speculative grasp,
he at times threw himself entirely on the consolations of evan-
gelical faith, and at others reconstructed the cosmos for himself
in terms of Neo-Platonism and the philosophy of Schelling. So
great were his variations even in his latter years, that he could
speak to his friend Allsop in a highly latitudinarian sense,
declaring that in Christianity " the miracles are supererogatory,"
and that " the law of God and the great principles of the Christian
religion would have been the same had Christ never assumed
humanity."

From Schelling, whom he praised as having developed Kant
where Fichte failed to do so, he borrowed much and often, not
only in the metaphysical sections of the Biographiabut in his
aesthetic lectures, and further in the cosmic speculations of the
posthumous Theory of Life. On the first score he makes but
an equivocal acknowledgment, claiming 10 have thought on
Schelling's lines before reading him; but it has been shown by
Hamilton and Ferrier that besides transcribing much from
Schelling without avowal he silently appropriated the learning
of Maass on philosophical history. In other directions he laid
under tribute Herder and Lessing; yet all the while he cast
severe imputations of plagiarism upon Hume and others. His
own plagiarisms were doubtless facilitated by the physiological
effects of opium.

Inasmuch as he finally followed in philosophy the mainly
poetical or theosophic movement of Schelling, which satisfied
neither the logical needs appealed to by Hegel nor the new
demand for naturalistic induction, Coleridge, after arousing a
great amount of philosophic interest in his own country in the
second quarter of the century, has ceased to " make a school."
Thus his significance in intellectual history remains that of a
great stimulator. He undoubtedly did much to deepen and
liberalize Christian thought in England, his influence being
specially marked in the school of F. D. Maurice, and in the lives
of men like John Sterling. And even his many borrowings from
the German were assimilated with a rare power of development.

COLERIDGE, SARA COLET, J.

681

O.H'

18,

which bore fruit not only in a widening of the field of English
philosophy but in the larger scientific thought of a later
generation. (J. M. Ro.)

Of Coleridge's four children, two (Hartley and Sara) are separately
noticed. His second child, Berkeley, died when a baby. The third,
Derwent ( 1 800-1 883) , a distinguished scholar and author, was master
of Helston school, Cornwall (1825-1841), first principal of St Mark's
College, Chelsea (1841-1864), and rector of Hanwell (1864-1880);
and his daughter Christabel (b. 1843) and son Ernest Hartley (b.
1846) both became well known in the world of letters, the former as a
ivelist, the latter as a biographer and critic.
After Coleridge's death several of his works were edited by his
phew, Henry Nelson Coleridge, the husband of Sara, the poet's
ly daughter. In 1847 Sara Coleridge published the Biographia
Literaria, enriched with annotations and biographical supplement
from her own pen. Three volumes of political writings, entitled
Essays on his Own Times, were also published by Sara Coleridge in
1850. The standard life of Coleridge is that by J. Dykes Campbell
1894) ; his letters were edited by E. H. Coleridge.
COLERIDGE, SARA (1802-1852), English author, the fourth
ild and only daughter of Samuel Taylor Coleridge and his
ife Sarah Fricker of Bristol, was born on the zjrd of December
802, at Greta Hall, Keswick. Here, after 1803, the Coleridges,
luthey and his wife (Mrs Coleridge's sister), and Mrs Lovell
another sister), widow of Robert Lovell, the Quaker poet, all lived
igether; but Coleridge was often away from home; and
Uncle Southey " was a pater familias. The Wordsworths at
rasmere were their neighbours. Wordsworth, in his poem,
Triad, has left us a description, or " poetical glorification,"
Sara Coleridge calls it, of the three girls his own daughter
>ra, Edith Southey and Sara Coleridge, the " last of the three,
iough eldest born." Greta HaH was Sara Coleridge's home
til her marriage; and the little Lake colony seems to have
in her only school. Guided by Southey, and with his ample
irary at her command, she read by herself the chief Greek and
.tin classics, and before she was five-and-twenty had learnt
ench, German, Italian and Spanish.

In 1822 Sara Coleridge published Account of the Abipones, a
.nslation in three large volumes of Dobrizhoffer, undertaken in
innexion with Southey's Tale of Paraguay, which had been
ggested to him by Dobrizhoffer's volumes; and Southey
ludes to his niece, the translator (canto iii. stanza 16), where he
aks of the pleasure the old missionary would have felt if
" .... he could in Merlin's glass have seen
By whom his tomes to speak our tongue were taught."

less grandiloquent terms, Charles Lamb, writing about the
'ale of Paraguay to Southey in 1825, says, " How she Dobriz-
hoffered it all out, puzzles my slender Latinity to conjecture."
In 1825 her second work appeared, a translation from the medieval
French of the " Loyal Serviteur," The Right Joyous and Pleasant
History of the Feats, Jests, and Prowesses of the Chevalier Bayard,
the Good Knight without Fear and without Reproach: By the
Loyal Servant.

In September 1829, at Crosthwaite church, Keswick, after an
engagement of seven years' duration, Sara Coleridge was married
to her cousin, Henry Nelson Coleridge (1798-1843), younger son
of Captain James Coleridge ( 1 760-1836) . He was then a chancery
barrister in London. The first eight years of her married life were
spent in a little cottage in Hampstead. There four of her children
were born, of whom two survived. In 1834 Mrs Coleridge pub-
lished her Pretty Lessons in Verse for Good Children; with some
Lessons in Latin in Easy Rhyme. These were originally written
for the instruction of her own children, and became very popular.
In 1837 the Coleridges removed to Chester Place, Regent's Park;
and in the same year appeared Phantasmion, a Fairy Tale, Sara
Coleridge's longest original work. The songs in Phantasmion
were much admired at the time by Leigh Hunt and other critics.
Some of them, such as " Sylvan Stay " and " One Face Alone,"
are extremely graceful and musical, and the whole fairy tale is
ticeable for the beauty of the story and the richness of its
iguage.

In 1843 Henry Coleridge died, leaving to his widow the un-
ished task of editing her father's works. To these she added
me compositions of her own, among which are the Essay on
'ionalism, with a special application to the Doctrine of Baptismal

Regeneration, appended to Coleridge's Aids to Reflection, a Preface
to the Essays on his Own Times, by S. T. Coleridge, and the Intro-
duction to the Biographia Literaria. During the last few years of
her life Sara Coleridge was a confirmed invalid. Shortly before
she died she amused herself by writing a little autobiography for
her daughter. This, which reaches only to her ninth year, was
completed by her daughter, and published in 1873, together with
some of her letters, under the title Memoirs and Letters of Sara
Coleridge. The letters show a cultured and highly speculative
mind. They contain many apt criticisms of known people and
books, and are specially interesting for their allusions to Words-
worth and the Lake Poets. Sara Coleridge died in London on
the 3rd of May 1852.

Her son, Herbert Coleridge (1830-1861), won a double first
class in classics and mathematics at Oxford in 1852. He was
secretary to a committee appointed by the Philological Society
to consider the project of a standard English dictionary, a scheme
of which the New English Dictionary, published by the Clarendon
Press, was the ultimate outcome. His personal researches into
the subject were contained in his Glossarial Index to the Printed
English Literature of the Thirteenth Century (1859).

COLET, JOHN (i467?-isi9), English divine and educationist,
the eldest son of Sir Henry Colet (lord mayor of London 1486
and 1495), was born in London about 1467. He was educated
at St Anthony's school and at Magdalen College, Oxford, where
he took the M.A. degree in 1490. He already held the non-
resident rectory of Dennington, Suffolk, and the vicarage of
St Dunstan's, Stepney, and was now collated rector of Thurning,
Hunts. In 1493 he went to Paris and thence to Italy, 'studying
canon and civil law, patristics and the rudiments of Greek.
During his residence abroad he became acquainted with Budaeus
(Guillaume Bude) and Erasmus, and with the teaching of
Savonarola. On his return to England in 1496 he took orders
and settled at Oxford, where he lectured on the epistles of St Paul,
replacing the old scholastic method of interpretation by an
exegesis more in harmony with the new learning. His methods
did much to influence Erasmus, who visited Oxford in 1498,
and in after years Erasmus received an annuity from him.
Since 1494 he had been prebendary of York, and canon of St
Martin le Grand, London. In 1502 he became prebendary of
Salisbury, in 1505 prebendary of St Paul's, and immediately
afterwards dean of the same cathedral, having previously taken
the degree of doctor of divinity. Here he continued his
practice of lecturing on the books of the Bible; and he soon
afterwards established a perpetual divinity lecture, on three
days in each week, in St Paul's church. About the year 1508,
having inherited his father's large wealth, Colet formed his plan
for the re-foundation of St Paul's school, which he completed
in 1512, and endowed with estates of an annual value of 122
and upwards. The celebrated grammarian William Lilly was
the first master, and the company of mercers were (in 1310)
appointed trustees, the first example of non-clerical manage-
ment in education. The dean's religious opinions were so
much more liberal than those of the contemporary clergy
(whose ignorance and corruption he denounced) that they
deemed him little better than a heretic; but William Warham,
the archbishop, refused to prosecute him. Similarly Henry
VIII. held him in high esteem despite his sermons against
the French wars. In 1514 he made the Canterbury pilgrimage,
and in 1515 preached at Wolsey's installation as cardinal.
Colet died of the sweating sickness onthei6thof September 1519.
He was buried on the south side of the choir of St Paul's, where
a sto'ne was laid over his grave, with no other inscription than
his name. Besides the preferments above mentioned, he was
rector of the gild of Jesus at St Paul's and chaplain to Henry VIII.

Colet, though never dreaming of a formal breach with the
Roman Church, was a keen reformer, who disapproved of auricular
confession, and of the celibacy of the clergy. Though no great
scholar or writer, he was a powerful force in the England of his
day, and helped materially to disintegrate the medieval con-
ditions still obtaining, and to introduce the humanist movement.
Among his works, which were first collectively published in

682

COLET, L. COLIC

1867-1876, are Absoluiissimus de octo orationis partium con-
structione libellus (Antwerp, 153). Rudimenta Grammatices
(London, 1539), Daily Devotions, Monition to a Godly Life,
Epistolae ad Erasmum, and commentaries on different parts of
the Bible.

See F. Seebohm, The Oxford Reformers; J. H. Lupton, Life of
John Colet (1887); art. in The Times, July 7, 1909.

COLET, LOUISE (1810-1876), French poet and novelist,
was born at Aix of a Provencal family named Revoil, on the
iSth of September 1810. Jn 1835 she came to Paris with hftr
husband Hippolyte Colet (1808-1851), a composer of music and
professor of harmony and counterpoint at the conservatoire.
In 1836 appeared her Fleurs du Midi, a volume of verse, of liberal
tendency, followed by Penserosa (1839), a second volume of verse;
by La Jeunesse de Goethe (1839), a one-act comedy; by Les Casurs
brisis (1843), a novel; Les Funerailles de Napoleon (1840), a
poem, and La Jeunesse de Mirabeau (1841), a novel. Her works
were crowned five or six times by the Institute, a distinction
which she owed, however, to the influence of Victor Cousin
rather than to the quality of her work. The criticisms on her
books and on the prizes conferred on her by the Academy
exasperated her; and in 1841 Paris was diverted by her attempted
reprisals on Alphonse Karr for certain notices in Les Guepes.
In 1849 she had to defend an action brought against her by the
heirs of Madame Recamier, whose correspondence with Benjamin
Constant she had published in the columns of the Presse. She
produced a host of writings in prose and verse, but she is perhaps
best known for her intimate connexion with some of her famous
contemporaries, Abel Villemain, Gustave Flaubert and Victor
Cousin. Only one of her books is now of interest Lui: roman
contemporain (1859), the novel in which she told the story of her
life. She died on the 8th of March 1876.

COLEUS, a genus of herbaceous or shrubby plants belonging
to the natural order Labiatae, chiefly natives of the tropics.
They are very ornamental plants, the colour of their leaves being
exceedingly varied, and often very brilliant. They are of the
easiest culture. The cuttings of young shoots should be propa-
gated every year, about March, being planted in thumb pots,
in sandy loam, and placed in a close temperature of 70. After
taking root shift into 6-in. pots, using ordinary light loamy
compost, containing abundance of leaf-mould and sand, and
keeping them near the light. They may be passed on into
larger pots as often as required, but 8-in. pots will be large enough
for general purposes, as they can be fed with liquid manure.
The young spring-struck plants like a warm growing atmosphere,
but by midsummer they will bear more air and stand in a green-
house or conservatory. They should be wintered in a tempera-
ture of 60 to 65. The stopping of the young shoots must be
regulated by the consideration whether bushy or pyramidal plants
are desired. Some of the varieties are half-hardy and are used
for summer bedding.

COLFAX, SCHUYLER (1823-1885), American political leader,
vice-president of the United States from 1869 to 1873, was born
in New York city on the 23rd of March 1823. His father died
before the son's birth, and his mother subsequently married a
Mr Matthews. The son attended the public schools of New York
until he was ten, and then became a clerk in his step-father's
store, removing in 1836 with his mother and step-father to New
Carlisle, Indiana. In 1841 he removed to South Bend, where
for eight years he was deputy auditor (his step-father being
auditor) of St Joseph county; in 1842-1844 he was assistant
enrolling clerk of the state senate and senate reporter for the
Indiana State Journal. In 1845 he established the St Joseph
Valley Register, which he published for eighteen years and made
an influential Whig and later Republican journal. In 1850 he
was a member of the state constitutional convention, and in
1854 took an active part in organizing the " Anti-Nebraska
men " (later called Republicans) of his state, and was by them
sent to Congress. Here he served with distinction from 1855
until 1869, the last six years as speaker of the House. At the
close of the Civil War he was a leading member of the radical
wing of the Republican party, advocating the disfranchisement

of all who had been prominent in the service of the Confederacy,
and declaring that " loyalty must govern what loyalty has pre-
served." In 1868 he had presidential aspirations, and was not
without supporters. He accepted, however, the Republican
nomination as vice-president on a ticket headed by General
Grant, and was elected; but he failed in 1872 to secure renomina-
tion. During the political campaign of 1872 he was accused,
with other prominent politicians, of being implicated in corrupt
transactions with the Credit Mobilier, and a congressional
investigation brought out the fact that he had agreed to take
twenty shares from this concern, and had received dividends
amounting to $i 200. It also leaked out during the investigation
that be had received in 1868, as a campaign contribution, a gift
of $4000 from a contractor who had supplied the government with
envelopes while Colfax was chairman of the post office committee
of the House. At the close of his term Colfax returned to private
life under a cloud, and during the remainder of his lifetime
earned a livelihood by delivering popular lectures. He died at
Mankato, Minnesota, on the i3th of January 1885.
See J. C. Hollister's Life of Schuyler Colfax (New York, 1886).
.COLIC (from the Gr. KoXcw or KU\OV, the large intestine),
a term in medicine of very indefinite meaning, used by physicians
outside England for any paroxysmal abdominal pain, but gener-
ally limited in England to a sudden sharp pain having its origin
in the pelvis of the kidney, the ureter, gall-bladder, bile-ducts
or intestine. Thus it is customary to speak of renal, biliary or
intestinal colic. There is a growing tendency, however, among
professional men of to-day, to restrict the use of the word to
a pain produced by the contrattion of the muscular walls of any
of the hollow viscera of which the aperture has become more or
less occluded, temporarily or otherwise. For renal and biliary
colic, see the articles KIDNEY DISEASES and LIVER, only intes-
tinal colic being treated in this place.

In infants, usually those who are " bottle-fed," colic is exceed-
ingly common, and is shown by the drawing up of their legs,
their restlessness and their continuous cries.

Among adults one of the most serious causes is that due to
lead-poisoning and known as lead colic (Syn. painters' colic,
colica Pictonum, Devonshire colic), from its having been clearly
ascertained to be due to the absorption of lead into the system
(see LEAD-POISONING). This disease had been observed and
described long before its cause was discovered. Its occurrence
in an epidemic form among the inhabitants of Poitou was re-
corded by Franjois Citois (1572-1652) in 1617, under the title
of Novus et popularis apud Pictones dolor colicus biliosus. The
disease was thereafter termed colica Pictonum. It was supposed
to be due to the acidity of the native wines, but it was afterwards
found to depend on lead contained in them. A similar epidemic
broke out in certain parts of Germany in the end of the i7th
century, and was at the time believed by various physicians
to be caused by the admixture of acid wines with litharge to
sweeten them.

About the middle of the i8th century this disease, which had
long been known to prevail in Devonshire, was carefully investi-
gated by Sir George Baker (1722-1809), who succeeded in tracing
it unmistakably to the contamination of the native beverage,
cider, with lead, either accidentally from the leadwork of the vats
and other apparatus for preparing the liquor, or from its being
sweetened with litharge.

In Germany a similar colic resulting from the absorption of
copper occurs, but it is almost unknown in England.

The simplest form of colic is that arising from habitual
constipation, the muscular wall of the intestines contracting
painfully to overcome the resistance of hardened scybalous
masses of faeces, which cause more or less obstruction to the
onward passage of the intestinal contents. Another equally
common cause is that due to irritating or indigestible food such
as apples, pears or nuts, heavy pastry, meat pies and puddings,
&c. It may then be associated with either constipation or
diarrhoea, though the latter is the more common. It may
result from any form of enteritis as simple, mucous and ulcera-
tive colitis, or an intestinal malignant growth. The presence

COLIGNY COLIMA

683

of ascaris lumbricoides may, by reflex action, set up a very painful
nervous spasm; and certain forms of influenza (q.v.) are ushered
in by colic of a very pronounced type. Many physicians describe
a rheumatic colic due to cold and damp, and among women
disease of the pelvic organs may give rise to an exactly similar pain.
There are also those forms of colic which must be classed .as
functional or neuralgic, though this view of the case must never
be accepted until every other possible cause is found to be un-
tenable. From this short account of a few of the commoner
causes of the trouble, it will be clear that colic is merely a symp-
tom of disease, not a disease in itself, and that no diagnosis
has been made until the cause of the pain has been determined.
Intestinal colic is paroxysmal, usually both beginning and
ending suddenly. The pain is generally referred to the neigh-
bourhood of the umbilicus, and may radiate all over the abdomen.
It varies in intensity from a slight momentary discomfort to a
pain so severe as to cause the patient to shriek or even to break
out into a cold clammy sweat. It is usually relieved by pressure,
and this point is one which aids in the differential diagnosis
between a simple colic and peritonitis, the pain of the latter
being increased by pressure. But should the colic be due to
a malignant growth, or should the intestines be distended with
s, pressure will probably increase the pain. The temperature
usually subnormal, but may be slightly raised, and the pulse
in proportion.

In the treatment of simple colic the patient must be confined
bed, hot fomentations applied to tne abdomen and a purge
Iministered, a few drops of laudanum being added when the
lin is exceptionally severe. But the whole difficulty lies in
making the differential diagnosis. Acute intestinal obstruction
(ileus) begins just as an attack of simple colic, but the rapid
Qcrease of illness, frequent vomiting, anxious countenance,
and still more the condition of the pulse, warn a trained observer
of the far more serious state. Appendicitis and peritonitis, as
ilso the gastric crises of locomotor ataxy, must all be excluded.

COLIGNY, 6ASPARD DE (1510-1572), admiral of France and
Protestant leader, came of a noble family of Burgundy, who
aced their descent from the nth century, and in the reign of
ouis XI. were in the service of the king of France. His father,
Gaspard de Coligny, known as the marechal de Chatillon (d.
1522), served in the Italian wars from 1495 to 1515, and was
reated marshal of France in 1516. By his wife, Louise de
lontmorency, sister of the future constable, he had three
ons: Odet, cardinal de Chatillon; Gaspard, the admiral; and
Francis, seigneur d'Andelot; all of whom played an important
art in the first period of the wars of religion. At twenty-two
young Gaspard came to court, and there contracted a friendship
with Francis of Guise. In the campaign of 1 543 Coligny distin-
guished himself greatly, and was wounded at the sieges of
Montmdy and Bains. In 1 544 he served in the Italian campaign
under the duke of Enghien, and was knighted on the field of
Ceresole. Returning to France, he took part in different military
operations; and having been made colonel-general of the infantry
(April 1547), exhibited great capacity and intelligence as a
military reformer. He was made admiral on the death of
d'Annebaut (1552). In 1557 he was entrusted with the defence
of Saint Quentin. In the siege he displayed great courage, resolu-
tion, and strength of character; but the place was taken, and he
was imprisoned in the stronghold of L'Ecluse. On payment of
a ransom of 50,000 crowns he recovered his liberty. But he had
by this time become a Huguenot, through the influence of his
brother, d'Andelot the first letter which Calvin addressed to
him is dated the 4th of September 1558 and he busied himself
Secretly with protecting his co-religionists, a colony of whom
he sent to Brazil, whence they were afterwards expelled by the
Portuguese.

On the death of Henry II. he placed himself, with Louis, prince
of Conde, in the front of his sect, and demanded religious tolera-
tion and certain other reforms. In 1560, at the Assembly of
Notables at Fontainebleau, the hostility between Coligny and
Francis of Guise broke forth violently. When the civil wars
began in 1562, Coligny decided to take arms only after long

hesitation, and he was always ready to negotiate. In none of
these wars did he show superior genius, but he acted throughout
with great prudence and extraordinary tenacity; he was " le
h6ros de la mauvaise fortune." In 1569 the defeat and death
of the prince of Cond6 at Jarnac left him sole leader ef the
Protestant armies. Victorious at Arnay-le-Duc, he obtained
in 1570 the pacification of St Germain. Returning to the court
in 1571, he grew rapidly in favour with Charles XI. As a means
of emancipating the king from the tutelage of his mother and
the faction of the Guises, the admiral proposed to him a descent
on Spanish Flanders, with an army drawn from both sects and
commanded by Charles in person. The king's regard for the
admiral, and the bold front of the Huguenots, alarmed the
queen-mother; and the massacre of St Bartholomew was the
consequence. On the 22nd of August 1572 Coligny was shot in
the street by Maurevel, a bravo in the pay of the queen-mother
and Guise; the bullets, however, only tore a finger from his
right hand and shattered his left elbow. The king visited him,
but the queen-mother prevented all private intercourse between
them. On the 24th of August, the night of the massacre, he
was attacked in his house, and a servant of the duke of Guise,
generally known as Besme, slew him and cast him from a window
into the courtyard at his master's feet. His papers were seized
and burned by the queen-mother; among them, according to
Brant6me, was a history of the civil war, " tres-beau et tres-bien
faict, et digne d'estre imprime."

By his wife, Charlotte de Laval, Coligny had several children,
among them being Louise, who married first Charles de Teligny
and afterwards William the Silent, prince of Orange, and Francis,
admiral of Guienne, who was one of the devoted servants of
Henry IV. Gaspard de Coligny (1584-1646), son of Francis,
was marshal of France during the reign of Louis XIII.

See Jean du Bouchet, Preuves de I'histoire genealogique de I'illustre
maison de Coligny (Paris, 1661); biography by Franjois Hotman,
1575 (French translation, 1665); L. J. Delaborde, Gaspard de
Cohgny (1870-1882) ; Erich Marcks, Gaspard von Coligny, setn Leben
und das Frankreich seiner Zeit (Stuttgart, 1892) ; H. Patry, " Coligny
et la Papaute," in the Bulletin du protestantisme franfais (1902) ;
A. W. Whitehead, Gaspard de Coligny, Admiral of France (1904);
and C. Merki, L'Amiral de Coligny (1909).

COLIMA, a small Pacific coast state of Mexico, lying between
Jalisco on the N.W. and N., and Michoacan on the E. Including
the Revilla Gigedo islands its area is only 2272 sq. m., which
thus makes it the second smallest of the Mexican states. Pop.
(1895) 55,264; (1900) 65,115. The larger part of its territory
is within the narrow, flat coastal plain, beyond which it rises
toward the north-east into the foothills of the Sierra Madre, the
higher masses of the range, including the Colima volcano, lying
outside the state. It is drained by the Ameria and Coahuayana
rivers and their affluents, which are largely used for irrigation.
There are tidewater lagoons and morasses on the coast which
accentuate its malarious character. One of the largest of these,
Cuitlan, immediately south of Manzanillo, is the centre of a
large salt-producing industry. The soil is generally fertile and
productive, but lack of transportation facilities has been a
serious obstacle to any production greatly exceeding local
demands. The dry and rainy seasons are sharply defined, the
rainfall being abundant in the latter. The climate is hot, humid
and malarious, becoming drier and healthier on the higher
mountain slopes of the interior. Stock-raising is an important
industry in the higher parts of the state, but the horses, mules
and cattle raised have been limited to local demands. Agri-
culture, however, is the principal occupation of the state, the
more important products being sugar, rice, Indian corn, palm
oil, coffee, indigo, cotton and cacao. The production of cacao
is small, and that of indigo and cotton is declining, the latter
being limited to the requirements of small local mills. There
are two crops of Indian corn a year, but sugar and rice are the
principal crops. The " Caracolillo " coffee, produced on the
slopes of the mountains culminating in the volcano of Colima, is
reputed the best in Mexico, and the entire crop (about 506,000 lb.
in 1906) is consumed in the country at a price much above
other grades. There are important mineral deposits in the

68 4

COLIMA COLLAR

state, including iron, copper and lead, but mining enterprise
has made no progress through lack of transportatio'n facilities.
Salt is made on the coast and shipped inland, and palm-leaf
hats are manufactured and exported. Hides and deerskins are
also exported in large quantities. A narrow-gauge railway has
been in operation between the capital and Manzanillo for many
years, and in 1907 a branch of the Mexican Central was com-
pleted between Guadalajara and the capital, and the narrow-
gauge line to the coast was widened to the standard gauge. The
chief cities of the state are the capital Colima, Manzanillo,
Comala (the second largest town in the state), 5 m. from the
capital, with which it is connected by an electric railway, Ixtla-
huacan Coquimatlan and Almoloyan.

COLIMA, a city of Mexico and capital of a state of the same
name, 570 m. (direct) W. by S. of Mexico City and about 36 m.
inland from the Pacific coast. Pop. (1895) 18,977; (19)
20,698. Colima is picturesquely situated on the Colima river,
in a large fertile valley about 1650 ft. above the sea, and lies
in the midst of fine mountain-scenery. About 30 m. to the
north-east the volcano of Colima, in the state of Jalisco, rises
to an elevation of 12,685 ft- it is t ne most westerly of the
active volcanoes of Mexico. Colima enjoys a moderately cool
and healthy climate, especially in the dry season (November
to June). The city is regularly laid out and is in great part
well built, with good public buildings, several churches, a theatre,
two hospitals, and a handsome market completed in 1905.
Tramways connect the central plaza with the railway station,
cemetery, and the suburb of Villa de Alvarez, 25 m. distant, and
an extension of 5 m. was projected in 1906 to Comala. The
local industries include two old-fashioned cotton mills, an ice
plant, corn-grinding mill, and five cigarette factories. Colima
is the commercial centre for a large district, but trade has been
greatly restricted by lack of transportation facilities. A railway
connects with the port of Manzanillo, and the Mexican Central
railway serves Colima itself. Colima was founded in 1522 by
Gonzalo de Sandoval. It has not played a very prominent part
in Mexican history because of its inaccessibility, and for the
same reason has suffered less from revolutionary violence.

COLIN, ALEXANDRE (1526-1612), Flemish sculptor, was
born at Malines. In 1563 he went, at the invitation of the
emperor Ferdinand I., to Innsbruck, to work on the magnificent
monument which was being erected to Maximilian I. in the nave
of the Franciscan church. Of the twenty-four marble alti-rilievi,
representing the emperor's principal acts and victories, which
adorn the sides of this tomb, twenty were executed by Colin,
apparently in three years. The work displays a remarkable
combination of liveliness and spirit with extreme care and finish,
its delicacy rivalling that of a fine cameo. Thorwaldsen is said
to have pronounced it the finest work of its kind. Colin, who
was sculptor in ordinary both to the emperor and to his son, the
archduke Ferdinand of Tirol, did a great deal of work for his
patrons at Innsbruck and in its neighbourhood; particular
mention may be made of the sepulchres of the archduke and his
first wife, Philippine Welser, both in the same church as the
Maximilian monument, and of Bishop Jean Nas. His tomb in
the cemetery at Innsbruck bears a fine bas-relief executed by
one of his sons.

COLL, an island of the Inner Hebrides, Argyllshire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901) 432. It is situated about 7 m. west of Caliach
Point in Mull, and measures 12 m. from N.E. to S.W.,
with a breadth varying from f m. to 4 m. It is composed of
gneiss, is generally rather flat, save in the west where Ben Hogh
reaches a height of 339 ft., and has several lakes. The pasturage
is good and the soil fairly fertile. Much dairy produce is ex-
ported, besides sheep and cattle. The antiquities include stone
circles, duns, the ruins of Breachacha Castle, once a fortress of
the Lords of the Isles. A steamer from Oban calls regularly
at Arinagour.

COLLAERT, HANS, Flemish engraver, son of Adrian Collaert,
a draughtsman and engraver of repute, was born at Antwerp
about 1545. After working some years in his father's studio,
he went to Rome to perfect himself in his art. His engravings

after Rubens are very highly esteemed. He left many works;
among the best may be mentioned a " Life of Saint Francis,"
16 prints; a " Last Judgment," folio; " Monilium, Bullarum,
Inauriumque Artificiosissimae Icones," 10 prints, 1581; "The
Dead Christ in his Mother's Lap "; " Marcus Curtius"; " Moses
Striking the Rock," and " The Resurrection of Lazarus," after
Lambert Lombard; " The Fathers of the Desert "; and
" Biblia Sacra and the History of the Church," after Rubens.

COLLAR, something worn or fastened round the neck (Lat.
collare, from collum, neck), particularly a band of linen, lace or
other material, which, under various shapes at different periods,
has been worn by men and women to serve as a completion or
finish to the neckband of a garment (see COSTUME); also a
chain, worn as a personal ornament, a badge of livery, a symbol
of office, or as part of the insignia of an order of knighthood, an
application of the term with which the present article deals.
The word is also applied to that part of the draught-harness of a
horse which fits over the animal's neck, to which the traces are
attached, and against which the strain of the drawing of the
vehicle is exercised, and to a circular piece of metal passed round
the joints of a rod or pipe, to prevent movement or to make the
joint steam- or water-tight.

Necklaces with beads and jewels threaded thereon or the plain
laces with a hanging ornament are among the common braveries
of all times and countries. From these come the collar and the
neck-chain. Torques or twisted collars of metal are found in
burying-places of the Barbarous people of northern Europe.
British chiefs wore them, and gold torques were around the necks
of the leaders of the first of the Saxon invaders of Britain, among
whose descendants, however, the fashion seems to have lan-
guished. Edward the Confessor was buried with a neck-chain
of gold 2 ft. long, fastened with a jewelled locket and carrying
an enamelled crucifix.

The extravagant age of Richard II. saw a great revival of the
neck-chain, heavy links twisted of gold or silver. From this
time onward neck chains, with or without pendant devices,
were commonly worn by men and women of the richer sort.
The men abandoned them in the time of Charles I.

Closely allied to the chain are the livery collars which appeared
in the I4th century, worn by those who thus displayed their
alliances or their fealty. Thus Charles V. of France in 1378
granted to his chamberlain Geoffrey de Belleville the right of
bearing in all feasts and in all companies the collar of the Cosse
de Geneste or Broomcod, a collar which was accepted and worn
even by the English kings, Charles VI. sending such collars to
Richard II. and to his three uncles. This French collar, a chain
of couples of broom-cods linked by jewels, is seen in the contem-
porary portrait of Richard II. at Wilton. The like collar was
worn by Henry IV. on the way to his crowning. During the
sitting of the English parliament in 1394 the complaints of the
earl of Arundel against Richard II. are recorded, one of his
grievances being that the king was wont to wear the livery of
the collar of the duke of Lancaster, his uncle, and that people of
the king's following wore the same livery. To which the king
answered that soon after the return from Spain (in 1389) of his
uncle, the said duke, he himself took the collar from his uncle's
neck, putting it on his own, which collar the king would wear
and use for a sign of the good and whole-hearted love between
them, even as he wore the liveries of his other uncles. Livery
collars of the king of France, of Queen Anne and of the dukes
of York and Lancaster are numbered with the royal plate and
jewels which in the first year of Henry IV. had come to the king's
hands. The inventory shows that Queen Anne's collar was made
up of sprigs of rosemary garnished with pearls. The York
collar had falcons and fetterlocks, and the Lancaster collar was
doubtless that collar of Esses (or S S) used by the duke's son,
Henry of Bolingbroke, as an earl, duke and king. This famous
livery collar, which has never passed out of use, takes many
forms, its Esses being sometimes linked together chainwise, and
sometimes, in early examples, bestowed as the ornamental
bosses of a garter-shaped strap-collar. The oldest effigy bearing
it is that in Spratton church of Sir John Swinford, who died in

COLLATERAL COLLATIA

685

1371. Swinford was a follower of John of Gaunt, and the date
of his death easily disposes of the fancy that the Esses were
devised by Henry IV. to stand for his motto or " word " of
Soverayne. Many explanations are given of the origin of these
letters, but none has as yet been established with sufficient proof.
During the reigns of Henry IV., his son and grandson, the collar
of Esses was a royal badge of the Lancastrian house and party,
the white swan being its pendant. In one of Henry VI.'s own
collars the S was joined to the Broomcod of the French device,
thus symbolizing the king's claim to the two kingdoms.

The kings of the house of York and their chief followers wore
the Yorkist collar of suns and roses, with the white lion of March,
the Clare bull, or Richard's white boar for a pendant device.
Henry VII. brought back the collar of Esses, a portcullis or a
rose hanging from it, although in a portrait of this king, now
possessed by the Society of Antiquaries, his neck bears the rose
en soleil alternating with knots, and his son, when young, had
a collar of roses red and white. Besides these royal collars, the
i4th and isth centuries show many of private devices. A brass
at Mildenhall shows a knight whose badge of a dog or wolf
circled by a crown hangs from a collar with edges suggesting a
pruned bough or the ragged staff. Thomas of Markenfield
(d. c. 1415) on his brass at Ripon has a strange collar of park
palings with a badge of a hart in a park, and the Lord Berkeley
(d. 1392) wears one set with mermaids.

Collars of various devices are now worn by the grand crosses
of the European orders of knighthood. The custom was begun
by Philip of Burgundy, who gave his knights of the Golden Fleece,
an order founded on the loth of February 1420-1430, badges
of a golden fleece hung from that collar of flints, steels and sparks
which is seen in so many old Flemish portraits. To this day
it remains the most beautiful of all the collars, keeping in the
main the lines of its Flemish designer, although a vulgar fancy
sometimes destroys the symbolism of the golden fleece by chang-
ing it for an unmeaning fleece of diamonds. Following this new
fashion, Louis XI. of France, when instituting his order of
St Michael in 1469, gave the knights collars of scallop shells
linked on a chain. The chain was doubled by Charles VIII.,
and the pattern suffered other changes before the order lapsed
in 1830. Until the reign of Henry VIII., the Garter, most
ancient of the great knightly orders, had no collar. But the
Tudor king must needs match in all things with continental
sovereigns, and the present collar of the Garter knights, with
its golden knots and its buckled garters enclosing white roses
set on red roses, has its origin in the Tudor age. An illustration
in colours of the Garter collar is given on Plate I. in the article
KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY, while descriptions of the collars
of the other principal orders are also given. The collar of the
Thistle with the thistles and rue-sprigs is as old as the reign of
James II. The Bath collar, in its first form of white knots linking
closed crowns to roses and thistles issuing from sceptres, dates
from 1725, up to which time the knights of the Bath had hung
their medallion from a ribbon.

Founding the order of the Saint Esprit in 1.578, Henry III.
of France devised a collar of enflamed fleur-de-lis and cyphers
of H and L, a fashion which was soon afterwards varied by
Henry his successor. Elephants have been always borne on
the collar of the Elephant founded in Denmark in 1478, the other
links of which have taken many shapes. Another Danish order,
the Dannebrog, said to be " re-instituted " by Christian V. in
1671, has a collar of crosses formy alternating with the crowned
letters C and W, the latter standing for Waldemar the Victorious,
whom a legend of no value described as founding the order in
1219. Of other European orders, that of St Andrew, founded
by Peter of Russia in 1698, has eagles and Andrew crosses and
cyphers, while the Black Eagle of Prussia has the Prussian eagle
with thunderbolts in its claws beside roundels charged with
cyphers of the letters F.R.

Plain coljars of Esses are now worn in the United Kingdom
by kings-of-arms, heralds and serjeants-at-arms. Certain legal
dignitaries have worn them since the i6th century, the collar
of the lord chief-justice having knots and roses between the

letters. Henry IV.'s parliament in his second year restricted
the free use of the king's livery collar to his sons and to all dukes,
earls, barons and bannerets, while simple knights and squires
might use it when in the royal presence or in going to and from
the hostel of the king. The giving of a livery collar by the king
made a squire of a man even as the stroke of the royal sword
made him a knight. Collars of Esses are sometimes seen on the
necks of ladies. The queen of Henry IV. wears one. So do the
wife of a i6th century Knightley on her tomb at Upton, and
Penelope, Lady Spencer (d. 1667), on her Brington monument.

Since 1545 the lord mayor of London has worn a royal livery
collar of Esses. This collar, however, has its origin in no royal
favour, Sir John Alen, thrice a lord mayor, having bequeathed
it to the then lord mayor and his successors " to use and occupie
yerely at and uppon principall and festival! dayes." It was
enlarged in 1 567, and in its present shape has 28 Esses alternating
with knots and roses and joined with a portcullis. Lord mayors
of York use a plain gold chain of a triple row of links given in
1670; this chain, since the day when certain links were found
wanting, is weighed on its return by the outgoing mayor. In
Ireland the lord mayor of Dublin wears a collar given by
Charles II., while Cork's mayor has another which the Cork
council bought of a silversmith in 1755, stipulating that it should
be like the Dublin one. The lady mayoress of York wears a plain
chain given with that of the lrd mayor in 1670, and, like his,
weighed on its return to official keeping. For some two hundred
and thirty years the mayoress of Kingston-on-Hull enjoyed a
like ornament until a thrifty council in 1835 sold her chain as a
useless thing.

Of late years municipal patriotism and the persuasions of
enterprising tradesmen have notably increased the number
of English provincial mayors wearing collars or chains of office.
Unlike civic maces, swords and caps of maintenance, these
gauds are without significance. The mayor of Derby is decorated
with the collar once borne by a lord chief-justice of the king's
bench, and his brother of Kingston-on-Thames uses without
authority an old collar of Esses which once hung over a herald's
tabard. By a modern custom the friends of the London sheriffs
now give them collars of gold and enamel, which they retain as
mementoes of their year of office. (O. BA.)

COLLATERAL (from Med. Lat. coUaleralis, cum, with, and
latus, lateris, side, side by side, hence parallel or additional),
a term used in law in several senses. Collateral relationship
means the relationship between persons who are descended
from the same stock or ancestor, but in a different line; as
opposed to lineal, which is the relationship between ascendants
and descendants in a direct line, as between father and son,
grandfather and grandson. A collateral agreement is an agreement
made contemporaneously with a written contract as part of the
transaction, but without being incorporated with it. Collateral
facts, hi evidence, are those facts which do not bear directly on
the matters in dispute. Collateral security is an additional
security for the better safety of the mortgagee, i.e. property
or right of action deposited to secure the fulfilment of an
obligation.

COLLATIA, an ancient town of Latium, 10 m. E. by N. of
Rome by the Via Collatina. It appears in the legendary history
of Rome as captured by Tarquinius Priscus. Livy tells us it was
taken from the Sabines, while Virgil speaks of it as a Latin
colony. In the time of Cicero it had lost all importance; Strabo
names it as a mere village, in private hands, while for Pliny it
was one of the lost cities of Latium. The site is undoubtedly
to be sought on the hill now occupied by the large medieval
fortified farmhouse of Lunghezza, immediately to the south
of the Anio, which occupies the site of the citadel joined by a
narrow neck to the tableland to the south-east on which the
city stood: this is protected by wide valleys on each side, and
is isolated at the south-east end by a deep narrow valley enlarged
by cutting. No remains are to be seen, but the site is admirably
adapted for an ancient settlement. The road may be traced
leading to the south end of this tableland, being identical with
the modern road to Lunghezza for the middle part of its course

686

COLLATION COLLEGE

only. The current indentification with Castellaccio, 2 m. to the
south-east, is untenable.

See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, i. 138 seq.,
iii. 201. (T. As.)

COLLATION (Lat. collatio, from conferre, to bring together
or compare), the bringing together of things for the special
purpose of comparison, and thus, particularly, the critical
examination of the texts of documents or MSS. and the result
of such comparison. The word is also a term in printing and
bookbinding for the register of the " signatures," the number
of quires and leaves in each quire of a book or MS. In Roman
and Scots law " collation " answers to the English law term
"hotch-pot " (<?..). From another meaning of the Latin word,
a consultation or conference, and so a treatise or homily, comes
the title of a work of Johannes Cassianus (q.v.), the Conferences
of the Fathers (Cottationes Patrum). Readings from this and
similar works were customary in monasteries; by the regula
of St Benedict it is ordered that on rising from supper there
should be read collationes, passages from the lives of the Fathers
and other edifying works; the word is then applied to the
discussions arising from such readings. On fast days it was
usual in monasteries to have a very light meal after the Collatio,
and hence the meal itself came to be called " collation," a mean-
ing which survives in the modern use of the word for any light
or quickly prepared repast.

COLLE, CHARLES (1700-1783), French dramatist and song-
writer, the son of a notary, was born at Paris in 1709. He
was early interested in the rhymes of Jean Heguanier, then the
most famous maker of couplets in Paris. From a notary's office
Colle was transferred to that of M. de Neulan, the receiver-
general of finance, and remained there for nearly twenty years.
When about seventeen, however, he made the acquaintance of
Alexis Piron, and afterwards, through Gallet (d. 1757), of
Panard. The example of these three masters of the vaudeville,
while determining his vocation, made him diffident; and for
some time he composed nothing but amphigouris verses whose
merit was measured by their unintelligibility. The friendship
of the younger Crebillon, however, diverted him from this
by-way of art, and the establishment in 1729 of the famous
" Caveau " gave him a field for the display of his fine talent
for popular song. In 1739 the Society of the Caveau, which
numbered among its members Helvetius, Charles Duclos,
Pierre Joseph Bernard, called Gentil-Bernard, Jean Philippe
Rameau, Alexis Piron, and the two Crebillons, was dissolved,
and was not reconstituted till twenty years afterwards. His
first and his best comedy, La Verite dans le vin, appeared in 1747.
Meanwhile, the Regent Orleans, who was an excellent, comic
actor, particularly in representations of low life, and had been
looking out for an author to write suitable parts for him, made
Colle his reader. It was for the duke and his associates that
Colle composed the greater part of his Theatre de societe. In
1763 Colle produced at the Theatre Francais Dupuis et Des-
ronais, a successful sentimental comedy, which was followed
in 1771 by La Veuve, which was a complete failure. In 1774
appeared La Parlie de chasse de Henri Quatre (partly taken from
Dodsley's King and the Miller of Mansfield), Colle's last and best
play. From 1748 to 1772, besides these and a multitude of
songs, Colle was writing his Journal, a curious collection of
literary and personal strictures on his boon companions as well
as on their enemies, on Piron as on Voltaire, on La Harpe as on
Corneille. Colle died on the 3rd of November 1783. His lyrics
are frank and jovial, though often licentious. The subjects
are love and wine; occasionally, however, as in the famous
lyric (1756) on the capture of Port Mahon, for which the author
received a pension of 600 livres, the note of patriotism is struck
with no unskilful hand, while in many others Colle shows himself
possessed of considerable epigrammatic force.

See also H. Bonhomme's edition (1868) of his Journal et Memoires
(1748-1772); Grimm's Correspondence ; and C. A. Sainte-Beuve,
Nouveaux lundis, vol. vii.

COLLECTIVISM, a term used to denote the economic principle
of the ownership by a community of all the means of production

in order to secure to the people collectively an equitable dis-
tribution of the produce of their associated labour. Though
often used in a narrow sense to express the economic basis of
Socialism, the latter term is so generally employed in the same
sense that collectivism is best discussed in connexion with it
(see SOCIALISM).

COLLECTOR, a term technically used for various officials,
and particularly in India for the chief administrative official of a
district. The word was in this case originally a translation of
tahsildar, and indicates that the special duty of the office is the
collection of revenue; but the collector has also magisterial
powers and is a species of autocrat within the bounds of his
district. The title is confined to the regulation provinces, especi-
ally Madras; in the non-regulation provinces the same duties are
discharged by the deputy-commissioner (see COMMISSIONER).

COLLE DI VAL D' ELSA, a town and episcopal see of Italy, in
the province of Siena, 5 m. by rail S. of Poggibonsi, which is 16 m.
N.W. of Siena. Pop. (1901) town 1987; commune 9879. The
old (upper) town (732 ft. above sea-level), contains the cathedral,
dating from the i3th century, with a pulpit partly of this period;
the facade has been modernized. There are also some old palaces
of good architecture, and the old house where Arnolfo di Cambio,
the first architect of the cathedral at Florence (1232-1301) was
born. The lower town (460 ft.) contains glass-works; the paper
and iron industries (the former as old as 1377) are less important.

COLLEGE (Collegium), in Roman law, a number of persons
associated together by the possession of common functions, a
body of colleagues. Its later meaning applied to any union of
persons, and collegium was the equivalent of erotpeta. In
many respects, e.g. in the distinction between the responsibilities
and rights of the society and those of individual members thereof,
the collegium was what we should now call a corporation (q.v.).
Collegia might exist for purposes of trade like the English gilds,
or for religious purposes (e.g. the college of augurs, of pontifices,
&c.), or for political purposes, e.g. tribunorum plebis collegia.
By the Roman law a collegium must have at least three members.
The name is now usually applied to educational corporations,
such as the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge, with which, in the
numerous English statutes relating to colleges, the colleges of
Winchester and Eton are usually associated. These colleges are
in the eye of the law eleemosynary corporations. In some of the
earlier statutes of Queen Elizabeth they are spoken of as having
an ecclesiastical character, but the doctrine of the common law
since the Reformation has been that they are purely lay corpora-
tions, notwithstanding that most or all of their members may be
persons in priest's orders. This is said to have been settled by
Dr Patrick's case (Raymond's Reports, p. 101).

Colleges appear to have grown out of the voluntary association
of students and teachers at the university. According to some
accounts these must at one time have been numerous and flourish-
ing beyond anything we are now acquainted with. We are told,
for example, of 300 halls or societies at Oxford, and 30,000
students. In early times there seems to have been a strong
desire to confine the scholars to certain licensed houses beyond
the influence of the townspeople. Men of wealth and culture,
and notably the political bishops and chancellors of England,
obtained charters from the crown for the incorporation of
societies of scholars, and these in time became exclusively the
places of abode for students attending the university. At the
same time the corporations thus founded were not necessarily
attached to the locality of the university. The early statutes of
Merton College, for example, allow the residence of the college
to be shifted as occasion required; and the foundations of Wolsey
at Oxford and Ipswich seem to have been the same in intention.
In later times (until the introduction of non-collegiate students)
the university and the colleges became coextensive; every
member of the university had to attach himelf to some college
or hall, and every person admitted to a college or hall was obliged
to matriculate himself in the university.

In Ayliffe's Ancient and Present State of the University of Oxford
it is stated that a college must be " made up of three persons (at
least) joined in community. And the reason of this almost seems

COLLEONI COLLEY

687

to speak its own necessity, without the help of any express law to
countenance it: because among two persons only there cannot
be, in fact, a major part; and then if any disagreement should
happen to arise between them it cannot be, in fact, brought to a
conclusion by such a number alone in case both the parties should
firmly adhere to their dissenting opinions; and thus it is declared
by the civil law. But by the canon law it is known to be other-
wise; for by that law two persons in number may make and
constitute a college, forasmuch as according to this law two
persons make and constitute an assembly or congregation. The
common law of England, or rather the constant usage of our
princes in erecting aggregate bodies, which has established this rule
among us as a law, has been herein agreeable to the method and
doctrine of the civil law, for that in all their grants and charters
of incorporation of colleges they have not framed any aggregate
body consisting of less than three in number." Another principle,
apparently derived from the civil law, is that a man cannot be
a fellow in two colleges at the same time. The law of England
steadily resisted any attempt to introduce the principle of in-
equality into colleges. An act of 1542, reciting that divers founders
of colleges have given in their statutes a power of veto to indi-
vidual members, enacts that every statute made by any such
founder, whereby the grant or election of the governor or ruler
with the assent of the most part of such corporation should be in
any wise hindered by any one or more being the lesser number
(contrary to the common law), shall be void.

The corporation consists of a head or master, fellows and
scholars. Students, not being on the foundation, residing in the
college, are not considered to be members of the corporation.
The governing body in all cases is the head and fellows.

It is considered essential to corporations of an ecclesiastical
or educational character that they should have a Visitor whose
duty it is to see that the statutes of the founder are obeyed.
The duties of this officer have been ascertained by the courts of
law in a great variety of decided cases. Subject to such restric-
tions as may be imposed on him by the statutes of the college,
his duties are generally to interpret the statutes of the college
in disputed cases, and to enforce them where they have been
violated. For this purpose he is empowered to " visit " the
society usually at certain stated intervals. In questions
within his jurisdiction his judgment is conclusive, but his juris-
diction does not extend to any cases under the common laws
of the country, or to trusts attached to the college. Generally
the visitorship resides in the founder and his heirs unless he has
otherwise appointed, and in default of him in the crown.

The fellowships, scholarships, &c., of colleges were until a
comparatively recent date subject to various restrictions,
Birth in a particular county, education at a particular school,
relationship to the founder and holy orders, are amongst the
most usual of the conditions giving a preferential or conclusive
claim to the emoluments. Most of these restrictions have been
or are being swept away. (See UNIVERSITIES; OXFORD; CAM-
BRIDGE; &c.)

The term " college " (like " academy ") is also applied to
various institutions, e.g. to colleges of physicians and surgeons,
and to the electoral college in the United States presidential
elections, &c. For the Sacred College see CARDINAL.

COLLEONI, BARTOLOMMEO (1400-1475), Italian soldier
of fortune, was born at Bergamo. While he was still a child his
father was attacked and murdered in his castle of Trezzo by
Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan. After wandering about
Italy he entered the service of various condottieri, such as Braccio
da Montone and Carmagnola. At the age of thirty-two he was
serving the Venetian republic, and although Francesco Maria
Gonzaga was commander-in-chief , Colleoni was the life and soul
of the army. He recaptured many towns and districts for
Venice from the Milanese, and when Gonzaga went over to the
enemy he continued to serve the Venetians under Erasmo da
Narni (known as Gattamelata) and Francesco A. Sforza, winning
battles at Brescia, Verona and on the lake of Garda. When
peace was made between Milan and Venice in 1441 Colleoni wenl
over to the Milanese, together with Sforza in 1443. But although

well treated at first, he soon fell under the suspicion of the
treacherous Visconti and was imprisoned at Monza, where he
remained until the duke's death in 1447. Milan then fell under
the lordship of Sforza, whom Colleoni served for a time, but in
1448 he took leave of Sforza and returned to the Venetians.
Disgusted at not having been elected captain-general, he went
over to Sforza once more, but Venice could not do without him
and by offering him increased emoluments induced him to return,
and in 1435 he was appointed captain-general of the republic
for life. Although he occasionally fought on his own account,
when Venice was at peace, he remained at the disposal of the
republic in time of war until his death.

Colleoni was perhaps the most respectable of all the Italian
condottieri, and although he often changed sides, no. act of
treachery is imputed to him, nor did he subject the territories
he passed through to the rapine and exactions practised by other
soldiers of fortune. When not fighting he devoted his time to
introducing agricultural improvements on the vast estates with
which the Venetians had endowed him, and to charitable works.
At his death in 1475 he left a large sum to the republic for the
Turkish war, with a request that an equestrian statue of himself
should be erected in the Piazza San Marco. The statue was
made by Verrocchio, but as no monument was permitted in the
famous Piazza it was placed opposite the hospital of St Mark
by way of compromise.

See G. M. Bonomi, II Castello di Caverna^o e i conti Martinengo
Colleoni (Bergamo, 1884) ; for an accent of his wars see S. Romanin,
Storia documentata di Venezia, vol. iv. (Venice, 1855), and other
histories of Venice. (L. V.*)

COLLETER (Gr. xoXXos, glue), a botanical term for the
gum-secreting hairs on the buds of certain plants.

COLLETTA, PIETRO (1775-1831), Neapolitan general and
historian, entered the Neapolitan artillery in 1796 and took part
in the campaign against the French in 1798. On the entry of
the French into Naples and the establishment of the Parthe-
nopean republic (1799) he adhered to the new government, and
when the Bourbon king Ferdinand IV. (q.v.) reconquered the
city Colletta was thrown into prison and only escaped the death
penalty by means of judiciously administered bribes. Turned
out of the army he became a civil engineer, but when the
Bourbons were expelled a second time in 1806 and Joseph Bona-
parte seized the throne of Naples, he was reinstated in his rank
and served in the expedition against the brigands and rebels of
Calabria. In 1812 he was promoted general, and made director
of roads and bridges. He served under Joachim Murat and
fought the Austrians on the Panaro in 1815. On the restoration
of Ferdinand Colletta was permitted to retain his rank in the
army, and given command of the Salerno division. At the out-
break of the revolution of 1820 the king called him to his councils,-
and when the constitution had been granted Colletta was sent
to put down the separatist rising in Sicily, which he did with
great severity. He fought in the constitutionalist army against
the Austrians at Rieti (7th of March 1821), and on the re-estab-
lishment of autocracy he was arrested and imprisoned for three
months by order of the prince of Canosa, the chief of police, his
particular enemy. He would have been executed had not
the Austrians intervened in his favour, and he was exiled instead
to Brunn in Moravia; in 1823 he was permitted to settle in
Florence, where he spent the rest of his days engaged on his
Storia del reame di Napoli. He died in 1831. His history
(ist ed., Capolago, 1834), which deals with the reigns of Charles
III. and Ferdinand IV. (1734-1825), is still the standard work
for that period; but its value is somewhat diminished by the
author's bitterness against his opponents and the fact that he
does not give chapter and verse for his statements, many of
which are based on his recollection of documents seen, but not
available at the time of writing. Still, having been an actor in
many of the events recorded, he is on the whole accurate and

trustworthy.

See Gino Capponi's memoir of him published in the Stona del
reame di Napoli(2nd ed., Florence, 1848). (L. V.*)

COLLEY, SIR GEORGE POMEROY (1835-1381), British
general, third son of George Pomeroy Colley, of Rathangan,

688

COLLIER, A. COLLIER, J.

Co. Kildare, Ireland, and grandson of the fourth Viscount Har-
berton, was born on the ist of November 1835, and entered the
and Queen's Regiment from Sandhurst as ensign in 1852. From
1854 to 1860 he served in South Africa, and was employed in
surveying and as a magistrate in charge of the Bashi river district
in Kaff raria. Early in 1 860 he went with his regiment to China to
join the Anglo-French expedition, and took part in the capture
of the Taku forts and the entry into Peking, returning to South
Africa to complete his work in Kaff raria (brevet-majority).
In 1862 he entered the Staff College and passed out in one year
with honours. After serving as brigade-major at Devonport for
five years, he went to the War Office in 1870 to assist in the
preparation of (Lord) Card well's measures of army reform. He
was appointed professor of military administration at the Staff
College in 1871. Early in 1873 he joined Sir Garnet Wolseley at
the Gold Coast, where he took charge of the transport, and the
success of the Ashanti expedition was in no small degree due to
his exertions. He was promoted brevet-colonel and awarded the
C.B. In 1875 he accompanied Wolseley to Natal (C.M.G.). On
his return home he was appointed military secretary to Lord
Lytton, governor-general of India, and in 1877 private secretary
(K.C.S.I.). In 1879 he joined Wolseley as chief of the staff and
brigadier-general in S.E. Africa, but, on the murder of Cavagnari
at Kabul, returned to India. In 1880 he succeeded Wolseley in
S.E. Africa as high commissioner and general commanding, and
conducted the operations against the rebel Boers. He was
defeated at Laing's Nek anfl at the Ingogo river, and killed at
Majuba Hill on the 27th of February 1881. He had a very high
reputation not only for a theoretical knowledge of military
affairs, but also as a practical soldier.

See Life of Sir George Pomeroy Colley by Lieut.-Gen. Sir W. F.
Butler (London, 1899).

COLLIER, ARTHUR (1680-1732), English philosopher, was
born at the rectory of Steeple Langford, Wiltshire, on the 1 2th of
October 1680. He entered at Pembroke College, Oxford, in July
1697, but in October 1698 he and his brother William became
members of Balliol. His father having died in .1697, it was
arranged that the family living of Langford Magna should be given
to Arthur as soon as he was old enough. He was presented to the
benefice in 1704, and held it till his death. His sermons show no
traces of his bold theological speculations, and he seems to have
been faithful in the discharge of his duty. He was often in
pecuniary difficulties, from which at last he was obliged to free
himself by selling the reversion of Langford rectory to Corpus
Christ! College, Oxford. His philosophical opinions grew out of
a diligent study of Descartes and Malebranche. John Norris of
Bemerton also strongly influenced him by his Essay on the Ideal
World (1701-1704). It is remarkable that Collier makes no
reference to Locke, and shows no sign of having any knowledge
of his works. As early as 1703 he seems to have become con-
vinced of the non-existence of an external world. In 1712 he
wrote two essays, which are still in manuscript, one on substance
and accident, and the other called Claws Philosophica. His
chief work appeared in 1713, under the title Clavis Universalis,
or a New Inquiry after Truth, being a Demonstration of the Non-
Exislence or Impossibility of an External World (printed privately,
Edinburgh, 1836, and reprinted in Metaphysical Tracts, 1837,
edited by Sam. Parr). It was favourably mentioned by Reid,
Stewart and others, was frequently referred to by the Leib-
' nitzia ns, and was translated into German by von Eschenbach in
1756. Berkeley's Principles of Knowledge and Theory of Vision
preceded it by three and four years respectively, but there is no
evidence that they were known to Collier before the publication
of his book.

His views are grounded on two presuppositions: first, the utter
aversion of common sense to any theory of representative perception ;
second, the opinion which Collier held in common with Berkeley,
and Hume afterwards, that the difference between imagination and
sense perception is only one of degree. The former is the basis of
the negative part of his argument ; the latter supplies him with all
the positive account he has to give, and that is meagre enough.
The Clavis consists of two parts. After explaining that he will use
the term " external world in the sense of absolute, self -existent,
independent matter, he attempts in the first part to prove that the

visible world is not external, by showing first, that the seeming
externality of a visible object is no proof of real externality, and
second, that a visible object, as such, is not external. The image
of a centaur seems as much external to the mind as any object of
sense; and since the difference between imagination and perception
is only one of degree, God could so act upon the mind of a person
imagining a centaur, that he would perceive it as vividly as any
object can be seen. Similar illustrations are used to prove the second
proposition, that a visible object, as such, is not external. The first
part ends with a reply to objections based on the universal consent
of men, on the assurance given by touch of the extra existence of the
visible world, and on the truth and goodness of God (Descartes),
which would be impugned if our senses deceived us. Collier argues
naively that if universal consent means the consent of those who have
considered the subject, it may be claimed for his view. He thinks
with Berkeley that objects of sight are quite distinct from those of
touch, and that the one therefore cannot give any assurance of the
other; and he asks the Cartesians to consider how far God's truth
and goodness are called in question by their denial of the externality
of the secondary qualities. _The second part of the book is taken up
with a number of metaphysical arguments to prove the impossibility
of an external world. The pivot of this part is the logical principle of
contradiction. From the hypothesis of an external world a series of
contradictions are deduced, such as that the world is both finite and
infinite, is movable and immovable, &c. ; and finally, Aristotle and
various other philosophers are quoted, to show that the external
matter they dealt with, as mere potentiality, is just nothing at all.
Among other uses and consequences of his treatise, Collier thinks it
furnishes an easy refutation of the Romish doctrine of transub-
stantiation. If there is no external world, the distinction between
substance and accidents vanishes, and these become the sole essence
of material objects, so that there is no room for any change whilst
they remain as before. Sir William Hamilton thinks that the
logically necessary advance from the old theory of representative
perception to idealism was stayed by anxiety to save this miracle of
the church ; and he gives Collier credit for being the first to make
the discovery.

His Clavis Universalis is interesting on account of the resemblance
between its views and those of Berkeley. Both were moved by their
dissatisfaction with the theory of representative perception. Both
have the feeling that it is inconsistent with the common sense of
mankind, which will insist that the very object perceived is the sole
reality. They equally affirm that the so-called representative image
is the sole reality, and ^discard as unthinkable the unperceiving
material cause of the philosophers. Of objects of sense, they say,
their esse is percipi. But Collier never got beyond a bald assertion
of the fact, while Berkeley addressed himself to an explanation of it.
The thought of a distinction between direct and indirect perception
never dawned upon Collier. To the question how all matter exists
in dependence on percipient mind his only reply is, " Just how my
reader pleases, provided it be somehow." As cause of our sensations
and ground of our belief in externality, he substituted for an un-
intelligible material substance an equally unintelligible operation of
divine power. His book exhibits no traces of a scientific develop-
ment. The most that can be said about him is that he was an
intelligent student of Descartes and Malebranche, and had the ability
to apply the results of his reading to the facts of his experience. In
philosophy he is a curiosity, and nothing more. His biographer
attributes the comparative failure oi the Clavis to its inferiority in
point of style, but the crudeness of his thought had quite as much to
do with his failure to gain a hearing. Hamilton (Discussions, p. 197)
allows greater sagacity to Collier than to Berkeley, on the ground
that he did not vainly attempt to enlist men's natural belief against
the hypothetical realism of the philosophers. But Collier did so as
far as his light enabled him. He appealed to the popular conviction
that the proper object of sense is the sole reality, although he
despaired of getting men to give up their belief in its externality, and
asserted that nothing but prejudice prevented them from doing so;
and there is little doubt that, if it had ever occurred to him, as it did to
Berkeley, to explain the genesis of the notion of externality, he would
have been more hopeful of commending his theory to the popular
mind.

In theology Collier was an adherent of the High Church party,
though his views were by no means orthodox. In the Jacobite
Mist's Journal he attacked Bishop Hqadly's defence of sincere
errors. His views on the problems of Arianism, and his attempt to
reconcile it with orthodox theology, are contained in A Specimen of
True Philosophy (1730, reprinted in Metaphysical Tracts, 1837) and
Logology, or a Treatise on the Logos in Seven Sermons on John i.
i, 2, j, 14 (1732, analysed in Metaph. Tracts). These may be
compared with Berkeley's Siris.

See Robt. Benson, Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Arthur
Collier (1837); Tennemann, History of Philosophy; Hamilton,
Discussions; A. C. Fraser, edition of Berkeley's Works; G. Lyon,
" Un Idealiste anglais au XVIII. siecle," in Rev. philos. (1880),
x. 375-

COLLIER, JEREMY (1650-1726), English nonjuring divine,
was born at Stow-with-Quy, Cambridgeshire, on the 23rd of
September 1650. He was educated at Ipswich free school, over

COLLIER, J. P.

689

which his father presided, and at Caius College, Cambridge,
graduating B.A. in 1673 and M.A. in 1676. He acted for a short
time as a private chaplain, but was appointed in 1679 to the
small rectory of Ampton. near Bury St Edmunds, and in 1685 he
was made lecturer of Gray's Inn.

At the Revolution he was committed to Newgate for writing in
favour of James II. a tract entitled The Desertion discuss'd in a
Letter to a Country Gentleman (1688), in answer to Bishop Burnet's
defence of King William's position. He was released after some
months of imprisonment, without trial, by the intervention of his
friends. In the two following years he continued to harass the
government by his publications: and in 1692 he was again in
prison under suspicion of treasonable correspondence with James.
His scruples forbade him to acknowledge the jurisdiction of the
court by accepting bail, but he was soon released. But in
1696 for his boldness in granting absolution on the scaffold to
Sir John Friend and Sir William Parkyns, who had attempted
the assassination of William, he was obliged to flee, and for the
rest of his life continued under sentence of outlawry.

When the storm had blown over he returned to London, and
employed his leisure in works which were less political in their
tone. In 1697 appeared the first volume of his Essays on Several
Moral Subjects, to which a second was added in 1705, and a third
in 1709. The first series contained six essays, the most notable
being that " On the office of a Chaplain," which throws much
light on the position of a large section of the clergy at that time.
Collier deprecated the extent of the authority assumed by the
patron and the servility of the poorer clergy.

In 1698 Collier produced his famous Short View of the Im-
morality and Profaneness of the English Stage. ... He dealt
with the immodesty of the contemporary stage, supporting his
contentions by a long series of references attesting the com-
parative decency of Latin and Greek drama; with the profane
language indulged in by the players; the abuse of the clergy
common in the drama; the encouragement of vice by represent-
ing the vicious characters as admirable and successful; and
finally he supported his general position by the analysis of
particular plays, Dryden's Amphitryon, Vanbrugh's Relapse and
D'Urfey's Don Quixote. The Book abounds in hypercriticism,
particularly in the imputation of profanity; and in a useless
display of learning, neither intrinsically valuable nor conducive
to the argument. He had no artistic appreciation of the subject
he discussed, and he mistook cause for effect in asserting that the
decline in public morality was due to the flagrant indecency of
the stage. Yet, in the words of Macaulay , who gives an admirable
account of the discussion in his essay on the comic dramatists of
the Restoration, " when all deductions have been made, great
merit must be allowed to the work." Dryden acknowledged,
in the preface to his Fables, the justice of Collier's strictures,
though he protested against the manner of the onslaught; 1 but
Congreve made an angry reply; Vanbrugh and others followed.
Collier was prepared to meet any number of antagonists, and
defended himself in numerous tracts. The Short View was
followed by a Defence (1699), a Second Defence (1700), and Mr
Collier's Dissuasive from the Playhouse, in a Letter to a Person of
Quality (1703), and a Further Vindication (1708). The fight
lasted in all some ten years; but Collier had right on his side,
and triumphed; his position was, moreover, strengthened by the
fact that he was known as a Troy and high churchman, and that
his attack could not, therefore, be assigned to Puritan rancour
against the stage.

From 1 701 to 1 7 21 Collier was employed on his Great Historical,
Geographical, Genealogical and Poetical Dictionary, founded on,
and partly translated from, Louis Mor6ri's Dictionnaire his-
torique, and in the compilation and issue of the two volumes
folio of his own Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain from the
first planting of Christianity to the end of the reign of Charles II.

1 " He is too much given to horse-play in his raillery, and comes
to battle like a dictator from the plough. I will not say, ' the zeal
of God's house has eaten him up ' ; but I am sure it has devoured
some part of his good manners and civility " (Dryden, Works, ed.
Scott, xi. 239).

( 1 708-1 714). The latter work was attacked by Burnet and others,
but the author showed himself as keen a controversialist as ever.
Many attempts were made to shake his fidelity to the lost cause
of the Stuarts, but he continued indomitable to the end. In
1712 George Hickes was the only survivor of the nonjuring
bishops, and in the next year Collier was consecrated. He
had a share in an attempt made towards union with the Greek
Church. He had a long correspondence with the Eastern
authorities, his last letters on the subject being written in 1725.
Collier preferred the version of the Book of Common Prayer
issued in 1549, and regretted that certain practices and petitions
there enjoined were omitted in later editions. His first tract on
the subject, Reasons for Restoring some Prayers (1717), was
followed by others. In 1718 was published a new Communion
Office taken partly from Primitive Liturgies and partly from the
first English Reformed Common Prayer Book, . . . which em-
bodied the changes desired by Collier. The controversy that
ensued made a split in the nonjuring communion. His last work
was a volume of Practical Discourses, published in 1725. He
died on the 26th of April 1726.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. There is an excellent account of Collier in
A. Kippis's Biographia Britannica, vol. iv. (1789), where some
sensible observations by the editor are added to the original bio-
graphy. A full list of Collier's writings is given by the Rev. Win.
Hunt in the article in the Dictionary of National Biography. For
particulars of Collier's history as a nonjuring bishop, see Thomas
Lathbury, A History of the Nonjurors . . . (1845). There is an
excellent account of the Short View and the controversy arising
from it in A. Beljame's Le Public et les hommes de lettres en Angleterre
au XVIII' sitcle (2nd ed., 1897), pp. 244-263.

COLLIER, JOHN PAYNE (1780-1883), English Shakespearian
critic, was born in London, on the nth of January 1789. His
father, John Dyer Collier (1762-1825), was a successful journalist,
and his connexion with the press obtained for his son a position
on the Morning Chronicle as leader writer, dramatic critic and
reporter, which continued till 1847; he was also for some time
a reporter for The Times. He was summoned before the House
of Commons in 1819 for giving an incorrect report of a speech
by Joseph Hume. He entered the Middle Temple in 1811, but
was not called to the bar until 1829. The delay was partly due
to his indiscretion in publishing the Criticisms on the Bar (1819)
by " Amicus Curiae." His leisure was given to the study of
Shakespeare and the early English drama. After some minor
publications he produced in 1825-1827 a new edition of Dodsley's
Old Plays, and in 1833 a supplementary volume entitled Five
Old Plays. In 1831 appeared his History of English Dramatic
Poetry and Annals of the Stage to the Restoration, a badly arranged,
but valuable work. It obtained for him the post of librarian
to the duke of Devonshire, and, subsequently, access to the
chief collections of early English literature throughout the
kingdom, especially to the treasures of Bridgwater House.
These opportunities were unhappily misused to effect a series of
literary fabrications, which may be charitably, and perhaps
not unjustly, attributed to literary monomania, but of which
it is difficult to speak with patience, so completely did they for
a long time bewilder the chronology of Shakespeare's writings,
and such suspicion have they thrown upon MS. evidence in
general. After New Facts, New Particulars and Further Parti-
culars respecting Shakespeare had appeared and passed muster,
Collier produced (1852) the famous Perkins Folio, a copy of the
second folio (1632), so called from a name written on the title-
page. On this book were numerous MS. emendations of Shake-
speare said by Collier to be from the hand of " an old corrector."
He published these corrections as Notes and Emendations to
the Text of Shakespeare (1852), and boldly incorporated them
in his edition (1853) of Shakespeare. Their authenticity was
disputed by S. W. Singer in The Text of Shakespeare Vindicated
(1853) and by E. A. Brae in Literary Cookery (1855) on internal
evidence; and when in 1859 the folio was submitted by its
owner, the duke of Devonshire, to experts at the British Museum,
the emendations were incontestably proved to be forgeries of
modern date. Collier was exposed by Mr Nicholas Hamilton in
his Inquiry (1860). The point whether he was deceiver or

690

COLLIN COLLINGWOOD, LORD

deceived was left undecided, but the falsifications of which he
was unquestionably guilty among the MSS. at Dulwich College
have left little doubt respecting it. He had produced the
Memoirs of Edward Alleyn for the Shakespeare Society in 1841.
He followed up this volume with the Alleyn Papers (1843) and
the Diary of P. Hensltrwe (1845). He forged the name of Shake-
speare in a genuine letter at Dulwich, and the spurious entries
in Alleyn's Diary were proved to be by Collier's hand when the
sale of his library in 1884 gave access to a transcript he had
made of the Diary with interlineations corresponding with the
Dulwich forgeries. No statement of his can be accepted without
verification, and no manuscript he has handled without careful
examination, but he did much useful work. He compiled a
valuable Bibliographical and Critical Account, of the Rarest
Books in the English Language (1865); he reprinted a great
number of early English tracts of extreme rarity, and rendered
good service to the numerous antiquarian societies with which
he was connected, especially in the editions he produced for the
Camden Society and the Percy Society. His Old Man's Diary
(1871-1872) is an interesting record, though even here the taint
of fabrication is not absent. Unfortunately what he did amiss
is more striking to the imagination than what he did aright,
and he will be chiefly remembered by it. He died at Maiden-
head, where he had long resided, on the i7th of September
1883.

For an account of the discussion raised by Collier's emendations
see C.M. Ingleby, Complete View of the Shakespeare Controversy (1861).

COLLIN, HEINRICH JOSEPH VON (1771-18x1), Austrian
dramatist, was born in Vienna, on the 26th of December 1771.
He received a legal education and entered the Austrian ministry
of finance where he found speedy promotion. In 1805 and in
1809, when Austria was under the heel of Napoleon, Collin was
entrusted with important political missions. In 1803 he was,
together with other members of his family, ennobled, and in
1809 made H of rat. He died on the 28th of July 1811. His
tragedy Regulus (1801), written in strict classical form, was
received with enthusiasm in Vienna, where literary taste,
, less advanced than that of North Germany, was still under the
ban of French classicism. But in his later dramas, Coriolan
(1804), Polyxena (1804), Balboa (1806), Bianca delta Porta
(1808), he made some attempt to reconcile the pseudo-classic
type of tragedy with that of Shakespeare and the German
romanticists, As a lyric poet (Gedichte, collected 1812), Collin
has left a collection of stirring Wehrmannslieder for the fighters
in the cause of Austrian freedom, as well as some excellent
ballads (Kaiser Max auf der Martinswand, Herzog Leupold vor
Solothurn). His younger brother Matthaus von Collin (1779-
1824), was, as editor of the Wiener Jahrbucher fur Lileratur, an
even more potent force in the literary life of Vienna. He was,
moreover, in sympathy with the Romantic movement, and
intimate with its leaders. His dramas on themes from Austrian
national history (Belas Krieg mil dent Vater, 1808, Der Tod
Friedrichs des Streitbaren, 1813) may be regarded as the
immediate precursors of Grillparzer's historical tragedies.

His Gesammelte Werke appeared in 6 vols. (1812-1814); he is the
subject of an excellent monograph by F. Laban (1879). See also
A. Hauffen, Das Drama der klassischen Periode, ii. 2 (1891), where
a reprint of Regulus will be found. M. von Collin's Dramatische
Dichtungenvfere published in 4 vols. (1815-1817); his Nachgelassene
Schrjften, edited by J. von Hammer, in 2 vols. (1827). A study
of his life and work by J. Wihan will be found in Euphorion, Ergan-
zungsheft, v. (1901).

COLLIN D'HARLEVILLE, JEAN FRANCOIS (1755-1806),
French dramatist, was born at Mevoisins, near Maintenon
(Eure-et-Loire), on the 3oth of May 1755. His first dramatic
success was L'Inconstant, a comedy accepted by the Comedie
Francaise in 1780, but not produced there until six years later,
though it was played elsewhere in 1784. This was followed
by L'Optimiste, ou I'homme toujours content (1788), and Chateaux
enEspagne(ifSgi). His best play, Le Vieux Celibataire, appeared
in 1793. Among his other plays are the one-act comedy
Monsieur de Croc dans son petit castel (1791), Les Artistes (1796),
Les Mceurs du jour (1800) and Malice pour malice (1803).

Collin was one of the original members of the Institute of France,
and died in Paris on the 24th of February 1806.

The 1822 edition of his Theatre et poesies fugitives contains a notice
by his friend the dramatist Andrieux. His TheAtre was also edited
by L. Moland in 1876; and by Edouard Thierry in 1882.

COLLING, ROBERT (1740-1820), and CHARLES (1751-1836),
English stock breeders, famous for their improvement of the
Shorthorn breed of cattle, were the sons of Charles Colling, a
farmer of Ketton near Darlington. Their lives are closely
connected with the history of the Shorthorn breed. Of the two
brothers, Charles is probably the better known, and it was his
visit to the farm of Robert Bakewell at Dishley that first led the
brothers to realize the possibilities of scientific cattle breeding.
Charles succeeded to his father's farm at Ketton. Robert,
after being first apprenticed to a grocer in Shields, took a farm
at Barmpton. An animal which he bought at Charles's advice
for 8 and afterwards sold to his brother, became known as the
celebrated " Hubback," a bull which formed the basis of both
the Ketton and Barmpton herds. The two brothers pursued
the same system of " in and in " breeding which they had learned
from Bakewell, and both the Ketton and the Barmpton herds
were sold by auction in the autumn of 1810. The former with
47 lots brought 7116, and the latter with 61 lots 7852. Robert
Colling died unmarried at Barmpton on the 7th of March 1820,
leaving his property to his brother. Charles Colling, who is
remembered as the owner of the famous bulls " Hubback,"
"Favourite" and "Comet," was more of a specialist and a
business man than his brother. He died on the i6th of January
1836.

See the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 1899, for a
biographical sketch of the brothers Colling, by C. J. Bates.

COLLINGWOOD, CUTHBERT COLLINGWOOD, BARON (1750-
1810), British naval commander, was born at Newcastle-upon-
Tyne, on the 26th of September 1750. He was early sent to
school; and when only eleven years of age he was put on board
the " Shannon," then under the command of Captain (afterwards
Admiral) Brathwaite, a relative of his own, to whose care and
attention he was in -a great measure indebted for that nautical
knowledge which shone forth so conspicuously in his subsequent
career. After serving under Captain Brathwaite for some years,
and also under Admiral Roddam, he went in 1774 to Boston with
Admiral Graves, and served in the naval brigade at the battle
of Bunker Hill (i?th of June 1775), where he gained his lieu-
tenancy. In 1779 he was made commander of the " Badger,"
and shortly afterwards post-captain of the " Hinchinbroke," a
small frigate. In the spring of 1780 that vessel, under the
command of Nelson, was employed upon an expedition to the
Spanish Main, where it was proposed to pass into the Pacific
by navigating boats along the river San Juan and the lakes
Nicaragua and Leon. The attempt failed, and most of those
engaged in it became victims to the deadly influence of the
climate. Nelson was promoted to a larger vessel, and Colling-
wood succeeded him in the command. It is a fact worthy of
record that the latter succeeded the former very frequently
from the time when they first became acquainted, until the star
of Nelson set at Trafalgar giving place to that of Collingwood,
less brilliant certainly, but not less steady in its lustre.

After commanding in another small frigate, Collingwood
was promoted to the "Sampson" (64); and in 1783 he was
appointed to the " Mediator," destined for the West Indies,
where, with Nelson, who had a command on that station, he
remained till the end of 1786. With Nelson he warmly co-
operated in carrying into execution the provisions of the naviga-
tion laws, which had been infringed by the United States, whose
ships, notwithstanding the separation of the countries, continued
to trade to the West Indies, although that privilege was by law
exclusively confined to British vessels. In 1786 Collingwood
returned to England, where, with the exception of a voyage to
the West Indies, he remained until 1793, in which year he was
appointed captain of the " Prince," the flag-ship of Rear-
Admiral Bowyer. About two years previous to this event he
had married Miss Sarah Roddam a fortunate alliance, which

COLLINGWOOD COLLINS, A.

691

continued to be a solace to him amidst the privations to which
the life of a seaman must ever be subject.

As captain of the " Barfleur," Collingwood was present at the
naval engagement which was fought on the ist of June 1794;
and on that occasion he displayed equal judgment and courage.
On board the " Excellent " he shared in the victory of the I4th
of February 1797, when Sir John Jervis (Lord St Vincent)
humbled the Spanish fleet off Cape St Vincent. His conduct in
this engagement was the theme of universal admiration through-
out the fleet, and greatly advanced his fame as a naval officer.
After blockading Cadiz for some time, he returned for a few
weeks to Portsmouth to repair. In the beginning of 1799
Collingwood was raised to the rank of vice-admiral, and hoisting
his flag in the " Triumph," he joined the Channel Fleet, with
which he proceeded to the Mediterranean, where the principal
naval forces of France and Spain were assembled. Collingwood
continued actively employed in watching the enemy, until the
peace of Amiens restored him once more to the bosom of his
family.

The domestic repose, however, which he so highly relished,
was cut short by the recommencement of hostilities with France,
and in the spring of 1803 he quitted the home to which he was
never again to return. The duty upon which he was employed
was that of watching the French fleet off Brest, and in the
discharge of it he displayed the most unwearied vigilance.
Nearly two years were spent in this employment; but Napoleon
had at length matured his plans and equipped his armament,
and the grand struggle which was to decide the fate of Europe
and the dominion of the sea was close at hand. The enemy's
fleet having sailed from Toulon, Admiral Collingwood was
appointed to the command of a squadron, with orders to pursue
them. The combined fleets of France and Spain, after spreading
terror throughout the West Indies, returned to Cadiz. On their
way thither they bore down upon Admiral Collingwood, who
had only three vessels with him; but he succeeded in eluding
the pursuit, although chased by sixteen ships of the line. Ere
one-half of the enemy had entered the harbour he drew up
before it and resumed the blockade, at the same time employing
an ingenious artifice to conceal the inferiority of his force. But
the combined fleet was at last compelled to quit Cadiz; and the
battle of Trafalgar immediately followed. The brilliant conduct
of Admiral Collingwood upon this occasion has been much and
justly applauded. The French admiral drew up his fleet in the
form of a crescent, and in a double line, every alternate ship
being about a cable's length to windward of her second, both
ahead and astern. The British fleet bore down upon this
formidable and skilfully arranged armament in two separate
lines, the one led by Nelson in the " Victory," and the other
by Collingwood in the " Royal Sovereign." The latter vessel
was the swifter sailer, and having shot considerably ahead of the
rest of the fleet, was the first engaged. " See," said Nelson,
pointing to the " Royal Sovereign " as she penetrated the centre
of the enemy's line, " see how that noble fellow Collingwood
carries his ship into action!" Probably it was at the same
instant that Collingwood, as if in response to the observation of
his great commander, remarked to his captain, " What would
Nelson give to be here?" The consummate valour and skill
evinced by Collingwood had a powerful moral influence upon
both fleets. It was with the Spanish admiral's ship that the
" Royal Sovereign " closed; and with such rapidity and precision
did she pour in her broadsides upon the " Santa Anna," that the
latter was on the eve of striking in the midst of thirty-three sail
of the line, and almost before another British ship had fired a
gun. Several other vessels, however, seeing the imminent peril
of the Spanish flag-ship, came to her assistance, and hemmed
in the " Royal Sovereign " on all sides; but the latter, after
suffering severely, was relieved by the arrival of the rest of the
British squadron; and not long afterwards the " Santa Anna "
struck her colours. The result of the battle of Trafalgar, and the
expense at which it was purchased, are well known. On the
death of Nelson, Collingwood assumed the supreme command;
and by his skill and judgment greatly contributed to the preserva-

tion of the British ships, as well as of those which were captured
from the enemy. He was raised to the peerage as Baron
Collingwood of Coldburne and Heathpool, and received the
thanks of both Houses of Parliament, with a pension of 2000
per annum.

From this period until the death of Lord Collingwood no great
naval action was fought; but he was much occupied in important
political transactions, in which he displayed remarkable tact and
judgment. Being appointed to the command of the Mediter-
ranean fleet, he continued to cruise about, keeping a watchful eye
upon the movements of the enemy. His health, however, which
had begun to decline previously to the action of Trafalgar in 1803,
seemed entirely to give way, and he repeatedly requested govern-
ment to be relieved of his command, that he might return home;
but he was urgently requested to remain, on the ground that his
country could not dispense with his services. This conduct has
been regarded as harsh; but the good sense and political sagacity
which he displayed afford some palliation of the conduct of the
government; and the high estimation in which he was held is
proved by the circumstance that among the many able admirals,
equal in rank and duration of service, none stood so prominently
forward as to command the confidence of ministers and of the
country to the same extent as he did. After many fruitless
attempts to induce the enemy to put to sea, as well as to fall in
with them when they had done so (which circumstance materially
contributed to hasten his death), he expired on board the " Ville
de Paris," then lying off Port Mahon, on the 7th of March 1810.

Lord Collingwood's merits as a naval officer were in every
respect of the first order. In original genius and romantic daring
he was inferior to Nelson, who indeed had no equal in an age
fertile in great commanders. In seamanship, in general talent,
and in reasoning upon the probability of events from a number of
conflicting and ambiguous statements, Collingwood was equal to
the hero of the Nile; indeed, many who were familiar with both
give him the palm of superiority. His political penetration was
remarkable; and so high was the opinion generally entertained of
his judgment, that he was consulted in all quarters, and on all
occasions, upon questions of general policy, of regulation, and
even of trade. He was distinguished for benevolence and gener-
osity; his acts of charity were frequent and bountiful, and the
petition of real distress was never rejected by him. He was an
enemy to impressment and to flogging; and so kind was he to his
crew, that he obtained amongst them the honourable name of
father. Between Nelson and Collingwood a close intimacy
subsisted, from their first acquaintance in early life till the fall of
the former at Trafalgar; and they lie side by side in the cathedral
of St Paul's.

The selections from the public and private correspondence of
Lord Collingwood, published in 2 vols., 8vo, in 1828, contain some
of the best specimens of letter-writing in the language. See also A
Fine Old English Gentleman exemplified in the Life and Character of
Lord Collingwood, a Biographical Study, by William Da vies (London,
1875).

COLLINGWOOD, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia,
suburban to Melbourne on the N.E., on the Yarra Yarra river.
Pop. (1901) 32,766. It was the first town in Victoria incor-
porated after Melbourne and Geelong. It is esteemed one of
the healthiest of the metropolitan suburbs.

COLLINGWOOD, a town of Simcoe county, Ontario, Canada,
90 m. N.N.W. of Toronto, on Georgian Bay, and on the Grand
Trunk railway. Pop. (1901) 5755. It is the eastern terminus of
two lines of steamers for the ports of Lakes Huron and Superior.
It contains a large stone dry-dock and shipyard, pork factory,
and saw and planing mills, and has a large lumber, grain and
produce export trade, besides a shipbuilding plant and steel works.

COLLINS, ANTHONY (1676-1729), English deist, was born at
Heston, near Hounslow in Middlesex, on the 2ist of June 1676.
He was educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, and
was for some time a student at the Middle Temple. The most
interesting episode of his life was his intimacy with Locke, who in
his letters speaks of him with affection and admiration. In 1715
he settled in Essex, where he held the offices of justice of the peace
and deputy-lieutenant, which he had before lield in Middlesex.

692

COLLINS, CHURTON COLLINS, WILLIAM

He died at his house in Harley Street, London, on the i3th of
December 1729.

His writings are important as gathering together the results of
previous English Freethinkers. The imperturbable courtesy of
his style is in striking contrast to the violence of his opponents;
and it must be remembered that, in spite of his unorthodoxy, he
was not an atheist or even an agnostic. In his own words,
"Ignorance is the foundation of atheism, and freethinking the
cure of it " (Discourse of Freethinking, 105).

His first work of note was his Essay concerning the Use of
Reason in Propositions the Evidence whereof depends on Human
Testimony (1707), in which he rejected the distinction between
above reason and contrary to reason, and demanded that revelation
should conform to man's natural ideas of God. Like all his works,
it was published anonymously, although the identity of the
author was never long concealed. Six years later appeared his
chief work, A Discourse of Freethinking, occasioned by the Rise and
Growth of a Sect called Freethinkers (1713). Notwithstanding the
ambiguity of its title, and the fact that it attacks the priests of all
churches without moderation, it contends for the most part, at
least explicitly, for no more than must be admitted by every
Protestant. Freethinking is a right which cannot and must not
be limited, for it is the only means of attaining to a knowledge of
truth, it essentially contributes to the well-being of society, and it
is not only permitted but enjoined by the Bible. In fact the first
introduction of Christianity and the success of all missionary
enterprise involve freethinking (in its etymological sense) on the
part of those converted. In England this essay, which was
regarded and treated as a plea for deism, made a great sensation,
calling forth several replies, among others from William Whiston,
Bishop Hare, Bishop Hoadly, and Richard Bentley, who, under
the signature of Phileleutherus Lipsiensis., roughly handles
certain arguments carelessly expressed by Collins, but triumphs
chiefly by an attack on trivial points of scholarship, his own
pamphlet being by no means faultless in this very respect. Swift
also, being satirically referred to in the book, made it the subject
of a caricature.

In 1724 Collins published his Discourse of the Grounds and
Reasons of the Christian Religion, with An Apology for Free Debate
and Liberty of Writing prefixed. Ostensibly it is written in
opposition to Whiston's attempt to show that the books of the Old
Testament did originally contain prophecies of events in the New
Testament story, but that these had been eliminated or corrupted
by the Jews, and to prove that the fulfilment of prophecy by the
events of Christ's life is all " secondary, secret, allegorical, and
mystical," since the original and literal reference is always to some
other fact. Since, further, according to him the fulfilment of
prophecy is the only valid proof of Christianity, he thus secretly
aims a blow at Christianity as a revelation. The canonicity of the
New Testament he ventures openly to deny, on the ground that
the canon could be fixed only by men who were inspired. No less
than thirty-five answers were directed against this book, the most
noteworthy of which were those of Bishop Edward Chandler,
Arthur Sykes and Samuel Clarke. To these, but with special
reference to the work of Chandler, which maintained that a
number of prophecies were literally fulfilled in Christ, Collins
replied by his Scheme of Literal Prophecy Considered (1727). An
appendix contends against Whiston that the book of Daniel was
forged in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes (see DEISM).

In philosophy, Collins takes a foremost place as a defender of
Necessitarianism. His brief Inquiry Concerning Human Liberty
(1715) has not been excelled, at all events in its main outlines, as a
statement of the determinist standpoint. One of his arguments,
however, calls for special criticism, his assertion that it is self-
evident that nothing that has a beginning can be without a cause
is an unwarranted assumption of the very point at issue. He was
attacked in an elaborate treatise by Samuel Clarke, in whose
system the freedom of the will is made essential to religion and
morality. During Clarke's lifetime, fearing perhaps to be
branded as an enemy of religion and morality, Collins made no
reply, but in 1729 he published an answer, entitled Liberty and
Necessity.

Besides these works he wrote A Letter to Mr Dodwell, arguing
that it is conceivable that the soul may be material, and, secondly,
that if the soul be immaterial it does not follow, as Clarke had
contended, that it is immortal; Vindication of the Divine Attri-
butes (1710); Priestcraft in Perfection (1709), in which he asserts
that the clause "the Church . . . Faith " in the twentieth of the
Thirty-nine Articles was inserted by fraud.

See Kippis, Biographia Britannica; G. Lechler, Geschichte des
englischen Deismus (1841); J. Hunt, Religious Thought in England,
ii. (1871); Leslie Stephen, English Thought in the i8th Century, \.
(1881) ; A. W. Benn, Hist, of English Rationalism in the iQth Century
(London, 1906), vol. i. ch. iii. ; J. M. Robertson, Short History oj
Freethought (London, 1906) ; and DEISM.

COLLINS, JOHN CHURTON (1848-1008), English literary
critic, was born on the 26th of March 1848 at Bourton on the
Water, Gloucestershire. From King Edward's school, Birming-
ham, he went to Balliol College, Oxford, where he graduated in
1872, and at once devoted himself to a literary career, as jour-
nalist, essayist and lecturer. His first book was a study of Sir
Joshua Reynolds (1874), and later he edited various classical
English writers, and published volumes on Bolingbroke and
Voltairein England (1886), a Study of English Literature (1891), a
study of Dean Swift (1893), Essays and Studies (1895), Ephemera
Critica (1901), Essaysin Poetry andCriticism(i<)os),&nd Rousseau
and Voltaire (1908), his original essays beingsharplycontroversial
in tone, but full of knowledge. In 1904 he became professor of
English literature at Birmingham University. For many years he
was a prominent University Extension lecturer, and a constant
contributor to the principal reviews. On the isth of September
1908 he was found dead in a ditch near Lowes toft, at which place
he had been staying with a doctor for the benefit of his health.
The circumstances necessitated the holding of an inquest, the
verdict being that of " accidental death."

COLLINS, MORTIMER (1827-1876), English writer, was born
at Plymouth, where his father, Francis Collins, was a solicitor, on
the 29th of June 1827. He was educated at a private school, and
after some years spent as mathematical master at Queen Eliza-
beth's College, Guernsey, he went to London, where he devoted
himself to journalism in the Conservative interest. In 1855 he
published his Idyls and Rhymes; and in 1865 appeared his first
story, Who is the Heir? A second volume of lyrics, The Inn of
Strange Meetings, was issued in 1871; and in 1872 he produced
his longest and best sustained poem, The British Birds, a com-
munication from the Ghost of A ristophanes. He also wrote several
capital novels, the best of which is perhaps Sweet Anne Page
(1868). Some of his lyrics, in their light grace, their sparkling
wit, their airy philosophy, are equal to anything of their kind in
modern English. On his second marriage in 1868 he settled at
Knowl Hill, Berkshire. Collins was an athlete, an excellent
pedestrian, and an enthusiastic lover of country life; and from
this time he rarely left his home for a day. Conservative in his
political and literary tastes, an ardent upholder of Church and
State, he was yet a hater of convention; and his many and very
varied gifts endeared him to a large circle of friends. He died on
the 28th of July 1876.

COLLINS, WILLIAM (1721-1759), English poet, was born on
the 25th of December 1721. He divides with Gray the glory of
being the greatest English lyrist of the 1 8th century. After some
childish studies in Chichester, of which his father, a rich hatter,
was the mayor, he was sent, in January 1733, to Winchester
College, where Whitehead and Joseph Warton were his school-
fellows. When he had been nine months at the school, Pope paid
Winchester a visit and proposed a subject for a prize poem; it is
legitimate to suppose that the lofty forehead, the brisk dark eyes
and gracious oval of the childish face, as we know it in the only
portrait existing of Collins, did not escape the great man's notice,
then not a little occupied with the composition of the Essay on
Man.

In 1734 the young poet published his first verses, in a sixpenny
pamphlet on The Royal Nuptials, of which, however, no copy has
come down to us; another poem, probably satiric, called The
Battle of the Schoolbooks, was written about this time, and has also
been lost. Fired by his poetic fellows to further feats in verse,

COLLINS, W. COLLINS, WILKIE

693

Collins produced, in his seventeenth year, those Persian Eclogues
which were the only writings of his that were valued by the world
during his own lifetime. They were not printed for some years,
and meanwhile Collins sent, in January and October 1739, some
verses to the Gentleman's Magazine, which attracted the notice
and admiration of Johnson, then still young and uninfluential.
In March 1740 he was admitted a commoner of Queen's College,
Oxford, but did not go up to Oxford until July 1741, when he
obtained a demyship at Magdalen College. At Oxford he con-
tinued his affectionate intimacy with the Wartons, and gained
the friendship of Gilbert White. Early in 1742 the Persian
Eclogues appeared in London. They were four in number, and
formed a modest pamphlet of not more than 300 lines in all. In a
later edition, of 1759, the title was changed to Oriental Eclogues.
Those pieces may be compared with Victor Hugo's Les Orientates,
to which, of course, they are greatly inferior. Considered with
regard to the time at which they were produced, they are more
than meritorious, even brilliant, and one at least the second
can be read with enjoyment at the present day. The rest, per-
haps, will be found somewhat artificial and effete.

In November 1743 Collins was made bachelor of arts, and a
few days after taking his degree published his second work,
Verses humbly addressed to Sir Thomas Hanmer. This poem,
written in heroic couplets, shows a great advance in individuality,
and resembles, in its habit of personifying qualities of the mind,
the riper lyrics of its author. For the rest, it is an enthusiastic
review of poetry, culminating in a laudation of Shakespeare.
It is supposed that he left Oxford abruptly in the summer of
1744 to attend his mother's death-bed, and did not return.
He is said to have now visited an uncle in Flanders. His in-
dolence, which had been no less marked at the university than his
genius, combined with a fatal irresolution to make it extremely
difficult to choose for him a path in life. The army and the
church were successively suggested and rejected; and he finally
arrived in London, bent on enjoying a small property as an in-
dependent man about town. He made the acquaintance of
Johnson and others, and was urged by those friends to undertake
various important writings a History of the Revival of Learning,
several tragedies, and a version of Aristotle's Poetics, among
others all of which he began but lacked force of will to continue.
He soon squandered his means, plunged, with most disastrous
effects, into profligate excesses, and sowed the seed of his un-
timely misfortune.

It was at this time, however, that he composed his matchless
Odes twelve in number which appeared on the izth of
December 1746, dated 1747. The original project was to have
combined them with the odes of Joseph Warton, but the latter
proved at that time to be the more marketable article. Collins's
little volume fell dead from the press, but it won him the admira-
tion and friendship of the poet Thomson, with whom, until the
death of the latter in 1748, he lived on terms of affectionate
intimacy. In 1749 Collins was raised beyond the fear of poverty
by the death of his uncle, Colonel Martyn, who left him about
2000, and he left London to settle in his na^ve city. He had
hardly begun to taste the sweets of a life devoted to literature
and quiet, before the weakness of his will began to develop in
the direction of insanity, and he hurried abroad to attempt to
dispel the gathering gloom by travel. In the interval he had
published two short pieces of consummate grace and beauty
the Elegy on Thomson, in 1749, and the Dirge in Cymbeline,
later in the same year. In the beginning of 1750 he composed
the Ode on the Popular Superstitions of the Highlands, which was
dedicated to the author of Douglas, and not printed till long
after the death of Collins, and an Ode on the Music of the Grecian
Theatre, which no longer exists, and in which English literature
probably has sustained a severe loss. With this poem his literary
career closes, although he lingered in great misery for nearly
nine years. From Gilbert White, who jotted down some pages
of invaluable recollections of Collins in 1781, and from other
friends, we learn that his madness was occasionally violent,
and that he was confined for a time in an asylum at Oxford.
But for the most part he resided at Chichester, suffering from

extreme debility of body when the mind was clear, and incapable
of any regular occupation. Music affected him in a singular
manner, and it is recorded that he was wont to slip out into
the cathedral cloisters during the services, and moan and howl
in horrible accordance with the choir. In this miserable con-
dition he passed out of sight of all his friends, and in 1756 it
was supposed, even by Johnson, that he was dead; in point
of fact, however, his sufferings did not cease until the lath of
June 1759. No journal or magazine recorded the death of the
forgotten poet, though Goldsmith, only two months before, had
begun the laudation which was soon to become universal.

No English poet so great as Collins has left behind him so
small a bulk of writings. Not more than 1500 lines of his have
been handed down to us, but among these not one is slovenly, and
few are poor. His odes are the most sculpturesque and faultless
in the language. They lack fire, but in charm and precision of
diction, exquisite propriety of form, and lofty poetic suggestion
they stand unrivalled. The ode named The Passions is the most
popular; that To Evening is the classical example of perfect
unrhymed verse. In this, and the Ode to Simplicity, one seems
to be handling an antique vase of matchless delicacy and elegance.
In his descriptions of nature it is unquestionable that he owed
something to the influence of Thomson. Distinction may
be said to be the crowning grace of the style of Collins; its
leading peculiarity is the incessant personification of some
quality of the character. In the Ode on Popular Superstitions
he produced a still nobler work; this poem, the most considerable
in size which has been preserved, contains passages which are
beyond question unrivalled for rich melancholy fulness in the
literature between Milton and Keats.

The life of Collins was written by Dr Johnson; he found an
enthusiastic editor in Dr Langhorne in 1765, and in 1858 a kindly
biographer in Mr Moy Thomas. (E. G.)

COLLINS, WILLIAM (1787-1847), English painter, son of an
Irish picture dealer and man of letters, the author of a Life of
George Morland, was born in London. He studied under Etty
in 1807, and in 1809 exhibited his first pictures of repute " Boys
at Breakfast," and " Boys with a Bird's Nest." In 1815 he was
made associate of the Royal Academy, and was elected R. A. in
1820. For the next sixteen years he was a constant exhibitor;
his fishermen, shrimp-catchers, boats and nets, stretches of coast
and sand, and, above all, his rustic children were universally
popular. Then, however, he went abroad on the advice of
Wilkie, and for two years (1837-1838) studied the life, manners
and scenery of Italy. In 1839 ne exhibited the first fruits of this
journey; and in 1840, in which year he was appointed librarian
to the Academy, he made his first appearance as a painter of
history. In 1842 he returned to his early manner and choice
of subject, and during the last years of life enjoyed greater
popularity than ever. Collins was a good colourist and an
excellent draughtsman. His earlier pictures are deficient in
breadth and force, but his later work, though also carefully
executed, is rich in effects of tone and in broadly painted
masses. His biography by his son, W. Wilkie Collins, the novelist,
appeared in 1848.

COLLINS, WILLIAM WILKIE (1824-1889), English novelist,
elder son of William Collins, R.A., the landscape painter, was
born in London on the 8th of January 1824. He was educated
at a private school in Highbury, and when only a small boy of
twelve was taken by his parents to Italy, where the family lived
for three years. On tjieir return to England Wilkie Collins was
articled to a firm in the tea trade, but four years later he aban-
doned that business for the law, and was entered at Lincoln's Inn
in 1846, being called to the bar three years later. He found little
pleasure in his new career, however; though what he learned in
it was exceedingly valuable to him later. On his father's death
in 1847 young Collins made his first essay in literature, publishing
the Life of William Collins, in two volumes, in the following year.
In 1850 he put forth his first work of fiction, Antonina, or the
Fall of Rome, which was clearly inspired by his life in Italy.
BasU appeared in 1852, and Hide and Seek in 1854. About this
time he made the acquaintance of Charles Dickens, and began

694

COLLODION COLLYER

to contribute to Household Words, where After Dark (1856) and
The Dead Secret (1857) ran serially. His great success was
achieved in 1860 with the publication of The Woman in White,
which was first printed in All the Year Round. From that time
he enjoyed as much popularity as any novelist of his day, No
Name (1862), Armadale (1866), and The Moonstone, a capital
detective story (1868), being among his most successful books.
After The New Magdalen (1873) his ingenuity became gradually
exhausted, and his later stories were little more than faint echoes
of earlier successes. He died in Wimpole Street, London, on
the 23rd of September 1889. Collins's gift was of the melo-
dramatic order, and while many of his stories made excellent
plays, several of them were actually reconstructed from pieces
designed originally for stage production. But if his colours
were occasionally crude and his methods violent, he was at least
a master of situation and effect. His trick of telling a story
through the mouths of different characters is sometimes irritat-
ingly disconnected; but it had the merit of giving an air of
actual evidence and reality to the elucidation of a mystery. He
possessed hi the highest degree the gift of absorbing interest;
the turns and complexities of his plots are surprisingly ingenious,
and many of his characters are not only real, but uncommon.
Count Fosco in The Woman in White is perhaps his masterpiece;
the character has been imitated again and again, but no imitation
has ever attained to the subtlety and humour of the original.

COLLODION (from the Gr. <c6XXa, glue), a colourless, viscid
fluid, made by dissolving gun-cotton and the other varieties of
pyroxylin in a mixture of alcohol and ether. It was discovered
in 1846 by llbuis Nicolas M6nard in Paris, and independently in
1848 by Dr J. Parkers Maynard in Boston. The quality of
collodion differs according to the proportions of alcohol and ether
and the nature of the pyroxylin it contains. Collodion in which
there is a great excess of ether gives by its evaporation a very
tough film; the film left by collodion containing a large quantity
of alcohol is soft and easily torn; but in hot climates the presence
of an excess of alcohol is an advantage, as it prevents the rapid
evaporation of the ether. Under the microscope, the film
produced by collodion of good quality appears translucent and
colourless. To preserve collodion it should be kept cool and out
of the action of the light; iodized collodion that has been dis-
coloured by the development of free iodine may be purified by
the immersion in it of a strip of silver foil. For the iodizing
of collodion, ammonium bromide and iodide, and the iodides
of calcium and cadmium are the agents employed (see PHOTO-
GRAPHY). Collodion is used in surgery since, when painted
on the skin, it rapidly dries and covers the skin with a thin
film which contracts as it dries and therefore affords both
pressure and protection. Flexible collodion, containing Canada
balsam and castor oil, does not crack, but, on the other hand,
does not contract. It is therefore of less value. Collodion is
applied to small aseptic wounds, to small-pox pustules, and
occasionally to the end of the urethra in boys in order to prevent
nocturnal incontinence. Collodion and crystals of carbolic acid,
taken in equal parts, are useful in relieving toothache due to
the presence of a carious cavity. Vesicating or Blistering
Collodion contains cantharidin as one of its constituents. The
styptic colloid of Richardson is a strong solution of tannin in
gun-cotton collodion. Similarly collodion may be impregnated
with salicylic acid, carbolic acid, iodine and other substances.
Small balloons are manufactured from collodion by coating the
interior of glass globes with the liquid; the film when dry is
removed from the glass by applying suction to the mouth of the
vessel. M. E. Gripon found (Compt. rend., 1875) that collodion
membranes, like glass, reflect light and polarize it both by
refraction and reflection; they also transmit a very much larger
proportion of radiant heat, for the study of which they are
preferable to mica.

COLLOT D'HERBOIS, JEAN MARIE (1750-1796), French
revolutionist, was a Parisian by birth and an actor by profession
After figuring for some years at the principal provincial theatres
of France and Holland, he becam'e director of the playhouse at
Geneva. He had from the first a share in the revolutionary

tumult; but it was not until 1791 that he became a figure of
.mportance. Then, however, by the publication of L' Almanack
du Pere Gerard, 1 a little book setting forth, in homely style, the
advantages of a constitutional monarchy, he suddenly acquired
;reat popularity. His renown was soon increased by his active
nterference on behalf of the Swiss of the Chateau- Vieux Regi-
ment, condemned to the galleys for mutiny at Nancy. His
efforts resulted in their liberation; he went himself to Brest in
search of them; and a civic feast was decreed on his behalf
and theirs, which gave occasion for one of the few poems published
during his life by Andr6 Chenier. But his opinions became
more and more radical. He was a member of the Commune of
Paris on the loth of August 1792, and was elected deputy for
Paris to the Convention, where he was the first to demand the
abolition of royalty (on the 2ist of September 1792), and he
voted the death of Louis XVI. " sans sursis." In the struggle
between the Mountain and the Girondists he displayed great
energy; and after the coup d'etat of the 3ist of May 1793 he
made himself conspicuous by his pitiless pursuit of the defeated
party. In June he was made president of the Convention; and
in September he was admitted to the Committee of Public
Safety, on which he was very active. After having entrusted
him with several missions, the Convention sent him, on the
3oth of October 1793, to Lyons to punish the revolt of that city.
There he introduced the Terror in its most terrible form.

In May 1794 an attempt was made to assassinate Collot; but
it only increased his popularity, and this won him the hatred of
Robespierre, against whom he took sides on the 9th Thermidor,
when he presided over the Convention during a part of the
session. During the Thermidorian reaction he was one of the
first to be accused of complicity with the fallen leader, but was
acquitted. Denounced a second time, he defended himself by
pleading that he had acted for the cause of the Revolution, but
was condemned with Barere and Billaud-Varenne to transporta-
tion to Cayenne (March 1795), where he died early in 1796.

Collot d'Herbois wrote and adapted from the English and
Spanish many plays, one of which, Le Paysan magistral, kept
the stage for several years. L' Almanack du Pere Gerard was
reprinted under the title of lrennes aux amis de la Constitution
franqaise, ou entretiens du Pere Gerard avec ses concitoyens
(Paris, 1792).

See F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention
(Paris, 1885-1886), t. ii. pp. 501-512. The principal documents
relative to the trial of Collot d'Herbois, Barere and Billaud-Varenne
are indicated in Aulard, Recueti des actes du comite de salut public,
t. i. pp. 5 and 6.

COLLUSION (from Lat. cottudere, strictly, to play with), a
secret agreement or compact for some improper purpose. In
judicial proceedings, and particularly in matrimonial causes
(see DIVORCE), collusion is a deceitful agreement between two
or more persons, or between one of them and a third party,
to bring an action against the other in order to obtain a judicial
decision, or some remedy which would not have been obtained
unless the parties had combined for the purpose or suppressed
material facts or ptherwise.

COLLYER, ROBERT (1823- ), American Unitarian clergy-
man, was born in Keighley, Yorkshire, England, on the 8th of
December 1823. At the age of eight he was compelled to leave
school and support himself by work hi a linen factory. He
was naturally studious, however, and supplemented his scant
schooling by night study. At fourteen he was apprenticed to
a blacksmith, and for several years worked at this trade at Ilkley.
In 1849 he became a local Methodist minister, and in the following
year emigrated to the United States, where he obtained employ-
ment as a hammer maker at Shoemakersville, Pennsylvania.
Here he soon began to preach on Sundays while still employed in
the factory on week-days. His earnest, rugged, simple style
of oratory made him extremely popular, and at once secured for
him a wide reputation. His advocacy of anti-slavery principles,
then frowned upon by the Methodist authorities, aroused
opposition, and eventually resulted in his trial for heresy and
the revocation of his licence. He continued, however, as an
1 Michel Gerard was/a popular Breton peasant deputy (see JACOBINS).

COLMAN, SAINT- -COLM AN, S.

695

independent preacher and lecturer, and in 1859, having joined
the Unitarian Church, became a missionary of that church in
Chicago, Illinois. In 1860 he organized and became pastor of
the Unity Church, the second Unitarian church in Chicago.
Under his guidance the church grew to be one of the strongest of
that denomination in the West, and Mr Collyer himself came
to be looked upon as one of the foremost pulpit orators in the
country. During the Civil War he was active in tne work of
the Sanitary Commission. In 1879 he left Chicago and became
pastor of the church of the Messiah in New York city, and in
1903 he became pastor emeritus. He published: Nature and
Life (1867); A Man in Earnest: Life of A. H. Conant (1868);
The Life That Now is (1871); The Simple Truth (1877); Talks
to Young Men: With Asides to Young Women (1888); Things
New and Old (1893); Father Taylor (1906); and A History of
the Town and Parish of Ilkley (with Horsefall Turner, 1886).

COLMAN, SAINT (d. 676), bishop of Lindisfarne, was prob-
ably an Irish monk at lona. Journeying southwards he became
bishop of Lindisfarne in 661, and a favoured friend of Oswio,
king of Northumbria. He was at the synod of Whitby in 664,
when the great dispute between the Roman and the Celtic parties
in the church was considered; as spokesman of the latter party
he upheld the Celtic usages, but King Oswio decided against him
and his cause was lost. After this event Colman and some
monks went to lona and then to Ireland. He settled on the
island of Inishbofin, where he built a monastery and where he
died on the 8th of August 676.

Colman must be distinguished from St Colman of Cloyne
(c. 522-600), an Irish saint, who became a Christian about 570;
and also from another Irishman, St Colman Ela (553-610),
a kinsman of St Columba. The word Colman is derived from
the Latin columbus, a dove, and the Book of Leinster mentions
209 saints of this name.

COLMAN, GEORGE (1732-1794), English dramatist and
essayist, usually called "the Elder," and sometimes "George
the First," to distinguish him from his son, was born in 1732 at
Florence, where his father was stationed as resident at the court
of the grand duke of Tuscany. Colman's father died within a
year of his son's birth, and tie boy's education was undertaken
by William Pulteney, afterwards Lord Bath, whose wife was
Mrs Colman's sister. After attending a private school in Maryle-
bone, he was sent to Westminster School, which he left in due
course for Christ Church, Oxford. Here he made the acquaint-
ance of Bonnell Thornton, the parodist, and together they founded
The Connoisseur (1754-1756), a periodical which, although it
reached its I4oth number, "wanted weight," as Johnson said.
He left Oxford after taking his degree in 1755, and, having been
entered at Lincoln's Inn before his return to London, he was
called to the bar in 1757. A friendship formed with David
Garrick did not help his career as a barrister, but he continued
to practise until the death of Lord Bath, out of respect for his
wishes.

In 1 760 he produced his first play, Polly Honeycomb, which met
with great success. In 1761 The Jealous Wife, a comedy partly
founded on Tom Jones, made Colman famous. The death of
Lord Bath in 1 764 placed him in possession of independent means.
In 1765 appeared his metrical translation of the plays of Terence;
and in 1766 he produced The Clandestine Marriage, jointly with
Garrick, whose refusal to take the part of Lord Ogleby led to a
quarrel between the two authors. In the next year he purchased
a fourth share in the Covent Garden Theatre, a step which is
said to have induced General Pulteney to revoke a will by which
he had left Colman large estates. The general, who died in that
year, did, however, leave him a considerable annuity. Colman
was acting manager of Covent Garden for seven years, and during
that period he produced several "adapted" plays of Shakespeare.
In 1768 he was elected to the Literary Club, then nominally con-
sisting of twelve members. In 1774 he sold his share in the
great playhouse, which had involved him in much litigation with
his partners, to Leake; and three years later he purchased
of Samuel Foote, then broken in health and spirits, the little
theatre in the Haymarket. He was attacked with paralysis in

1785; in 1789 his brain became affected, and he died on the I4th
of August 1794. Besides the works already cited, Colman was
author of adaptations of Beaumont and Fletcher's Bonduca,
Ben Jonson's Epicoene, Milton's Comus, and of other plays.
He also produced an edition of the works of Beaumont and
Fletcher (1778), a version of the Ars Poetica of Horace, an
excellent translation from the Mercator of Plautus for Bonnell
Thornton's edition (1760-1772), some thirty plays, many
parodies and occasional pieces. An incomplete edition of his
dramatic works was published in 1777 in four volumes.

His son, GEORGE COLMAN (1762-1836), known as "the
Younger," English dramatist and miscellaneous writer, was
born on the 2ist of October 1762. He passed from Westminster
school to Christ Church, Oxford, and King's College, Aberdeen,
and was finally entered as a student of law at Lincoln's Inn,
London. While in Aberdeen he published a poem satirizing
Charles James Fox, called The Man of the People; and in 1782
he produced, at his father's playhouse in the Haymarket, his
first play, The Female Dramatist, for which Smollett's Roderick
Random supplied the materials. It was unanimously condemned ,
but Two to One (1784) was entirely successful. It was followed
by Turk and no Turk (1785), a musical comedy; Inkle and
Yarico (1787), an opera; Ways and Means (1788); The Iron
Chest (1796), taken from William Godwin's Adventures of Caleb
Williams; The Poor Gentleman (1802); John Bull, or an
Englishman's Fireside (1803), his most successful piece; The
Heir at Law (1808), which enriched the stage with one immortal
character, "Dr Pangloss," and numerous other pieces, many of
them adapted from the French.

The failing health of the elder Colman obliged him to relinquish
the management of the Haymarket theatre in 1789, when the
younger George succeeded him, at a yearly salary of 600. On
the death of the father the patent was continued to the son;
but difficulties arose in his way, he was involved in litigation
with Thomas Harris, and was unable to pay the expenses of
the performances at the Haymarket. He was forced to take
sanctuary within the Rules of the King's Bench. Here he resided
for many years continuing to direct the affairs of his theatre.
Released at last through the kindness of George IV., who had
appointed him exon of the Yeomen of the Guard, a dignity
disposed of by Colman to the highest bidder, he was made
examiner of plays by the duke of Montrose, then lord chamberlain.
This office, to the disgust of all contemporary dramatists, to
whose MSS. he was as illiberal as he was severe, he held till his
death. Although his own productions were open to charges of
indecency and profanity, he was so severe a censor of others
that he would not pass even such words as "heaven," "provid-
ence" or "angel." His comedies are a curious mixture of
genuine comic force and sentimentality. A collection of them
was published (1827) in Paris, with a life of the author, by
J. W. Lake.

Colman, whose witty conversation made him a favourite, was
also the author of a great deal of so-called humorous poetry
(mostly coarse, though much of it was popular) My Night'
Gown and Slippers (1797), reprinted under the name of Broad
Grins, in 1802; and Poetical Vagaries (1812). Some of his
writings were published under the assumed name of Arthur
Griffinhood of Turnham Green. He died in Brompton, London,
on the r 7th of October 1836. He had, as early as 1 784, contracted
a runaway marriage with an actress, Clara Morris, to whose
brother David Morris, he eventually disposed of his share in the
Haymarket theatre. Many of the leading parts in his plays
were written especially for Mrs Gibbs (nee Logan), whom he was
said to have secretly married after the death of his first wife.

See the second George Colman's memoirs of his early life, entitled
Random Records (1830), and R. B. Peake, Memoirs of the Colman
Family (1842).

COLMAN, SAMUEL (1832- ), American landscape painter,
was bom at Portland, Maine, on the 4th of March 1832. He
was a pupil of Ashur B. Durand in New York, and in 1860-1862
studied in Spain, Italy, France and England. In 1871-1876 he
was again in Europe. In 1860, with James D. Smilie, he founded

696

COLMAR COLOCYNTH

the American Water Color Society, and became its first president
(1866-1867), his own water-colour paintings being particularly
fine. He was elected a member of the National Academy of
Design in 1862. Among his works are " The Ships of the Western
Plains," in the Union League Club, New York; and "The
Spanish Peaks, Colorado," in the Metropolitan Museum, New
York.

COLMAR, or KOLMAR, a town of Germany, in the imperial
province of Alsace-Lorraine, formerly the capital of the depart-
ment of Haut-Rhin in France, on the Logelbach and Lauch,
tributaries of the 111, 40 m. S.S.W. from Strassburg on the main
line of railway to Basel. Pop. (1905) 41,582. It is the seat of
the government for Upper Alsace, and of the supreme court of
appeal for Alsace-Lorraine. The town is surrounded by pleasant
promenades, on the site of the old fortifications, and has numerous
narrow and picturesque streets. Of its edifices the most re-
markable are the Roman Catholic parish church of St Martin,
known also as the Munster, dating from the I3th and i4th
centuries, the Lutheran parish church (isth century), the former
Dominican monastery (1232-1289), known as "Unterlinden"
and now used as a museum, the Kaufhaus (trade-hall) of the
15th century, and the handsome government offices (formerly
the Prefecture). Colmar is the centre of considerable textile
industries, comprising wool, cotton and silk-weaving, and has
important manufactures of sewing thread, starch, sugar and
machinery. Bleaching and brewing are also carried on, and
the neighbourhood is rich in vineyards and fruit-gardens. The
considerable trade of the place is assisted by a chamber of
commerce and a branch of the Imperial Bank (Reichsbank).

Colmar (probably the columbarium of the Romans) is first
mentioned, as a royal villa, in a charter of Louis the Pious in
823, and it was here that Charles the Fat held a diet in 884. It
was raised to the status of a town and surrounded with walls by
Wolfelin, advocate (Landvogt) of the emperor Frederick II. in
Alsace, a masterful and ambitious man, whose accumulated
wealth was confiscated by the emperor in 1235, and who is said
to have been murdered by his wife lest her portion should also
be seized. In 1226 Colmar became an imperial city, and the
civic rights (Stadtrechf) conferred on it in 1274 by Rudolph of
Habsburg became the model for those of many other cities. Its
civic history is much the same as that of other medieval towns:
a struggle between the democratic gilds and the aristocratic
"families," which ended in 1347 in the inclusion of the former
in the governing body, and in the I7th century in the complete
exclusion of the latter. In 1255 Colmar joined the league of
Rhenish cities, and in 1476 and 1477 took a vigorous share
in the struggle against Charles the Bold. In 1632, during the
Thirty Years' War, it was taken by the Swedes, and in 1635 by
the French, who held it till after the Peace of Westphalia (1649).
In 1673 the French again occupied it and dismantled the fortifica-
tions. In 1 68 1 it was formally annexed to France by a decree
of Louis XIV.'s Chambre de Reunion, and remained French till
1871, when it passed with Alsace-Lorraine to the new German
empire.

See " Annalen und Chronik von Kolmar," German translation,
G. H. Pabst, in Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit (2nd ed.,
G. Wattenbach, Leipzig, 1897); Sigmund Billing, Kleine Chronik
der Stadt Kolmar (Colmar, 1891); Hund, Kolmar vor und wahrend
seiner Entwickelung zur Reichsstadt (Strassburg, 1899); J. Liblin,
Chronique de Colmar, 58-1400 (Mulhausen, 1867-1868); T. F. X.
Hunkler, Gesch. der Stadt Kolmar (Colmar, 1838). For further
references see Ulysse Chevalier, Repertoire des sources. Topo-
bibliographie (Montbeliard, 1894-1899); and Waltz, Bibliographie
de la ville de Colmar (Mulhausen, 1902).

COLNE, a market town and municipal borough in the Clitheroe
parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 34! m. N. by E.
from Manchester by the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway; it is
served also by a branch of the Midland railway from Skipton.
Pop. (1901) 23,000. It stands on a hilly site above a small affluent
of the river Calder. The church of St Bartholomew retains some
Norman work, but is chiefly of various later periods. There is
a cloth hall or piece hall, originally used as an exchange when
woollens were the staple of the town. The grammar school is

of interest as the place where John Tillotson (1630-1694),.
archbishop of Canterbury, received early education. Colne is a
place of great antiquity, and many Roman coins have been
found on the site. As early as the I4th century it was the seat
of a woollen manufacture; but its principal manufactures now
are cottons, printed calicoes and muslin. In the neighbour-
hood are several limestone and slate quarries. The town was
incorporated in 1895, and the corporation consists of a mayor,
6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 5063 acres.

COLOCYNTH, COLOQUINTIDA or BITTER APPLE, Citrullus
Colocynthis, a plant of the natural order Cucurbitaceae. The
flowers are unisexual; the male blossoms have five stamens
with sinuous anthers, the female have reniform stigmas, and an
ovary with three large fleshy placentas. The fruit is round,
and about the size of an orange; it has a thick yellowish rind,
and a light, spongy and very bitter pulp, which yields the
colocynth of druggists. The seeds, which number from 200 to
300, and are disposed in vertical rows on the three parietal
placentas of the fruit, are flat and ovoid and dark-brown ; they
are used as food by some of the tribes of the Sahara, and a coarse
oil is expressed from them. The pulp contains only about 3-5%
of fixed oil, whilst the seeds contains about 15%. The foliage
resembles that of the cucumber, and the root is perennial. The
plant has a wide range, being found in Ceylon, India, Persia,
Arabia, Syria, North Africa, the Grecian Archipelago, the Cape
Verd Islands, and the south-east of Spain. The term pakkuoth,
translated "wild gourds'" in 2 Kings iv. 39, is thought to refer
to the fruit of the colocynth; but, according to Dr Olaf Celsius
(1670-1756), a Swedish theologian and naturalist, it signifies
a plant known as the squirting cucumber, Ecbalium Elaterium.

The commercial colocynth consists of the peeled and dried
fruits. In the preparation of tA drug, the seeds are always
removed from the pulp. Its active principle is an intensely
bitter amorphous or crystalline glucoside, colocynthin, CseHwOa,
soluble in water, ether and alcohol, and decomposable by acids
into glucose and a resin, colocynthein, C4oH M Oi3. Colocynthein
also occurs as such in the drug, together with at least two other
resins, citrullin and colocynthiden. Colocynthin has been used
as a hypodermic purgative a class of drugs practically non-
existent, and highly to be desired in numberless cases of apoplexy.
The dose recommended for hypodermic injection is fifteen
minims of a i% solution in glycerin.

The British Pharmacopeia contains a compound extract of
colocynth, which no one ever uses; a compound pill dose 4 to 8
grains in which oil of cloves is included in order to relieve the
griping caused by the drug; and the Pilula Colocynthidis et
Hyoscyami, which contains 2 parts of the compound pill to i of
extract of hyoscyamus. This is by far the best preparation, the
hyoscyamus being added to prevent the pain and griping which
is attendant on the use of colocynth alone. The official dose
of this pill is 4 to 8 grains, but the most effective and least dis-
agreeable manner in which to obtain its action is to give four
two-grain pills at intervals of an hour or so.

In minute doses colocynth acts simply as a bitter, but is never
given for this purpose. In ordinary doses it greatly increases
the secretion of the small intestine and stimulates its muscular
coat. The gall-bladder is also stimulated, and the biliary function
of the liver, so that colocynth is both an excretory and a secretory
cholagogue. The action which follows hypodermic injection
is due to the excretion of the drug from the blood into the
alimentary canal. Though colocynth is a drastic hydragogue
cathartic, it is desirable, as a rule, to supplement its action by
some drug, such as aloes, which acts on the large intestine,
and a sedative must always be added. Owing to its irritant
properties, the drug must not be used habitually, but it is very
valuable in initiating the treatment of simple chronic constipa-
tion, and its pharmacological properties obviously render it
especially useful in cases of hepatitis and congestion of the liver.

Colocynth was known to the ancient Greek, Roman and Arabic
physicians; and in an Anglo-Saxon herbal of the nth century
(Cockayne, Leechdoms, &c., vol. i. p. 325, London, 1864), the
following directions are given as to its use: " For stirring of the

COLOGNE

697

inwards, take the inward neshness of the fruit, without the
kernels, by weight of two pennies; give it, pounded in lithe beer
to be drunk, it stirreth the inwards."

COLOGNE (Ger. Koln, or officially, since 1900, Coin), a city
and archiepiscopal see of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
province, a fortress of the first rank, and one of the most im-
portant commercial towns of the empire. Pop. (1885) 239,437;
{1900) 370,685; (1905) 428,503, of which about 80% are Roman
Catholics. It lies in the form of a vast semicircle on the left
bank of the Rhine, 44 m. by rail north-east from Aix-la-Chapelle,
24 south-east from Dusseldorf and 57 north-north-west from
Coblenz. Its situation on the broad and navigable Rhine, and
at the centre of an extensive network of railways, giving it direct
communication with all the important cities of Europe, has
greatly fostered its trade, while its close proximity to the beautiful
scenery of the Rhine, has rendered it a favourite tourist resort.
When viewed from a distance, especially from the river, the
city, with its medieval towers and buildings, the whole sur-
mounted by the majestic cathedral, is picturesque and imposing.
The ancient walls and ditches, which formerly environed the
city, were dismantled between 1881 and 1885, and the site of the
old fortifications, bought from the government by the munici-
pality, were converted into a fine boulevard, the Ring, nearly
4 m. long. Beyond the Ring, about \ m. farther out, a new
continuous line of wall fortifications, with outlying clusters of
earthworks and forts, has since been erected; 1000 acres, now
occupied by handsome streets, squares and two public parks,
were thus added to the inner town, almost doubling its area.

Cologne is connected by bridges with the suburb of Deutz.
Within the outer municipal boundary are included (besides
Deutz) the suburbs of Bayenthal, Lindenthal, Ehrenfeld, Nippes,
Sulz, Bickendorf, Niehl and Poll, protected by another widely
extended circle of detached forts on both banks of the Rhine.
Of the former city gates four have been retained, restored and
converted into museums: the Severin gate, on the south,
contains the geological section of the natural history museum;
the Hahnen gate, on the west, is fitted as the historical and
antiquarian museum of the city; and the Eigelstein gate, on
the north, accommodates the zoological section of the natural
history museum.

Cologne, with the tortuous, narrow and dark streets and lanes
of the old inner town, is still regarded as one of the least attractive
capital cities of Germany; but in modern times it has been
greatly improved, and the evil smells which formerly character-
ized it have yielded to proper sanitary arrangements. The most
important squares are the Domhof, the Heumarkt, Neumarkt,
Alte Markt and Waidmarkt in the old inner, and the Hansa-platz
in the new inner town. The long Hohe-strasse of the old town
is the chief business street.

The cathedral or Dom, the principal edifice and chief object
of interest in Cologne, is one of the finest and purest monuments
of Gothic architecture in Europe (for plan, &c. see ARCHITEC-
TURE: Romanesque and Gothic in Germany). It stands on the
site of a cathedral begun about the beginning of the gth century
by Hildebold, metropolitan of Cologne, and finished under
Willibert in 873. This structure was ruined by the Normans,
was rebuilt, but in 1248 was almost wholly destroyed by fire.
The foundation of the present cathedral was then laid by Conrad
of Hochstaden (archbishop from 1288 to 1261). The original
plan of the building has been attributed to Gerhard von Rile
(d. c. 1295). In 1322 the new choir was consecrated, and the
bones of the Three Kings were removed to it from the place they
had occupied in the former cathedral. After Conrad's death
the work of building advanced but slowly, and at the time
of the Reformation it ceased entirely. In the early part of the
1 9th century the repairing of the cathedral was taken in hand,
in 1842 the building of fresh portions necessary for the com-
pletion of the whole structure was begun, and on the isth of
October 1880 the edifice, finally finished, was opened in the
presence of the emperor William I. and all the reigning German
princes. The cathedral, which is in the form of a cross, has a
length of 480, and a breadth of 282 ft.; the height of the central

aisle is 154 ft.; that of each of the towers 511 ft. The heaviest
of the seven bells (Kaiser glocke), cast in 1874 from the metal
of French guns, weighs 543 cwt., and is the largest and heaviest
bell that is rung. In the choir the heart of Marie de' Medici is
buried; and in the adjoining side-chapels are monuments of
the founder and other archbishops of Cologne, and the shrine
of the Three Kings, which is adorned with gold and precious
stones. The three kings of Cologne (Kaspar, Melchior and
Balthazar) were supposed to be the three wise men who came
from the East to pay adoration to the infant Christ; according
to the legend, the emperor Frederick I. Barbarossa brought
their bones from Milan in 1162, and had them buried in Cologne
cathedral, and miraculous powers of healing were attributed
to these relics. The very numerous and richly-coloured windows,
presented at various times to the cathedral, add greatly to the
imposing effect of the interior. The view of the cathedral has
been much improved by a clearance of the old houses on the
Domhof, including the archiepiscopal palace, but the new Hof ,
though flanked by many fine buildings, is displeasing owing to
the intrusion of numerous modern palatial hotels and shops.

Among the other churches of Cologne, which was fondly styled
in the middle ages the '\holy city " (heilige Stadt) and " German
Rome," and, according to legend, possessed as many sacred
fanes as there are days in the year, are several of interest both
for their age and for 'the monuments and works of art they
contain. In St Peter's are the famous altar-piece by Rubens,
representing the Crucifixion of St Peter, several works by Lucas
van Leyden, and some old German glass-paintings. St Martin's,
built between the loth and I2th centuries, has a fine baptistery;
St Gereon's, built in the nth century on the site of a Roman
rotunda, is noted for its mosaics, and glass and oil-paintings; the
Minorite church, begun in the same year as the cathedral, contains
the tomb of Duns Scotus. Besides these may be mentioned
the church of St Pantaleon, a 13th-century structure, with a
monument to Theophano, wife of the emperor Otto II.; St
Cunibert, in the Byzantine-Moorish style, completed in 1248;
St Maria im Capitol, the oldest church hi Cologne, dedicated
in 1049 by Pope Leo IX., noted for its crypt, organ and paintings;
St Cecilia, St Ursula, containing the bones of that saint and,
according to legend, of the 11,000 English virgins massacred
near Cologne while on a pilgrimage to Rome; St Severin, the
church of the Apostles, and that of St Andrew (1220 and 1414),
which contains the remains of Albertus Magnus in a gilded
shrine. Most of these, and also many other old churches, have
been completely restored. Among newer ecclesiastical buildings
must be mentioned the handsome Roman Catholic church in
Deutz, completed in 1896, and a large synagogue, in the new
town west of the Ring, finished in 1899.

Among the more prominent secular buildings are the Gfir-
zenich, a former meeting-place of the diets of the Holy Roman
Empire, built between 1441 and 1447, of which the ground floor
was in 1875 converted into a stock exchange, and the upper hall,
capable of accommodating 3000 persons, is largely utilized for
public festivities, particularly during the time of the Carnival:
the Rathaus, dating from the I3th century, with beautiful
Gobelin tapestries; the Tempelhaus, the ancestral seat of the
patrician family of the Overstolzens, a beautiful building dating
from the i3th century, and now the chamber of commerce; the
Wallraf-Richartz Museum, in which is a collection of paintings
by old Italian and Dutch masters, together with some works
by modern artists; the Zeughaus, or arsenal, built on Roman
foundations; the Supreme Court for the Rhine provinces; the
post-office (1893); the Imperial Bank (Reichsbank) ; and the
municipal library and archives. The Wolkenburg, a fine Gothic
house of the isth century, originally a patrician residence, was
restored in 1874, and is now the headquarters of the famous men's
choral society of Cologne (Kolner Mannergesangverein).

A handsome central railway station (high level), on the site
of the old station, and dose to the cathedral, was built in 1880-
1894. The railway to Bonn and the Upper Rhine now follows
the line of the ceinture of the new inner fortifications, and on
this section there are three city stations in addition to the central.

698

COLOGNE

Like all important German towns, Cologne contains many fine
monuments. The most conspicuous is the colossal equestrian
statue (22$ ft. high) of Frederick William III. of Prussia in the
Heumarkt. There are also monuments to Moltke (1881), to
Count Johann von Werth (1885), the cavalry leader of the Thirty
Years' War, and to Bismarck (1879). Near the cathedral is
an archiepiscopal museum of church antiquities. Cologne is
richly endowed with literary and scientific institutions. It has
an academy of practical medicine, a commercial high school, a
theological seminary, four Gymnasia (classical schools), numer-
ous lower-grade schools, a conservatory of music and several
high-grade ladies' colleges. Of its three theatres, the municipal
theatre (Stadttheater) is famed for its operatic productions.

Commercially, Cologne is one of the chief centres on the Rhine,
and has a very important trade in corn, wine, mineral ores,
coals, drugs, dyes, manufactured wares, groceries, leather and
hides, timber, porcelain and many other commodities. A large
new harbour, with spacious quays, has been constructed towards
the south of the city. In 1903, the traffic of the port amounted
to over one million tons. Industrially, also, Cologne is a place
of high importance. Of the numerous manufactures, among
which may be especially mentioned sugar, chocolate, tobacco
and cigars, the most famous is the perfume known as eau de
Cologne (q.v.) (Kolnisches Wasser, i.e. Cologne-water).

Of the newspapers published at Cologne the most important
is the Kolnische Zeitung (often referred to as the " Cologne
Gazette "), which has the largest circulation of any paper in
Germany, and great weight and influence. It must be distin-
guished from the Kolnische Volkszeilung, which is the organ
of the Clerical party in the Prussian Rhine provinces.

History. Cologne occupies the site of Oppidum Ubiorum,
the chief town of the Ubii, and here in A.D. 50 a Roman colony,
Colonia, was planted by the emperor Claudius, at the request
of his wife Agrippina, who was born in the place. After her it
was named Colonia Agrippina or Agrippinensis. Cologne rose to
be the chief town of Germania Secunda, and had the privilege
of the Jus Italicum. Both Vitellius and Trajan were at Cologne
when they became emperors. About 330 the city was taken by
the Franks but was not permanently occupied by them till the
5th century, becoming in 475 the residence of the Prankish
king Childeric. It was the seat of a pagus or gau, and counts
of Cologne are mentioned in the 9th century.

The succession of bishops in Cologne is traceable, except for
a gap covering the troubled 5th century, from A.D. 313, when the
see was founded. It was made the metropolitan see for the
bishoprics of the Lower Rhine and part of Westphalia by Charle-
magne, the first archbishop being Hildebold, who occupied the
see from 785 to his death in 819. Of his successors cfte of the
most illustrious was Bruno (<?..), brother of the emperor Otto I.,
archbishop from 953 to 965, who was the first of the archbishops
to exercise temporal jurisdiction, and was also " archduke " of
Lorraine. The territorial power of the archbishops was already
great when, in 1180, on the partition of the Saxon duchy, the
duchy of Westphalia was assigned to them. In the nth century
they became ex-officio arch-chancellors of Italy (see ARCH-
CHANCELLOR), and by the Golden Bull of 1356 they were finally
placed among the electors (Kurfiirsten) of the Empire. With
Cologne itself, a free imperial city, the archbishop-electors were
at perpetual feud; in 1262 the archiepiscopal see was transferred
to Brtihl, and in 1273 to Bonn; it was not till 1671 that the
quarrel was finally adjusted. The archbishopric was secularized
in 1801, all its territories on the left bank of the Rhine being
annexed to France; in 1803 those on the right bank were
divided up among various German states; and in 1815 by the
congress of Vienna, the whole was assigned to Prussia. The
last' archbishop-elector, Maximilian -of Austria, died in 1801.

In Archbishop Hildebold's day Cologne was still contained by
the square of its Roman walls, within which stood the cathedral
and the newly-founded church of St Maria (known later as
" im Capitol ") ; the city was, however, surrounded by a ring
of churches, among which those of St Gereon, St Ursula, St
Severin and St Cunibert were conspicuous. In 88 1 Norman

pirates, sailing up the Rhine, took and sacked the city; but
it rapidly recovered, and in the nth century had % become the
chief trading centre of Germany. Early in the 1 2th century the
city was enlarged by the inclusion of suburbs of Oversburg,
Niederich and St Aposteln; in 1180 these were enclosed in a
permanent rampart which, in the I3th century, was strengthened
with the walls and gates that survived till the igth century.

The municipal history of Cologne is of considerable interest.
In general it follows the same lines as that of other cities of Lower
Germany and the Netherlands. At first the bishop ruled through
his burgrave, advocate, and nominated jurats (scabini, Schojfen).
Then, as the trading classes grew in wealth, his jurisdiction began
to be disputed; the conjuratio pro libertale of 1112 seems to
have been an attempt to establish a commune (see COMMUNE,
MEDIEVAL). Peculiar to Cologne, however, was the Richerzeche
(rigirzegheide) , a corporation of all the wealthy patricians,
which gradually absorbed in its hands the direction of the city's
government (the first record of its active interference is in 1225).
In the I3th century the archbishops made repeated efforts to
reassert their authority, and in 1259 Archbishop Conrad of
Hochstaden, by appealing to the democratic element of the
population, the " brotherhoods " (fraternitates) of the craftsmen,
succeeded in overthrowing the Richerzeche and driving its
members into exile. His successor, Engelbert II., however,
attempted to overthrow the democratic constitution set up by
him, with the result that in 1262 the brotherhoods combined
with the patricians against the archbishop, and the Richerzeche
returned to share its authority with the elected " great council "
(Weiter Rat). As yet, however, none of the trade or craft gilds,
as such, had a share in the government, which continued in the
hands of the patrician families, membership of which was
necessary even for election to the council and to the parochial
offices. This continued long after the battle of Worringen ( 1 288)
had finally secured for the city full self-government, and the
archbishops had ceased to reside within its walls. In the I4th
century a narrow patrician council selected from the Richerzeche,
with two burgomasters, was supreme. In 1370 an insurrection
of the weavers was suppressed; but in 1396, the rule of the
patricians, having been weakened by internal dissensions, a
bloodless revolution led to the establishment of a comparatively
democratic constitution, based on the organization of the trade
and craft gilds, which lasted with but slight modification till the
French Revolution.

The greatness of Cologne, in the middle ages as now, was due
to her trade. Wine and herrings were the chief articles of her
commerce; but her weavers had been in repute from time
immemorial, and exports of cloth were large, while her gold-
smiths and armourers were famous. So early as the nth century
her merchants were settled in London, their colony forming the
nucleus of the Steelyard. When, in 1201, the city joined the
Hanseatic League (q.v.) its power and repute were so great that
it was made the chief place of a third of the confederation.

In spite of their feuds with the archbishops, the burghers of
Cologne were stanch Catholics, and the number of the magni-
ficent medieval churches left is evidence at once of their piety
and their wealth. The university, founded in 1389 by the sole
efforts of the citizens, soon gained a great reputation; in the
1 5th century its students numbered much more than a thousand,
and its influence extended to Scotland and the Scandinavian
kingdoms. Its decline began, however, from the moment when
the Catholic sentiment of the city closed it to the influence of
the Reformers; the number of its students sank to vanishing
point, and though, under the influence of the Jesuits, it sub-
sequently revived, it never recovered its old importance. A final
blow was dealt it when, in 1777, the enlightened archbishop
Maximilian Frederick (d. 1784) founded the university of Bonn,
and in 1798, amid the confusion of the revolutionary epoch, it
ceased to exist.

The same intolerance that ruined the university all but
ruined the city too. It is difficult, indeed, to blame the burghers
for resisting the dubious reforming efforts of Hermann of Wied,
archbishop from 1515 to 1546, inspired mainly by secular

COLOMAN COLOMB

699

ambitions; but the expulsion of the Jews in 1414, and still more
the exclusion, under Jesuit influence, of Protestants from the
right to acquire citizenship, and from the magistracy, dealt
severe blows at the prosperity of the place. A variety of other
causes contributed to its decay: the opening up of new trade
routes, the gradual ossification of the gilds into close and corrupt
corporations, above all the wars in the Netherlands, the Thirty
Years' War, and the Wars of the Spanish and Austrian Succes-
sion. When in 1794 Cologne was occupied by the French, it
was a poor and decayed city of some 40,000 inhabitants, of whom
only 6000 possessed civic rights. When, in 1801, by the treaty
of Luneville, it was incorporated in France, it was not important
enough to be more than the chief town of an arrondissement.
On the death of the last elector in 1801 the archiepiscopal see
was left vacant. With the assignment of the city to Prussia by
the congress of Vienna in 1815 a new era of prosperity began.
The university, indeed, was definitively established at Bonn,
but the archbishopric was restored (1821) as part of the new
ecclesiastical organization of Prussia, and the city became the
seat of the president of a governmental district. Its prosperity
now rapidly increased; when railways were introduced it became
the meeting-place of several lines, and in 1881 its growth neces-
sitated the pushing outward of the circle of fortifications.

See L. Ennen, Gesch. der Stadt Koln (5 yols., Cologne, 1863-1880)
to 1648, and Frankreich und der Niederrhein (2 vols., ib., 1855, 1856),
a history of the city and electorate of Cologne since the Thirty
Years' War; R. Schultze and C. Steuernagel, Colonia Agrippinensis
(Bonn, 1895); K. Heldmann, Der Kolngau und die Cimtas Koln
(Halle, 1900); L. Korth, Koln im Mittelalter (Cologne, 1890);
F. Lau, Entwickelung der kommunalen Verfassung der Stadt Koln
ins zum Jahre 1396 (Bonn, 1898); K. Hegel, Stddte und Gilden der
termanischen Volker im Mittelalter (2 vols., Leipzig, 1891), ii. p. 323;
H. Keussen, Historische Topographie der Stadt Koln im Mittelalter
(Bonn, 1906) ; W. Behnke, A us Kolns Franzosenzeit (Cologne, 1901) ;
Helmken, Koln und seine Sehenswiirdigkeiten (2Oth ed., Cologne,
1903). For sources see L. Ennen and G. Eckertz, Quellen zur
Geschichte der Stadt Koln (6 vols., Cologne, 1860-1879); later
sources will be found in U. Chevalier, Repertoire des sources hist.
Topo-bibliographie (Montbeliard, 1894-1899), s.v. Cologne, which
gives also a full list of works on everything connected with the city ;
also in Dahlmann-Waitz, Quellenkunde (ed. Leipzig, 1906), p. 17,
Nos. 252, 253. For the archdiocese and electorate of Cologne see
Binterim and Mooren, Die Erzdiozese Koln bis zur franzosischen
Staatsumwalzung, new ed. by A. Mooren in 2 vols. (Diisseldorf, 1892,
1893)-

COLOMAN (1070-1116), king of Hungary, was the son of
King Geza of Hungary by a Greek concubine. King Ladislaus
would have made the book-loving youth a monk, and even
designated him for the see of Eger; but Coloman had no inclina-
tion for an ecclesiastical career, and, with the assistance of his
friends, succeeded in escaping to Poland. On the death of
Ladislaus (1095), he returned to Hungary and seized the crown,
passing over his legitimately born younger brother Almos, the
son of the Greek princess Sinadene. Almos did not submit to
this usurpation, and was more or less of an active rebel till 1108,
when the emperor Henry V. espoused his cause and invaded
Hungary. The Germans were unsuccessful; but Coloman
thought fit to be reconciled with his kinsman and restored to him
his estates. Five years later, however, fearing lest his brother
might stand in the way of his heir, the infant prince Stephen,
Coloman imprisoned Almos and his son Bela in a monastery and
had them blinded. Despite his adoption of these barbarous
Byzantine methods, Coloman was a good king and a wise ruler.
In foreign affairs he preserved the policy of St Ladislaus by
endeavouring to provide Hungary with her greatest need, a
suitable seaboard. In 1097 he overthrew Peter, king of Croatia,
and acquired the greater part of Dalmatia, though here he
encountered formidable rivals in the Greek and German emperors,
Venice, the pope and the Norman-Italian dukes, all equally
interested in the fate of that province, so that Coloman had to
proceed cautiously in his expansive policy. By 1102, however,
Zara, Trau, Spalato and all the islands as far as- the Cetina were
in his hands. But it was as a legislator and administrator that
Coloman was greatest (see HUNGARY: History). He was not
only one of the most learned, but also one of the most states-
manlike sovereigns of the earlier middle ages. Coloman was

twice married, (i) in 1097 to Buzella, daughter of Roger, duke of
Calabria, the chief supporter of the pope, and (2) in 1112 to the
Russian princess, Euphemia, who played him false and was sent
back in disgrace to her kinsfolk the following year. Coloman
died on the 3rd of February 1116.

COLOMB, PHILIP HOWARD (1831-1899), British vice-
admiral, historian, critic and inventor, the son of General G. T.
Colomb, was born in Scotland, on the 29th of May 1831. He
entered the navy in 184^, and served first at sea off Portugal in
1847; afterwards, in 1848, in the Mediterranean, and from
1848 to 1851 as midshipman of the " Reynard " in operations
against piracy in Chinese waters; as midshipman and mate of
the " Serpent " during the Burmese War of 1852-53; as mate
of the " Phoenix " in the Arctic Expedition of 1854; as lieu-
tenant of the " Hastings " in the Baltic during the Russian War,
taking part in the attack on Sveaborg. He became what was
known at that time as a " gunner's lieutenant " in 1857, and
from 1859 to 1863 he served as flag-lieutenant to rear-admiral
Sir Thomas Pasley at Devonport. Between 1858 and' 1868 he
was employed in home waters on a variety of special services,
chiefly connected with gunnery, signalling and the tactical
characteristics and capacities of steam warships. From 1868
to 1870 he commanded the " Dryad," and was engaged in the
suppression of the slave trade. In 1874, while captain of the
" Audacious," he served for three years as flag-captain to vice-
admiral Ryder in China; and finally he was appointed, in 1880,
to command the " Thunderer " in the Mediterranean. Next
year he was appointed captain of the steam reserve at Ports-
mouth; and after serving three years in that capacity, .he re-
mained at Portsmouth as flag-captain to the commander-in-chief
until 1886, when he was retired by superannuation before he
had attained flag rank. Subsequently he became rear-admiral,
and finally vice-admiral on the retired list.

Few men of his day had seen more active and more varied
service than Colorob. But the real work on which his title to
remembrance rests is the influence he exercised on the thought
and practice of the navy. He was one of the first to perceive
the vast changes which must ensue from the introduction of
steam into the navy, which would necessitate a new system of
signals and a new method of tactics. He set himself to devise
the former as far back as 1858, but his system of signals was
not adopted by the navy until 1867.

What he had done for signals Colomb next did for tactics.
Having first determined by experiment for which he was given
special facilities by the admiralty what are the manoeuvring
powers of ships propelled by steam under varying conditions
of speed and helm, he proceeded to devise a system of tactics
based on these data. In the sequel he prepared a new evolu-
tionary signal-book, which was adopted by the royal navy, and
still remains in substance the foundation of the existing system
of tactical evolutions at sea. The same series of experimental
studies led him to conclusions concerning the chief causes of
collisions at sea; and these conclusions, though stoutly com-
bated in many quarters at the outset, have since been generally
accepted, and were ultimately embodied in the international
code of regulations adopted by the leading maritime nations on
the recommendation of a conference at Washington in 1889.

After his retirement Colomb devoted himself rather to the
history of naval warfare, and to the large principles disclosed by
its intelligent study, than to experimental inquiries having an
immediate practical aim. As in his active career he had wrought
organic changes in the ordering, direction and control of fleets,
so by" his historic studies, pursued after his retirement, he helped
greatly to effect, if he did not exclusively initiate, an equally
momentous change in the popular, and even the professional,
way of regarding sea-power and its conditions. He did not invent
the term " sea-power, " it is, as is shown elsewhere (see SEA-
POWER), of very fticient origin, nor did he employ it until
Captain Mahan had made it'a household word with all. But he
thoroughly grasped its conditions, and in his great work on naval
warfare (first published in 1891) he enunciated its principles
with great cogency and with keen historic insight. The central

yoo

COLOMBES COLOMBIA

idea of his teaching was that naval supremacy is the condition
precedent of all vigorous military offensive across the seas, and,
conversely, that no vigorous military offensive can be under-
taken across the seas until the naval force of the enemy has been
accounted for either destroyed or defeated and compelled to
withdraw to the shelter of its own ports, or at least driven from
the seas by the menace of a force it dare not encounter in the
open. This broad and indefeasible principle he enunciated and
defended in essay after essay, in lecture after lecture, until what
at first was rejected as a paradox came in the end to be accepted
as a commonplace. He worked quite independently of Captain
Mahan, and his chief conclusions were published before Captain
Mahan's works appeared.

He died quite suddenly and in the full swing of his
literary activity on the i3th of October 1899, at Steeple Court,
Botley, Hants. His latest published work was a biography of
his friend Sir Astley Cooper Key, and his last article was a critical
examination of the tactics adopted at Trafalgar, which showed
his acumen and insight at their best.

His younger brother, SIR JOHN COLOMB (1838-1909), was
closely associated in the pioneer work done for British naval
strategy and Imperial defence, and his name stands no less high
among those who during this period promoted accurate thinking
on the subject of sea-power. Entering the Royal Marines in
1854, he rose to be captain in 1867, retiring in 1869; and thence-
forth he devoted himself to the study of naval and military
problems, on which he had already published some excellent
essays. His books on Colonial Defence and Colonial Opinions
(1873), The Defence of Great and Greater Britain (1879), Naval
Intelligence and the Protection of Commerce (1881), The Use and
the Application of Marine Forces (1883), Imperial Federation:
Naval and Military (1887), followed later by other similar works,
made him well known among the rising school of Imperialists,
and he was returned to parliament (1886-1892) as Conservative
member for Bow, andafterwards( 189 5-1906) for Great Yarmouth.
In 1887 he was created C.M.G., and in 1888 K.C.M.G. ' He died
in London on the 27th of May 1909. In Kerry, Ireland, he
was a large landowner, and became a member of the Irish privy
council (1903), and in 1906 he sat on the Royal Commission
dealing with congested districts.

COLOMBES, a town of France in the department of Seine,
arrondissement of St Denis, 7 m. N.N.W. of Paris. Pop. (1906)
28,920. It has a 16th-century church with 1 2th-century tower, a
race-course, and numerous villa residences and boarding-schools.
Manufactures include oil, vinegar and measuring-instruments.
A castle formerly stood here, in which died Henrietta Maria,
queen of Charles I. of England.

COLOMBEY, a village of Lorraine, 4 m. E. of Metz, famous as
the scene of a battle between the Germans and the French fought
on the I4th of August 1870. It is often called the battle of
Borny, from another village 25 m. E. of Metz. (See METZ and
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR.)

COLOMBIA, a republic of South America occupying the
N.W. angle of that continent and bounded N. by the Caribbean
Sea and Venezuela, E. by Venezuela and Brazil, S. by Brazil,
Peru and Ecuador, and W. by Ecuador, the Pacific Ocean,
Panama and the Caribbean Sea. The republic is very irregular
in outline and has an extreme length from north to south of
1050 m., exclusive of territory occupied by Peru on the north
bank of the upper Amazon, and an extreme width of 860 m.
The approximate area of this territory, according to official
calculations, is 481,979 sq. m., which is reduced to 465,733 sq. m.
by Gotha planimetrical measurements. This makes Colombia
fourth in area among the South American states.

The loss of the department of Panama left the republic with
unsettled frontiers on every side, and some of the boundary
disputes still unsolved in 1909 concern immense areas of territory.
The boundary with Costa Rica was settled i 1900 by an award
of the President of France, but the secession of Panama in 1903
gave Colombia another unsettled line on the north-west. If
the line which formerly separated the Colombian departments
of Cauca and Panama is taken as forming the international

boundary, this line follows the water-parting between the
streams which flow eastward to the Atrato, and those which
flow westward to the Gulf of San Miguel, the terminal points
being near Cape Tiburon on the Caribbean coast, and at about
7 10' N. lat. on the Pacific coast. The boundary dispute with
Venezuela was referred in 1883 to the king of Spain, and the award
was made in 1891. Venezuela, however, refused to accept the
decision. The line decided upon, and accepted by Colombia,
starts from the north shore of Calabozo Bay on the west side of
the Gulf of Maracaibo, and runs west and south-west to and
along the water-parting (Sierra de Perija) between the drainage
basins of the Magdalena and Lake Maracaibo as far as the source
in lat. 8 50' N. of a small branch of the Catatumbo river, thence
in a south-easterly direction across the Catatumbo and Zulia
rivers to a point in 72 30' W. long., 8 12' N. lat., thence in an
irregular southerly direction across the Cordillera de Merida to
the source of the Sarare, whence it runs eastward along that river,
the Arauca, and the Meta to the Orinoco. Thence the line runs
south and south-east along the Orinoco, Atabapo and Guainia
to the Pedra de Cucuhy, which serves as a boundary mark for
three republics. Of the eastern part of the territory lying
between the Meta and the Brazilian frontier, Venezuela claims
as far west as the meridian of 69 10'. Negotiations for the
settlement of the boundary with Brazil (q.v.) were resumed in
1906, and were advanced in the following year to an agreement
providing for the settlement of conflicting claims by a mixed
commission. With Ecuador and Peru the boundary disputes are
extremely complicated, certain parts of the disputed territory
being claimed by all three republics. Colombia holds possession
as far south as the Napo in lat. 2 47' S., and claims territory
occupied by Peru as far south as the Amazon. On the other
hand Peru claims as far north as La Chorrera in o 49' S. lat.,
including territory occupied by Colombia, and the eastern half
of the Ecuadorean department of Oriente, and Ecuador would
extend her southern boundary line to the Putumayo, in long.
71 i' S., and make that river her northern boundary as far
north as the Peruvian claim extends. The provisional line starts
from the Japura river (known as the Caqueta in Colombia) in
lat. i 30' S., long. 69 24' W., and runs south-west to the 7oth
meridian, thence slightly north of west to the Igaraparana river,
thence up that stream to the Peruvian military post of La
Chorrera, in o 49' S. lat., thence west of south to Huiririma-
chico, on the Napo. Thence the line 'runs north-west along the
Napo, Coca and San Francisco rivers to the Andean watershed,
which becomes the dividing line northward for a distance of
nearly 80 m., where the line turns westward and reaches the
Pacific at the head of Panguapi Bay, into which the southern
outlet of the Mira river discharges (about i 34' N. lat.).

Physical Geography. Colombia is usually described as an ex-
tremely mountainous country, which is true of much less than half
its total area. Nearly one half its area lies south-east of the Andes
and consists of extensive llanos and forested plains, traversed by
several of the western tributaries of the Amazon and Orinoco.
These plains slope gently toward the east, those of the Amazon basin
apparently lying in great terraces whose escarpments have the char-
acter of low, detached ranges of hills forming successive rims to the
great basin which they partly enclose. The elevation and slope of
this immense region, which has an approximate length of 640 m.
and average width of 320 m., may be inferred from the elevations
of the Caqueta, or Japura river, which was explored by Crevaux in
1878-1879. At Santa Maria, near the Cordillera (about 75 30' W.
long.), the elevation is 613 ft. above sea-level, on the 73rd meridian
it is 538 ft., and near the 7oth meridian 426 ft. a fall of 187 ft.
in a distance of about 400 m. The northern part of this great region
has a somewhat lower elevation and gentler slope, and consist? of
open grassy plains, which are within the zone of alternating wet and
dry seasons. In the south and toward the great lower basin of the
Amazon, where the rainfall is continuous throughout the year, the
plains are heavily forested. The larger part of this territory is
unexplored except along the principal rivers, and is inhabited by
scattered tribes of Indians. Near the Cordilleras and along some of
the larger rivers there are a few small settlements of whites and
mestizos, but their aggregate number is small and their economic
value to the republic is inconsiderable. There are some cattle
ranges on the open plains, however, but they are too isolated to
have much importance. A small part of the northern Colombia,
on the lower courses of the Atrato and Magdalena, extending across

GEOGRAPHY]

COLOMBIA

701

the country from the Eastern to the Western Cordilleras with a
varying width of 100 to 150 m., not including the lower river basins
which penetrate much farther inland, also consists of low, alluvial
plains, partly covered with swamps and intricate watercourses,
densely overgrown with vegetation, but in places admirably adapted
to different kinds of tropical agriculture. These plains are broken
in places by low ranges of hills which are usually occupied by the
principal industrial settlements of this part of the republic, the
lower levels being for the most part swampy and unsuitecl for white
occupation.

The other part of the republic, which may be roughly estimated at
two-fifths of its total area, consists of an extremely rugged moun-
tainous country, traversed from south to north
by the parallel river valleys of the Magdalena,
Cauca and Atrato. The mountain chains which
cover this part of Colombia are the northern
terminal ranges of the great Andean system.
In northern Ecuador the Andes narrows into
a single massive range which has the character
of a confused mass of peaks and ridges on the
southern frontier of Colombia. There are several
lofty plateaus in this region which form a huge
central watershed for rivers flowing east to the
Amazon, west to the Pacific, and north to the
Caribbean Sea. The higher plateaus are called
paramos, cold, windswept, mist-drenched deserts,
lying between the elevations of 10,000 and 15,000
ft., which are often the only passes over the
Cordilleras, and yet are almost impassable because
of their morasses, heavy mists, and cold, piercing
winds. The paramos of Cruz Verde (11,695 ft.)
and Pasto, and the volcanoes of Chiles (15,900
ft.), Chumbul (15,715 ft.), and Pasto (13,990 ft.)
are prominent landmarks of this desolate region.
North of this great plateau the Andes divides
into three great ranges, the Western, Central and
Eastern Cordilleras. The Central is the axis of
the system, is distinguished by a line of lofty
volcanoes and paramos, some of which show their
white mantles 2000 to 3000 ft. above the line of
perpetual snow (approx. 15,000 ft. in this lati-
tude), and is sometimes distinguished with the
name borne by the republic for the time being.
This range runs in a north-north-east direction
and separates the valleys of the Magdalena and
Cauca, terminating in some low hills south-west
of El Banco, a small town on the lower Magdalena.
The principal summits of this range areTajumbina
(13,534 ft.), P an de Azucar (15,978 ft.), Purace
(15,420 ft.), Sotara (15,420 ft.), Huilaover 18,000
ft.), Tolima (18,432 ft.), Santa Isabel (16,700 ft.),
Ruiz (18,373 ft-), and Mesa de Herveo (18,300 ft.).
The last named affords a magnificent spectacle
from Bogota, its level top which is 5 or 6 m. across,
and is formed by the nm of an immense crater,
having the appearance of a table, down the sides
of which for more than 3000 ft. hangs a spotless
white drapery of perpetual snow. The Western
Cordillera branches from the main range first
and follows the coast very closely as far north
as the 4th parallel, where the San Juan and
Atrato rivers, though flowing in opposite directions
and separated near the 5th parallel by a low
transverse ridge, combine to interpose valleys
between it and the Cordillera de Baudo, which
thereafter becomes the true coast range. It then
forms the divide between the Cauca and Atrato
valleys, and terminates near the Caribbean coast.
The general elevation of this range is lower than
that of the others, its culminating points being the
volcano Munchique (i 1 ,850 ft.) and Cerro Leon (10,847 ft-)- Therange
is covered with vegetation and its Pacific slopes are precipitous and
humid. The Cordillera de Baudo, which becomes the coast range
above lat. 4 N., is the southern extension of the low mountainous
chain forming the backbone of the Isthmus of Panama, and may be
considered the southern termination of the great North American
system. Its elevations are low and heavily wooded. It divides on
the Panama frontier, the easterly branch forming the watershed
between the Atrato and the rivers of eastern Panama, and serving as
the frontier between the two republics. The passes across these
ranges are comparatively low, but they are difficult because of the
precipitous character of their Pacific slopes and the density of the
vegetation on them. The Eastern Cordillera is in some respects the
most important of the three branches of the Colombian Andes. Its
general elevation is below that of the Central Cordillera, and it has
Few summits rising above the line of perpetual snow, the highest
being the Sierra Nevada de Cocui, in lat. 6 30' N. Between Cocui
and the southern frontier of Colombia there are no noteworthy
elevations except the so-called Paramo de Suma Paz near Bogota,
the highest point of which is 14,146 ft. above sea-level, and the Chita

paramo, or range, north-east of Bogota (16,700 ft.). Between the
5th and 6th parallels the range divides into two branches, the eastern,
passing into Venezuela, where it is called the Cordillera de Merida,
and the northern continuing north and north-east as the Sierra de
Perija and the Sierra de Oca, to terminate at the north-eastern
extremity of the Goajira peninsula. The culminating point in the
first-mentioned range is the Cerro Pintado (11,800 ft.). West of
this range, and lying between the loth parallel and the Caribbean
coast, is a remarkable group of lofty peaks and knotted ranges
known as the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, the highest snow-
crowned summit of which rises 17,389 ft. above the sea according to
some, and 16,728 according to other authorities. This group of

COLOMBIA

Scale. 1:12.000000

mountains, covering an approximate area of 6500 sq. m., lies im-
mediately on the coast, and its highest summits were long considered
inaccessible. It stands detached from the lower ranges of the
Eastern Cordillera, and gives the impression that it is essentially
independent. The eastern Cordillera region is noteworthy for its
large areas of plateau and elevated valley within the limits of the
vertical temperate zone. In this region is to be found the greater
part of the white population, the best products of Colombian civiliza-
tion, and the greatest industrial development. The " sabana " of
Bogota is a good illustration of the higher of these plateaus (8563 ft.,
according to Stieler's Hand-Atlas), with its mild temperature,
inexhaustible fertility and numerous productions of the temperate
zone. It has an area of about 2000 sq. m. The lower valleys,
plateaus and mountain slopes of this range are celebrated for their
coffee, which, with better means of transportation, would be a greater
source of prosperity for the republic than the gold-mines of Antioquia.
The mountainous region of Colombia is subject to volcanic disturb-
ances and earthquake shocks are frequent, especially in the south.
These shocks, however, are less severe than in Venezuela or in
Ecuador.

702

COLOMBIA

[GEOGRAPHY

There are few islands on the coast of Colombia, and the great
majority of these are too small to appear on the maps in general use.

Gorgona is one of the larger islands on the Pacific coast,
islands. an( j j g s ; tuate( j about 25 m. from the mainland in lat.
3 N. It is 5} m. long by i J m. wide, and rises to an extreme eleva-
tion of 1296 ft. above sea-level. It is a beautiful island, and is
celebrated as one of Pizarro's stopping places. It has been used
by the Colombian government for political offenders. Malpelo island,
282 m. west by south of Charambira point, in lat. 3 40' N., long.
81 24' W, nominally belongs to Colombia. It is a small, rocky,
uninhabited island, rising to an elevation of 846 ft. above the sea,
and has no ascertained value. The famous Pearl islands of the
Gulf of Panama are Claimed by Colombia, and their pearl oyster
fisheries are considered a rentable asst' by the government. The
group covers an area of about 450 sq. m., and consists of 16 islands
and several rocks. The largest is Rey Island, which is about 17 m.
long, north to south, and 8 m. broad, with an extreme elevation of
600 ft. The other larger islands are San Jose, Pedro Gonzales,
Casaya, Sabpga and Pacheca. There are several fishing villages
whose inhabitants are largely engaged in the pearl fisheries, and a
number of cocoa-nut plantations. The islands belong chiefly to
Panama merchants. There are several groups of small islands on
the northern coast, and a few small islands so near the mainland as
to form sheltered harbours, as at Cartagena. The largest of these
islands is Baru, lying immediately south of the entrance to Cartagena
harbour. North-west of Colombia in the Caribbean Sea are several
small islands belonging to the republic, two of which (Great and
Little Corn Is.) lie very near the coast of Nicaragua. The largest
and most important of these islands is Vieja Providencia (Old
Providence), 120 m. off the Mosquito Coast, 45 m. long, which
supports a small population.

The rivers of Colombia may be divided, for convenience of descrip-
tion, into three general classes according to the destination of their
. waters, the Pacific, Caribbean and Atlantic the last

reaching their destination through the Amazon and
Orinoco. Of these, the Caribbean rivers are of the greatest economic
importance to the country, though those of the eastern plains may at
some time become nearly as important as transportation routes in a
region possessing forest products of great importance and rich in
agricultural and pastoral possibilities. It is worthy of note that the
principal rivers of these three classes the Patia, Cauca, Magdalena,
Caqueta and Putumayo all have their sources on the high plateaus
of southern Colombia and within a comparatively limited area.
The Pacific coast rivers are numerous, and discharge a very large
volume of water into the ocean in proportion to the area of their
drainage basins, because of the heavy rainfall on the western slopes
of the Coast range. The proximity of this range to the coast limits
them to short, precipitous courses, with comparatively short navi-
gable channels. The principal rivers of this group, starting from
the southern frontier, are the Mira, Patia, Iscuande, Micai, Buena-
ventura or Dagua, San Juan and Baudo. The Mira has its principal
sources in Ecuador, and for a short distance forms the boundary
line between the two republics, but its outlets and navigable channel
are within Colombia. It has a large delta in proportion to the length
of the river, which is visible evidence of the very large quantity
of material brought down from the neighbouring mountain slopes.
The Patia is the longest river of the Pacific group, and is the only one
haying its sources on the eastern side of the Western Cordillera.
It is formed by the confluence of the Sotara and Guaitara at the point
where the united streams turn westward to cut their way through
the mountains to the sea. The Sotara or upper Patia rises on the
southern slope of a transverse ridge or dyke, between the Central
and Western Cordilleras, in the vicinity of Popayan, and ' flows
southward about 120 m. to the point of confluence with the Guaitara.
The latter has its sources on the elevated plateau of Tuquerres and
flows north-west to meet the Sotara. The canyon of the Patia through
the Western Cordillera is known as the " Minima gorge," and has
been cut to a depth of 1676 ft., above which the perpendicular
mountain sides rise like a wall some thousands of feet more. The
upper course of the Guaitara is known as the Carchi, which for a
short distance forms the boundary line between Colombia and
Ecuador. At one point in its course it is crossed by the Rumichaca
arch, a natural arch of stone, popularly known as the " Inca's bridge,"
which with the Minima gorge should be classed among the natural
wonders of the world. There is a narrow belt of low, swampy
country between the Cordillera and the coast, traversed at intervals
by mountain spurs, and across this the river channels are usually
navigable. _ The San Juan has built a large delta at its mouth,
and is navigable for a distance of 140 m. inland, the river flowing
parallel with the coast for a long distance instead of crossing the
coastal plain. It rises in the angle between the Western Cordillera
and a low transverse ridge connecting it with the Baudo coast
range, and flows westward down to the valley between the two
ranges, and then southward through this valley to about lat. 4 1 5' N.,
where it turns sharply westward and crosses a narrow belt of lowland
to the coast. It probably has the largest discharge of -water of the
Pacific group, and has about 300 m. of navigable channels, including
its tributaries, although the river itself is only 190 m. long and the
sand-bars at its mouth have only 7 or 8 ft. of water on them. The
San Juan is distinguished for having been one of the proposed

routes for a ship canal between the Caribbean and Pacific. At one
point in its upper course it is so near the Atrato that, according to a
survey by Captain C. S. Cochrane, R.N., in 1824, a canal 400 yds.
long with a maximum cutting of 70 ft., together with 'some improve-
ments in the two streams, would give free communication. His
calculations were made, of course, for the smaller craft of that
time.

The rivers belonging to the Caribbean system, all of which flow
in a northerly direction, are the Atrato, Bacuba, Sinu, Magdalena
and Zulia. The Bacuba, Suriquilla or Leon, is a small stream rising
on the western slopes of the Cordillera and flowing into the upper
end of the Gulf of Uraba. Like the Atrato it brings down much silt,
which is rapidly filling that depression. There are many small
streams and one important river, the Sinu, flowing into the sea
between this gulf and the mouth of the Magdalena. The Sinti rises
on the northern slopes of the Alto del Viento near the 7th parallel,
and flows almost due north across the coastal plain for a distance
of about 286 m. to the Gulf of Morosquillo. It has a very sinuous
channel which is navigable for small steamers for some distance,
but there is no good port at its outlet, and a considerable part of the
region through which it flows is malarial and sparsely settled. The
most important rivers of Colombia, however, are the Magdalena and
its principal tributary, the Cauca. They both rise on the high table-
land of southern Colombia about 14,000 ft. above sea-level the
Magdalena in the Laguna del Buey (Ox Lake) on the Las Papas
plateau, and the Cauca a short distance westward in the Laguna de
Santiago on the Paramo de Guanacas and flow northward in
parallel courses with the great Central Cordillera, forming the water-
parting between their drainage basins. The principal tributaries
of the Magdalena are the Suaza, Neiva, Cabrera, Pradp, Fusagasaga,
Funza or Bogota, Carare, Open, Sogamoso, Lebrija and Cesar,
and the western the La Plata, Paez, Saldafia, Cuello, Guali, Samana
or Miel, Nare or Negro and Cauca. There are also many smaller
streams flowing into the Magdalena from both sides of the valley.
Of those named, the Funza drains the " sabana " of Bogota and is
celebrated for the great fall of Tequendama, about 480 ft. in height;
the Sogamoso passes through some of the richest districts of the
republic; and the Cesar rises on the elevated slopes of the Sierra
Nevada de Santa Marta and flows southward across a low plain,
in which are many lakes, to join the Magdalena where it bends
westward to meet the Cauca. The course of the Magdalena traverses
nine degrees of latitude and is nearly 1000 m. long. It is navigable
for steamers up to La Dorada, near Honda, 561 m. above its mouth,
which is closed by sand-bars to all but light-draught vessels, and for
93 m. above the rapids at Honda, to Girardot. The river is also
navigable at high water for small steamers up to Neiva, 100 m.
farther and 1535 ft. above sea-level, beyond which pjoint it descends
precipitously from the plateaus of southern Colombia. The Honda
rapids have a fall of only 20 ft. in a distance of 2 m., but the current
is swift and the channel tortuous for a distance of 20 m., which
make it impossible for the light-draught, flat-bottomed steamers of
the lower river to ascend them. The Cauca differs much from the
Magdalena, although its principal features are the same. The latter
descends 12,500 ft. before it becomes navigable, but at 10,000 ft.
below its source the Cauca enters a long narrow valley with an
average elevation of 3500 ft., where it is navigable for over 200 m.,
and then descends 2500 ft. through a series of impetuous rapids for a
distance of about 250 m., between Cartago and Caceres, with a break
of 60 m. above Antioquia, where smooth water permits isolated
navigation. While, therefore, the Magdalena is navigable throughout
the greater part of its course, or from Girardot to the coast, with an
abrupt break of only 20 ft. at Honda which could easily be overcome,
the Cauca has only 200 m. of navigable water in the upper valley
and another 200 m. on its lower course before it joins the Magdalena
in lat. 9 30', the two being separated by 250 m. of canyon and
rapids. So difficult is the country through which the Cauca has cut
its tortuous course that the fertile upper valley is completely isolated
from the Caribbean, and has no other practicable outlet than the
overland route from Cali to Buenaventura, on the Pacific. The
upper sources of the Cauca flow through a highly volcanic region,
and are so impregnated with sulphuric and other acids that fish
cannot live in them. This is especially true of the "Rio Vinagre,
which rises on the Purace volcano. The principal tributaries are
the Piendamo, Oyejas, Palo, Amaime and Nechi, from the central
Cordillera, of which the last named is the most important, and the
Jamundi and a large number of small streams from the Western.
The largest branch of the Cauca on its western side, however, is the
San Jorge, which, though rising in the Western Cordillera on the
northern slopes of the Alto del Viento, in about lat. 7 N., and not
far from the sources of the Sinu and Bacuba, is essentially a river
of the plain, flowing north-east across a level country filled with
small lakes and subject to inundations to a junction with the Cauca
just before it joins the Magdalena. Both the San Jorge and Nechi
are navigable for considerable distances. The valley of the Cauca
is much narrower than that of the Magdalena, and between Cartago
and Caceres the mountain ranges on both sides press down upon the
river and confine it to a narrow canyon. The Cauca unites with the
Magdalena about 200 m. from the sea through several widely separated
channels, which are continually changing through the wearing away
of the alluvial banks. These changes in the channel are also at work

GEOGRAPHY]

COLOMBIA

703

in the Lower Magdalena. The remaining rivers of the Caribbean
system, exclusive of the smaller ones rising in the Sierra Nevada
de Santa Marta, are the Zulia and Catatumbo, which rise in the
mountains of northern Santander and flow across the low plains of
the Venezuelan state of Zulia into Lake Maracaibo.

Of the rivers of the great eastern plains, whose waters pass through
the Orinoco and Amazon to the Atlantic, little can be said beyond
the barest geographical description. The size and courses of many
of their affluents are still unknown, as this great region has been only
partially explored. The largest of these rivers flow across the plains
m an easterly direction, those of the Orinoco system inclining north-
ward, and those of the Amazon system southward. The first include
the Guaviare or Guayabero, the Vichada, the Meta, and the upper
course of the Arauca. The Guaviare was explored by Crevaux in
1881. It rises on the eastern slopes of the Eastern Cordillera between
the 3rd and 4th parallels, about 75 m. south of Bogota, and flows
with a slight southward curve across the llanos to the Orinoco, into
which it discharges at San Fernando de Atabapo in lat. 4 N. Its
largest tributary is the Inirida, which enters from the south. The
Guaviare has about 600 m. of navigable channel. The Meta rises
on the opposite side of the Cordillera from Bogota, and flows with a
sluggish current east-north-east across the llanos to the Orinoco,
into which it discharges below the_Atures rapids, in lat. 6 22' N.
It is navigable throughout almost its whole length, small steamers
ascending it to a point within 100 m. of Bogota. Its principal
tributaries, so far as known, are the Tuca, Chire and Casanare.
The principal rivers of the Amazon system are the Napo, the upper
part of which forms the provisional boundary line with Ecuador,
the Putumayo or lea, and the Caqueta or Japura (Yapura), which
flow from the Andes entirely across the eastern plains, and the
Guainia, which rises on the northern slopes of the Serra Tunaji
near the provisional Brazilian frontier, and flows with a great north-
ward curve to the Venezuelan and Brazilian frontiers, and is thereafter
known as the Rio Negro, one of the largest tributaries of the Amazon.
There are many large tributaries of these rivers in the unexplored
regions of south-eastern Colombia, but their names as well as their
courses are still unsettled.

The coast of Colombia faces on the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean
Sea, and is divided by the Isthmus of Panama into two completely
separated parts. The Pacific coast-line, omitting minor
Coasts. convolutions, has a length of about 500 m., while that of
the Caribbean is about 700 m. The former has been of slight service
in the development of the country because of the unsettled and
unhealthy character of the coast region, and the high mountain
barriers between its natural ports and the settled parts of the re-
public. There are only two commercial ports on the coast, Tumaco
and Buenaventura, though there are several natural harbours
which would be of great service were there any demand for them.
The rivers Mira, Patia and San Juan permit the entrance of small
steamers, as also some of the smaller rivers. The larger bays on
this coast are Tumaco, Choc6, Magdalena, Cabita, Coqui, Puerto
Utria, Solano, Cupica and Octavia some of them affording ex-
ceptionally safe and well-sheltered harbours. The Caribbean coast
of Colombia has only four ports engaged in international trade
Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta and Rio Hacha. There are
some smaller ports on the coast, but they are open only to vessels
of light draft and have no trade worth mention. Barranquilla,
the principal port of the republic, is situated on the Magdalena,
and its seaport, or landing-place, is Puerto Colombia at the inner
end of Savanilla Bay, where a steel pier 4000 ft. long has been built
out to deep water, alongside which ocean-going vessels can receive and
discharge cargo. The bay is slowly filling up, however, and two
other landing-places Salgar and Savanilla had to be abandoned
before Puerto Colombia was selected. The pier-head had 24 ft. of
water alongside in 1907, but the silt brought down by the Magdalena
is turned westward by the current along this coast, and may at any
time fill the bay with dangerous shoals. The oldest and best port
on the coast is Cartagena, 65 m. south-west of Barranquilla, which
has a well-sheltered harbour protected by islands, and is connected
with the Magdalena at Calamar by railway. The next best port is
that of Santa Marta, about 46 m. east-north-east of Barranquilla
(in a straight line), with which it is connected by 23 m. of railway
and 50 m. of inland navigation on the Cienaga de Santa Marta and
eastern outlets of the Magdalena. Santa Marta is situated on a
small, almost landlocked bay, well protected from prevailing
winds by high land on the north and north-east, affording excellent
anchorage in waters free from shoaling through the deposit of silt.
The depth of the bay ranges from 4? to 19 fathoms. The town
stands at the foot of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, which
restricts the area of cultivatable land in its immediate vicinity,
and the enclosing high lands make the climate hot and somewhat
dangerous for foreigners. Since the development of the fruit trade
on the shores of the Caribbean sea and Gulf of Mexico by an im-
portant American company, which owns a large tract of land near
Santa Marta devoted to banana cultivation, and has built a railway
50 m. inland principally for the transportation of fruit, the trade
of the port has greatly increased. The population of this region,
however, is sparse, and its growth is slow. The fourth port on this
coast is Rio Hacha, an open roadstead, about 93 m. east of Santa
Marta, at the mouth of the small river Rancheira descending from

the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. It has
little trade, and the undeveloped, unpopulated state of the country
behind it affords no promise of immediate growth. There are other
small towns on the coast which are ports for the small vessels engaged
in the coasting and river trade, but they have no international im-
portance because of their inaccessibility to ocean-going steamers,
or the extremely small volume of their trade. The Gulf of Uraba is
a large bight or southerly extension of the Gulf of Darien. It
receives the waters of the Atrato, Bacuba, and a number of small
rivers, and penetrates the land about 50 m., but has very little com-
mercial importance because of the unhealthy and unsettled character
of the neighbouring country, and because of the bar across its
entrance formed by silt from the Atrato. The Gulf of Morosquillo,
a broad shallow indentation of the coast south of Cartagena, receives
the waters of the Rio Sinu, at the mouth of which is the small port
of Cispata. Between the mouth of the Magdalena and Santa Marta
is the Cienaga de Santa Marta, a large marshy lagoon separated
from the sea by a narrow sand spit, having its " boca " or outlet
at its eastern side. There is some traffic in small steamers on its
shallow waters, which is increasing with the development of fruit
cultivation on its eastern and southern sides. It extends inland
about 31 m., and marks a deep indentation of the coast like the
Gulf of Uraba.

Geology. The geology of Colombia is very imperfectly known, and
it is only by a comparison with the neighbouring regions that it is
possible to form any clear idea of the geological structure and
succession. The oldest rocks are gneisses and schists, together with
granite and other eruptive rocks. These are overlaid by sandstones,
slates and limestones, alternating with porphyries and porphyritcs .
sometimes in the form of sheets, sometimes as breccias and con-
glomerates. Cretaceous fossils have been found abundantly in this
series, but it is still possible that earlier systems may be represented.
Coal-bearing beds, possibly of Tertiary age, occur in Antioquia and
elsewhere. Structurally, the four main chains of Colombia differ
considerably from one another in geological constitution. The
low Cordilleras of the Chocos, on the west coast, are covered by soft
Quaternary sandstones and marls containing shells of extant species,
such as still inhabit the neighbouring ocean. The Western Cordillera
is the direct continuation of the Western Cordillera of Ecuador,
and, like the latter, to judge from the scattered observations which
are all that are available, consists chiefly of sandstones and porphy-
ritic rocks of the Cretaceous series. Between the Western and the
Central Cordilleras is a longitudinal depression along which the river
Cauca finds its way towards the sea. On the western side of this
depression there are red sandstones with coal-seams, possibly
Tertiary; the floor and the eastern side consist chiefly of ancient
crystalline and schistose rocks. The Central Cordillera is the direct
continuation of the Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador, and is formed
chiefly of gneiss and other crystalline rocks, but sedimentary deposits
of Cretaceous age also occur. Finally the Eastern branch, known
as the Cordillera of Bogota, is composed almost entirely of Cretaceous
beds thrown into a series of regular anticlinals and synclinals similar
to those of the Jura Mountains. The older rocks occasionally appear
in the centre of the anticlinals. In ajl these branches of the Andes
the folds run approximately in the direction of the chains, but the
Sierra de Santa Marta appears to belong to a totally distinct system
of folding, the direction of the folds being from west to east, bending
gradually towards the south-east. Although volcanoes are by no
means absent, they are much less important than in Ecuador, and
their products take a far smaller share in the formation of the Andes.
In Ecuador the depression between the Eastern and Western Cordil-
leras is almost entirely filled with modern lavas and agglomerates;
in Colombia the corresponding Cauca depression is almost free from
such deposits. In the Central Cordillera volcanoes extend to about
5 N. ; in the Western Cordillera they barely enter within the
limits of Colombia; in the Cordillera of BogotA they are entirely
absent. 1

Climate. Were it not for the high altitudes of western Colombia,
high temperatures would prevail over the whole country, except
where modified by the north-east trade winds and the cold ocean
current which sweeps up the western coast. The elevated plateaus
and summits of the Andes are responsible, however, for many
important and profound modifications in climate, not only in respect
to the lower temperatures of the higher elevations, but also in respect
to the higher temperatures of the sheltered lowland valleys and the
varying climatic conditions of the neighbouring plains. The
republic lies almost wholly within the north torrid zone, a compara-
tively small part of the forested Amazonian plain extending beyond

1 See A. Hettner and G. Linck, " Beitrage zur Geologic und
Petrographie der columbianischen Anden," Zeits. deutsch. geol. Ces.
vol. xi. (1888), pp. 204-230; W. Sieyers, " Die Sierra Nevada de
Santa Marta und die Sierra de Perija," Zeits. Ges._ Erdk. Berlin*
vol. xxiii. (1888), pp. 1-158 and p. 442, Pis. i. and iii. ; A. Hettner,
" Die Kordillere von Bogota," Peterm. Mitt., Erganzungsheft 104
(1892), and " Die Anden des westlichen Columbiens," Peterm. Mitt.
(1893), pp. 129-136; W. Reiss and A. Stiibel, Reisen in Siid America.
Geologiscne Studien in der Republik Colombia (Berlin, 1892-1899),
a good geological bibliography will be found in part ii. of this,
work.

704

COLOMBIA

[FAUNA AND FLORA

the equator into the south torrid zone. The great Andean barrier
which crosses the republic from the south to north acts as a condenser
to the prevailing easterly winds from the Atlantic, and causes a very
heavy rainfall on their eastern slopes and over the forested Amazon
plain. High temperatures as well as excessive humidity prevail
throughout this region. Farther north, on the open llanos of the
Orinoco tributaries, the year is divided into equal parts, an alternat-
ing wet and dry season, the sun temperatures being high followed
by cool nights, and the temperatures of the rainy season being even
higher. The rainfall is heavy in the wet season, causing many of the
rivers to spread over extensive areas, but in the dry season the in-
undated plains become dry, the large rivers fed by the snows and
rainfall of the Andes return within their banks, the shallow lagoons
and smaller streams dry up, vegetation disappears, and the level
plain becomes a desert. The northern plains of the republic are
swept by the north-east trades, and here, too, the mountain barriers
exercise a strongly modifying influence. The low ridges of the Sierra
de Perija do not wholly shut out these moisture-laden winds, but
they cause a heavy rainfall on their eastern slopes, and create a
dry area on their western flanks, of which the Vale of Upar is an
example. The higher masses of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
cover a very limited area, leaving the trade winds a comparatively
unbroken sweep across the northern plains until checked by the
Western Cordillera, the Panama ranges and the Sierra de Baudo,
where a heavy precipitation follows. Farther south the coast ranges
cause a very heavy rainfall on their western slopes, which are quite
as uninhabitable because of rain and heat as are the coasts of
southern Chile through rain and cold. The rainfall on this coast is
said to average 73 in., though it is much higher at certain points
and in the Atrato Valley. As a result the coastal plain is covered
with swamps and tangled forests, and is extremely unhealthy,
except at a few favoured points on the coast. High temperatures
prevail throughout the greater part of the Magdalena and Cauca
valleys, because the mountain ranges which enclose them shut out
the prevailing winds. At Honda, on the Magdalena, 664 ft. above
sea-level, the mean temperature for the year is 82 F., and the
mercury frequently rises to 102 in the shade. These lowland plains
and valleys comprise the climatic tropical zone of Colombia, which
is characterized by high temperatures, and by excessive humidity
and dense forests, an exception to the last-named characteristic
being the open llanos where dry summers prevail. Above this
tropical zone in the mountainous regions are to be found all the
varying gradations of climate which we are accustomed to associate
with changes in latitude. There are the subtropical districts of the
valleys and slopes between 1500 and 7500 ft. elevation, which include
some of the most fertile and productive areas in Colombia; the
temperate districts between 7500 and 10,000 ft., the cold, bleak and
inhospitable paramos between 10,000 and 15,000 ft., and above
these the arctic wastes of ice and snow. The temperate and sub-
tropical regions cover the greater part of the departments traversed
by the Eastern Cordillera, the northern end of the Central Cordillera,
the Santa Marta plateaus, and the Upper Cauca Valley. They
include the larger part of the white population and the chief pro-
ductive industries of the country. There is no satisfactory record
of temperatures and rainfall in these widely different climatic zones
from which correct averages can be drawn and compared. Observa-
tions have been made and recorded at Bogota and at some other large
towns, but for the greater part of the country we have only frag-
mentary reports. The mean annual temperature on the eastern
plains, so far as known, ranges from 87 F. on the forested slopes
to 90 and 91 on the llanos of the Meta and Arauca. On the
Caribbean coastal plain it ranges from 80 to 84, but at Tumaco,
on the Pacific coast, within two degrees of the equator, it is only 79.
At Medellin, in the mountainous region of Antioquia, 4950 ft. above
sea-level, the mean annual temperature is 70, and the yearly rainfall
55 in., while at Bogota, 8563 ft., the former is 57 and the latter
44 in. At Tuquerres, near the frontier of Ecuador, 10,200 ft. eleva-
tion, the mean annual temperature is said to be 55. The changes of
seasons are no less complicated and confusing. A considerable
part of the republic is covered by the equatorial belt of calms,
whose oscillations divide the year into a wet and dry season. This
division is modified, however, by the location of mountain ranges
and by elevation. In the Amazon region there is no great change
during the year, and on the northern plains the so-called dry season
is one of light rains except where mountain ranges break the sweep
of the north-east trades. The alternating wet and dry seasons are
likewise to be found on the Pacific coastal plain, though this region
is not entirely dry and vegetation never dries up as on the llanos.
Above the lowland plains the seasons vary in character according
to geographical position and elevation. The two-season division
rules in the departments of Santander and Antioquia, but without
the extremes of humidity and aridity characteristic of the eastern
plains. Farther south, at elevations between 800 and 9500 ft.,
the year is divided into four distinct seasons two wet and two dry
the former called inviernos (winters) and the latter veranos
(summers). These seasons are governed by the apparent movements
of the sun, the winters occurring at the equinoxes and the summers
at the solstices. The sabana of Bogota and neighbouring districts
are subject to these changes of season. At higher altitudes long,
cold, wet winters are experienced, with so short and cold a summer

between them that the bleak paramos are left uninhabited except
by a few shepherds in the short dry season.

Fauna. The geographical position of Colombia gives to it a
fauna and flora largely characteristic of the great tropical region of
the Amazon on the south-east, and of the mountainous regions of
Central America on the north-west. At the same time it is rich in
animal and plant types of its own, especially the latter, and is
considered one of the best fields in South America for the student
and collector. The fauna is essentially tropical, though a few species
characteristic of colder regions are to be found in the higher Andes.
Of the Quadrumana there are at least seventeen distinct species,
and this number may be increased after a thorough exploration of
the forested eastern plains. They are all arboreal in habit, and are
to be found throughout the forested lowlands and lower mountain
slopes. The carnivora are represented by, seven or eight species of
the Felidae, the largest of which are the puma (Felis concolor) and
the jaguar (F. onca). These animals, together with the smaller
ocelot, have a wide geographical range, and are very numerous in the
valley of the Magdalena. Two species of bear and the " coati "
(Nastta) represent the plantigrades and inhabit the mountain slopes,
and, of Pachydermata, the peccary (Dicotyles) and " danta or
tapir (Tapirus) have a wide distribution throughput the lowland
and lower plateau forests. The Colombian tapir is known as the
Tapirus Roulini, and is slightly smaller than the Brazilian species
(T. americanus). There are deer in the forests and on the open
savannahs, the rabbit and squirrel are to be seen on the eastern slopes
of the Andes, and partly amphibious rodents, the " capybara "
(Hydrochoerus) and " guagua " (Coelogenys subniger), are very
numerous along the wooded watercourses. The sloth, armadillo,
opossum, skunk and a species of fox complete the list of the more
common quadrupeds so far as known, though it is certain that a
careful biological survey would discover many others. The large
rivers of Colombia and the lakes of the lowlands are filled with
alligators, turtles, and fish, and several species of fish are highly
esteemed by the natives as food. The saurians are represented on
land by several species of lizard, some of them conspicuous for their
brilliant colouring, and by the large " iguana," whose flesh is con-
sidered a great delicacy. Among the ophidians, which include many
harmless species, are the boa-constrictor, rattlesnake, the dreaded
Lachesis and the coral snake. The " manatee " (Manatus ameri-
canus) is found in the Atrato and other large Colombian rivers.

In bird and insect life Colombia is second only to Brazil. The
condor, which inhabits the higher Cordilleras, is peculiar to the whole
Andean region, and is the largest of the Raptores. Among other
members of this order are the eagle, osprey, vulture, buzzard, kite
and hawk, with about a dozen species in all. Parrots and paroquets
are numerous everywhere in the tropical and subtropical regions,
as also the gorgeously coloured macaw and awkward toucan. The
largest class, perhaps, is that formed by the astonishing number of
water-fowl which throng the shallow lagoons and river beaches
at certain seasons of the year. They are mostly migratory in habit,
and are to be found in many other countries. Among these are the
large white crane and small crane, the blue heron, the snowy-white
egret, the roseate spoonbill (Platalea ajaja), stork, bittern and many
species of ducks. The largest and most conspicuous member of this
interesting family is the Mycteria americana, the gigantic stork so
frequently seen in the Amazon valley, and even more numerous
about the lagoons of northern Colombia. One of the best game-birds
of the forest is the " crested curassow " (Crax alector), sometimes
weighing 12 Ib, which feeds on arboreal fruits and rarely comes to
the ground. Colombia also possesses many species of the beautiful
little humming-bird, among which are the tiny Steganura Undenvoodi
and the sword-bill, Docimastes ensiferus, which were found by Mr
Albert Millican on a bleak paramo 12,000 ft. above sea-level. One
of the most interesting birds found in the country is the " weaver-
bird " (Cassicus persicus), which lives in colonies and suspends its
long, pouch-like nest from the end of a horizontal branch of some
high, isolated tree. In regard to insects, what has been said of
Brazil will apply very closely to Colombia. Mosquitoes, butterflies,
spiders, beetles and ants are infinitely numerous, and some of the
species are indescribably troublesome.

Flora. The Colombian flora is richer in species and individual
characteristics than the fauna, owing in part to its greater dependence
on climatic conditions. It ranges from the purely tropical types
of the lowlands to the Alpine species of the more elevated paramos.
It should be remembered, however, that large areas of the lowland
plains have only a very limited arboreal growth. These plains
include the extensive llanos of the Orinoco tributaries where coarse,
hardy grasses and occasional clumps of palms are almost the only
vegetation to be seen. There are other open plains in northern
Colombia, sometimes covered with a shrubby growth, and the
" mesas " (flat-topped mountains) and plateaus of the Cordilleras
are frequently bare of trees. Farther up, on the cold, bleak paramos,
only stunted and hardy trees are to be found. On the other hand,
a luxuriant forest growth covers a very large part of the republic,
including the southern plains of the Amazon tributaries, the foot-
hills, slopes and valleys of the Cordilleras, a larger part of the
northern plains, and the whole surface of the Western Cordillera and
coast. The most conspicuous and perhaps the most universal type
in all these regions, below an approximate elevation of 10,000 ft.,

POPULATION]

COLOMBIA

705

01 i

is the palm, whose varieties and uses are incredibly numerous.
On the eastern plains are to be found the " miriti " (Mauritia
flexuosa) and the " pirijao " or peach palm (Guiiielma speciosa),
called the " pupunha " on the Amazon, whose fruit, fibre, leaf, sap,
pith and wood meet so large a part of the primary needs of the
aborigines. A noteworthy palm of the eastern Andean slopes is the
" corneto " (Deckeria), whose tall, slender trunk starts from the apex
of a number of aerial roots, rising like a cone 6 to 8 ft. above the
ground. It is one of the most fruitful of palms, its clusters weighing
From 120 to 200 Ib each. Extensive groves of the coco-nut palm
are to be found on the Caribbean coast, the fruit and fibre of which
figure among the national exports. In north-eastern Colombia,
where a part of the year is dry, the " curuas " form the prevailing
species, but farther south, on the slopes of the Cordilleras up to an
elevation of 10,000 ft., the wax-palm, or " palma de cera " (Ceroxylon
andir.ola), is said to be the most numerous. It is a tall slender palm,
and is the source of the vegetable wax so largely used in some parts
ot the country in the manufacture of matches, a single stem some-
times yielding 16-20 Ib. Another widely distributed species in
central Colombia is known as the " palmita del Azufral ' in some
localities, and as the " palma real " and " palma dolce '' in others.
Humboldt says it is not the " palma real " of Cuba (Oreodoxa regia),
but in the Rio Sinii region is the Cocos butyracea, or the " palma
dolce," from which palm wine is derived. Another palm of much
economic importance in Colombia is the " tagua (Phytelephas
macrocarpa) , which grows abundantly in the valleys of the Magdalena,
Atrato and Patia, and produces a large melon-shaped fruit in which
are found the extremely hard, fine-grained nuts or seeds known in
the commercial world as vegetable ivory. The Colombian " Panama
hat " is made from the fibres extracted from the ribs of the fan-
ped leaves of still another species of palm, Carludoyica palmata,
ile in the Rio Sinii region the natives make a kind of butter
(" manteca de Corozo ") from the Elaeis melanococca, Mart., by
peeling the nuts in water and then purifying the oil extracted in this
way by boiling. This oil was formerly used for illuminating purposes.
The forests are never made up wholly of palms, but are composed
of trees of widely different characters, including many common to
le Amazon region, together with others found in Central American
irests, such as mahogany and " vera " or lignum vitae (Zygophyllum
arboreum). Brazilwood (Caesalpinia echmatd), valuable for its
timber and colouring extract, and " roco " (Bixa orellana), the
" urucii " of Brazil which furnishes the anatto of commerce, are
widely distributed in central and southern Colombia, and another
species of the first-named genus, the C. coariaria, produces the
divi-divi " of the Colombian export trade a peculiarly shaped
seed-pod, rich in tannic and gallic acids, and used for tanning leather.
The rubber-producing Hevea guayanensis is found in abundance on
the Amazon tributaries, and the Caslilloa elastica is common to all
the Caribbean river valleys. Southern Colombia, especially the
eastern slopes of the Andes, produces another valuable tree, the
Cinchona calisaya, from the bark of which quinine is made. These
are but a few of the valuable cabinet woods, dye-woods, &c., which
are to be found in the forests, but have hardly been reached by
commerce because of their inaccessibility and the unsettled state of
the country. The adventurous orchid-hunter, however, has pene-
trated deeply into their recesses in search of choice varieties, and
collectors of these valuable plants are largely indebted to Colombia
for their specimens of Cattleya Mendelli, Warscewiczii and Trianae;
Dowiana aurea; Odontoglossum crispum, Pescatorei, vexillarium,
odoratum, coronarium, Harryanum, and blandum; Miltonia vexil-
laria; Oncidium carthaginense and Kramerianum; Masdevalliae,
Epidendra, Schomburgkiae and many others. Colombia is also the
home of the American " Alpine rose ' (Befaria), which is to be found
between 9000 and 11,000 ft. elevation, and grows to a height of
5-6 ft. Tree ferns have a remarkable growth in many localities,
their stems being used in southern Cundinamarca to make corduroy
>ads. The South American bamboo (Bambusa guadia) has a very
ide range, and is found nearly up to the limit of perpetual snow.
'ie cactus is also widely distributed, and is represented by several
11-known species. Among the more common fruit-trees, some of
hich are exotics, may be mentioned cacao (Theobroma), orange,
:mon, lime, pine-apple, banana, guava (Psidium), breadfruit (Arto-
rpus), cashew (Anacardium) , alligator pear (Persea),vfith the apple,
ich, pear, and other fruits of the temperate zone on the elevated
.teaus. Other food and economic plants are coffee, rice, tobacco,
igar-cane, cotton, indigo, vanilla, cassava or " yucca," sweet and
hite potatoes, wheat, maize, rye, barley, and vegetables of both
pical and temperate climates. It is claimed in Colombia that a
:cies of wild potato found on the paramos is the parent of the
iltivated potato.

Population. The number of the population of Colombia
very largely a matter of speculation. A census was taken in
1871, when the population was 2,951,323. What the vegetative
ncrease has been since then (for there has been no immigration)
. purely conjectural, as there are no available returns of births
id deaths upon which an estimate can be based. Civil war
caused a large loss of life, and the withdrawal from their

vi. 23

homes of a considerable part of the male population, some of them
for military service and a greater number going into concealment
to escape it, and it is certain that the rate of increase has been
small. Some statistical authorities have adopted ii% as the
rate, but this is too high for such a period. All things considered,
an annual increase of i% for the thirty-five years between
1871 and 1906 would seem to be more nearly correct, which would
give a population in the latter year exclusive of the population
of Panama of a little over 3,800,000. The Statesman's Year
Book for 1007 estimates it at 4,279,674 in 1905, including about
150,000 wild Indians, while Supan's Die Bevolkerung dtr Erde
(1904) places it at 3,917,000 in 1899. Of ithe total only 10%
is classed as white and 15% as Indian, 40% as mestizos (white
and Indian mixture), and 35% negroes and their mixtures with
the other two races. The large proportion of mestizos, if these
percentages are correct, is significant because it implies a per-
sistence of type that may largely determine the character of
Colombia's future population, unless the more slowly increasing
white element can be reinforced by immigration.

The white contingent hi the population of Colombia is chiefly
composed of the descendants of the Spanish colonists who settled
there during the three centuries following its discovery and
conquest. Mining enterprises and climate drew them into the
highlands of the interior, and there they have remained down
to the present day, their only settlements on the hot, unhealthy
coast being the few ports necessary for commercial and political
intercourse with the mother country. The isolation of these
distant inland settlements has served to preserve the language,
manners and physical characteristics of these early colonists
with less variation than in any other Spanish-American state.
They form an intelligent, high-spirited class of people, with all
the defects and virtues of their ancestry. Their isolation has
made them ignorant to some extent of the world's progress,
while a supersensitive patriotism bh'nds them to the discredit
and disorganization which political strife and misrule have
brought upon them. A very small proportion of the white element
consists of foreigners engaged in commercial and industrial
pursuits, but they very rarely become permanently identified
with the fortunes of the country. The native whites form the
governing class, and enjoy most of the powers and privileges of
political office.

Of the original inhabitants there remain only a few scattered
tribes in the forests, who refuse to submit to civilized require-
ments, and a much larger number who live in organized com-
munities and have adopted the language, customs and habits
of the dominant race. Their total number is estimated at 15%
of the population, or nearly 600,000, including the 120,000
to 150,000 credited to the uncivilized tribes. Many of the
civilized Indian communities have not become wholly Hispani-
cized and still retain their own dialects and customs, their attitude
being that of a conquered race submitting to the customs and
demands of a social organization of which they form no part.
According to Uricoechea there are at least twenty-seven native
languages spoken in the western part of Colombia, fourteen in
Tolima, thirteen in the region of the Caqueta, twelve in Panama,
Bolivar and Magdalena, ten in Bogota and Cundinamarca,
and thirty-four in the region of the Meta, while twelve had died
out during the preceding century. The tribes of the Caribbean
seaboard, from Chiriqui to Goajira, are generally attached to the
great Carib stock; those of the eastern plains show affinities
with the neighbouring Brazilian races; those of the elevated
Tuquerres district are of the' Peruvian type; and the tribes of
Antioquia, Cauca, Popayan and Neiva preserve characteristics
more akin to those of the Aztecs than to any other race. At
the time of the Spanish Conquest the most important of these
tribes was the Muyscas or Chibchas, who inhabited the table-
lands of Bogota and Tunja, and had attained a considerable
degree of civilization. They lived in settled communities,
cultivated the soil to some extent, and ascribed their progress
toward civilization to a legendary cause remarkably similar to
those of the Aztecs of Mexico and the Incas of Peru. They are
represented by some tribes living on the head-waters of the Meta,

yo6

COLOMBIA

[POPULATION

and their blood flows in the veins of the mestizos of the Bogota
plateau. Their ancient language has been partly preserved
through the labours of Gonzalo Bermudez, Jose Dadei, Bernardo
de Lugo, and Ezequiel Uricoechea, the last having made it the
subject of a special study. According to this author the Chibchas
were composed of three loosely united nationalities governed
by three independent chiefs the Zipa of Muequeta (the present
Funza), the Zaque of Hunsa (now Tunja), and the Jeque of Iraca,
who was regarded as the successor of the god Nemterequeteba,
whom they worshipped as the author of their civilization. The
latter had his residence at Suamoz, or Sogamoso.

The Tayronas, of the Santa Marta highlands, who have
totally disappeared, were also remarkable for the progress which
they had made toward civilization. Evidence of this is to be
found in the excellent roads which they constructed, and in the
skilfully made gold ornaments which have been found in the
district which they occupied, as well as in the contemporary
accounts of them by their conquerors. Among the tribes which
are still living in a savage state are the Mesayas, Caquetas,
Mocoas, Amarizanos, Guipanabis and Andaquies of the un-
settled eastern territories; the Goajiros, Motilones, Guainetas,
and Cocinas of the Rio Hacha, Upar and Santa Marta districts;
and the Dariens, Cunacunas, and Chocos of the Atrato basin.
These tribes have successfully resisted all efforts to bring them
under political and ecclesiastical control, and their subjection
is still a matter of no small concern to the Colombian govern-
ment. As late as the year 1900 Mr Albert Millican, while collect-
ing orchids on the Opon river, a tributary of the Magdalena
between Bogota and the Caribbean coast, was attacked by
hostile Indians, and one of his companions was killed by a
poisoned arrow. These hostile tribes are usually too small to
make much trouble, but they are able to make exploration and
settlement decidedly dangerous in some districts.

The mestizos, like the whites and Indians, chiefly inhabit the
more elevated regions of the interior. They are of a sturdy,
patient type, like their Indian ancestors, and are sufficiently
industrious to carry on many of the small industries and occu-
pations, and to meet the labour requirements of the inhabited
plateau districts. Those of the urban middle classes are shop-
keepers and artizans, and those of the lower class are domestics
and day labourers. The whites of Spanish descent object to
manual labour, and this places all such occupations in the hands
of the coloured races. In the country the mestizos are small
agriculturists, herders, labourers and fishermen; but there are
many educated and successful merchants and professional men
among them. There are no social barriers in their intercourse
with the whites, nor race barriers against those who have political
aspirations. The negroes of pure blood are to be found princi-
pally on the coastal plains and in the great lowland river valleys,
where they live in great part on the bounties of nature. A small
percentage of them are engaged in trade and other occupations;
a few are small agriculturists.

Bogota was reputed to be a centre of learning in colonial times,
but there was no great breadth and depth to it, and it produced
nothing of real value. By nature the Spanish-American loves
art and literature, and the poetic faculty is developed in him
to a degree rarely found among the Teutonic races. Writing
and reciting poetry are universal, and fill as important a place
in social life as instrumental music. In Colombia, as elsewhere,
much attention has been given to belles-lettres among the
whites of Spanish descent, but as yet the republic has practically
nothing of a permanent character to show for it. The natural
sciences attracted attention very early through the labours of
Jose Celestino Mutis, who was followed by a number of writers
of local repute, such as Zea, Cabal, Caldas, Pombo, Cespedes,
Camacho and Lozano. We are indebted to Humboldt for our
earliest geographical descriptions of the northern part of the
continent, but to the Italian, Augustin Codazzi, who became a
Colombian after the War of Independence, Colombia is indebted
for the first systematic exploration of her territory. Geo-
graphical description has had a peculiar fascination for Colombian
writers, and there have been a number of books issued since the

Department.

Area
sq. m.

Estimated
Population.

Capital-

Estimated
Population.

Antioquia .

24,400

750,000

Medellin

60,000

Atlantico .

1, 080

104,674

Barranquilla

40,115

Bolivar .

23.940

250,000

Cartagena

14,000

Boyaca

4-630

350,000

Tunja

10,000

Caldas

7-920

150,000

Manizales

20,000

Cauca .

26,030

400,000

Popayan

10,000

Cundinamarca

5,060

225,000

Facatativa .

12,000

Galan .

6,950

300,000

San Gil .

15,000

Huila . .

8,690

150,000

Neiva

10,000

Magdalena

20,460

100,000

Santa Marta

6,000

Narino

10,040

200,000

Pasto

6,000

Quesada .

2,900

300,000

Zipaquira

12,000

Santander.

11,970

300,000

Bucaramanga

20,000

Tolima

10,900

200,000

Ibague

12,000

Tundama .

2,390

300,000

Santa Rosa .

6,000

Federal District

200,000

Bogota .

120,000

Intendencias (4)

277,620

Totals .

444,980

4,279,674

appearance of Codazzi 's Resumen and Atlas. Historical writing
has also received much attention, beginning with the early work
of Jos6 Manuel Restrepo (1827), and a considerable number of
histories, compendiums and memoirs have been published, but
none of real importance. Some good work has been done in
ethnography and archaeology by some writers of the colonial
period, and by Ezequiel Uricoechea and Ernesto Restrepo.

Territorial Divisions and Towns. Previously to 1903 the re-
public was divided into nine departments, which were then
reduced to eight by the secession of Panama: This division of
the national territory was modified in 1905, by creating seven
additional departments from detached portions of the old ones,
and by cutting up the unsettled districts of Goajira and the great
eastern plains into four intendencias. The fifteen departments
thus constituted, with the official estimates of 1905 regarding
their areas and populations, are as follows:

Of these departments the original eight are Antioquia, Bolivar,
Boyaca (or Bojaca), Cauca, Cundinamarca, Magdalena, San-
tander and Tolima. The four intendencias are called Goajira,
Meta, Alto Caqueta and Putumayo, and their aggregate area is
estimated to be considerably more than half of the republic.
The first covers the Goajira peninsula, which formerly belonged
to the department of Magdalena, and the other three roughly
correspond to the drainage basins of the three great rivers of the
eastern plains whose names they bear. These territories formerly
belonged to the departments of Boyaca, Cundinamarca and
Cauca. The seven new departments are: Atlantico, taken
from the northern extremity of Bolivar; Caldas, the southern
part of Antioquia; Galan, the southern districts of Santander,
including Charala, Socorro, Velez, and its capital San Gil;
Huila, the southern part of Tolima, including the headwaters
of the Magdalena and the districts about Neiva and La Plata;
Narino, the southern part of Cauca extending from the eastern
Cordillera to the Pacific coast; Quesada, a cluster of small, well-
populated districts north of Bogota formerly belonging to
Cundinamarca, including Zipaquira, Guatavita, Ubate and
Pacho; and Tundama, the northern part of Boyaca lying on the
frontier of Galan in the vicinity of its capital Santa Rosa. The
Federal District consists of a small area surrounding the national
capital taken from the department of Cundinamarca. These
fifteen departments are subdivided into provinces, 92 in all,
and these into municipalities, of which there are 740.

The larger cities and towns of the republic other than the
department capitals, with their estimated populations in 1(504,
are:

Aguadas (Antioquia) . . 13,000

Antioquia
Barbacoas (Narino) .
Buga (Cauca)
Cali (Cauca)
Chiquinquira (Boyaca)
La Mesa (Cundinamarca)
Pamplona (Santander)
Palmira (Cauca)

13,000
16,000
12,500
16,000
18,000
10,000
11,000
15,000

INDUSTRY]

Pi6 de Cuesta (Santander).

Puerto Nacional

Rio Negro (Antioquia)

Santa Rosa de Osos (Antioquia)

Sonson

San Jose de Ciicuta (Santander)

Soata (Boyaca) ....

Socorro (Galan)

Velez ....

COLOMBIA

707

12,000
16,000
12,000
11,000
15,000
13,000
16,000

20,000

15,000

Among the smaller towns which deserve mention are Ambalema
on the upper Magdalena, celebrated for its tobacco and cigars;
Buenaventura (q.v.) ; Chaparral (9000), a market town of Tolima
in the valley of the Saldana, with coal, iron and petroleum in
its vicinity; Honda (6000), an important commercial centre at
the head of navigation on the lower Magdalena; Girardot, a

f'lway centre on the upper Magdalena; and Quibd6, a small
er town at the head of navigation on the Atrato.
Communications. The railway problem in Colombia is one
peculiar difficulty. The larger part of the inhabited and
productive districts of the republic is situated in the mountainous
departments of the interior, and is separated from the coast by
low, swampy, malarial plains, and by very difficult mountain
chains. These centres of production are also separated from
each other by high ridges and deep valleys, making it extremely
ifficult to connect them by a single transportation route. The
ie common outlet for these districts is the Magdalena river,

iose navigable channel penetrates directly into the heart of
country. From Bogota the Spaniards constructed two

tially-paved highways, one leading down to the Magdalena
in the vicinity of Honda, while the other passed down into the
upper valley of the same river in a south-westerly direction, over
which communication was maintained with Popayan and other
settlements of southern Colombia and Ecuador. This highway
was known as the camino real. Political independence and
misrule led to the abandonment of these roads, and they are now
little better than the bridle-paths which are usually the only
means of communication between the scattered communities
of the Cordilleras. In some of the more thickly settled and
prosperous districts of the Eastern Cordillera these bridle paths
have been so much improved that they may be considered
reasonably good mountain roads, the traffic over them being
that of pack animals and not of wheeled vehicles. Navigation
on the lower Magdalena closely resembles that of the Mississippi,
the same type of light-draft, flat-bottomed steamboat being used,
and similar obstacles and dangers to navigation being en-
countered. There is also the same liability to change its channel,
as shown in the case of Mompox, once an important and pros-
perous town of the lower plain situated on the main channel,
now a decaying, unimportant place on a shallow branch 20 m.
east of the main river. Small steamers also navigate the lower
Cauca and Nechi rivers, and a limited service is maintained on
the upper Cauca. - -

With three exceptions all the railway lines of the country
lead to the Magdalena, and are dependent upon its steamship
service for transportation to and from the coast. In 1906,
according to an official statement, these lines were: (i) The
Barranquilla and Savanilla (Puerto Colombia), 173 m. in length;
(2) the Cartagena and Calamar, 65 m.; (3) the La Dorada &
Arancaplumas (around the Honda rapids), 205 m.; (4) the
Colombian National, from Girardot to Facatativa, 80 m., of
which 48^ m. were completed in 1906; (5) the Girardot to
Espinal, 135 m.,part of a projected line running south-west from
Girardot; (6) the Sabana railway, from Bogota to Facatativa,
25 m.; (7) the Northern, from Bogota to Zipaquira, 31 m.;
(8) the Southern, from Bogota to Sibate, 18 m.; and (9) the
Puerto Berrio & Medellin, about 78 m. long, of which 36 are
completed. The three -lines which do not connect with the
Magdalena are: (i) the Cucuta and Villamazar, 432 m., the
latter being a port on the Zulia river near the Venezuelan
frontier; (2) the Santa Marta railway, running inland from that
port through the banana-producing districts, with 415 m. in
operation in 1907; and (3) the Buenaventura and Cali, 23 m.
in operation inland from the former. This gives a total extension

of 383 m. in 1906, of which 226 were built to connect with steam-
ship transportation on the Magdalena, 49 to unite Bogota with
neighbouring localities, and 108 to furnish other outlets for
productive regions. There is no system outlined in the location
of these detached lines, though in 1005-1008 President Reyes
planned to connect them in such a way as to form an extensive
system radiating from the national capital. Tramway lines
were in operation in Bogota, Barranquilla and Cartagena in 1907.

The telegraph and postal services are comparatively poor,
owing to the difficulty of maintaining lines and carrying mails
through a rugged and uninhabited tropical country. The total
length of telegraph lines in 1903 was 6470 m., the only cable
connexion being at Buenaventura, on the Pacific coast. All
the principal Caribbean ports and department capitals are
connected with Bogota, but interruptions are frequent because
of the difficulty of maintaining lines through so wild a country.

There are only five ports, Buenaventura, Barranquilla.Carta-
gena, Santa Marta and Rio Hacha, which are engaged in foreign
commerce, though Tumaco and Villamazar are favourably
situated for carrying on a small trade with Ecuador and Ven-
ezuela. Colombia has no part in the carrying trade, however,
her merchants marine in 1905 consisting of only one steamer
of 457 tons and five sailing vessels of 1385 tons. Aside from these,
small steamers are employed on some of the small rivers with
barges, called "bongoes," to bring down produce and carry back
merchandise to the inland trading centres. The coasting trade
is insignificant, and does not support a regular service of even
the smallest boats. The foreign carrying trade is entirely in the
hands of foreigners, in which the Germans take the l^ad, with
the British a close second. The Caribbean ports are in frequent
communication with those of Europe and the United States.

Agriculture. The larger part of the Colombian population is
engaged in agricultural and pastoral pursuits. Maize, wheat and
other cereals are cultivated on the elevated plateaus, with the fruits
and vegetables of the temperate zone, and the European in Bogota
is able to supply his table very much as he would do at home. The
plains and valleys of lower elevation are used for the cultivation
of coffee and other sub-tropical products, the former being produced
in nearly all the departments at elevations ranging from 3500 to
6500 ft. This industry has been greatly prejudiced by civil wars,
which not only destroyed the plantations and interrupted trans-
portation, but deprived them of the labouring force essential to
their maintenance and development. It is estimated that the
revolutionary struggle of 1899-1903 destroyed 10 % of the able-
bodied agricultural population of the Santa Marta district, and this
estimate, if true, will hold good for all the inhabited districts of the
Eastern Cordillera. The best coffee is produced in the department of
Cundinamarca in the almost inaccessible districts of Fusagasaga
and La Palma. Tolima coffee is also considered to be exceptionally
good. The department of Santander, however, is the largest pro-
ducer, and much of its output in the past has been placed upon the
market as " Maracaibo," the outlet for this region being through
the Venezuelan port of that name. Coffee cultivation in the Santa
Marta region is receiving much attention on account of its proximity
to the coast.

The tropical productions of the lower plains include, among
others, many of the leading products of the world, such as cacao,
cotton, sugar, rice, tobacco, and bananas, with others destined wholly
for home consumption, as yams, cassava and arracacha. Potatoes
are widely cultivated in the temperate and sub-tropical regions,
and sweet potatoes in the sub-tropical and tropical. Athough it is
found growing wild, cacao is cultivated to a limited extent, and the
product is insufficient for home consumption. Cotton is cultivated
only "on a small scale, although there are large areas suitable for the
plant. The staple product is short, but experiments have been
initiated in the Santa Marta region to improve it. Sugar cane is
another plant admirably adapted to the Colombian lowlands, but
it is cultivated to so limited an extent that the sugar produced is
barely sufficient for home consumption. Both_ cultivation and
manufacture have been carried on in the old time way, by the
rudest of methods, and the principal product is a coarse brown sugar,
called panela, universally used by the poorer classes as an article of
food and for making a popular beverage. Antiquated refining
processes are also used in the manufacture of an inferior white
sugar, but the quantity produced is small, and it is unable to compete
with beet-sugar from Germany. A considerable part of the sugar-
cane produced is likewise devoted to the manufacture of chicha
(rum), the consumption of which is common among the Indians
and half-breeds of the Andean regions.

Rice is grown to a very limited extent, though it is a common
article of diet and the partially submerged lowlands are naturally

708

COLOMBIA

adapted to its production. Tobacco was cultivated in New Granada
and Venezuela in colonial times, when its sale was a royal monopoly
and its cultivation was restricted to specified localities. The
Colombian product is best known through the Ambalema, Girardot,
and Palmira tobacco, especially the Ambalema cigars, which are
considered by some to be hardly inferior to those of Havana, but the
plant is cultivated in other places and would probably be an im-
portant article of export were it possible to obtain labourers for its
cultivation. Banana cultivation for commercial purposes is a
comparatively modern industry, dating from 1892 when the first
recorded export of fruit was made. Its development is due to the
efforts of an American fruit-importing company, which purchased
lands in the vicinity of Santa Marta for the production of bananas
and taught the natives that the industry could be made profitable.
A railway was built inland for the transportation of fruit to Santa
Marta, and is being extended toward the Magdalena as fast as new
plantations are ope_ned. The growth of the industry is shown in the
export returns, which were 171,891 bunches for 1892, and 1,397,388
bunches for 1906, the area under cultivation being about 7000 acres
in the last-mentioned year. Yams, sweet potatoes, cassava and
arracacha are chiefly cultivated for domestic needs, but in common
with other fruits and vegetables they give occupation to the small
agriculturalists near the larger towns.

The pastoral industry dates from colonial times and engages the
services of a considerable number of people, but its comparative
importance is not great. The open plains, " mesas," and plateaus
of the north support large herds of cattle, and several cattle ranches
have been established on the Meta and its tributaries. Live cattle,
to a limited extent, are exported to Cuba and other West Indian
markets, but the chief produce from this industry is hides. The
department of Santander devotes considerable attention to horse-
breeding. Goats are largely produced for their skins, and in some
localities, as in Cauca, sheep are raised for their wool. Swine are
common to the whole country, and some attention has been given
to the breeding of mules.

Minerals. The mineral resources of Colombia are commonly
believed to be the principal source of her wealth, and this because of
the precious metals extracted from her mines since the Spanish
invasion. The estimate aggregate for three and a half centuries is
certainly large, but the exact amount will probably never be known,
because the returns in colonial times were as defective as those of
disorderly independence have been. Humboldt and Chevalier
estimated the total output down to 1845 at 1,200,000, which
Professor Soetbeer subsequently increased to 169,422,750. A
later Colombian authority, Vicente Restrepo, whose studies of gold
and silver mining in Colombia have been generally accepted as con-
clusive and trustworthy, after a careful sifting of the evidence on
which these two widely diverse conclusions were based and an
examination of records not seen by Humboldt and Soetbeer, reaches
the conclusion that the region comprised within the limits of the
republic, including Panama, had produced down to 1886 an aggregate
of 127,800,000 in gold and 6,600,000 in silver. This aggregate he
distributes as follows :

1 6th century 10,600,000

I7th ,, 34,600,000

i8th 41,000,000

igth ,, 41,600,000

According to his computations the eight Colombian departments,
omitting Panama, had produced during this period in gold and
silver :

Antioquia . . . 50,000,000

Cauca 49,800,000

Tolima. . 10,800,000

Santander 3,000,000

Bolivar 1,400,000

Cundinamarca 360,000

Magdalena 200,000

Boyaca 40,000

115,600,000

Three-fourths of the gold production, he estimates, was derived
from alluvial deposits. Large as these aggregates are, it will be
seen that the annual production was comparatively small, the
highest average, that for the igth century, being less than 500,000
a year. Toward the end of the igth century, after a decline in
production due to the abolition of slavery and to civil wars, in-
creased interest was shown abroad in Colombian mining operations.
Medellin, the capital of Antioquia, is provided with an electrolytic
refining establishment, several assaying laboratories, and a mint.
The department of Cauca is considered to be the richest of the
republic in mineral deposits, but it is less conveniently situated
for carrying on mining operations. Besides this, the extreme
unhealthiness of its most productive regions, the Choco and Bar-
bacoas districts on the Pacific slope, has been a serious obstacle to
foreign enterprise. Tolima is also considered to be rich in gold and
(especially) silver deposits. East of the Magdalena the production
of these two metals has been comparatively small. In compensation
the famous emerald mines of Muzo and Coscuez are situated in an
extremely mountainous region north of Bogota and near the town of

[GOVERNMENT

Chiquinaquira, in the department of Boyaca. The gems are found
in a matrix of black slate in what appears to be the crater of a
volcano, and are mined in a very crude manner. The mines are
owned by the government. The revenue was estimated at 96,000
for 1904. Platinum is said to have been discovered in Colombia in
1720, and has been exported regularly since the last years of the i8th
century. It is found in many parts of the country, but chiefly in the
Choc6 and Barbacoas districts, the annual export from the former
beingabout 10,000 in value. Of the bulkier and less valuable minerals
Colombia has copper, iron, manganese, lead, zinc and mercury. Coal
is also found at several widely-separated places, but is not mined.
There are also indications of petroleum in Tolima and Bolivar.
These minerals, however, are of little value to the country because
of their distance from the seaboards and the costs of transportation.
Salt is mined at Zipaquira, near Bogota, and being a government
monopoly, is a source of revenue to the national treasury.

Manufactures. The Pradera iron works, near Bogota, carry on
some manufacturing (sugar boilers, agricultural implements, &c.)
in connexion with their mining and reducing operations. Pottery
and coarse earthenware are made at Espinal, in Tolima, where
the natives are said to have had a similar industry before the Spanish
conquest. There are woollen mills at Popayan and Paste, and small
cigar-making industries at Ambalema and Palmira. Hat-making
from the " jipijapa " fibre taken from the Carludovica palm is a
domestic industry in many localities, and furnishes an article of
export. Friction matches are made from the vegetable wax extracted
from the Ceroxylon palm, and are generally used throughout the
interior. Rum and sugar are products of a crude manufacturing
industry dating from colonial times. A modern sugar-mill and
refinery at Sincerin, 28 m. from Cartagena, was the first of its kind
erected in the republic. It is partially supported by the government,
and the concession provides that the production of sugar shall not
be less than 2,600,000 tt> per annum.

Commerce. In the Barranquilla customs returns for 1906 the
imports were valued 3186,787,055 (U.S. gold), on which the import
duties were $4,333,028, or an average rate of 64 %. According to a
statistical summary issued in 1906 by the U.S. Bureau of Statistics,
entitled " Commercial America in 1905," the latest official return
to the foreign trade of Colombia was said to be that of 1898, which
was: imports 11,083,000 pesos, exports 19,158,000 pesos. Un-
certainty in regard to the value of the peso led the compiler to omit
the equivalents in U.S. gold, but according to foreign trade returns
these totals represent gold values, which at 45. per peso are:
imports 2,216,600, exports 3,831,600. In his annual message to
congress on the 1st of April 1907, President Reyes stated that the
imports for 1904 were $14,453,000, and the exports $12,658,000,
presumably U.S. gold, as the figures are taken from the Monthly
Bulletin of the Bureau cf American Republics (July 1907). An
approximate equivalent would be: imports 3,011,000, exports
2,637,000; which shows a small increase in the first and a very
large decrease in the second. The imports include wheat flour, rice,
barley, prepared foods, sugar, coal, kerosene, beer, wines and liquors,
railway equipment, machinery and general hardware, fence wire,
cotton and other textiles, drugs, lumber, cement, paper, &c., while
the exports comprise coffee, bananas, hides and skins, tobacco,
precious metals, rubber, cabinet woods, divi-divi, dye-woods,
vegetable ivory, Panama hats, orchids, vanilla, &c.

Government. The government of Colombia is that of a
centralized republic composed of 15 departments, i federal
district, and 4 intendencias (territories). It is divided into
three co-ordinate branches, legislative, executive and judicial,
and is carried on under the provisions of the constitution of 1886,
profoundly modified by the amendments of 1905. Previous to
1886, the departments were practically independent, but under
the constitution of that year the powers of the national govern-
ment were enlarged and strengthened, while those of the depart-
ments were restricted to purely local affairs. The departments
are provided with biennial departmental assemblies, but their
governors are appointees of the national executive.

The legislative branch consists of a senate and chamber of
deputies, which meets at Bogota biennially (after 1908) on
February ist for an ordinary session of ninety days. The Senate
is composed of 48 members 3 from each department chosen by
the governor and his departmental council, and 3 from the
federal district chosen by the president himself and two of his
cabinet ministers. Under this arrangement the president
practically controls the choice of senators. Their term of office
is four years, and is renewed at the same time and for the same
period as those of the lower house. The chamber is composed
of 67 members, elected by popular suffrage in the departments,
on the basis of one representative for each 50,000 of population.
The intendencias are represented by one member each, who is
chosen by the intendant, his secretary, and 3 citizens elected

GOVERNMENT]

COLOMBIA

709

by the municipal council of the territorial capital. As the
constituent assembly which amended the constitution, according
to the president's wishes in 1905, was to continue in office until
1908 and to provide laws for the regulation of elections and other
public affairs, it appeared that the president would permit no
expression of popular dissent to interfere with his purpose to
establish a dictatorial regime in Colombia similar to the one
in Mexico.

The executive power is vested in a president chosen by Con-
gress for a period of four years. The first presidential period,

.ting from the ist of January 1905, was for ten years, and no

itriction was placed upon the choice of President Rafael Reyes
succeed himself. The constituent assembly gave the presi-

nt exceptional powers to deal with all administrative matters,
is assisted by a cabinet of six ministers, interior, foreign

'airs, finance, war, public instruction and public works, who
chosen and may be removed by himself. The office of vice-

isident is abolished, and the president is authorized to choose

temporary substitute from his cabinet, and in case of his death
resignation his successor is chosen by the cabinet or the

vemor of a department who happens to be nearest Bogota at

ie time. The president is authorized to appoint the governors

departments, the intendants of territories, the judges of the

ipreme and superior courts, and the diplomatic representatives
the republic. His salary, as fixed by the 1905 budget, is

600 a year, and his cabinet ministers receive 1200 each.

ie council of state is abolished and the senate is charged with

e duty of confirming executive appointments.

The judicial branch of the government, like the others, has
in in great measure reorganized. It consists of a supreme
court of seven members at Bogota, and a superior court in each
judicial district. There are various inferior courts also, includ-
ing magistrates or jueces de paz, but their organization and
functions are loosely defined and not generally understood
outside the republic. The supreme court has appellate juris-
diction in judicial matters, and original jurisdiction in impeach-
ment trials and in matters involving constitutional interpretation.
Under the constitution of 1886 the judges of the higher courts
were appointed for life, but the reforms of 1905 changed their
tenure to five years for the supreme court and four years for the

iperior courts, the judges being eligible for re-appointment.

The departments, which are administered by governors repre-
ting the national executive, are permitted to exercise

itricted legislative functions relating to purely local affairs.

iunicipal councils are also to be found in the larger towns. The
governor is assisted by a departmental council consisting of his
secretaries and the president of the Corte de Cuentas, which

.ces the political administration of the department under the
irect control of the president at Bogota.

The strength of the army is determined annually by congress,

.t every able-bodied citizen is nominally liable to military
service. Its peace footing in 1898 was 1000 men. After the war
of 1899-1903 its strength was successively reduced to 10,000
and 5000, a part of this force being employed in the useful
occupation of making and repairing public roads. The navy
in 1906 consisted of only three small cruisers on the Caribbean
coast, and two cruisers, two gunboats, one troopship and two
steam launches on the Pacific. There was also one small gun-
boat on the Magdalena.

Education. Although BogotS was reputed to be an educational
centre in colonial times, so slight an influence did this exert upon
the country that Colombia ended the igth century with no effective
public school system, very few schools and colleges, and fully 90 %
of illiteracy in her population. This is due in great measure to the
long reign of political disorder, but there are other causes as well.
* s in Chile, the indifference of the ruling class to the welfare of the

immon people is a primary cause of their ignorance and poverty,
which must be added the apathy, if not opposition, of the Church.

nder such conditions primary schools in the villages and rural

' itricts were practically unknown, and the parish priest was the
ly educated person in the community. Nominally there was a
lool system under the supervision of the national and departmental
governments, but its activities were limited to the larger towns,
where there were public and private schools of all grades. There were
universities in Bogotd and Medellin, the former having faculties

of letters and philosophy, jurisprudence and political science,
medicine and natural sciences, and mathematics and engineering,
with an attendance of 1200 to 1500 students. The war of 1899-1003
so completely disorganized this institution that only one faculty,
medicine and natural sciences, was open in 1907. There were also
a number of private schools in the larger towns, usually maintained
by religious organizations. The reform programme of President
Reyes included a complete reorganization of public instruction, to
which it is proposed to add normal schools for the training of teachers,
and agricultural and technical schools for the better development
of the country's material resources. The supreme direction of this
branch of the public service is entrusted to the minister of public
instruction, and state aid is to be extended to the secondary, as well
as to the normal, technical and professional schools. The secondary
schools receiving public aid, however, have been placed in charge of
religious corporations of the Roman Catholic Church. The ex-
penditure on account of public instruction, which includes schools of
all grades and descriptions, is unavoidably small, the appropriation
for the biennium 1905-1906 being only 167,583. The school and
college attendance for 1906, according to the president's review of
that year, aggregated 218,941, of whom 50,691 were in Antioquia,
where_the whites are more numerous than in any other department;
4916 in Atlantico, which includes the city of Barranquilla, and in
which the negro element preponderates; and only 12,793 > n the
federal district and city of BojjotA where the mestizo element is
numerous. Although primary instruction is gratuitous it is not
compulsory, and these figures clearly demonstrate that school
privileges have not been extended much beyond the larger towns.
The total attendance, however, compares well with that of 1897,
which was 143,096, although it shows that only 5 %of the population,
approximately, is receiving instruction.

Religion. The religious profession of the Colombian people is
Roman Catholic, and is recognized as such by the constitution,
but the exercise is permitted of any other form of worship which is
not contrary to Christian morals or to the law. There is one Protes-
tant church in Bog_ot4, but the number of non-Catholics is-small and
composed of foreign residents. There has been a long struggle
between liberals and churchmen in Colombia, and at one time the
latter completely lost their political influence over the government,
but the common people remained loyal to the Church, and the upper
classes found it impossible to sever the ties which bound them to it.
The constitution of 1861 disestablished the Church, confiscated a
large part of its property, and disfranchised the clergy, but in 1886
political rights were restored to the latter and the Roman Catholic
religion was declared to be the faith of the nation. The rulers of the
Church have learned by experience, however, that they can succeed
best by avoiding partisan conflicts, and the archbishop of BogotS
gave effect to this in 1874 by issuing an edict instructing priests
not to interfere in politics. The Church influence with all classes is
practically supreme and unquestioned, and it still exercises complete
control in matters of education. The Colombian hierarchy consists
of an archbishop, residing at Bogoti, 10 bishops, 8 vicars-general,
and 2170 priests. There were also in 1905 about 750 members of 10
monastic and religious orders. There were 270 churches and 312
cha_pels in the republic. Each diocese has its own seminary for the
training of priests.

Finance. In financial matters Colombia is known abroad chiefly
through repeated defaults in meeting her bonded indebtedness,
and through the extraordinary depreciation of her paper currency.
The public revenues are derived from import duties on foreign
merchandise, from export duties on national produce, from internal
taxes and royalties on liquors, cigarettes and tobacco, matches,
hides and salt, from rentals of state emerald mines and pearl fisheries,
from stamped paper, from port dues and from postal and telegraph
charges. The receipts and expenditure are estimated for biennial
periods, but it has not been customary to publish detailed results.
Civil wars have of course been a serious obstacle, but it was an-
nounced by President Reyes in 1907 that the revenues were increas-
ing. For the two years 1905 and 1906 the revenues were estimated
to produce (at $5 to the i sterling) 4,203,823, the expenditures
being fixed at the same amount. The expenditures, however, did
not include a charge of 424,000, chiefly due on account of war claims
and requisitions. During the first year of this period the actual
receipts, according to the council of the corporation of foreign
bondholders, were $9,149,591 gold (1,829,918) and the payments
$7<Z3<3 1 7 gold (1,406,663). It was expected by the government
that the 1906 revenues would largely exceed 1905, but the expecta-
tion was not fully realized, chiefly, it may be assumed, because of the
inability of an impoverished people to meet an increase in taxation.
An instance of this occurred in the promising export of live cattle to
Cuba and Panama, which was completely suppressed in 1906 because
of a new export tax of $3 gold per head. Of the expenditures about
one-fourth is on account of the war department.

The foreign debt, according to the 1896 arrangement with the
bondholders which was _ renewed in 1905, _is 2,700,000, together
with unpaid interest since 1896 amounting to 351,000 more.
Under the 1905 arrangement the government undertook to pay the
first coupons at 2j%, and succeeding ones at 3%, pledging 12 to
'5% of the customs receipts as security. The first payments were
made according to agreement, and it was believed in 1907 that the

710

COLOMBIA

[HISTORY

succeeding ones, together with one-half of the unpaid interest since
1896, would also be met. It is worthy of note that this debt, principal
and accumulated interest, exceeded six and a half millions sterling
in 1873, and that the bondholders surrendered about 60% of the
claim in the hope of securing the payment of the balance. It is also
worthy of note that Panama refused to assume any part of this debt
without a formal recognition of her independence by Colombia,
and even then only a sum proportionate to her population. The
internal debt of Colombia in June 1906 was as follows:

Consolidated 5,476,887 dollars silver,

Floating 2.345.658 gold.

Whether or not this included the unpaid war claims was not stated.
Money. The monetary system, which has been greatly compli-
cated by the use of two depreciated currencies, silver and paper, has
been undergoingaradical reform since 1905, the government proposing
to redeem the depreciated paper and establish a new uniform currency
on a gold basis. The paper circulation in 1905 exceeded 700,000,000
pesos. The issue began in 1881 through the Banco Nacional de
Colombia, its value then being equal to that of the silver coinage.
Political troubles in 1884-1885 led to a suspension of cash payments
in 1885, and in 1886 Congress made the notes inconvertible and of
forced circulation. In 1894 the Banco Nacional ceased to exist as a
corporation, and thenceforward the currency was issued for account
of the national treasury. On October 16, 1899 the outstanding
circulation then amounting to 46,000,000 pesos, the government
decreed an unlimited issue to meet its expenditures in suppressing
the revolution, and later on the departments of Antioquia, Bolivar,
Cauca, and Santander were authorized to issue paper money for
themselves. This suicidal policy continued until February 28, 1903,
when, according to an official statement, the outstanding paper
circulation was:

Pesos.

National government issues. . . . 600,398,581
Department of Antioquia .... 35,938,495-60
,, Bolivar .... 18,702,100
Cauca .... 44,719,688-70

,, Santander .... 750,000

700,598,865-30

So great was the depreciation of this currency that before the end
of the war 100 American gold dollars were quoted at 22,500 pesos.
The declaration of peace brought the exchange rate down to the
neighbourhood of 10,000, where it remained, with the exception of a
short period during the Panama Canal negotiations, when it fell to
6000. This depreciation (10,000) was equivalent to a loss of 99%
of the nominal value of the currency, a paper peso of 100 centavos
being worth only one centavo gold. International commercial
transactions were based on the American gold dollar, which was
usually worth too pesos of this depreciated currency. Even at this
valuation, the recognized outstanding circulation (for there had been
fraudulent issues as well) amounted to more than 1,400,000. In
1903 Congress adopted a gold dollar of 1-672 grammes weight -900
fine (equal to the U.S. gold dollar) as the monetary standard created
a redemption bureau for the withdrawal of the paper circulation,
prohibited the further issue of such currency, and authorized free
contracts in any currency. Previous to that time the law required
all contracts to specify payments in paper currency. Certain rents
and taxes were set aside for the use of the redemption bureau, and
a nominally large sum has been withdrawn from circulation through
this channel. On the 1st of January 1906, another monetary act
came into operation, with additional provisions for currency re-
demption and improvement of the monetary system. A supple-
mentary act of 1906 also created a new national banking institution,
called the Banco Central, which is made a depository of the public
revenues and is charged with a considerable part of their administra-
tion, including payments on account of the foreign debt and iJie
conversion of the paper currency into coin. The new law likewise
reaffirmed the adoption of a gold dollar of 1-672 grammes -900 fine
as the unit of the new coinage, which is :
Gold:

Double condor =20 dollars.

Condor =10 ,,

Half condor =5

Dollar (mon. unit) = 100 cents.
Silver :

Half dollar = 50 cents.

Peseta =20 ,,

Real = 10 ,,

Nickel : 5 cents.
Bronze: 2 cents and I cent.

The silver coinage (-900 fine) is limited to 10%, and the nickel and
bronze coins to 2 % of the gold coinage. The new customs tariff,
which came into force at the same time, was an increase of 70%
on the rates of 1904, and provided that the duties should be paid in
gold, or in paper at the current rate of exchange. This measure
was designed to facilitate the general resumption of specie payments.
Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and
measures has been the legal standard in Colombia since 1857, but its
use is confined almost exclusively to international trade. In the

interior and in all domestic transactions the old Spanish weights
and measures are still used including the Spanish libra of 1-102 Ib
avoirdupois, the arroba of 25 libras (12 J kilogrammes), the quintal of
100 libras (50 kilog.), the carga of 250 libras (125 kilogs.), the vara of
80 centimetres, and the fanega. The litre is the standard liquid
measure. (A. J. L.)

HISTORY

The coast of Colombia was one of the first parts of the American
continent visited by the Spanish navigators. Alonso de Ojeda
touched at several points in 1499 and 1501; and Columbus
himself visited Veragua, Portobello, and other places in his last
voyage in 1502. In 1508 Ojeda obtained from the Spanish crown
a grant of the district from Cape Vela westward to the Gulf of
Darien, while the rest of the country from the Gulf of Darien to
Cape Gracias-a-Dios was bestowed on his fellow-adventurer,
Nicuessa. The two territories designated respectively Nueva
Andalucia and Castella de Oro were united in 1514 into the
province of Tierra-firma, and entrusted to Pedro Arias de
Avila. In 1536-1537 an expedition under Gonzalo Jimenez
de Quesada made their way from Santa Marta inland by the
river Magdalena, and penetrated to Bogota, the capital of the
Muiscas or Chibchas. Quesada gave to the country the name
of New Granada.

By the middle of the century the Spanish power was fairly
established, and flourishing communities arose along the coasts,
and in the table-lands of Cundinamarca formerly occupied by the
Muiscas. For the better government of the colony the Spanish
monarch erected a presidency of New Granada in 1564, which
continued till 1718, when it was raised to the rank of a vice-
royalty. In the following year, however, the second viceroy,
D. Jorge Villalonga, Count de la Cueva, expressing his opinion
that the maintenance of this dignity was too great a burden on the
settlers, the viceroyalty gave place to a simple presidency. In
1740 it was restored, and it continued as long as the Spanish
authority, including within its limits not only the present
Colombia, but also Venezuela and Ecuador. An insurrection
against the home government was formally commenced in 1811,
and an incessant war against the Spanish forces was waged till
1824.

In 1819 the great national hero, Bolivar (<?..), effected a union
between the three divisions of the country, to which was given the
title of the Republic of Colombia; but in 1829 Venezuela with-
drew, and in 1830, the year of Bolivar's death, Quito or Ecuador
followed her example. The Republic of New Granada was
founded on the 2ist of November 1831; and in 1832 a consti-
tution was promulgated, and' the territory divided into eighteen
provinces, each of which was to have control of its local affairs.
The president was to hold office for four years; and the first on
whom the dignity was bestowed was General Francisco de
Paula Santander. His position, however, was far from enviable;
for the country was full of all the elements of unrest and con-
tention. One of his measures, by which New Granada became
responsible for the half of the debts of the defunct republic of
Colombia, gave serious offence to a large party, and he was
consequently succeeded not, as he desired, by Jos6 Maria Obando,
but by a member of the opposition, Jose Ignacio de Marquez.
This gave rise to a civil war, which lasted till 1841, and not only
left the country weak and miserable, but afforded an evil pre-
cedent which has since been too frequently followed. .The contest
terminated in favour of Marquez, and he was succeeded in May
1841 by Pedro Alcantara Herran, who had assisted to obtain the
victory. In 1840 the province of Cartagena had seceded, and the
new president had hardly taken office before Panama and
Veragua also declared themselves independent, under the title
of the State of the Isthmus of Panama. Their restoration was,
however, soon effected; the constitution was reformed in 1843;
education was fostered, and a treaty concluded with the English
creditors of the republic. Further progress was made under
General Tomas de Mosquera from 1845 to 1848; a large part of
the domestic debt was cleared off, immigration was encouraged,
and free trade permitted in gold and tobacco. The petty war
with Ecuador, concluded by the peace of Santa Rosa de Carchi,
is hardly worthy of mention. From 1849 to 1852 the reins were

HISTORY]

COLOMBIA

711

in the hands of General Jos6 Hilario Lopez, a member of the
democratic party, and under him various changes were effected
of a liberal tendency. In January 1852 slavery was entirely
abolished. The next president was Jos6 Maria Obando, but his
term of office had to be completed by vice-presidents Obaldia
and Mallarino.

In 1853 an important alteration of the constitution took place,
by which the right was granted to every province to declare
itself independent, and to enter into merely federal connexion
with the central republic, which was now known as the Granadine
Confederation. In 1856 and 1857 Antioquia and Panama took
ivantage of the permission. The Conservative party carried
heir candidate in 1857, Mariano Ospino, a lawyer by profession;
at an insurrection broke out in 1859, which was fostered by the
x-president Mosquera, and finally took the form of a regular
civil war. Bogota was captured by the democrats in July 1861,
ad Mosquera assumed the chief power. A congress at Bogoti
stablished a republic, with the name of the United States
of Colombia, adopted a new federal constitution, and made
losquera dictator. Meanwhile the opposite party was victorious
: the west; and their leader, Julio Arboleda, formed an alliance
rith Don Garcia Moreno, the president of Ecuador. He was
ssinated, however, in 1862; and his successor, Leonardo
anal, came to terms with Mosquera at Cali. The dictatorship
was resigned into the hands of a convention (February 1863)
it Rio Negro, in Antioquia; a provisional government was
ppointed, a constitution was drawn up, and Mosquera elected
esident till 1864. An unsuccessful attempt was also made to
store the union between the three republics of the former
deration. The presidency of Manuel Murillo Toro (1864-1866)
disturbed by various rebellions, and even Mosquera, who
ext came to the helm, found matters in such a disorganized
Dndition that he offered to retire. On the refusal of his
signation, he entered into a struggle with the majority in the
ongress, and ultimately resorted to an adjournment and the
aconstitutional arrest of 68 of the senators and representatives.
To the decree of impeachment published by the congress he
replied by a notice of dissolution and a declaration of war; but
he soon found that the real power was with his opponents, who
effected his arrest, and condemned him first to two years' im-
prisonment, but afterwards by commutation to two years' exile.
The presidency of Santos Gutierrez (1868-1870) was disturbed
by insurrections in different parts of the republic, the most
important of which was that in Panama, where the most absolute
disorganization prevailed. Under his successor, General E.
Salgar, a Liberal candidate elected in opposition to General
Herran, a treaty was finally concluded with the United States
in connexion with an interoceanic canal, a bank was established at
Bogota, and educational reforms instituted. Manuel Murillo Toro
(1872-1874) and Santiago Perez (1874-1876) saw the country
apparently acquiring constitutional equilibrium, and turning
its energies to the development of its matchless resources.

The election for the presidential term 1876-1878 resulted in
favour of Aquiles Parra, who was succeeded in April 1878 by
General Julian Trujillo. His administration was marked by a
strong effort to place the financial position of the government
on a more satisfactory footing, and the internal indebtedness
was substantially reduced during his rule. In April 1880 Senor
Rafael Nunez acceded to the presidency. During his term of
office revolutionary disturbances occurred in the provinces of
Cauca and Antioquia, but were suppressed with no great diffi-
culty. Provision was made in 1880 for a settlement of the
boundary dispute with Costa Rica, and in July of that year the
federal Congress authorized the formation of a naval squadron.
A movement was now set afoot in favour of a confederation of
the three republics of Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela on the
basis of the original conditions existing after the expulsion of
Spanish authority, and a resolution was passed by the chamber
of deputies to that effect. The opposition shown by Venezuela
ad Ecuador to this project prevented any definite result from
eing achieved. In April 1882 Sefior Francisco J. Laldua became
president, but his death occurring a year later, General Jos6

Eusebio Otalora was nominated to exercise the executive power
for the unexpired portion of the term. In 1883 the dispute in
connexion with the boundary between Colombia and Venezuela
was submitted by the two governments to the arbitration of
Alphonso XII., king of Spain, and a commission of five members
was appointed to investigate the merits of the respective claims.
The decision in this dispute was finally given by the queen regent
of Spain on the i6th of March 1891. In April 1884 Sefior Rafael
Nunez was again proclaimed president of the republic in his
absence abroad. Pending his return the administration was
left in the hands of General Campo Serrano and General Eliseo
Payan. The Liberal party had been instrumental in the re-
election of Nunez, and looked for a policy in conformity with
their views and political convictions. President Nunez had no
sooner returned to Colombia than the Liberals discovered that
his political opinions had changed and had become strongly
Conservative. Discontent at this condition of affairs soon
spread. Nunez from motives of ill-health did not openly assume
the presidential office, but from his house near Cartagena he
practically directed the government of the republic. ' The Liberals
now began to foment a series of revolutionary movements, and
these led in 1885 to a civil war extending over the departments
of Boyaca, Cundinamarca, Magdalena and Panama. General
Reyes and General Velez were the two principal leaders of the
revolt. In order to protect the passage of the traffic across the
Isthmus of Panama during these disturbed times detachments of
United States marines were landed at Panama and Colon, in
accordance with the terms of the concession under which the
railway had been constructed. After a number of defeats the
leaders of the revolt surrendered in August 1885, and on the
5th of September following peace was officially proclaimed.
Nunez, who had meanwhile assumed the presidential duties,
now brought about a movement in favour of a fresh Act of
Constitution for Colombia, and a new law to that effect was
finally approved and promulgated on 4th August 1886. Under
the terms of this act the federal system of government for
Colombia was abolished, the states becoming departments, the
governors of these political divisions being appointed by the
president of the republic. Each department has a local legislative
assembly elected by the people. The national congress is con-
stituted of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The
Senate is composed of twenty-seven members elected for six
years, one-third retiring every two years, three of whom are
nominated by each of the nine departments. The House of
Representatives comprises members elected for four years by
universal suffrage, each department forming a constituency and
returning one member for every 50,000 inhabitants. Congress
convenes every two years. The presidential term of office under
the new act was fixed at six years in place of the two years
formerly prevailing. The judiciary was irremovable, and trial
by jury was allowed for criminal offences. Capital punishment
was re-established, and the press was made responsible for
matter published. The unlicensed trade in arms and ammunition
thitherto existing was prohibited. Previous to 1886 the crime
of murder was only punishable by 10 years' imprisonment, a
sentence which in practice was reduced to two-thirds of that
term; slander and libel were formerly offences which the law
had no power to restrain, and no responsibility attached to
seditious publications.

After the promulgation of this new Act of Constitution
President Nunez was proclaimed as president of the republic for
the term ending in 1892. He was unable, however, in con-
sequence of ill-health, to reside at Bogota and discharge the
presidential duties, and consequently in August 1888 Sefior
Carlos Holguin was designated to act for him. In 1892 President
Nunez was again elected to the presidency for a term of six years,
his continued ill-health, however, forcing him to place the active
performance of his duties in the hands of the vice-president,
Seftor Miguel Caro. In 1895 the Liberals made another attempt
to seize the government of the country, but the movement was
suppressed without any very great difficulty. In this same year
Nunez died, and Vice-President Caro became the actual president,

712

COLOMBIA

[HISTORY

an office he had practically filled during the three previous years.
In 1898 Senor M. A. Sanclemente, a strong Conservative, and
supported by the Church party, was elected to the presidency
for the period ending in 1904. In October 1899 the Liberals
organized another revolutionary outbreak for the purpose of
trying to wrest the power from Conservatives, but this attempt
had no better success than the movements of 1885 and 1895.
In January 1900, however, Vice-President Jose Marroquin seized
upon the government, imprisoned President Sanclemente (who
died in prison in March 1902), and another period of disturbance
began. The rebels were defeated in May in a desperate battle
at Cartagena; and continuous fighting went on about Panama,
where British marines had to be landed to protect foreign
interests. As the year 1900 advanced, the conflict went on with
varying success, but the government troops were generally
victorious, and in August Vice-President Marroquin was recog-
nized as the acting head of the executive, with a cabinet under
General Calderon. In 1901 the rebellion continued, and severe
fighting took place about Colon. Further complications arose
in August, when trouble occurred between Colombia and Vene-
zuela. On the one hand, there were grounds for believing that
the Clericals and Conservatives in both countries were acting
together; and, on the other, it was expected that President
Castro of Venezuela would not be sorry to unite his own country-
men, and to divert their attention from internal affairs, by a war
against Colombia. The Colombian revolutionary leaders had
made use of the Venezuelan frontier as a base of operations, and
the result was an invasion of Venezuelan territory by Colombian
government troops, an incident which at once caused a diplomatic
quarrel. The United States government in September offered its
good offices, but President Castro refused them, and the state
of affairs became gradually more menacing. Meanwhile both
Panama and Colon were seriously threatened by the rebel forces,
who in November succeeded in capturing Colon by surprise.
The situation was complicated by the fact that the railway traffic
on the Isthmus was in danger of interruption, and on the capture
of Colon it became necessary for the American, British and
French naval authorities to land men for the protection of the
railway and of foreign interests.

On the i8th of September the Venezuelans, who had entered
Colombia, were totally routed near La Hacha, and after fierce
fighting the insurgents at Colon were compelled to surrender
on the 29th of November. But the Civil War was not yet ended.
For another eight months it was to continue, causing immense
damage to property and trade, and the loss of tens of thousands
of lives. In many towns and villages the male population was
almost entirely destroyed. Not till June 1903 was internal peace
finally restored. In the autumn of that same year Colombia,
exhausted and half ruined, was to suffer a further severe loss
in the secession of Panama.

The abrogation of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty in 1901, and the
failure of the second French company to construct a canal
between Colon and Panama (see PANAMA CANAL) had, after many
hesitations, induced the United States government to abandon
the Nicaragua route and decide on adopting that of Panama.
Negotiations were set on foot with Colombia, and an arrangement
under what was known as the Hay-Herran treaty was made
to the following effect. Colombia agreed (i) to the transfer of
the rights, under the concession, of the French company to the
United States; (2) to cede, on a hundred years' lease, a right of
way for the canal, and a strip of land 5 m. broad on either side
of the waterway, and the two ports of Colon and Panama. The
United States agreed to pay Colombia (i) 2,000,000 down in
cash, and, ten years later, an annual rental of 50,000, and further
a share of the price paid to the French company, i.e. 8,000,000,
in which Colombia held 50,000 shares. This treaty was signed
by the plenipotentiaries and ratified by the United States Senate.
The Colombian Congress, however, refused to ratify the treaty
on the ground that when the negotiations had taken place the
country was in a state of siege, really in the hope of securing a
larger money payment. The adjournment took place on the 3ist
of October. On the 3rd of November a revolution broke out at

Panama, and the state seceded from Colombia and declared itself
to be an independent republic. This opportune revolution was
no doubt fomented by persons interested in the carrying through
of the United States scheme for piercing the isthmus, but their
task was one that presented no difficulties, for the isthmian
population had been in a state of perennial insurrection against
the central government for many years. Whoever may have
instigated the rising, this much is certain, that American warships
prevented the Colombian troops from landing to suppress the
revolt. On the 7th of November the United States government
formally recognized the independence of the republic of Panama
(q.v.). The other powers in succession likewise recognized the
new state; the recognition of Great Britain was given on the
26th of December. Colombia thus sacrificed a great opportunity
of obtaining, by the ratification of the Hay-Herran treaty, such a
pecuniary recompense for the interest in the territory through
which the canal was to be constructed as would have gone far
to re-establish her ruined financial credit.

In 1904 the troubled term of President Marroquin came to an
end, and by the narrowest of majorities General Rafael Reyes was
elected in his place. He had been sent as a special envoy to
Washington to protest against the recognition of Panama, and
to attempt to revive the Hay-Herran treaty, and to secure
favourable terms for Colombia in the matter of the canal. He
failed to do so, but it was recognized that he had discharged
his difficult task with great skill and ability. On his accession
to office as president he found the country exhausted and
disorganized, more especially in the department of finance, and
the congress was on the whole hostile to him. Finding himself
hampered in his efforts to reform abuses, the president dissolved
the congress, and summoned a national constituent and legis-
lative assembly to meet on the isth of March 1905, and with its
aid proceeded to modify the constitution.

Having personal acquaintance with the success of the rule of
President Porfirio Diaz in Mexico, General Reyes determined to
set about the regeneration of Colombia by similar methods. His
tenure of the presidency was extended to a term of ten years from
the ist of January 1905, and the restriction as to re-election
at the end of that term was withdrawn, other alterations being
made in the constitution with the effect of placing General Reyes
really in the position of a dictator. He soon proved that he had
the ability and the integrity of purpose to use his great oppor-
tunity for the benefit of his country. His firm and masterful
government and wise measures did much to allay the spirit of
unrest which had so long been the bane of Colombia, and though
an attempt at assassination was made in the spring of 1906, the
era of revolution appeared to be over.

The chief foreign treaties entered into by Colombia in the last
quarter of the igth century were: (i) A treaty with Great
Britain, signed on the 27th of October 1888, for the extradition
of criminals; (2) a treaty of friendship, commerce and navigation
with Italy, signed on the 27th of October 1892; (3) two protocols
with Italy, signed respectively on the 24th of May and on the
25th of August 1886, in connexion with the affair of the Italian
subject Cerruti; (4) a consular convention with Holland,
signed on the 2oth of July 1881; (5) a treaty of peace and
friendship with Spain, signed on the 3oth of January 1881;
(6) a convention with Spain for the reciprocal protection of
intellectual property; (7) a concordat with the Vatican, signed
on the 3ist of December 1887; (8) an agreement with the
Vatican, signed on the 2oth of August 1892, in connexion with
ecclesiastical jurisdiction; (9) an agreement with the republic
of San Salvador, signed on the 24th of December 1880, in regard
to the despatch of a delegate to an international congress; (10)
a treaty of peace, friendship and commerce with Germany,
signed on the 23rd of July 1892; (n) a treaty with the republic
of Costa Rica, signed in 1880, for the delimitation of the
boundary; (12) the postal convention, signed at Washington, on
the 4th of July 1891 ; (13) a convention with Great Britain, signed
on the 3ist of July 1896, in connexion with the claim of Messrs
Punchard, M'Taggart, Lowther & Co. ; (14) a treaty of friendship,
commerce and navigation with Peru, signed on the 6th of August

COLOMBIER COLOMBO

1898; (15) an extradition treaty with Peru, signed on the 6th
of August 1898; (16) a treaty of peace, friendship and defensive
alliance with Venezuela, signed on the 2ist of November
1896, and on the same date a treaty regulating the frontier
commerce. (G. E.)

AUTHORITIES. C. E. Akers, A History of South America, 1854-
1004 (New York, 1905); J. j. Borda, Compendia de historia de
Colombia (Bogota, 1890) ; Salvador Roldan Camacho, Notas de
viaje (Bogota, 1890), and Escritos varies (Bogoti, 1892); Dr Alfred
Hettner. Reisen in den colombianischen Anden (Leipzig, 1888);
Angel Lemos, Compendia de geografia de la Republica de Colombia
(Medellin, 1894); Albert Millican, Travels and Adventures of an
Orchid Hunter (London, 1891); J. M. Cordovez Maurp, Reminis-
cencias Santafe y Bogota (Bogoti, 1899); Norris and Laird (Bureau
of Navigation), Telegraphic Determination of Longitudes in Mexico,
Central America, the West Indies, and on the North Coast of South
America (Washington, 1891); R. Nunez and H. Jalhay, La Rf-

rublique de Colombia, eographie, histoire, &c. (Bruxelles, 1893);
M. Q. Otero, Historia Patria (Bogoti, 1891); Lisimaco Palaii,

^a Republica de Colombia (1893) ; M. Paz and F. Perez, Atlas
geogrdfico e histSrico de la Republica de Colombia (1893); R. S.
Pereira, Les Etats Unis de Colombia (Paris, 1883) ; Felipe Perez,
Geografia general, fisica y politica de los Estadps Unidos de Colombia
(Bogota, 1883) ; F. Loraine Petrie, The Republic of Colombia (London,
1006); Elisee Reclus, Geografia de Colombia (Bogota, 1893); W.
Reiss and A. Stubel, Reisen in Siidamerika. Geologische Studien in der
Republik Colombia (Berlin, 1893) ; Ernesto Restrepo, Ensayo
etnografico y arqueologico de la proyincia de los Quimbayas (Bogota,
1892), and Estudios sobre los aborigines de Colombia (Bogoti, 1892);
Vicente Restrepo, Estudio sobre las minus de oro y plata de Colombia
(Bogoti, 1888, translated by C. W. Fisher, New York, 1886);
W. L. Scruggs, The Colombian and Venezuelan Republics (London,
1899; Boston, 1 900); W. Sievers, Reisen in der Sierra Nevada de
Santa Maria (Leipzig, 1 887) ; F. J. Vergara y Velasco, Nueva geografia
de Colombia (Bogota, 1892) ; Frank Vincent, Around and About South
America (New York, 1890); R. G. Watson, Spanish and Portuguese
South America during the Colonial Period (2 vols., London, 1884.). _

See also the diplomatic and consular reports of Great Britain
and the United States; publications of the International Bureau of
American Republics (Washington, D.C.) ; Bureau of Statistics, Com-
mercial America in iyos (Washington, 1906).

COLOMBIER, PIERRE BERTRAND DE (1299-1361), French
cardinal and diplomatist, was born at Colombier in Ardeche.
He was nephew and namesake of Cardinal Pierre Bertrand of
Annonay. After a careful juristic education he was successively
advocate at the parlement of Paris, intendant of the council
of the count of Nevers (1321), and counsellor-clerk to the parle-
ment (1329). Having taken holy orders, he became dean of
St Quentin in 1330, and was employed to negotiate the marriage
of the duke of Normandy, the future king John the Good of
France, with the daughter of the king of Bohemia. In 1335 he
became bishop of Nevers, in 1339 of Arras, and contributed
to bring the county of Flanders into the kingdom of France.
Created cardinal priest of St Susanna in 1344, he was employed
by the pope on important missions, notably to negotiate peace or
an armistice between France and England. Having become
bishop of Ostia in 1353, he was sent next year to Charles IV.
of Germany, and induced him to come to Italy to be crowned
emperor at Rome, 1355. In 1356 he went to France to try to
arrange a peace with England, and died in 1361 at the priory of
Montaud near Avignon.

See A. Mazon, Essai historique sur Vital du Vivarais pendant la
guerre de cent ans (Paris, 1889), with references there.

COLOMBO, the capital and principal seaport of Ceylon, situ-
ated on the west coast of the island. Pop. (1901) 154,691.
Colombo stands to the south of the mouth of the river Kelani.
The coast-land is here generally low-lying, but broken by slight
eminences. The great artificial harbour, enclosed by break-
waters, is bounded on the south by a slight promontory. This
is occupied by the quarter of the city known as the Fort, from
the former existence of a fort founded by the Portuguese and
reconstructed by the Dutch. In 1869 the governor, Sir Hercules
Robinson (afterwards Lord Rosmead), obtained authority to
demolish the fortifications, which were obsolete for purposes of
defence, and required 6000 men to man them properly. The
levelling of the walls and filling up of the moat made the Fort
much more accessible and healthy, and since then it has become
the business centre of the city. Here are situated Queen's

House, the governor's residence; the secretariat or government
offices, and other government buildings, such as the fine general
post office and the customs house. Here also are most of the
principal hotels, which have a peculiarly high reputation among
European hotels in the East. A lofty tower serves as the prin-
cipal lighthouse of the port and also as a clock-tower. On
the south side of the Fort are extensive barracks. The old
banqueting-hall of the Dutch governors is used as the garrison
church of St Peter.

To the north-east of the Fort, skirting the harbour, are the
Pettah, the principal native quarter, the districts of Kotahena
and Mutwall, and suburbs beyond. In this direction the prin-
cipal buildings are the Wolfendahl church, a massive Doric
building of the Dutch (1749); the splendid Roman Catholic
cathedral of St Lucia (completed in 1904); and St Thomas's
College ( 1 8 5 1 ), which folio ws the lines of an English public school.
Close to this last is the Anglican cathedral of Christ Church.
The Kotahena temple is the chief Buddhist temple in Colombo.

To the north-east of the Fort is the Lake, a ramifying sheet of
fresh water, which adds greatly to the beauty of the site of
Colombo, its banks being clothed with luxuriant foliage and
flowers. The narrow isthmus, between this lake and the sea,
south of the Fort, is called Galle Face, and is occupied chiefly by
promenades and recreation grounds. The peninsula enclosed
by two arms of the Lake is known as Slave Island, having been
the site of a slave's prison under the Dutch. South-east of this
is the principal residential quarter of Colombo, with the circular
Victoria Park as its centre. To the east of the park a series of
parallel roads, named after former British governors, .are lined
with beautiful bungalows embowered in trees. This locality
is generally known as the Cinnamon Gardens, as it was formerly
a Dutch reserve for the cultivation of the cinnamon bush, many
of which are still growing here. In the park is the fine Colombo
Museum, founded by Sir William Gregory; and near the neigh-
bouring Campbell Park are the handsome buildings of a number
of institutions, such as Wesley College, and the General, Victoria
Memorial Eye and other hospitals. South of Victoria Park is
the Havelock racecourse. Among educational establishments
not hitherto mentioned are the Royal College, the principal
government institution, the government technical college and
St Joseph's Roman Catholic college. Most of the town is lighted
by gas, and certain quarters with electric light, and electric
tramways have been laid over several miles of the city roads.
The water-supply is drawn from a hill region 30 m. distant.

Under Britishrule Colombo has shared in the prosperity brought
to the island by the successive industries of coffee and tea-
planting. At the height of the coffee-growing enterprise 20,000
men, women and children, chiefly Sinhalese and Tamils, found
employment in the large factories and stores of the merchants
scattered over the town, where the coffee was cleaned, prepared,
sorted and packed for shipment. Tea, on the contrary, is pre-
pared and packed on the estates; but there is a considerable
amount of work still done in the Colombo stores in sorting,
blending and repacking such teas as are sold at the local public
sales; also in dealing with cacao, cardamoms, cinchona bark
and the remnant still left of the coffee industry. But it is to its
position as one of the great ports of call of the East that Colombo
owes its great and increasing importance. A magnificent break-
water, 4200 ft. long, the first stone of which was laid by the prince
of Wales in 1875, was completed in 1884. This breakwater
changed an open roadstead into a harbour completely sheltered
on the most exposed or south-west side; but there was still
liability in certain months to storms from the north-west and
south-east. Two additional arms were therefore constructed,
consisting of a north-east and north-west breakwater, leaving
two openings, one 800 ft. and the other 700 ft. wide, between
the various sections. The area enclosed is 660 acres. A first-
class graving-dock, of which the Admiralty bore half the cost,
has also been added. These improvements caused Galle to be
abandoned as a port of call for steamers in favour of Colombo,
while Trincomalee has been abandoned as a naval station. The
port has assumed first-class importance, mail steamers calling

714

COLON COLONIAL OFFICE

regularly as well as men-of-war and the mercantile marine of
all nations; and it is now one of the finest artificial harbours
in the world. The extension of railways also has concentrated
the trade of the island upon the capital, and contributed to its
rise in prosperity.

Colombo was originally known as the Kalantotta or Kalany
ferry. By the Arabs the name was changed to Kolambu, and
the town was mentioned by Ibn Batuta in 1346 as the largest
and finest in Serendib. In 1517 the Portuguese effected a settle-
ment, and in 1520 they fortified their port and bade defiance
to the native besiegers. In 1586 the town was invested by Raja
Singh, but without success. On its capture by the Dutch in
1656 it was a flourishing colony with convents of five religious
orders, churches and public offices, inhabited by no fewer than
900 noble families and i 500 families dependent on mercantile or
political occupations. In 1796 it was surrendered to the British.

COLON (formerly known as ASPINWALL), a city of the
Republic of Panama, on the Atlantic coast, in the Bay of Limon,
and 47 m. by rail N.W. of the city of Panama. Pop. (1908)
about 3000, consisting largely of Jamaica negroes and natives of
mixed Spanish, Indian and African descent. It is served by the
Panama railway, which crosses the Isthmus of Panama from
ocean to ocean. Colon has a deep, though poorly sheltered
harbour, and is either the terminus or a place of call for seven
lines of steamships. It thus serves as an entrepdt for much of
the commerce between Atlantic and Pacific ports, and between
the interior towns of Central and South America and the cities
of Europe and the United States. The city lies on the west side
of the low island of Manzanillo, is bordered on the landward
sides by swamp, and consists mainly of unimposing frame houses
and small shops. The most attractive parts are the American
quarter, where the employes of the Panama railway have their
homes, and the old French quarter, where dwelt the French
officers during their efforts to build the canal. In this last
district, near the mouth of the old canal, stands a fine statue of
Christopher Columbus, the gift of the empress Eugenie in 1870.
Here also stands the mansion erected and occupied by Ferdinand
de Lesseps during his residence on the isthmus. With the
exception of railway shops, there are no important industrial
establishments.

Colon dates its origin from the year 1850, when the island of
Manzanillo was selected as the Atlantic terminus of the Panama
railway. The settlement was at first called Aspinwall, in honour
of William H. Aspinwall (1807-1875), one of the builders of ttte
railway; but some years afterwards its name was changed
by legislative enactment to Colon, in honour of Christopher
Columbus, who entered Limon Bay in 1 502. The original name,
however, survived among the English-speaking inhabitants for
many years after this change. With the completion of the
railway in 1855, the town supplanted Chagres (q.v.) as the
principal Atlantic port of the isthmus. Later it acquired
increased importance through its selection by de Lesseps as the
site for the Atlantic entrance to his canal. During the revolu-
tion of 1885 it was partly burned and was rebuilt on a somewhat
larger plan. As the city has always been notoriously unhealth-
ful, the United States, on undertaking the construction of the
Panama Canal (q.v.), became interested in preventing its becom-
ing a centre of infection for the Canal Zone, and by the treaty
of November 1903 secured complete jurisdiction in the city and
harbour over all matters relating to sanitation and quarantine,
and engaged to construct a system of waterworks and sewers
in the municipality, which had been practically completed in
1907. The United States government has also opened a port
at Cristobal, within the Canal Zone.

COLON, a town of Matanzas province, Cuba, on the railway
between Matanzas and Santa Clara, and the centre of a rich
sugar-planting country. Pop. (1907) 7124.

COLON, (i) (Gr. Kb\ov, miswritten and mispronounced as
xCAoi', the term being taken from KoXos, curtailed), in anatomy,
that part of the greater intestine which extends from the caecum
to the rectum (see ALIMENTARY CANAL). (2) (Gr. woXoi', a
member or part), originally in Greek rhetoric a short clause

longer than the "comma," hence a mark (:), in punctuation,
used to show a break in construction greater than that marked'
by the semicolon (;), and less than that marked by the period or
full stop. The sign is also used in psalters and the like to mark
off periods for chanting. The word is applied in palaeography
to a unit of measure in MSS., amounting in length to a hexa-
meter line.

COLONEL (derived either from Lat. columna, Fr. colonne,
column, or Lat. corona, a crown), the superior officer of a regiment
of infantry or cavalry; also an officer of corresponding rank in
the general army list. The colonelcy of a regiment formerly
implied a proprietary right in it. Whether the colonel com-
manded it directly in the field or not, he always superintended
its finance and interior economy, and the emoluments of the
office, in the i8th century, were often the only form of pay
drawn by general officers. The general officers of the I7th and
1 8th centuries were hi variably colonels of regiments, and in this
case the active command was exercised by the lieutenant-
colonels. At the present day, British general officers are often,
though not always, given the colonelcy of a regiment, which
has become almost purely an honorary office. The sovereign,
foreign sovereigns, royal princes and others, hold honorary
colonelcies, as colonels-in-chief or honorary colonels of many
regiments. In other armies, the regiment being a fighting unit,
the colonel is its active commander ; in Great Britain the
lieutenant-colonel commands in the field the battalion of infantry
and the regiment of cavalry. Colonels are actively employed in
the army at large in staff appointments, brigade commands, &c.
extra-regimentally. Colonel-general, a rank formerly used in
many armies, still survives in the German service, a colonel-
general (General-Oberst) ranking between a general of infantry,
cavalry or artillery, and a general field marshal (General-Feld-
marschall). Colonels-general are usually given the honorary
rank of general field marshal.

COLONIAL OFFICE, the department of the administration
of the United Kingdom which deals with questions affecting the
various colonial possessions of the British crown. The depart-
ment as it now exists is of comparatively modern creation, dating
only from 1854. The affairs of the English colonies began to
assume importance at the Restoration, and were at first entrusted
to a committee of the privy council, but afterwards transferred
to a commission created by letters patent. From 1672 to 1675
the council for trade was combined with this commission, but
in the latter year the colonies were again placed under the control
of the privy council. This arrangement continued until 1695,
when a Board of Trade and Plantations was created; its duty,
however, was confined to collecting information and giving
advice when required. The actual executive work was performed
by the secretary of state for the southern department, who was
assisted, from 1768 to 1782, by a secretary of state for the
colonies. Both the Board of Trade and Plantations and the
additional secretary were abolished in 1782, and the executive
business wholly given over to the home office. In 1794 a third
secretary of state was reappointed, and in 1801 this secretary
was designated as secretary of state for war and the colonies.
In 1854 the two offices were separated, and a distinct office of
secretary of state for the colonies created.

The secretary of state for the colonies is the official medium
of communication with colonial governments; he has certain
administrative duties respecting crown colonies, and has a right
of advising the veto of an act of a colonial legislature this veto,
however, is never exercised in the case of purely local statutes.
He is assisted by a permanent and a parliamentary under-
secretary and a considerable clerical staff.

As reorganized in 1907 the colonial office consists of three
chief departments: (i) the Dominions Department, dealing
with the affairs of the self-governing over-sea dominions of the
British crown, and of certain other possessions geographically
connected with those dominions; (2) the Colonial Department,
dealing with the affairs of crown colonies and protectorates;
(3) the General Department, dealing with legal, financial and
other general business. In addition to these three departments,

COLONNA COLONNADE

standing committees exist to take a collective view of such
matters as contracts, concessions, mineral and other leases,
and patronage.

COLONNA, a noble Roman family, second only to the Gaetani
di Sermoneta ki antiquity, and first of all the Roman houses in
importance. The popes Marcellinus, Sixtus III., Stephen IV.
and Adrian III. are said to have been members of it, but the
authentic pedigree of the family begins with Pietro, lord of
Columna, Palestrina and Paliano (about noo), probably a
brother of Pope Benedict IX. His great grandson Giovanni had
two sons, respectively the founders of the Colonna di Paliano
and Colonna di Sciarra lines. The third, or Colonna-P.omano
line, is descended from Federigo Colonna (1223). In the I2th
century we find the Colonna as counts of Tusculum, and the
family was then famous as one of the most powerful and turbulent
of the great Roman clans; its feuds with the Orsini and the
Gaetani are a characteristic feature of medieval Rome and the
Campagna; like the other great nobles of the Campagna the
Colonna plundered travellers and cities, and did not even spare
the pope himself if they felt themselves injured by him.
Boniface VIII. attempted to break their power, excommunicated
them in 1297, and confiscated their estates. He proclaimed a
crusade against them and captured Palestrina, but they after-
wards revenged themselves by besieging him at Anagni, and
Sciarra Colonna laid violent hands on His Holiness, being with
difficulty restrained from actually murdering him (1303). In
1347 the Colonna, at that time almost an independent power,
were defeated by Cola di Rienzi, but soon recovered. Pope
Martin V. (1417-1431) was a Colonna, and conferred immense
estates on his family, including Marino, Frascati, Rocca di Papa,
Nettuno, Palinao, &c., in the Campagna, and other fiefs in
Romagna and Umbria. Their goods were frequently confiscated
and frequently given back, and the house was subject to many
changes of fortune; during the reign of Pope Alexander VI.
they were again humbled, but they always remained powerful
and important, and members of the family rose to eminence as
generals, prelates and statesmen in the service of the Church
or other powers. In the war of 1522 between France and Spain
there were Colonna on both sides, and at the battle of Lepanto
(1571) Marc Antonio Colonna, who commanded the papal
contingent, greatly distinguished himself. A detailed record
of the Colonna family would be a history of Rome. To-day
there are three lines of Colonna: (i) Colonna di Paliano, with
two branches, the princes and dukes of Paliano, and the princes
of Stigliano; (2) Colonna di Sciarra, with two branches, Colonna
di Sciarra, princes of Carbagnano, and Barberini-Colonna,
princes of Palestrina; and (3) Colonna-Romano. The Colonna
palace, one of the finest in Rome, was begun by Martin V. and
contains a valuable picture and sculpture gallery.

See A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom (Berlin, 1868),
containing an elaborate account of the family; F. Gregorovius,
Geschichte der Stadt Rom (Stuttgart, 1872) ; Almanack de Gotha.

(L. V.*)

COLONNA, GIOVANNI PAOLO (circa 1637-1695), Italian
musician, was born in Bologna about 1637 and died in the
same city on the 28th of November 1695. He was a pupil of
Filippuzzi in Bologna, and of Abbatini and Benevoli in Rome,
where for a time he held the post of organist at S. Apollinare.
A dated poem in praise of his music shows that he began to
distinguish himself as a composer in 1659. In that year he was
chosen organist at S. Petronio in Bologna, where on the ist of
November 1674 he was made chapel-master. He also became
president of the Philharmonic Academy of Bologna. Most of
Colonna's works are for the church, including settings of the
psalms for three, four, five and eight voices, and several masses
and motets. He also composed an opera, under the title Amilcare,
and an oratorio, La Profezia d' Eliseo. The emperor Leopold
I. received a copy of every composition of Colonna, so that
the imperial library in Vienna possesses upwards of 83
church compositions by him. Colonna's style is for the most
part dignified, but is not free from the inequalities of style
and taste almost unavoidable at a period when church music

was in a state of transition, and had hardly learnt to combine
the gravity of the old style with the brilliance of the new.

COLONNA, VITTORIA (1490-1547), marchioness of Pescara,
Italian poet, daughter of Fabrizio Colonna, grand constable of
the kingdom of Naples, and of Anna da Montefeltro, was born at
Marino, a fief of the Colonna family. Betrothed when four years
old at the instance of Ferdinand, king of Naples, to Ferrante
de Avalos, son of the marquis of Pescara, she received the
highest education and gave early proof of a love of letters. Her
hand was sought by many suitors, including the dukes of Savoy
and Braganza, but at nineteen, by her own ardent desire, she
was married to de Avalos on the island of Ischia. There the
couple resided until 1511, when her husband offered his sword
to the League against the French. He was taken prisoner at
the battle of Ravenna (1512) and conveyed to France. During
the months of detention and the long years of campaigning
which followed, Vittoria and Ferrante corresponded in the most
passionate terms both in prose and verse. They saw each other
but seldom, for Ferrante was one of the most active and brilliant
captains of Charles V.; but Vittoria's influence was sufficient
to keep him from joining the projected league against the
emperor after the battle of Pa via (1525), and to make him refuse
the erown of Naples offered to him as the price of his treason.
In the month of November of the same year he died of his
wounds at Milan. Vittoria, who was hastening to tend him,
received the news of his death at Viterbo; she halted and turned
off to Rome, and after a brief stay departed for Ischia, where she
remained for several years. She refused several suitors, and
began to produce those Rime spirituals which form so distinct
a feature in her works. In 1 529 she returned to Rome, and spent
the next few years between that city, Orvieto, Ischia and other
places. In 1537 we find her at Ferrara, where she made many
friends and helped to establish a Capuchin monastery at the
instance of the reforming monk Bernardino Ochino, who after-
wards became a Protestant. In 1539 she was back in Rome,
where, besides winning the esteem of Cardinals Reginald Pole
and Contarini, she became the object of a passionate friendship
on the part of Michelangelo, then in his sixty-fourth year. The
great artist addressed some of his finest sonnets to her, made
drawings for her, and spent long hours in her society. Her
removal to Orvieto and Viterbo in 1541, on the occasion of her
brother Ascanio Colonna's revolt against Paul III., produced
no change in their relations, and they continued to visit and
correspond as before. She returned to Rome in 1544, staying
as usual at the convent of San Silvestro, and died there on the
25th of February 1547.

Cardinal Bembo, Luigi Alamanni and Baldassare Castiglione
were among her literary friends. She was also on intimate terms
with many of the Italian Protestants, such as Pietro Came-
secchi, Juan de Valdes and Ochino, but she died before the
church crisis in Italy became acute, and, although she was an
advocate of religious reform, there is no reason to believe that
she herself became a Protestant. Her life was a beautiful one,
and goes far to counteract the impression of the universal cor-
ruption of the Italian Renaissance conveyed by such careers
as those of the Borgia. Her amatory and elegiac poems, which
are the fruits of a sympathetic and dainty imitative gift rather
than of any strong original talent, were printed at Parma in
1538; a third edition, containing sixteen of her Rime Spiritual*,
in which religious themes are treated in Italian, was published
at Florence soon afterwards; and a fourth, including a still
larger proportion of the pious element, was issued at Venice in

1544-

A great deal has been written about Vittoria Colonna, but perhaps
the best account of her life is A. Luzio's Vittoria Colonna (Modena,
1885) ; A. yon Reumont's Vita di Vittoria Colonna (Italian corrected
edit., Turin, 1883) is also excellent; F. le Fevre's Vittoria Colonna
(Paris, 1856) is somewhat inaccurate, but T. Roscoe's Vittoria
Colonna (London, 1868) may be recommended to English readers;
P. E. Visconti's Le Rime di Vittoria Colonna (Rome, 1846) deals with
her poems. (L. V.*)

COLONNADE, in architecture, a range of columns (Ital.
colonna) in a row. When extended so as to enclose a temple,

716

COLONSAY COLONY

it is called a peristyle, and the same term applies when round
an open court, as in the houses at Pompeii. When projecting
in front of a building, it is called a portico, as in the Pantheon
at Rome and the National Gallery in London. When enclosed
between wings, as in Perrault's facade to the Louvre, it is
correctly described as a colonnade. Colonnades lined the streets
of the towns in Syria and Asia Minor, and they were krgely
employed in Rome.

COLONSAY, an island of the Inner Hebrides, Argyllshire,
Scotland, 10 m. S. of the Ross of Mull. It is 7$ m. long by
3m. broad. The highest point is CarnanEoin (4 70 ft.). Towards
the middle of the island lies Loch Fada, nearly 2 m. long but
very narrow, and there are two other small lakes and a few
streams. The coast-line, with frequent beautiful sandy reaches,
is much indented, the chief bays being Kiloran, Kilchattan and
Staosunaig. On the north-western coast the cliffs are particularly
fine. To the south, separated by a strait that is fordable at low
water, lies the isle of ORONSAY, zj m. long by zj m. wide. Both
islands contain a number of ecclesiastical remains, standing
stones, and some beautiful sculptured crosses. They are named
after Columba and Oran, who are said to have stopped here after
they left Ireland. There is regular communication between
Scalasaig and Glasgow and the Clyde ports. The golf-course at
Kilchattan lends a touch of modernity to these remote islands.
Near Scalasaig a granite obelisk has been erected to the memory
of Sir Duncan M'Neill (1794-1874), a distinguished Scottish
lawyer, who took the title of Lord Colonsay when he became
a lord of appeal. The soil of both islands is fertile, potatoes
and barley being raised and cattle pastured. Population:
Colonsay (1901), 301; Oronsay (1901), 12.

COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator), a term
most commonly used to denote a settlement of the subjects of
a sovereign state in lands beyond its boundaries, owning no
allegiance to any foreign power, and retaining a greater or less
degree of dependence on the mother country. The founding
and the growth of such communities furnish matter for an inter-
esting chapter in the history as well of ancient as of modern
civilization; and the regulation of the relations between the
parent state and its dependencies abroad gives rise to important
problems alike in national policy and hi international economics.

It was mainly the spirit of commercial enterprise that led the
Phoenicians to plant their colonies upon the islands and along
the southern coast of the Mediterranean; and even beyond the
Pillars of Hercules this earliest great colonizing race left enduring
traces of its maritime supremacy. Carthage, indeed, chief of the
Phoenician settlements, sent forth colonies to defend her con-
quests and strengthen her military power; and these sub-
colonies naturally remained in strict subjection to her power,
whereas the other young Phoenician states assumed and asserted
entire independence.

In this latter respect the Greek colonies resembled those of
the Phoenicians. From a very early period the little civic com-
munities of Greece had sent forth numerous colonizing streams.
At points so far asunder as the Tauric Chersonese, Cyrene and
Massilia were found prosperous centres of Greek commercial
energy; but the regions most thickly peopled by settlers of Greek
descent were the western seaboard of Asia Minor, Sicily and the
southern parts of the Italian peninsula. Nor were the least
prosperous communities those which were sprung from earlier
colonies. The causes that led to the foundation of the Greek
colonies were very various. As in Phoenicia, pressure created
by the narrow limits of the home country coincided with an
adventurous desire to seek new sources of wealth beyond seas;
but very many Greek emigrations were caused by the expulsion
of the inhabitants of conquered cities, or by the intolerable
domination of a hated but triumphant faction within the native
state. The polity of the new community, often founded in
defiance of the home authorities, might either be a copy of that
just left behind or be its direct political antithesis. But wherever
they went, and whether, as apparently in Asia Minor, Greek
blood was kept free from barbaric mixture, or whether, as in
Magna Graecia and Sicily, it was mingled with that of the

aboriginal races, the Greek emigrants carried with them the
Hellenic spirit and the Hellenic tongue; and the colonies fostered,
not infrequently more rapidly and more brilliantly than at home,
Greek literature, Greek art and Greek speculation. The relation
to be preserved towards the mother states was seldom or never
definitely arranged. But filial feeling and established custom
secured a measure of kindly sympathy, shown by precedence
yielded at public games, and by the almost invariable abstinence
of the colony from a hostile share in wars in which the mother
city was engaged.

The relation of Rome to her colonies was altogether different.
No Roman colony started without the sanction and direction of
the public authority; and while the Colonia Romano differed
from the Colonia Latina in that the former permitted its members
to retain their political rights intact, the colony, whether planted
within the bounds of Italy or in provinces such as Gaul or
Britain, remained an integral part of the Roman state. In the
earlier colonies, the state allotted to proposing emigrants from
amongst the needy or discontented class of citizens portions of
such lands as, on the subjection of a hostile people, the state
took into its possession as public property. At a later time,
especially after the days of Sulk, the distribution of the terri-
tories of a vanquished Roman party was employed by the
victorious generals as an easy means of satisfying the claims of
the soldiery by whose help they had triumphed. The Roman
colonies were thus not merely valuable as propugnacula of the
state, as permanent supports to Roman garrisons and armies, but
they proved a most effective means of extending over wide
bounds the language and the laws of Rome, and of inoculating
the inhabitants of the provinces with more than the rudiments
of Roman civilization.

The occupation of the fairest provinces of the Roman empire
by the northern barbarians had little in common with coloniza-
tion. The Germanic invaders came from no settled state; they
maintained loosely, and but for a short while, any form of
brotherhood with the allied tribes. A nearer parallel to Greek
colonization may be found in Iceland, whither the adherents of
the old Norse polity fled from the usurpation of Harold Haar-
fager; and the early history of the English pale in Ireland
shows, though not in orderliness and prosperity, several points of
resemblance to the Roman colonial system.

Though both Genoese and Venetians in their day of power
planted numerous trading posts on various portions of the
Mediterranean shores, of which some almost deserve the name
of colonies, the history of modern colonization on a great scale
opens with the Spanish conquests in America. The first Spanish
adventurers came, not to colonize, but to satisfy as rapidly as
possible and by the labour of the enslaved aborigines, their
thirst for silver and gold. Their conquests were rapid, but the
extension of their permanent settlements was gradual and slow.
The terrible cruelty at first exercised on the natives was restrained,
not merely by the zeal of the missionaries, but by effective
official measures; and ultimately home-born Spaniards and
Creoles lived on terms of comparative fairness with the Indians
and with the half-breed population. Till the general and success-
ful revolt of her American colonies, Spain maintained and em-
ployed the latter directly and solely for what she conceived to
be her own advantage. Her commercial policy was one of most
irrational and intolerable restriction and repression ; and till the
end of Spanish rule on the American continent, the whole
political power was retained by the court at Madrid, and
administered in the colonies by an oligarchy of home-bred
Spaniards.

The Portuguese colonization in America, in most respects
resembling that of Spain, is remarkable for the development
there given to an institution sadly prominent in the history
of the European colonies. The nearness of Brazil to the coast of
Africa made it easy for the Portuguese to supply the growing
lack of native labour by the wholesale importation of purchased
or kidnapped Africans.

Of the French it is admitted that in their colonial possessions
they displayed an unusual faculty for conciliating the prejudices

COLOPHON COLORADO

717

of native races, and even for assimilating themselves to the
latter. But neither this nor the genius of successive governors
and commanders succeeded in preserving for France her once
extensive colonies in Canada or her great influence in India.
In Algeria and West Africa the French government has not
merely found practical training schools for her own soldiers,
but by opening a recruiting field amongst the native tribes it
has added an available contingent to the French army.

The Dutch took early a leading share in the carrying trade
of the various European colonies. They have still extensive
colonies in the East Indian Archipelago, as well as possessions
in the West Indies. The Danish dependencies in the Antilles
are but trifling in extent or importance.

It is the English-speaking race, however, that has shown the
most remarkable energy and capacity for colonization. The
English settlements in Virginia, New England, New York, New
Jersey, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Delaware, South Carolina,
North Carolina, and Georgia had, between the first decade of
the i 7th and the seventh decade of the i8th century, developed
into a new nation, the United States of America. It is unnecessary
here to deal with the development of what have since been the
two great independent branches of the English-speaking people
those of the United States (q.v.) and of the British Empire (q.v.),
as their history is given elsewhere. But the colonizing genius
which, with the British Isles as centre, has taken up the " white
man's burden " in all quarters of the globe, is universally recog-
nized. In the problems of government raised by the organization
of the British dominions beyond the seas the system of coloniza-
tion has been developed to an extent unknown under any other
national flag.

COLOPHON, an ancient city of Ionia, situated inland about
15 m. N. of Ephesus. Its port was at Notium or New Colophon.
The site, now called Tracha (only recognized towards the end of
the igth century), lies near Diermendere, 5 m. S. of Develikeui
station on the Smyrna-Aidin railway, and about 2 m. from the
farms and hamlet of Malkajik. It is almost entirely under
cultivation, and there is little to be seen but remains of the walls
and certain tumuli. Rich tombs, however, have been found
beside the old roads leading to it, and the site is usually regarded
as a particularly promising one for excavation, since Colophon
was a very flourishing city in the great period of Ionia and had
declined and been largely superseded by Notium before the
Roman age. The common belief, however, that it had no
existence after the time of Lysimachus is not borne out by the
remains on the site. Founded by Andracmon of Pylos, it was
at the acme of its prosperity in the 8th and 7th centuries B.C.
up to the epoch of its sack by Gyges of Lydia in 665. It claimed
to have produced Homer, but its greatest genuine literary name
was Mimnermus. It seems to have been ruled by a rich aristo-
cracy which provided a famous troop of horse; and, from the
Greek saying, usually supposed to refer to the decisive effect
of the final charge of this troop in battle, the word colophon has
come to be used for the final note appended to old printed books,
containing date, &c. In 287 Lysimachus transferred a part of
the population to his new city at Ephesus. Though an Ionian
colony Colophon did not share in the common festival of the
Apaturia and seems to have been isolated for some reason among
its neighbours, with one of whom, Ephesus, .it was constantly
at enmity. The forts by which Ephesus protected itself against
Colophonian invasion are still to be seen on the hills north of
the Caystrus.

Notium or New Colophon contained the important shrine of
the Clarian Apollo, whose site has recently been identified with
probability by Th. Makridy Bey during excavations conducted
for the Ottoman museum.

See C. Schuchardt in Athen. Mitteil. (1886); W. M. Ramsay,
Hist. Geog. of Asia Minor (addenda) (1890). (D. G. H.)

COLOPHON, a final paragraph in some manuscripts and
many early printed books (see BOOK), giving particulars as. to
authorship, date and place of production, &c. Before the in-
vention of printing, a scribe when he had finished copying a book
occasionally added a final paragraph at the end of the text in

which he recorded the fact, and (if he were so minded) expressed
his thankfulness to God, or asked for the prayers of readers. In
the famous Bodleian MS. 264 of the Roman d'Alexandre there is
an unusually full note of this kind recording the completion of the
copy on the i8th of December 1338 and ending
" Explicit iste liber, scriptor sit crimine liber,
Christ us scrip torom custodial ac det honorem."

Both in manuscripts and also in early printed books author*
made use of such a final paragraph for expressing similar feelings.
Thus the Guillermus who made a famous collection of sermons
on the gospels for Sundays and saints' days records its completion
in 1437 and submits it to the correction of charitable readers, and
Sir Thomas Malory notes that his Morte d' Arthur " was ended
the ix yere of the reygne of Kyng Edward the fourth," and bids
his readers " praye for me whyle I am on lyue that God sende
me good delyuerance, and whan I am deed I praye you all praye
for my soule." So again Jacobus Bergomensis records that his
Supplementum Chronicarum was finished " anno salutis nostre
1483. 3 Kalendas Julii in ciuitate Bergomi: mihi vero a
natiuitate quadragesimo nono," and in the subsequent editions
which he revised brings both the year and his own age up to
date. Before printing was invented, however, such paragraphs
were exceptional, and many of the early printers, notably
Gutenberg himself, were content to allow their books to go out
without any mention of their own names. Fust and Schoeffer,
on the other hand, printed at the end of their famous psalter of
1457 the following paragraph in red ink : Present spalmorum (sic
for psalmorum) codex venustate capitalium decoratus Rubricationi-
busque sufficienter distinctus, Adinuentione artificiosa imprimendi
ac caracterizandi absque calami vlla exaracione sic -effigiatus,
Et ad eusebiam dei Industrie est consummatus, Per lohannem
fust ciuem maguntinum, Et Pelrum Schojfer de Gernszheim Anno
domini Millesimo. cccc. Ivii In vigilia Assumpcionis. Similar
paragraphs in praise of printing and of Mainz as the city where
the art was brought to perfection appear in most of the books
issued by the partners and after Fust's death by Schoeffer alone,
and were widely imitated by other printers. In their Latin Bible
of 1462 Fust and Schoeffer added a device of two shields at the
end of the paragraph, and this addition was also widely copied.
Many of these final paragraphs give information of great value
for the history of printing; many also, especially those to the
early editions of the classics printed in Italy, are written in
verse. As the practice grew up of devoting a separate leaf or
page to the title of a book at its beginning, the importance of
these final paragraphs slowly diminished, and the information
they gave was gradually transferred to the title-page. Complete
title-pages bearing the date and name of the publishers are found
in most books printed after 1520, and the final paragraph, if
retained at all, was gradually reduced to a bare statement of the
name of the printer. From the use of the word in the sense
of a " finishing stroke," such a final paragraph as has been de-
scribed is called by bibliographers a " colophon " (Gr. Kohxfrtw),
but at what period this name for it was first used has not been
ascertained. It is quite possibly not earlier than the i8th
century. (For origin see COLOPHON [city].) (A. W. Po.)

COLORADO, a state of the American union, situated between
41 and 37 N. lat. and 102 and 109 W. long., bounded N. by
Wyoming and Nebraska, E. by Nebraska and Kansas, S. by
Oklahoma and New Mexico, and W. by Utah. Its area is
103,948 sq. m. (of which 290 are water surface). It is the seventh
largest state of the Union.

Physiography. Colorado embraces in its area a great variety
of plains, mountains and plateaus. It lies at the junction of the
Great Plains which in their upward slant to the westward attain
an average elevation of about 4000 ft. along the east boundary
of the state with the Rocky Mountains, to the west of which is .
a portion of the Colorado Plateau. These are the three physio-
graphic provinces of the state (see also UNITED STATES, section
Geology, ad fin., for details of structure). The last-named
includes a number of lofty plateaus the Roan or Book, Un-
compahgre, &c., which form the eastern continuation of the
high plateaus of Utah and covers the western quarter of the

7 i8

COLORADO

State. Its eastern third consists of rich, unbroken plains. On
their west edge lies an abrupt, massive, and strangely uniform
chain of mountains, known in the neighbourhood of Colorado
Springs as the Rampart Range, and in the extreme north as the
Front Range, and often denominated as a whole by the latter
name. The upturning of the rocks of the Great Plains at the
foot of the Front Range develops an interesting type of topo-
graphy, the harder layers weathering into grotesquely curious
forms, as seen in the famous Garden of the Gods at the foot of
Pike's Peak. Behind this barrier the whole country is elevated
2000 ft. or so above the level of the plains region. In its lowest
portions just behind the front ranges are the natural " parks "
great plateaus basined by superb enclosing ranges; and to
the west of these, and between them, and covering the remainder
of the state east of the plateau region, is an entanglement of
mountains, tier above tier, running fromnorth tosouth,buttressed
laterally with splendid spurs, dominated by scores of magnificent
peaks, cut by river valleys, and divided by mesas and plateaus.
These various chains are known by a multitude of local names.
Among the finest of the chains are the Rampart, Sangre de
Cristo, San Juan, Sawatch (Saguache) and Elk ranges. The
first, like the other ranges abutting from north to south upon
the region of the prairie, rises abruptly from the plain and has
a fine, bold outline. It contains a number of fine summits
dominated by Pike's Peak (14,108 ft.). Much more beautiful
as a whole is the Sangre de Cristo range. At its southern end
are Blanca Peak (14,300) and Old Baldy (14,176, Hayden), both
in Costilla county; to the northward are Rito Alto Peak (12,989,
Wheeler), in Custer county, and many others of almost equal
height and equal beauty. The mountains of the south-west
are particularly abrupt and jagged. Sultan Mountain (13,366,
Hayden), in San Juan county, and Mt. Eolus (14,079), in La Plata
county, dominate the fine masses of the San Juan ranges; and
Mt. Sneffels (14,158, Hayden), Ouray county, and Uncompahgre
Peak (14,289), Hinsdale county, the San Miguel and Uncom-
pahgre ranges, which are actually parts of the San Juan. Most
magnificent of all the mountains of Colorado, however, are the
Sawatch and adjoining ranges in the centre of the state. The
former (the name is used a little loosely) consists of almost
a solid mass of granite, has an average elevation of probably
13,000 ft., presents a broad and massive outline, and has a
mean breadth of 15 to 20 m. Mt. Ouray (13,956 ft.), in Chaffee
county, may be taken as the southern end, and in Eagle county,
the splendid Mount of the Holy Cross (14,170) so named from
the figure of its snow-filled ravines as the northern. Between
them lie: in Chaffee county, Mt. Shavano (14,239, Hayden),
Mt. Princeton (14,196, Hayden), Mt. Yale (14,187, Hayden),
Mt. Harvard (14,375, Hayden), and La Plata Peak (14,342);
in Pitkin county, Grizzly Peak (13,956, Hayden); in Lake
county, Elbert Peak (14,421), and Massive mountain (14,424),
the highest peak in the state; on the boundary between Summit
and Park counties, Mt. Lincoln (14,297, Hayden); and, in
Summit county, Mt. Fletcher (14,265). The Elk range is geo-
logically interesting for the almost unexampled displacement of
the strata of which it is composed, and the apparent confusion
which has thence arisen. Among the most remarkable of its
separate summits, which rise superbly in a crescent about Aspen,
are North Italian Peak (13,225), displaying the red, white and
green of Italy's national colours, White Rock Mountain (13,532),
Mt. Owen (13,102), Teocalli Mountain (13,220), Snow Mass
(13,970, Hayden) and Maroon (14,003, Hayden) mountains,
Castle Peak (14,259), Capitol Mountain (13,997, Hayden),
Pyramid Peak (13,885, Hayden), Taylor Peak (13,419), and
about a dozen other summits above 12,000 ft. A few miles
to the north and north-east of the Mount of the Holy Cross are
Red Mountain (13,333, Wheeler), in Eagle county, Torrey Peak
(14,336, Hayden) and Gray's Peak (14,341, Hayden), in Summit
county, Mt. Evans (14,330, Hayden), in Clear Creek county, and
Rosalie Peak (15,575), in Park county; a little farther north,
in Gilpin, Grand and Clear Creek counties, James Peak (13,283,
Hayden), and, in Boulder county, Long's Peak (14,271, Hayden).
Many fine mountains are scattered in the lesser ranges of the

state. Altogether there are at least 180 summits exceeding
12,000 ft. in altitude, more than no above 13,000 and about
40 above 14,000.

Cirques, valley troughs, numberless beautiful cascades, shar-
pened alpine peaks and ridges, glacial lakes, and valley moraines
offer everywhere abundant evidence of glacial action, which has
modified profoundly practically all the ranges. The Park Range
east of Leadville, and the Sawatch Range, are particularly fine
examples. Much of the grandest scenery is due to glaciation.

One of the most remarkable orographical features of the state
are the great mountain " parks " North, Estes, Middle, South
and San Luis extending from the northern to the southern
border of the state, and Iving (with the exception of Middle Park)
just east of the continental divide. These " parks " are great
plateaus, not all of them level, lying below the barriers of sur-
rounding mountain chains. North Park, the highest of all, is a
lovely country of meadow and forest. Middle Park is not level,
but is traversed thickly by low ranges like the Alleghanies; in
the bordering mountain rim are several of the grandest moun-
tain peaks and some of the most magnificent scenery of the state.
Estes Park is small, only 20 m. long and never more than 2 m.
broad; it is in fact the valley of Thompson Creek. Its surface
is one of charming slopes, and by many it is accounted among
the loveliest of Colorado valleys. Seven ranges lie between it
and the plains. South Park is similarly quiet and charming in
character. Much greater than any of these is San Luis Park.
The surface is nearly as flat as a lake, and it was probably at one
time the bed of an inland sea. In the centre there is a long
narrow lake fed by many streams. It has no visible outlet, but
is fresh. The San Luis Park, which runs into New Mexico, is
traversed by the Rio Grande del Norte and more than a dozen
of its mountain tributaries. These parks .are frequented by
great quantities of large game, and especially the North and
Middle are famous hunting-grounds. They are fertile, too, and
as their combined area is something like 13,000 sq. m. they are
certain to be of great importance in Colorado's agricultural
development.

The drainage system of the state is naturally very complicated.
Eleven topographical and climatic divisions are recognized by
the United States Weather Bureau within its borders, including
the several parks, the continental divide, and various river
valleys. Of the rivers, the North Platte has its sources in North
Park, the Colorado (the Gunnison and Grand branches) in Middle
Park, the Arkansas and South Platte in South Park where
their waters drain in opposite directions from Palmer's Lake
the Rio Grande in San Luis Park. Three of these flow east and
south-east to the Missouri, Mississippi and the Gulf; but
the waters of the Colorado system flow to the south-west into
the Gulf of .California. Among the other streams, almost count-
less in number among the mountains, the systems of the Dolores,
White and Yampa, all in the west, are of primary importance.
The scenery on the head-waters of the White and Bear, the upper
tributaries of the Gunnison, and on many of the minor rivers of
the south-west is wonderfully beautiful. The South Platte falls
4830 ft. in the 139 m. above Denver; the Grand 3600 ft. in the
224 m. between the mouth of the Gunnison and the Forks; the
Gunnison 6477 ft. in 200 m. to its mouth (and save for i6m.
never with a gradient of less than 10 ft.) ; the Arkansas 7000 ft.
in its 338 m. west of the Kansas line. Of the smaller streams
the Uncompahgre falls 2700 ft. in 134 m., the Las Animas 7100
ft. in 113 m., the Los Pinos 4920 ft. in 75 m., the Roaring Fork
5923 ft. in 64 m., the Mancos 5000 ft. in 62 m., the La Plata
3103 ft. in 43 m., the Eagle 4293 ft. in 62 m., the San Juan 3785
in 303, the Lake Fork of the Gunnison 6047 in 59. The canyons
formed in the mountains by these streams are among the glories
of Colorado and of America. The grandest are the Toltec Gorge
near the Southern boundary line, traversed by the railway
1500 ft. above the bottom; the Red Gorge and Rouge Canyon
of the Upper Grand, and a splendid gorge 16 m. long below the
mouth of the Eagle, with walls 2000-2500 ft. in height; the
Grand Canyon of the Arkansas (8 m.) above Canyon City, with
granite walls towering 2600 ft. above the boiling river at the

COLORADO

719

Royal Gorge; and the superb Black Canyon (15 m.) of the
Gunnison and the Cimarron. But there are scores of others
which, though less grand, are hardly less beautiful. The ex-
quisite colour contrasts of the Cheyenne canyons near Colorado
Springs, Boulder Canyon near the city of the same name, Red
Cliff and Eagle River Canyons near Red Cliff , Clear Creek Canyon
near Denver with walls at places 1000 ft. in height the
Granite Canyon (n m.) of the South Platte west of Florissant,
and the fine gorge of the Rio de las Animas (1500 ft.), would be
considered wonderful in any state less rich in still more mar-
vellous scenery. One peculiar feature of the mountain land-
scapes are the mines. In districts like that of Cripple Creek their
enormous ore " dumps " dot the mountain flanks like scores
of vast ant-hills; and in Eagle River canyon their mouths, like
dormer windows into the granite mountain roof, may be seen
2000 ft. above the railway.

Many parts of the railways among the mountains are remark-
able for altitude, construction or scenery. More than a dozen
mountain passes lie above 10,000 ft. Argentine Pass (13,000
ft.), near Gray's Peak, is one of the highest wagon roads of the
world; just east of Silverton is Rio Grande Pass, about 12,400
ft. above sea-level, and in the Elk Mountains between Gunnison
and Pitkin counties is Pearl Pass (12,715 ft.). Many passes
are traversed by the railways, especially the splendid scenic
route of the Denver and Rio Grande. Among the higher passes
are Hoosier Pass (10,309 ft.) in the Park Range, and Hayden
Divide (10,780) and Veta Pass (9390), both of these across the
Sangre de Cristo range; the crossing of the San Miguel chain
at Lizard Head Pass (10,250) near Rico; of the Uncompahgre
at Dallas Divide (8977) near Ouray; of the Elk and Sawatch
ranges at Fremont (11,320), Tennessee (10,229), an d Brecken-
ridge (11,470) passes, and the Busk Tunnel, all near Leadville;
and Marshall Pass (10,846) above Salida. Perhaps finer than
these for their wide-horizoned outlooks and grand surroundings
are the Alpine Tunnel under the continental divide of the Lower
Sawatch chain, the scenery of the tortuous line along the
southern boundary in the Conejos and San Juan mountains,
which are crossed at Cumbres (10,003 ft-), and the magnificent
scenery about Ouray and on the Silverton railway over the
shoulder of Red Mountain (attaining 11,235 ft.). Notable, too,
is the road in Clear Creek Canyon where the railway track coils
six times upon itself above Georgetown at an altitude of
10,000 ft.

Climate. The climate of Colorado is exceptional for regularity
and salubrity. The mean annual temperature for the state is
about 46. The mean yearly isothermals crossing the state are
ordinarily 35 to 50 or 55 F. Their course, owing to the com-
plex orography of the state, is necessarily extremely irregular,
and few climatic generalizations can be made. It can be said,
however, that the south-east is the warmest portion of the state,
lying as it does without the mountains; that the north-central
region is usually coldest ; that the normal yearly rainfall for the
entire state is about 15-5 in., with great local variations (rarely
above 27 in.). Winds are constant and rather high (5 to 10 m.),
and for many persons are the most trying feature of the climate.
Very intense cold prevails of course in winter in the mountains,
and intense heat (no F. or more in the shade) is often ex-
perienced in summer, temperatures above 90 being very
common. The locality of least annual thermometric range is
Lake Moraine (10,268 ft. above the sea) normally 91 F.; at
other localities the range may be as great as 140, and for the
whole state of course even greater (155 or slightly more). The
lowest monthly mean in 16 years (1887-1903) was 17-30. Never-
theless, the climate of Colorado is not to be judged severe, and
that of the plains region is in many ways ideal. In the lowlands
the snow is always slight and it disappears almost immediately,
even in the very foothills of the mountains, as at Denver or
Colorado Springs. However hot the summer day, its night is
always cool and dewless. Between July and October there is
little rain, day after day bringing a bright and cloudless sky.
Humidity is moderate (annual averages for Grand Junction,
Pueblo, Denver and Cheyenne, Wyo., for 6 A.M. about 50 to 66;

for 6 P.M. 33 to 50); it is supposed to be increasing with the
increasing settlement of the country. Sunshine is almost
continuous, and splendidly intense. The maximum number of
" rainy " days (with a rainfall of more than o-oi in.) rarely
approaches 100 at the most unfortunate locality; for the whole
state the average of perfectly " clear " days is normally above
50%, of " partly cloudy " above 30, of " cloudy " under to,
of " rainy " still less. At Denver, through n years, the actual
sunlight was 70% of the possible; many other points are even
more favoured; very many enjoy on a third to a half of the days
of the year above 90% of possible sunshine. All through the
year the atmosphere is so dry and light that meat can be pre-
served by the simplest process of desiccation. " An air more
delicious to breathe," wrote Bayard Taylor, " cannot anywhere
be found; it is neither too sedative nor too exciting, but has that
pure, sweet, flexible quality which seems to support all one's
happiest and healthiest moods." For asthmatic and con-
sumptive troubles its restorative influence is indisputable.
Along with New Mexico and Arizona, Colorado has become
more and more a sanitarium for the other portions of the Union.
Among the secondary hygienic advantages are the numerous
mineral wells.

Flora and Fauna. The life zones of Colorado are simple in
arrangement. The boreal embraces the highest mountain
altitudes; the transition belts it on both sides of the con-
tinental divide; the upper Sonoran tikes in about the eastern
half of the plains region east of the mountains, and is represented
further by two small valley penetrations from Utah. Timber is
confined almost wholly to the high mountain sides, the mountain
valleys and the parks being for the most part bare. Nowhere
is the timber large or dense. The timber-line on the 'mountains
is at about 10,000 ft., and the snow line at about 11,000. It is
supposed that the forests were much richer before the settlement
of the state, which was followed by reckless consumption and
waste, and the more terrible ravages of fire. In 1872-1876 the
wooded area was estimated at 32% of the state's area. It is
certainly much less now. The principal trees, after the yellow
and lodgepole pines, are the red-fir, so-called hemlock and cedar,
the Engelmann spruce, the cotton wood and the aspen (Populiu
tremuloides) . In 1899 Federal forest reserves had been created,
aggregating 4849 sq. m. in extent, and by 1910 this had been
increased to 24,528 sq. m. The reserves cover altitudes of 7000
to 14,000 ft. The rainfall is ample for their needs, but no other
reserves in the country showed in 1900 such waste by fire and
pillage. The minor flora of the country is exceedingly rich.
In the plains the abundance of flowers, from spring to autumn,
is amazing.

Large game is still very abundant west of the continental
divide. The great parks are a favourite range and shelter.
Deer and elk frequent especially the mountains of the north-
west, in Routt and-'Rio Blanco counties, adjoining the reserva-
tions of the Uncompahgre (White River Ute) and Uintah-
Ute Indians from whose depredations, owing to the negligence
of Federal officials, the game of the state has suffered enormous
losses. The bison have been exterminated. Considerable bands
of antelope live in the parks and even descend to the eastern
plains, and the mule-deer, the most common of large game, is
abundant all through the mountains of the west. Grizzly or
silver-tip, brown and black bears are also abundant in the same
region. Rarest of all is the magnificent mountain sheep. Game
is protected zealously, if not successfully, by the state, and it was
officially estimated in 1898 that there were then probably 7000
elk, as many mountain sheep, 25,000 antelope and 100,000 deer
within its borders (by far the greatest part in Routt and Rio
Blanco counties). Fish are not naturally very abundant, but
the mountain brooks are the finest home for trout, and these
as well as bass, cat-fish and some other varieties have been
used to stock the streams.

Soil. The soils of the lowlands are prevailing sandy loams,
with a covering of rich mould. The acreage of improved lands
in 1900 was returned by the federal census as 2,273,968, three
times as much being unimproved; the land improved constituted

720

COLORADO

3-4% of the state's area. The lands available for agriculture
are the lowlands and the mountain parks and valleys.

Speaking generally, irrigation is essential to successful culti-
vation, but wherever irrigation is practicable the soil proves
richly productive. Irrigation ditches having been exempted
from taxation in 1872, extensive systems of canals were soon
developed, especially after 1880. The Constitution of Colorado
declares the waters of its streams the property of the state,
and a great body of irrigation law and practice has grown up
about this provision. The riparian doctrine does not obtain in
Colorado. In no part of the semi-arid region of the country are
the irrigation problems so diverse and difficult. In 1903 there
were, according to the governor, 10 canals more than 50 m. in
length, 51 longer than 20 m., and hundreds of reservoirs. In
1899 there were 7374 m. of main ditches. The average annual
cost of water per acre was then estimated at about 79 cents.
The acres under ditch in 1902 were greater (1,754,761) than in
any other state; and the construction cost of the system was
then $14,769,561 (an increase of 25-6% from 1899 to 1902).
There are irrigated lands in every county. Their area increased
8-9% in 1899-1902, and 80-9% from 1890 to 1900; in the
latter year they constituted 70-9% of the improved farm-land
of the state, as against 48-8 in 1890. The land added to the
irrigated area in the decade was in 1890 largely worthless public
domain; its value in 1900 was about $29,000,000. As a result
of irrigation the Platte is often dry in eastern Colorado in the
summer, and the Arkansas shrinks so below Pueblo that little
water reaches Kansas. The water is almost wholly taken ^from
the rivers, but underflow is also utilized, especially in San'Luis
Park. The South Platte is much the most important irrigating
stream. Its valley included 660,495 acres of irrigated land in
1902, no other valley having half so great an area. The diversion
of the waters of the Arkansas led to the bringing of a suit against
Colorado by Kansas in the United States Supreme Court in 1902,
on the ground that such diversion seriously and illegally lessened
the waters of the Arkansas in Kansas. In 1907 the Supreme
Court of the United States declared that Colorado had diverted
waters of the Arkansas, but, since it had not been shown that
Kansas had suffered, the case was dismissed, without prejudice
to Kansas, should it be injured in future by diversion of water
from the river. The exhaustion, or alleged exhaustion, by
irrigation in Colorado of the waters of the Rio Grande has raised
international questions of much interest between Mexico and
the United States, which were settled in 1907 by a convention
pledging the United States to deliver 60,000 acre-feet of water
annually in the bed of the Rio Grande at the Acequia Madre, just
above Juarez, in case of drought this supply being diminished
proportionately to the diminution in the United States. As a
part of the plans of the national government for reclamation of
land in the arid states, imposing schemes have been formulated
for such work in Colorado, including a great reservoir on the
Gunnison. One of the greatest undertakings of the national
reclamation service is the construction of 77 m. of canal and of
a six-mile tunnel, beneath a mountain, between the canyon of
the Gunnison and the valley of the Uncompahgre, designed to
make productive some 140,000 acres in the latter valley.

Apart from mere watering, cultivation is in no way intensive.
One of the finest farming regions is the lowland valley of the
Arkansas. It is a broad, level plain, almost untimbered, given
over to alfalfa, grains, vegetables and fruits. Sugar-beet culture
has been found to be exceptionally remunerative in this valley
as well as in those of the South Platte and Grand rivers. The
growth of this interest has been since 1899 a marked feature in
the agricultural development of the state; and in 1905, 1906
and 1907 the state's product of beets and of sugar was far greater
than that of any other state; in 1907, 1,523,303 tons of beets
were worked more than two-fifths of the total for the United
States. There are various large sugar factories (in 1903, 9, and
in 1907, 16), mainly in the north; also at Grand Junction and in
the Arkansas valley. The total value of all farm property in-
creased between 1880 and 1900 from $42,000,000 to $161,045,101
and 45-9% from 1890 to 1900. In the latter year $49,954,311

of this was in live-stock (increase 1890-1900, 121-1%), the
remaining value in land with improvements and machinery.
The total vajue of farm products in 1899 was $33,048,576; of
this sum 97 % was almost equally divided between crop products
and animal products, the forests contributing the remainder.
Of the various elements in the value of all farm produce as shown
by the federal census of 1900, live-stock, hay and grains, and
dairying represented 87-2%. The value of cereals ($4,700,271)
of which wheat and oats represent four-fifths is much
exceeded by that of hay and forage ($8,159,279 in 1899). Wheat
culture increased greatly from 1890 to 1900. Flour made from
Colorado wheat ranks very high in the market. As a cereal-
producing state Colorado is, however, relatively unimportant;
nor in value of product is its hay and forage crop notable, except
that of alfalfa, which greatly surpasses that of any other state.
In 1906 the state produced 3,157,136 bushels of Indian corn,
valued at $1,578,568; 8,266,538 bushels of wheat, valued at
$5.373.5; 5.962,394 bushels of oats, valued at $2,683,077;
759,771 bushels of barley, valued at $410,276; 43,580 bushels
of rye, valued at $24,405; and 1,596,542 tons of hay, valued at
$15,167,149. The value of vegetable products, of fruits, and of
dairy products was, relatively, equally small (only $7,346,415
in 1899). Natural fruits are rare and practically worthless.
Apples, peaches, plums, apricots, pears, cherries and melons
have been introduced. The best fruit sections are the Arkansas
valley, and in the western and south-western parts of the state.
Melons are to some extent exported, and peaches also; the
musk-melons of the Arkansas valley (Rocky Ford Canteloups)
being in demand all over the United States. The fruit industry
dates practically from 1890. The dairy industry is rapidly
increasing. In the holdings of neat cattle (1,453,971) and
sheep (2,045,577) it ranked in 1900 respectively seventeenth and
tenth among the states of the Union; in 1907, according to the
Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture, there were in the
state 1,561,712 neat cattle and 1,677,561 sheep. Stock-raising
has always been important. The parks and mountain valleys are
largely given over to ranges. The native grasses are especially
adapted for fodder. The grama, buffalo and bunch varieties
cure on the stem, and furnish throughout the winter an excellent
ranging food. These native grasses, even the thin bunch varieties
of dry hills, are surprisingly nutritious, comparing very favour-
ably with cultivated grasses. Large areas temporarily devoted
to cultivation with poor success, and later allowed to revert to
ranges, have become prosperous and even noted as stock country.
This is true of the sandhill region of eastern Colorado. The grass
flora of the lowlands is not so rich in variety nor so abundant
in quality as that of high altitudes. Before the plains were
fenced large herds drifted to the south in the winter, but now
sufficient hay and alfalfa are cut to feed the cattle during the
storms, which at longest are brief. An account of Colorado
agriculture would not be complete without mentioning the
depredations of the grasshopper, which are at times extra-
ordinarily destructive, as also of the " Colorado Beetle " (Dory-
phora decemlineata), or common potato-bug, which has extended
its fatal activities eastward throughout the prairie states.

Minerals. Colorado is pre-eminently a mineral region, and
to this fact it owes its colonization. It possesses unlimited
supplies, as yet not greatly exploited, of fine building stones,
some oil and asphalt, and related bituminous products, a few
precious and semi-precious stones (especially tourmalines,
beryls and aquamarines found near Canyon near the Royal
Gorge of the Arkansas river), rare opalized and jasperized
wood (in the eastern part of the El Paso county), considerable
wealth of lead and copper, enormous fields of bituminous coal,
and enormous wealth of the precious metals. In the exploitation
of the last there have been three periods: that before the dis-
covery of the lead-carbonate silver ores of Leadville in 1879, in
which period gold-mining was predominant; the succeeding years
until 1894, in which silver-mining was predominant; and the
period since 1894, in which gold has attained an overwhelming
primacy. The two metals are found in more than 50 counties,
San Miguel, Gilpin, Boulder, Clear Creek, Lake, El Paso and

COLORADO

721

Teller being the leading producers. The Cripple Creek field in
the last-named county is one of the most wonderful mining
districts, past or present, of America. Leadville, in Lake county,
is another. The district about Silverton (product 1870-1900
about $35,000,000, principally silver and lead, and mostly after
1881) has also had a remarkable development; and Creede, in
the years of its brief prosperity, was a phenomenal silver-field.
From 1858 up to and including 1904 the state produced, accord-
ing to the State Bureau of Mines (whose statistics have since
about 1890 been brought into practical agreement with those
of the national government) a value of no less than $889,203,323
in gold, silver, lead, copper and zinc at market prices.
(If the value of silver be taken at coinage value this total
becomes vastly greater.) The yield of gold was $353,913,695
$229,236,997 from 1895 to 1904; of silver, $386,455,463
$115,698,366 from 1889 to 1893; of lead, $120,742,674 its
importance beginning in 1879; of copper, $17,879,446
$8,441,783 from 1898 to 1904; and of zinc, $10,212,045 all
this from 1902 to 1904. Silver-mining ceased to be highly
remunerative beginning with the closing of the India mints and
repeal of the Sherman Law in 1893; since 1900 the yield has
shown an extraordinary decrease in 1905 it was $6,945,581,
and in 1907 $7,411,652 and it is said that as a result of the
great fall in the market value of the metal the mines can now
be operated only under the most favourable conditions and by
exercise of extreme economy. In Lake county, for example,
very much of the argentiferous ore that is too low for remunera-
tive extraction (limit 1003 about $12-00 per ton) is used for
fluxes. 1 The copper output was of slight importance until 1889
$1,457,749 in 1905, and $1,544,918 in 1907; and that of
zinc was nil until 1902, when discoveries made it possible to
rework for this metal enormous dumps of waste material about
the mines, and in 1906 the zinc output was valued at $5,304,884.
Lead products declined with silver, but a large output of low
ores has continued at Leadville, and in 1905 the product was
valued at $5,111,570, and in 1906 at $5,933,829. Up to 1895
the gold output was below ten million dollars yearly; from
1898 to 1904 it ran from 21-6 to 28-7 millions. In 1897 the
product first exceeded that of California. In 1907 the value
was $20,826,194. Silver values ran, in the years 1880-1902, from
1 1 -3 to 23-1 million dollars; and the quantities in the same years
from n-6 to 26-3 million ounces. In 1907 it was 11,229,776 oz.,
valued at $7,411,652. Regarding again the total combined
product of the above five metals, its growth is shown by these
figures for its value in the successive periods indicated: 1858-
1879, $77,380,140; 1879-1888, $220,815,709; 1889-1898,
$322,878,362; 1899-1904, $268,229,112. From 1900 to 1903
Colorado produced almost exactly a third of the total gold and
silver (market value) product of the entire country.

In addition, iron ores (almost all brown hematite) occur
abundantly, and all material for making steel of excellent
quality. But very little iron is mined, in 1007 only 11,714 long
tons, valued at $21,085. Of much more importance are the
manganiferous and the silver manganiferous ores, which are
much the richest of the country. Their product trebled from
1889 to 1903; and in 1907 the output of manganiferous ores
amounted to 99,711 tons, valued at $251,207. A small amount
is used for spiegeleisen, and the rest as a flux.

The stratified rocks of the Great Plains, the Parks, and the
Plateaus contain enormous quantities of coal. The coal-bearing
rocks are confined to the Upper Cretaceous, and almost wholly
to the Laramie formation. The main areas are on the two
flanks of the Rockies, with two smaller fields in the Parks. The
east group includes the fields of Canyon City (whose product is
the ideal domestic coal of the western states), Raton and the
South Platte; the Park group includes the Cones field and the
Middle Park; the west group includes the Yampa, La Plata
and Grand River fields the last prospectively (not yet actually)
the most valuable of all as to area and quality. About three-

1 The market value of silver varied in the years 1870-1885 from
$1-32 to $1-065 an ounce; 1886-1893, $ 0-995 to $0-782; 1894-
1904, $0-630 to $0-5722.

fifths of all the coal produced in the state comes from Las Animas
and Huerfano counties. In 1001 about a third and in 1907 nearly
two-fifths of the state's output came from Las Animas county.
The Colorado fields are superior to those of all the other Rocky
Mountain states in area, and in quality of product. In 1907
Colorado ranked seventh among the coal-producing states of the
Union, yielding 10,790,236 short tons (2-2% of the total for the
United States). The total includes every variety from typical
lignite to typical anthracite. The aggregate area of beds is
estimated by the United States Geological Survey at 18,100
sq. m. (seventh in rank of the states of the Union) ; and the ac-
cessible coal, on other authority, at 33,897,800,000 tons. The
industry began in 1864, in which year 500 tons were produced.
The product first exceeded one million tons in 1882, two in 1888,
three in 1890, four in 1893, five in 1900. From 1897 to 1002
the yield almost doubled, averaging 5,267,783 tons (lignite, semi-
bituminous, bituminous, and a steady average production of
60,038 tons of anthracite). About one-fifth of the total product
is made into coke, the output of which increased from 245,746
tons in 1890 to 1,421,579 tons (including a slight amount from
Utah) in 1907; in 1907 the coke manufactured in Colorado
(and Utah) was valued at $4,747,436. Colorado holds the same
supremacy for ooal and coke west of the Mississippi that Penn-
sylvania holds for the country as a whole. The true bituminous
coal produced, which in 1897 was only equal to that of the
lignitic and semi-bituminous varieties (1-75 million tons), had
come by 1902 to constitute three-fourths (5-46 million tons)
of the entire coal output. Much of the bituminous coal, especi-
ally that of the Canyon City field, is so hard and clean as to be
little less desirable than anthracite; it is the favoured coal for
domestic uses in all the surrounding states.

Petroleum occurs in Fremont and Boulder counties. There
have been very few flowing wells. The product increased from
76,295 barrels in 1887 to above 800,000 in the early 'nineties;
it fell thereafter, averaging about 493,269 barrels from 1899
to 1903; in 1905 the yield was 376,238 barrels; and in 1907,
331,851 barrels. In 1905 the state ranked eleventh, in 1907
twelfth, in production of petroleum. It is mostly refined at
Florence, the centre of the older field. The Boulder district
developed very rapidly after 1902; its product is a high-grade
illuminant with paraffin base. Asphalt occurs in the high north
rim of Middle Park (c. 10,000 ft.). Tungsten is found in wolf-
ramite in Boulder county. In 1903 about 37,000 men were
employed in the mines of Colorado. Labour troubles have
been notable in state history since 1800.

Mineral springs have already been mentioned. They are
numerous and occur in various parts of the state. The most
important are at Buena Vista, Ouray, Wagon Wheel Gap,
Poncha or Poncho Springs (co -i85 F.), Canyon City, Manitou,
Idaho Springs and Glen wood Springs (120- 140 F., highly
mineralized). The last three places, all beautifully situated
the first at the base of Pike's Peak, the second in the Clear Creek
Canyon, and the third at the junction of the Roaring Fork with
the Grand river have an especially high repute. In 1904 it was
competently estimated that the mineral yield and agricultural
yield of the state were almost equal somewhat above
$47,000,000 each. 1

In 1900 only 4-6% of the population were engaged in manu-
factures. They are mainly dependent on the mining industry.
There are many large smelters and reduction plants in the state,
most of them at Denver, Leadville, Durango and Pueblo; at
the latter place there are also blast-furnaces, a steel plant and
rolling mills. Use is made of the most improved methods of
treating the ore. The cyanide process, introduced about 1890,
is now one of the most important factors in the utilization of
low-grade and refractory gold and silver ores. The improved
dioxide cyanide process was adopted about 1895. The iron
and steel product mainly at Pueblo is of great importance,
though relatively small as compared with that of some other
states. Nevertheless, the very high rank in coal and iron

1 The mineral yield for 1907, according to The Mineral Resources
of the United States, 1907, amounted to $71,105,128.

COLORADO

interests of the state among the states west of the Mississippi,
the presence of excellent manganiferous ores, a central position
for distribution, and much the best railway system of any moun-
tain state, indicate that Colorado will almost certainly eventu-
ally entirely or at least largely control the trans-Mississippi
market in iron and steel. The Federal census of 1900 credited
the manufacturing establishments of the state with a capital
of $62,825,472 and a product of $102,830,137 (increase 1890-
1900, 142-1%); of which output the gold, silver, lead and
copper smelted amounted to $44,625,305. Of the other pro-
ducts, iron and steel ($6,108,295), flouring and grist-mill
products ($4,528,062), foundry and machine-shop products
($3,986,985), steam railway repair and construction work
($3,141,602), printing and publishing, wholesale slaughtering
and meat packing, malt liquors, lumber and timber, and coke
were the most important. The production of beet sugar is
relatively important, as more of it was produced in Colorado in
1905 than in any other state; in 1906 334,386,000 K> (out of
a grand total for the United States of 967,224,000 lb) were
manufactured here; the value of the product in 1905 was
$7,198,982, being 29-2% of the value of all the beet sugar
produced in the United States in that year. 1

Railways. On the ist of January 1909 there were 5403.05 m.
of railway in operation. The Denver Pacific, builtfrom Cheyenne,
Wyoming, reached Denver in June 1870, and the Kansas Pacific,
from Kansas City, in August of the same year. Then followed
the building of the Denver & Rio Grande (1871), to which the
earlier development of the state is largely due. The great Santa
F6 (1873), Burlington (1882), Missouri Pacific (1887) and Rock
Island (1888) systems reached Pueblo, Denver and Colorado
Springs successively from the east. In 1 888 the Colorado Midland
started from Colorado Springs westward, up the Ute Pass,
through the South Park to Leadville, and thence over the con-
tinental divide to Aspen and Glen wood Springs. The Colorado &
Southern, a consolidation of roads connecting Colorado with the
south, has also become an important system.

Population. The population of the state in 1870 was 39,864;
in 1880, 194,327"; in 1890, 413, 249; in 1900, 539,700;
and in 1910, 799,024. Of the 1900 total, males constituted
54-7%, native born 83-1%. The 10,654 persons of coloured
race included 1437 Indians and 647 Chinese and Japanese, the
rest being negroes. Of 185,708 males twenty-one or more years
of age 7689 (4-1%) were illiterate (unable to write), including
a fourth of the Asiatics, a sixth of the Indians, one-nineteenth
of the negroes, one in twenty-four of the foreign born, and one
in 147-4 of the native born. Of 165 incorporated cities, towns
and villages, 27 had a population exceeding 2000, and 7 a
population of above 5000. The latter were Denver (133,859),
Pueblo (28,137), Colorado Springs (21,085), Leadville (12,455),
Cripple Creek (10,147), Boulder (6150) and Trinidad (5345).
Creede, county-seat of Mineral county, was a phenomenal silver
camp from its discovery in 1891 until 1893; in 1892 it numbered
already 7000 inhabitants, but the rapid depreciation of silver
soon thereafter caused most of its mines to be closed, and in 1910
the population was only 741. Grand Junction (pop. in 1910,
7754) derives importance from its railway connexions, and from
the distribution of the fruit and other products of the irrigated
valley of the Grand river. Roman Catholics are in the majority
among church adherents, and Methodists and Presbyterians most

1 The special census of manufactures of 1905 was concerned only
with the manufacturing establishments of the state conducted under
the so-called factory system. The capital invested in such establish-
ments was $107,663,500, and the product was valued at $100,143,999.
The corresponding figures for 1900 reduced to the same standard
for purposes of comparison were $58,172,865 and $89,067,879.
Thus during the five years the capital invested in factories increased
85-1%, and the factory product 12-4%. The increase in product
would undoubtedly have been much greater but for the labour
disturbances (described later in the article), which occurred during
this interval. Of the total product in 1905 more than four-fifths
were represented by the smelting of lead, copper and zinc ores,
the manufacture of iron and steel, the production of coke, and the
refining of petroleum. The value of the flour and grist-mill product
was $5,783,421.

2 Census figures before 1890 do not include Indians on reservations.

numerous of the Protestant denominations. The South Ute
Indian Reservation in the south of the state is the home of the
Moache, Capote and Wiminuche Utes, of Shoshonean stock.

Administration. The first and only state constitution was
adopted in 1876. It requires a separate popular vote on any
amendment though as many as six may be (since 1900) voted
on at one election. Amendments have been rather freely
adopted. The General Assemblies are biennial, sessions limited
to 90 days (45 before 1884) ; state and county elections are held
at the same time (since 1902). A declared intention to become
a United States citizen ceased in 1902 to be sufficient qualifica-
tion for voters, full citizenship (with residence qualifications)
being made requisite. An act of 1909 provides that election
campaign expenses shall be borne " only by the state and by
the candidates," and authorized appropriations for this purpose.
Full woman suffrage was adopted in 1893 (by a majority of
about 6000 votes). Women have served in the legislature and
in many minor offices; they are not eligible as jurors. The
governor may veto any separate item in an appropriation
bill. The state treasurer and auditor may not hold office during
two consecutive terms. Convicts are deprived of the privilege
of citizenship only during imprisonment. County government is
of the commissioner type. There is a State Voter's League
similar to that of Illinois.

In 1907 the total bonded debt of the state was $393,500; the
General Assembly in 1906 authorized the issue of $900,000 worth
of bonds to fund outstanding military certificates of indebtedness
incurred in suppressing insurrections at Cripple Creek and
elsewhere in 1903-1904. The question of issuing bonds for all
outstanding warrants was decided to be voted on by the people
in November 1908. Taxation has been very erratic. From
1877 to 1893 the total assessment rose steadily from $3,453,946
to $238,722,417; it then fell at least partly owing to the de-
preciation in and uncertain values of mining property, and from
1894 to 1900 fluctuated between 192-2 and 216-8 million dollars;
in 1901 it was raised to $465,874,288, and fluctuated in the
years following; the estimated total assessment for 1907 was
$365,000,000.

Of charitable and reformatory institutions a soldiers' and
sailors' home (1889) is maintained at Monte Vista, a school for
the deaf and blind (1874) at Colorado Springs, an insane asylum
(1879) at Pueblo, a home for dependent and neglected children
(1895) at Denver, an industrial school for girls (1887) near
Morrison, and for boys (1881) at Golden, a reformatory (1889)
at Buena Vista, and a penitentiary (1868) at Canyon City.
Denver was one of the earliest cities in the country to institute
special courts for juvenile offenders; a reform that is widening
in influence and promise. The parole system is in force in the
state reformatory; and in the industrial school at Golden (for
youthful offenders) no locks, bars or cells are used, the theory
being to treat the inmates as "students." The state has a
parole law and an indeterminate-sentence law for convicts.

The public school system of Colorado dates from 1861, when
a school law was passed by the Territorial legislation; this law
was superseded by that of 1876, which with subsequent amend-
ments is still in force. In expenditure for the public schools
per capita of total population from 1890 to 1903 Colorado was
one of a small group of leading states. In 1906 there were
187,836 persons of school age (from 6 to 21) in the state, and of
these 144,007 were enrolled in the schools; the annual cost of
education was $4-34 per pupil. In 1902-1903, 92-5 % of persons
from 5 to 1 8 years of age were enrolled in the schools. The
institutions of the state are: the University of Colorado, at
Boulder, opened 1877; the School of Mines, at Golden (1873);
the Agricultural College, at Fort Collins (1870); the Normal
School (1891) at Greeley; and the above-mentioned industrial
schools. All are supported by special taxes and appropriations
the Agricultural College receiving also the usual aid from the
federal government. Experiment stations in connexion with the
college are maintained at different points. Colorado College
(1874) at Colorado Springs, Christian but not denominational,
and the University of Denver, Methodist, are on independent

COLORADO

723

foundations. The United States maintains an Indian School at
Grand Junction.

History. According as one regards the Louisiana purchase
as including or not including Texas to the Rio Grande (in the
territorial meaning of the state of Texas of 1845), on e may say
that all of Colorado east of the meridian of the head of the Rio
Grande, or only that north of the Arkansas and east of the
meridian of its head, passed to the United States in 1803. At
all events the corner between the Rio Grande and the Arkansas
was Spanish from 1819 to 1845, when it became American
territory as a part of the state of Texas; and in 1850, by a
boundary arrangement between that state and the federal
government, was incorporated in the public domain. The
territory west of the divide was included in the Mexican cession
of 1848. Within Colorado there are pueblos and cave dwellings
commemorative of the Indian period and culture of the south-
west. Coronado may have entered Colorado in 1540; there
are also meagre records of indisputable Spanish explorations
in the south in the latter half of the i8th century (friars Escal-
lante and Dominguez in 1776). In 1806 Zebulon M. Pike,
mapping the Arkansas and Red rivers of the Louisiana Territory
for the government of the United States, followed the Arkansas
into Colorado, incidentally discovering the famous peak that
bears his name. In 1819 Major S. H. Long explored the valleys
of the South Platte and Arkansas, pronouncing them unin-
habited and uncultivable (as he also did the valley of the Mis-
souri, whence the idea of the " Great American Desert "). His
work also is commemorated by a famous summit of the Rockies.
There is nothing more of importance in Colorado annals until
1858. From 1804 to 1854 the whole or parts of Colorado were
included, nominally, under some half-dozen territories carved
successively out of the Trans-Mississippi country; but not one of
these had any practical significance for an uninhabited land. In
1828 (to 1832) a fortified trading post was established near La
Junta in the Arkansas valley on the Santa Fe trail; in 1834-1836
several private forts were erected on the Platte; in 1841 the
first overland emigrants to the Pacific coast crossed the state,
and in 1846-1847 the Mormons settled temporarily at the old
Mexican town of Pueblo. John C. Fremont had explored the
region in 1842-1843 (and unofficially in later years for railway
routes), and gave juster reports of the country to the world than
his predecessors. Commerce was tributary in these years to the
(New) Mexican town of Taos.

Colorado was practically an unknown country when in 1858
gold was discovered in the plains, on the tributaries of the South
Platte, near Denver. In 1859 various discoveries were made
in the mountains. The history of Denver goes back to this time.
Julesburg, in the extreme north-east corner, at the intersection
of- the Platte valley and the overland wagon route, became
transiently important during the rush of settlers that followed.
Emigration from the East was stimulated by the panic and hard
times following 1857- During 1860, 1861 and 1862 there was
a continuous stream of immigration. Denver (under its present
name), Black Hawk, Golden, Central City, Mount Vernon and
Nevada City were all founded in 1859; Breckenridge, Empire,
Gold Hill, Georgetown and Mill City date from 1860 and 1861.
The political development of the next few years was very com-
plicated. " Arapahoe County," including all Colorado, was
organized as a part of Kansas Territory in 1858; but a delegate
was also sent to Congress to work for the admission of an inde-
pendent territory (called " Jefferson "). At the same time,
early in 1860, a movement for statehood was inaugurated, a
constitution being framed and submitted to the people, who
rejected it, adopting later in the year a constitution of terri-
torial government. Accordingly the Territory of Jefferson arose,
assuming to rule over six degrees of latitude (37-43) and eight
of longitude (io2-no). Then there was the Kansas territorial
government also, and under this a full county organization was
maintained. Finally, peoples' court, acting wholly without
reference to Kansas, and with no more than suited them (some
districts refusing taxes) to the local " provisional " legislature,
secured justice in the mining country. The provisional legis-

lature of the Territory of Jefferson maintained a wholly illegal
but rather creditable existence somewhat precariously and
ineffectively until 1861. Its acts, owing to the indifference of
the settlers, had slight importance. Some, such as the first
charter of Denver, were later re-enacted under the legal territorial
government, organized by the United States in February 1861.
Colorado City was the first capital, but was soon replaced by
Golden, which was the capital from 1862 until 1868, when Denver
was made the seat of government (in 1881 permanently, by vote
of the people). In 1862 some Texas forces were defeated by
Colorado forces in an attempt to occupy the territory for the
Confederacy. From 1864 to 1870 there was trouble with the
Cheyenne and Arapahoe Indians. A sanguinary attack on an
Indian camp in Kiowa county in 1864 is known as the Sand
Creek Massacre. In 1867 the Republican party had prepared
for the admission of Colorado as a state, but the enabling act was
vetoed by President Johnson, and statehood was not gained
until 1876. Finally, under a congressional enabling act of the
3rd of March 1875, a constitution was framed by a convention
at Denver (2oth of December 1875 to i4th of March 1876) and
adopted by the people on the ist of July 1876. The admission
of Colorado to the Union was thereupon proclaimed on the ist
of August 1876.

From this time on the history of the state was long largely
that of her great mining camps. After 1890 industrial con-
ditions were confused and temporarily set greatly backward
by strikes and lockouts in the mines, particularly in 1894, 1896-
1897 and 1903-1904, several times threatening civil war and
necessitating the establishment of martial law. Questions of
railways, of franchises, union scales and the recognition of the
union in contracts, questions of sheep and cattle interests,
politics, civic, legal and industrial questions, all entered into
the economic troubles of these years. The Colorado " labour
wars " were among the most important struggles between labour
and capital, and afforded probably the most sensational episodes
in the story of all labour troubles in the United States in these
years. A state board of arbitration was created in 1896, but
its usefulness was impaired by an opinion of the state attorney-
general (in 1901) that it could not enforce subpoenas, compel
testimony or enforce decisions. A law establishing an eight-
hour day for underground miners and smelter employees (1899)
was unanimously voided by the state supreme court, but in 1902
the people amended the constitution and ordered the general
assembly to re-enact the law for labourers in mines, smelters and
dangerous employments. Following the repeal of the Sherman
Law and other acts and tendencies unfavourable to silver coinage
in 1893 and thereafter, the silver question became the dominant
issue in politics, resulting in the success of the Populist-Demo-
cratic fusion party in three successive elections, and permanently
and greatly altering prior party organizations.

The governors of Colorado have been as follows:
Territorial.

Gilpin . . . 1861 E. M. McCook . . 1869

Evans . . . 1862 S. H. Elbert . . 1873

Cummings . . 1865 E. M. McCook . . 1874

C. Hunt. . . 1867 J. L. Routt. . . 1875

State.

]. L. Routt Republican 1876

F. W. Pitkin

1879

J. B. Grant

Democrat 1883

B. H. Eaton

Republican 1885

A. Adams .

Democrat 1887

J. A. Cooper
J. L. Routt
D. H. Waite

Republican 1890
1891
Populist 1893

A. W. M'Intire

Republican 1895

A. Adams .

Dem.-Populist 1897

C. S. Thomas

1899

{. B. Orman

1901

. H. Peabody

Republican 1903

A. Adams .

Democrat 1905'

Jesse F. M'Donald Republican 1905'

Henry A. Buchtel 1907

John H. Shafroth Democrat 1909

1 Adams was inaugurated on the loth of January, having been

724

COLORADO RIVER

AUTHORITIES. For topography and general description : Hayden
and assistants, reports on Colorado, U.S. Department of the Interior,
Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories (13 vols.,
1867-1878), various reports, especially annual report for 1874;
Captain J. C. Fremont, Report of the Exploring Expedition to the
Rocky Mountains in 1842, published 1845 as Congressional document
28th Congress, 2nd Session, House Executive Document No. 1 66,
and various other editions. Other early exploring reports are:
The Expeditions of Zebulon Montgomery Pike . . . Through Louisiana
Territory and in New Spain in the Years 1805-6-7, edited by E. Coues
(3 vols., New York, 1895) ; Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh
to the Rocky Mountains, 1819-20, under the Command of Major S. H.
Long; compiled . . . by Edwin James (3 vols., London; 2 vols.,
Philadelphia, 1823); Captain H. Stansbury, Exploration of the
Valley of the Great Salt Lake (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1852; also as
Senate Executive Document No. 3, 3?nd Congress Special Session) ;
Francis Parkman, The California and Oregon Trail (New York,
1849; revised ed., Boston, 1892), a narrative of personal experi-
ence, as are the two following books: Bayard Taylor, Colorado;
A Summer Trip (New York, 1867) ; Samuel Bowles, The Switzerland
of America, A Summer Vacation in Colorado (Springfield, Mass.,
1869); F. Fossett, Colorado j A Historical, Descriptive and Statistical
Work on the Rocky Mountain Gold and Silver Region (Denver, 1878;
New York, 1879, 2nd ed., 1880).

On fauna and flora : United States Biological Survey, Bulletins
(especially No. 10), &c. ; the Biennial Report of the State Game and
Fisn Commissioner; United States Geological Survey, zoth Annual
Report, pt. v., and 2Oth A.R., pt. 5, and various publications of the
United States Forestry Division for forest and forest reserves;
Porter and Coulter, Synopsis of the Flora of Colorado (1879) ; and
scattered papers in scientific periodicals. On climate: United States
Department of Agriculture, Colorado Climate and Crop Service
(monthly). On soil and agriculture: Annual Report of the State
Board of Agriculture (since 1878), of the State Agricultural College,
Agricultural Experiment Station (since 1887), and of the State
Board of Horticulture ; Biennial Report of the State Board of Land
Commissioners (since 1879); publications of the United States
Department of Agriculture, various bulletins on agrostology, water
supply and irrigation, &c. (See Department bibliographies) ;
United States Census, 1900 (States), Bulletin 177, " Agriculture in
Colorado " (Special), Bulletin 16, " Irrigation in the United States "
(1902), &c. ; United States Geological Survey, various materials,
consult bibliographies in its Bulletins 100, 177, 215, 301, &c. On
manufactures: publications of United States Census, 1900, and the
special census of manufactures, 1905. On mineral industries:
United States Geological Survey, Annual Report, annual volume
on " Mineral Resources "; also the annual Mineral Industry (Roth-
well's New York-London); Colorado State Bureau of Mines,
Biennial Report, Inspector of Coal Mines, Biennial Report (since
1883-1884); and an enormous quantity of information in the
publications of the United States Geological Survey. For labour
troubles see below. On railways, see annual Statistics of Railways
of the United States Interstate Commerce Commission, and Poor's
Manual (Annual, New York). Rivers, see Index to Reports of the
Chief of Engineers, United States Army (3 vols., 1900, covering
1866-1900); publications United States Geological Survey. On
population: United States Census, 1900. Administration: J. W.
Mills' Annotated Statutes of the State of Colorado ... (2 vols.,
Denver, 1891; vol. iii. 1896); Helen L. Sumner, Equal Suffrage in
Colorado (New York, 1909); J. E. Snook, Colorado History and
Government (Denver, 1904), is a reliable school epitome.

On history: F. L. Paxson, " A Preliminary Bibliography of
Colorado History," being vol. iii., No. 3, of University of Colorado
Studies (June 1906); H. H. Bancroft, History of . . . Nevada,
Colorado and Wyoming, 1540-1888 (San Francisco, 1890); on
labour conditions and troubles consult: Reports of the State Bureau
of Labour Statistics (since 1892) ; Annual Reports of the State Board
of Arbitration (since 1898); publications of United States Bureau
of Labour (bibliographies); also especially Senate Document 122,
58th Congress, 3rd Session, covering the years 1880-1904. See also
CRIPPLE CREEK and LEADVILLE.

COLORADO RIVER, a stream in the south of the Argentine
Republic. It has its sources on the eastern slopes of the Andes
in the lat. of the Chilean volcano Tinguiririca (about 34 48' S.),
and pursues a general E.S.E. course to the Atlantic, where
it discharges through several channels of a delta extending
from lat. 39 30' to 39 50' S. Its total length is about 620 m.,
of which about 200 m. from the coast up to Pichemahuida is
navigable for vessels of 7 ft. draft. It has been usually described
as being formed by the confluence of the Grande and Barrancas,

elected on the return of the vote, which had been notoriously cor-
rupted in Denver and_ elsewhere. The Republican legislature, after
investigating the election and upon receiving from Peabody a written
promise that he would resign in twenty-four hours, declared on the
1 6th of March that Peabody was elected. His resignation on the
1 7th of March made Lieutenant-Governor M' Donald governor of the
state.

but as the latter is only a small stream compared with the
Grande it is better described as a tributary, and the Grande as
a part of the main river under another name. After leaving the
vicinity of the Andes the Colorado flows through a barren, arid
territory and receives no tributary of note except the Curaco,
which has its sources in the Pampa territory and is considered
to be part of the ancient outlet of the now closed lacustrine basin
of southern Mendoza. The bottom lands of the Colorado in its
course across Patagonia are fertile and wooded, but their area
is too limited to support more than a small, scattered population.

COLORADO RIVER, a stream in the south-west of the United
States of America, draining a part of the high and arid plateau
between the Rocky mountains and the Sierra Nevada in Cali-
fornia. The light rainfall scarcely suffices over much of the
river's course to make good the loss by evaporation from the
waters drained from mountain snows at its source. Its head-
waters are known as the Green river, which rises in north-west
Wyoming and after a course of some 703 m. due south unites
in south-east Utah with the Grand river, flowing down from
Colorado, to form the main trunk of the Colorado proper. The
Green cuts its way through the Uinta mountains of Wyoming;
then flowing intermittently in the open, it crosses successive
uplifts in a series of deep gorges, and flows finally at the foot of
canyon walls 1 500 ft. high near its junction with the Grand.

The Colorado in its course below the junction has formed
a region that is one of the most wonderful of the world, not only
for its unique and magnificent scenery, but also because it affords
the most remarkable example known of the work of differential
weathering and erosion by wind and water and the exposure
of geologic strata on an enormous scale. Above the Paria the
river flows through scenery comparatively tame until it reaches
the plateau of the Marble Canyon, some 60 m. in length. The
walls here are at first only a few score of feet in height, but
increase rapidly to almost 5000 ft. At its southern end is the
Little Colorado. Above this point eleven rivers with steep
mountain gradients have joined either the Green or the Grand
or their united system. The Little Colorado has cut a trench
1800 ft. deep into the plateau in the last 27 m. as it approaches
the Colorado, and empties into it 2625 ft. above the sea. Here
the Colorado turns abruptly west directly athwart the folds
and fault line of the plateau, through the Grand Canyon (q.v.)
of the Colorado, which is 217 m. long and from 4 to 20 m. wide
between the upper cliffs. The walls, 4000 to 6000 ft. high, drop
in successive escarpments of 500 to 1600 ft., banded in splendid
colours, toward the gloomy narrow gorge of the present river.
Below the confluence of the Virgin river of Nevada the Colorado
abruptly turns again, this time southward, and flows as the
boundary between Arizona and California and in part between
Arizona and Nevada, and then through Mexican territory, some
450 m. farther to the Gulf of California. Below the Black
Canyon the river lessens in gradient, and in its lower course flows
in a broad sedimentary valley a distinct estuarine plain extend-
ing northward beyond Yuma and the channel through much
of this region is bedded in a dyke-like embankment lying above
the flood-plain over which the escaping water spills in time of
flood. This dyke cuts off the flow of the river to the remarkable
low area in southern California known as the Salton Sink, or
Coahuila Valley, the descent to which from the river near Yuma
is very much greater than the fall in the actual river-bed from
Yuma to the gulf. In the autumn of 1904, the diversion flow
from the river into a canal heading in Mexican territory a few
miles below Yuma, and intended for irrigation of California
south of the Sink, escaped control, and the river, taking the canal
as a new channel, recreated in California a great inland sea to
the bed of which it had frequently been turned formerly, for
example, in 1884 and 1891 and for a time practically aban-
doned its former course through Mexican territory to the Gulf
of California. But it was effectively dammed in the early part
of 1007 and returned to its normal course, from which, however,
there was still much leakage to Salton Sea; in July 1907 the
permanent dam was completed. From the Black Canyon to the
sea the Colorado normally flows through a desert-like basin,

COLORADO SPRINGS COLOSSAE

725

to the west of which, in Mexico, is Laguna Maquata (or Salada),
lying in the so-called Pattie Basin, which was formerly a part
of the Gulf of California, and which is frequently partially
flooded (like Coahuila Valley) by the delta waters of the Colorado.
Of the total length of the Colorado, about 2200 m., 500 m. or
more from the mouth are navigable by light steamers, but
channel obstacles make all navigation difficult at low water,
and impossible about half the year above Mojave. The whole
area drained by the river and its tributaries is about 225,000
sq. m. ; and it has been estimated by Major J. W. Powell that
in its drainage basin there are fully 200,000 sq. m. that have
been degraded on an average 6000 ft. It is still a powerful
eroding stream in the canyon portion, and its course below the
canyons has a shifting bed much obstructed by bars built of
sediment carried from the upper course. The desert country
toward the mouth is largely a sandy or gravelly aggradation
plain of the river. The regular floods are in May and June.
Others, due to rains, are rare. The rise of the water at such
tunes is extraordinarily rapid. Enormous drift is left in the
canyons 30 or 40 ft. above the normal level. The valley near
Yuma is many miles wide, frequently inundated, and remark-
ably fertile; it is often called the " Nile of America " from its
resemblance in climate, fertility, overflows and crops. These
alluvial plains are covered with a dense growth of mesquite,
cottonwood, willow, arrowwood, quelite and wild hemp. Irri-
gation is essential to regular agriculture. There is a fine delta
in the gulf. The Colorado is remarkable for exceedingly high
tides at its mouth and for destructive bores.

In 1540, the second year that Spaniards entered Arizona,
they discovered the Colorado. Hernando de Alarcon co-opera-
ting with F. V. de Coronado, explored with ships the Gulf of
California and sailed up the lower river; Melchior Diaz, march-
ing along the shores of the gulf, likewise reached the river; and
Captain Garcia L6pez de Cardenas, marching from Zuni, reached
the Grand Canyon, but could not descend its walls. In 1604
Juan de Onate crossed Arizona from New Mexico and descended
the Santa Maria, Bill Williams and Colorado to the gulf. The
name Colorado was first applied to the present Colorado Chiquito,
and probably about 1630 to the Colorado of to-day. But up
to 1869 great portions of the river were still unknown. James
White, a miner, in 1867, told a picturesque story (not generally
accepted as true) of making the passage of the Grand Canyon
on the river. In 1869, and in later expeditions, the feat was
accomplished by Major J. W. Powell. There have been since
then repeated explorations and scientific studies.

See C E. Dutton, " Tertiary History of the Grand Canyon," U.S.
Geological Survey, Monograph II. (1882); J. W. Powell, Exploration
of the Colorado River (Washington, 1875), and Canyons of the Colorado
(Meadville, Pa. 1895); F. S. Dellenbaugh, Romance of the Colorado
River (New York, 1902), and Canyon Voyage (1908); G. W. James,
Wonders of the Colorado Desert (2 vols., Boston, 1906).

COLORADO SPRINGS, a city and the county-seat of El Paso
county, Colorado, U.S.A., about 75 m. S. of Denver. Pop.
(1890) 11,140; (1900) 21,085, of whom 2300 were foreign-born;
(1910) 29,078. The city is served by the Atchison, Topeka
& Santa Fe, the Denver & Rio Grande, the Chicago, Rock Island
& Pacific (of which the city is a terminus), the Colorado &
Southern, the Colorado Springs & Cripple Creek District (con-
trolled by the Colorado & Southern), and the Colorado Midland
railways, of which the first three are continental systems.
Continuous on the west with Colorado Springs is Colorado City
(pop. in 1900, 2914), one of the oldest settlements of Colorado,
and the first capital (1861). Colorado Springs is superbly
situated where the Rocky Mountains rise from the great plains
of the prairie states, surrounded on all sides by foothills save
in the south-east, where it is open to the prairie. To the south
of the mesa (tableland) on which it lies is the valley of Fountain
Creek. To the west is the grand background of the canyon-riven
Rampart range, with Pike's Peak (q.v.) dominating a half-dozen
other peaks (among them Cameron Cone, Mt. Rosa, Cheyenne
Mt.) 9000 to 12,000 ft. in height. Monument Creek traverses
the city. The streets are of generous width (100-140 f t.) , and are
well shaded by trees. There are several fine parks. The city is

the seat of a state asylum for the deaf, dumb and blind, of a
printers' home for union men, which was endowed in 1892 by
Anthony J. Drexel and George W. Childs, and of Colorado
College (1874), one of the leading educational institutions of
the Rocky Mountain states, and the oldest institution for higher
education in the state. The college b coeducational and non-
sectarian. In 1908 it had a permanent endowment of about
$425,000, a faculty of 46 and 607 students; the library con-
tained 40,000 bound volumes and as many pamphlets. The
departments of the institution are a college of arts; schools of
engineering (1903), music, and (1006) forestry; and the Cutler
Academy, a preparatory school under the control of the college.
In 1905 Gen. W. J. Palmer (1836-1909) and W. A. Bell gave to
the college Manitou Park, a tract of forest land covering about
13,000 acres and situated about 20 m. from Colorado Springs.

Bright sunshine and a pleasant climate (mean annual tempera-
ture about 48 F., rainfall 14 in., falling almost wholly from
April to September, relative humidity 59), combined with
beautiful scenery, have made the city a favourite health resort
and place of residence. Land deeds for city property have
always excluded saloons. The municipality owns and operates
the water system, water being drawn from lakes near Pike's
Peak. The scenery about the city is remarkable. Manitou
(6100-6300 ft.) a popular summer resort, lies about 6 m. (by
rail) north-west of Colorado Springs, in a glen at the opening
of Ute Pass (so-named because it was formerly used by the Ute
Indians), with the mountains rising from its edge. Its springs
of soda and iron belong to the class of weak compound carbon-
ated soda waters. In the neighbourhood are the Ca_ve of the
Winds, the Grand Caverns, charming glens, mountain 'lakes and
picturesque canyons; and the Garden of the Gods (owned by
the city) approached between two tremendous masses of red
rock 330 ft. high, and strewn (about 500 acres) with great rocks
and ridges of brightly coloured sandstone, whose grotesque shapes
and fantastic arrangement have suggested a playground of
superhuman beings. At the southern end of the Rampart
range is Cheyenne Mt. (9407 ft.), on whose slope was buried
Helen Hunt Jackson (" H.H."), who has left many pictures of
this country in her stories. The two Cheyenne Canyons, with
walls as high as 1000 ft. and beautiful falls, and the road
over the mountain side toward Cripple Creek, afford exquisite
views. Monument Park (10 m. N.) is a tract of fantastically
eroded sandstone rocks, similar to those in the Garden of the
Gods.

In 1859 a winter mining party coming upon the sunny valley
near the present Manitou, near the old Fontaine-qui-Bouille,
settled " El Dorado." Colorado City is practically on the same
site. In 1870, as part of the town development work of the
Denver & Rio Grande railway, of which General W. J. Palmer
was the president, a land company founded Colorado Springs.
In 1872 Manitou (first La Fontaine) was founded. Colorado
Springs was laid out in 1871, was incorporated in 1872, and was
first chartered as a city in 1878. A new charter (May 1909)
provided for the recall of elective officials. A road over the Ute
Pass to South Park and Leadville was built, and at one time
about 12,000 horses and mules were employed in freighting to
the Leadville camps. The Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific rail-
way reached the city in 1888. The greatest part of the Cripple
Creek mining properties is owned in Colorado Springs, where the
exchange is one of the greatest in the world.

COLOSSAE, once the great city of south-west Phrygia, was
situated on rising ground (1150 ft.) on the left bank of the
Lycus (Churuk Su), a tributary of the Maeander, at the upper
end of a narrow gorge z\ m. long, where the river runs between
cliffs from 50 to 60 ft. high. It stood on the great trade route
from Sardis to Celaenae and Iconium, and was a large, prosperous
city (Herod, vii. 30; Xenophon, A nab. i. 2, 6), until it was
ruined by the foundation of Laodicea in a more advantageous
position. The town was celebrated for its wool, which was
dyed a purple colour called colossinus. Colossae was the seat
of an early Christian church, the result of St Paul's activity
at Ephesus, though perhaps actually founded by Epaphras.

726

COLOSSAL CAVERN COLOSSIANS

The church, to which St Paul wrote a letter, was mainly com-
posed of mingled Greek and Phrygian elements deeply imbued
with fantastic and fanatical mysticism. Colossae lasted until
the 7th and 8th centuries, when it was gradually deserted under
pressure of the Arab invasions. Its place was taken by Khonae
(Khonas) a strong fortress on a rugged spur of Mt. Kadmus,
3 m. to the south, which became a place of importance during
the wars between the Byzantines and Turks, and was the
birthplace of the historian, Nicetas Khoniates. The worship of
angels alluded to by St Paul (Col. ii. 18), and condemned in the
4th century by a council at Laodicea, reappears in the later
worship of St Michael, in whose honour a celebrated church,
destroyed by the Seljuks in the izth century, was built on the
right bank of the Lycus.
See Sir W. M. Ramsay, Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia, vol. i.

COLOSSAL CAVERN, a cave in Kentucky, U.S.A., the main
entrance of which is at the foot of a steep hill beyond Eden
Valley, and i| m. from Mammoth Cave. It is connected with
what has long been known as the Bed Quilt Cave. Several
entrances found by local explorers were rough and difficult.
They were closed when the property was bought in 1896 by the
Louisville & Nashville railway and a new approach made as
indicated on the accompanying map. From the surface to the
floor is 240 ft.; under Chester Sandstone and in the St Louis
Limestone. Fossil corals fix the geological age of the rock.
The temperature is uniformly 54 Fahr., and the atmosphere
is optically and chemically pure. Lovely incrustations alternate
with queer and grotesque figures. There are exquisite gypsum
rosettes and intricately involved helictites.

I. Chinta* Walt
3. Entrance to Hew Discovery
3- Entrance to Wild Goose
Chase and Rivtr Region
. l/nc/e Tom's Pool
$. Lizard Spring
& Tain Fit,
7. Ruins of Carthage

& Rock Island
..g. Sandstone Tumb/edOutn

10. Rulrtt of Martinique
IX. Register Avenue

13. Starry Hcauena and
/rty Wat

*3.Bearshin Robe

14. Phosphate Mountain
ii.HulloftneBnat Wettfr
16-Catacomoa

17. Puloit ffoc*
8- Cascade Pit
10. Pearly Pool

COLOSSAL CAVERN s

KENTUCKY

Tremendous forces have been at work, suggesting earthquakes
and eruptions; but really all is due to the chemical and mechani-
cal action of water. The so-called " Ruins of Carthage " fill a
hall 400 ft. long by 100 ft. wide and 30 ft. high, whose flat roof
is a vast homogeneous limestone block. Isolated detached
blocks measure from 50 to 100 ft. in length. Edgar Vaughan
and W. L. Marshall, civil engineers, surveyed every part of the
cave. Vaughan's Dome is 40 ft. wide, 300 ft. long, and 79 ft.
high. Numerous other domes exist, and many deep pits. The
.grandest place of all is the Colossal Dome, which used to be

entered only from the apex by windlass and a rope reaching
135 ft. to the floor. This is now used only for illumination by
raising and lowering a fire-basket. The present entrance is by a
gateway buttressed by alabaster shafts, one of which, 75 ft.
high, is named Henry Clay's Monument. The dome walls arise
in a series of richly tinted rings, each 8 or 10 ft. thick, and each
fringed by stalactites. The symmetry is remarkable, and the
reverberations are strangely musical. The Pearly Pool, in a
chamber neat a pit 86 ft. deep, glistens with countless cave
pearls. The route beyond is between rows of stately shafts,
and ends in a copious chalybeate spring. Blind flies, spiders,
beetles and crickets abound; and now and then a blind crawfish
darts through the waters; but as compared with many caverns
the fauna and flora are not abundant. It is conjectured, not
without some reason, that there is a connexion, as yet undis-
covered, between the Colossal and the Mammoth caves. It
seems certain that Eden Valley, which now lies between them,
is a vast " tumble-down " of an immense cavern that formerly
united them into one. (H. C. H.)

COLOSSIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, the twelfth book of the
New Testament, the authorship of which is ascribed to the
Apostle Paul. Colossae, like the other Phrygian cities of
Laodicea and Hierapolis, had not been visited by Paul, but owed
its belief in Jesus Christ to Epaphras, a Colossian, who had been
converted by Paul, perhaps in Ephesus, and had laboured not
only in his native city but also in the adjacent portions of the
Lycus valley, a Christian in whom Paul reposed the greatest
confidence as one competent to interpret the gospel of whose
truth Paul was convinced (i. 7; iv. 12, 13). This Epaphras,
like the majority of the Colossians, was a Gentile. It is probable,
however, both from the letter itself and from the fact that
Colossae was a trade centre, that Jews were there with their
synagogues (cf. also Josephus, Ant. xii. 149). And it is further
probable that some of the Gentiles, who afterwards became
Christians, were either Jewish proselytes or adherents who paid
reverence to the God of the Jews. At all events, the letter
indicates a sensitiveness on the part of the Christians not only
to oriental mysticism and theosophy (cf. Sir W. M. Ramsay,
Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia, and Church in the Roman
Empire) , but also to the Judaism of the Diaspora.

Our first definite knowledge of the Colossian Church dates
from the presence of Epaphras in Rome in A.D. 62-64 (or A.D.
56-58), when Paul was a prisoner. He arrived with news,
perhaps with a letter (J. R. Harris, Expositor, Dec. 1898, pp.
404 ff.), touching the state of religion in Colossae. Paul learns,
to his joy, of their faith, hope and love; of the order and stability
of their faith; and of their reception of Christ Jesus the Lord
(i. 4, 8; ii. 5-7). He sees no sign of an attack upon him or his
gospel. On the contrary, loyalty to him and sympathy with
him in his sufferings are everywhere manifest (i. 9, 24; ii. 2;
iv. 8); and the gospel of Christ is advancing here as elsewhere
(i. 6). At the same time he detects a lack of cheerfulness and a
lack of spiritual understanding in the Church. The joy of the
gospel, expressing itself in songs and thanksgivings, is damped
(iii. 15, 16), and, above all, the message of Christ does not
dwell richly enough in them. Though the believers know the
grace of God they are not filled with a knowledge of his will,
so that their conduct is lacking in that strength and joy and
perfection, that richness of the fulness of knowledge expected
of those who had been made full in Christ (i. 6, 9-11, 28; ii.
2, 7, 10). The reason for this, Paul sees, is the influence of the
claim made by certain teachers in Colossae that the Christians,
in order to attain unto and be assured of full salvation, must
supplement Paul's message with their own fuller and more
perfect wisdom, and must observe certain rites and practices
(ii. 16, 21, 23) connected with the worship of angels (ii. 18, 23)
and elementary spirits (ii 8, 20).

The origin and the exact nature of this religious movement
are alike uncertain, (i) If it represents a type of syncretism as
definite as that known to have existed in the developed gnostic
systems of the 2nd century, it is inconceivable that Paul should
have passed it by as easily as he did. (2) As there is no reference

COLOSSUS

727

to celibacy, communism and the worship of the sun, it is im-
probable that the movement is identical with that of the Essenes.
(3) The phenomena might be explained solely on the basis of
Judaism (von Soden, Peake). Certainly the asceticism and
ritualism might so be interpreted, for there was among the Jews
of the Dispersion an increasing tendency to asceticism, by way
of protest against the excesses of the Gentiles. The reference
in ii. 23 to severity of the body may have to do with fasting
preparatory to seeing visions (cf. Apoc. Baruch, xxi. i, ix. 2,
v. 7). Even the worship of angels, not only as mediators of
revelation and visions, but also as cosmical beings, is a well-
known fact in late Judaism (Apoc. Bar. Iv. 3; Ethiopic Enoch,
Ix. n, Ixi. 10; Col. ii. 8, 20; Gal. iv. 3). As for the word
" philosophy " (ii. 8), it is not necessary to take it in the technical
Greek sense when the usage of Philo and Josephus permits a
looser meaning. Finally the references to circumcision, para-
dosis (ii. 8) and dogmata (ii. 20), directly suggest a Jewish origin.
If we resort solely to Judaism for explanation, it must be a
Judaism of the Diaspora type. (4) The difficulty with the last-
mentioned position is that it under-estimates the speculative
tendencies of the errorists and ignores the direct influence of
oriental theosophy. It is quite true that Paul does not directly
attack the speculative position, but rather indicates the practical
dangers inherent therein (the denial of the supremacy of Christ
and of full salvation through Him); he does not say that the
errorists hold Christ to be a mere angel or an aeon, or that words
like pleroma (borrowed perhaps from their own vocabulary)
involve a rigorous dualism. Yet his characterization of the
movement as an arbitrary religion (ii. 23), a philosophy which
is empty deceit (ii. 8), according to elemental spirits and not
according to Christ, and a higher knowledge due to a inind
controlled by the flesh (ii. 18) ; his repeated emphasis on Christ,
as supreme over all things, over men and angels, agent in creation
as well as in redemption, in whom dwelt bodily the fulness of the
Godhead; and his constant stress upon knowledge, all these
combine to reveal a speculation real and dangerous, even if
naive and regardless of consequences, and to suggest (with
Jiilicher and McGiffert) that in addition to Jewish influence there
is also the direct influence of Oriental mysticism.

To meet the pressing need in Colossae, Paul writes a letter
and entrusts it to Tychichus, who is on his way to Colossae with
Onesimus, Philemon's slave (iv. 7, 9). (On the relation of this
letter to Ephesians and to the letter to be sent from Laodicea
to Colossae, see EPHESIANS, EPISTLE TO THE.) His attitude is
prophylactic, rather than polemic, for the " philosophy " has
not as yet taken deep root. His purpose is to restore in the
hearts of the readers the joy of the Spirit, by making them see
that Christ fulfils every need, and that through faith in Him
and love from faith, the advance is made unimpeded unto the
perfect man. He will eliminate foreign accretions, that the
gospel of Christ may stand forth in its native purity, and that
Christ Himself may in all things have the pre-eminence.

The letter begins with a thanksgiving to God for the spiritual
growth of the Colossians, and continues with a prayer for their
fuller knowledge of the divine will, for a more perfect Christian
life, and for a spirit of thanksgiving, seeing that it is God who
guarantees their salvation in Christ (i. 1-14). It is Christ who
is supreme, not angels, for He is the agent in creation; and it
is solely on the basis of faith in Him, a faith expressing itself in
love, that redemption is appropriated, and not on the basis of
any further requirements such as ascetic practices and the
worship of angels (i. 15-23). It is with a full message that Paul
has been entrusted, the message of Christ, who alone can lead
to all the riches of fulness of knowledge. And for this adequate
knowledge the readers should be thankful (i. 23-1!. 7). Again
he urges, that since redemption is in Christ alone, and that, too,
full redemption and on the basis of faith alone, the demand for
asceticism and meaningless ceremonies is folly, and moreover
robs Christ, in whom dwells the divine fulness, of His rightful
supremacy (ii. 8-23). And he exhorts them as members of the
Body of Christ to manifest their faith in Christian love, particu-
larly in their domestic relations and in their contact with non-

Christians (iii. i-iv. 6). He closes by saying that Tychichus
^will give them the news. Greetings from all to all (iv. 7-18).

A letter like this; clear cut in its thought, teeming with ideas
emanating from an unique religious experience, and admirably
adjusted to known situations, bears on the face of it the marks
of genuineness even without recourse to the unusually excellent
external attestation. It is not strange that there is a growing
consensus of opinion that Paul is the author. With the critical
renaissance of the early part of the ipth century, doubts were
raised as to the genuineness of the letter (e.g. by E. T. Mayerhoff ,
1838). Quite apart from the difficulties created by the Tubingen
theory, legitimate difficulties were found in the style of the letter,
in the speculation of the errorists, and in the theology of the
author, (i) As to style, it is replied that if there are peculiarities
in Colossians, so also in the admittedly genuine letters, Romans,
Corinthians, Galatians. Moreover, if Philippians is Pauline, so
also the stylistically similar Colossians (cf. von Soden). (2) As
to the speculation of the errorists, it is replied that it is explicable
in the lifetime of Paul, that some of the elements of it may have
their source in pre-Christian Jewish theories, and that recourse
to the developed gnosticism of the 2nd century is unnecessary.
(3) As to the Christology of the author, it is replied that it does
not go beyond what we have already in Paul except in emphasis,
which itself is occasioned by the circumstances. What is im-
plicit in Corinthians is explicit in Colossians. H. J. Holtzmann
(1872) subjected both Colossians and Ephesians to a rigorous
examination, and found in Colossians at least a nucleus of
Pauline material. H. von Soden (1885), with well-considered
principles of criticism, made a similar examination and found a
much larger nucleus, and later still, (1893), in his commentary,
reduced the non-Pauline material to a negligible minimum.
Harnack, Jiilicher and McGiffert, however, agree with Lightfoot,
Weiss, Zahn (and early tradition) in holding that the letter is
wholly Pauline a position which is proving more and more
acceptable to contemporary scholarship.

AUTHORITIES. In addition to the literature already mentioned,
see the articles of Sanday on " Colossians " and Robertson on
" Ephesians " in Smith's Bible Dictionary (2nd ed., 1893), and the
article of A. Julicher on " Colossians and Ephesians " in the
Encyclopaedia Biblica (1899) ; the Introductions of H. I. Holtzmann
(1892), B. Weiss (1897), Th. Zahn (1900) and Julicher (1906);
the histories of the apostolic age by C. von Weizsacker (1892),
A. C. M'Giffert (1897) and O. Pfleiderer (Urchristentum, 1902);
and the commentaries of J. B. Lightfoot (1875), H. von Soden (1893)
T. K. Abbott (1897), E. Haupt (1902), Peake (1903) and P. Ewald
(1905). Q. E. F.)

COLOSSUS, in antiquity a term applied generally to statues of
great size (hence the adjective " colossal "), and in particular to
the bronze statue of the sun-god Helios in Rhodes, one of the
wonders of the world, made from the spoils left by Demetrius
Poliorcetes when he raised the siege of the city. The sculptor was
Chares, a native of Lindus, and of the school of Lysippus, under
whose influence the art of sculpture was led to the production of
colossal figures by preference. The work occupied him twelve
years, it is said, and the finished statue stood 70 cubits high. It
stood near the harbour (rt Xt/*w), but at what point is not
certain. When, and from what grounds, the belief arose that
it had stood across the entrance to the harbour, with a beacon
light in its hand and ships passing between its legs, is not known,
but the belief was current as early as the i6th century. The
statue was thrown down by an earthquake about the year
224 B.C.; then, after lying broken for nearly 1000 years, the
pieces were bought by a Jew from the Saracens, and probably
reconverted into instruments of war.

Other Greek colossi were the Apollo of Calamis; the Zeus
and Heracles of Lysippus; the Zeus at Olympia, the Athena
in the Parthenon, and the Athena Promachos on the-Acropolis
all the work of Pheidias.

The best-known Reman colossi are: a statue of Jupiter on
the Capitol; a bronze statue of Apollo in the Palatine library;
and the colossus of Nero in the vestibule of his Golden House,
afterwards removed by Hadrian to the north of the Colosseum,
where the basement upon which it stood is still visible (Pliny,
Nat. Hist, xxxiv. 18).

728

COLOUR

COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root
meaning, therefore, being that of a covering). The visual appar-
atus of the eye enables us to distinguish not only differences of
form, size and brilliancy in the objects looked upon, but also
differences in the character of the light received from them.
These latter differences, familiar to us as differences in colour,
have their physical origin in the variations in wave-length (or
frequency) which may exist in light which is capable of exciting
the sensation of vision. From the physical point of view, light
of a pure colour, or homogeneous light, means light whose
undulations are mathematically of a simple character and which
cannot be resolved by a prism into component parts. All the
visible pure colours, as thus defined, are to be found in the
spectrum, and there is an infinite number of them, correspond-
ing to all the possible variations of wave-length within the limits
of the visible spectrum (see SPECTROSCOPY). On this view, there
is a strict analogy between variations of colour in light and
variations of pitch in sound, but the visible spectrum contains
a range of frequency extending over about one octave only,
whereas the range of audibility embraces about eleven octaves.

Of all the known colours it might naturally be thought that
white is the simplest and purest, and, till Sir Isaac Newton's
time, this was the prevailing opinion. Newton, however, showed
that white light could be decomposed by a prism into the spectral
colours red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet; the
colours appearing in this order and passing gradually into each
other without abrupt transitions. White is therefore not a
simple colour, but is merely the colour of sunlight, and probably
owes its apparently homogeneous character to the fact that it is
the average colour of the light which fills the eye when at rest.
The colours of the various objects which we see around us are
not due (with the exception of self-luminous and fluorescent
bodies) to any power possessed by these objects of creating the
colours which they exhibit, but merely to the exercise of a
selective action on the light of the sun, some of the constituent
rays of the white light with which they are illuminated being
absorbed, while the rest are reflected or scattered in all directions,
or, in the case of transparent bodies, transmitted. White light
is thus the basis of all other colours, which are derived from it
by the suppression of some one or more of its parts. A red
flower, for instance, absorbs the blue and green rays and most
of the yellow, while the red rays and usually some yellow are
scattered. If a red poppy is illuminated successively by red,
yellow, green and blue light it will appear a brilliant red in the
red light, yellow in the yellow light, but less brilliant if the red
colour is pure; and black in the other colours, the blackness being
due to the almost complete absorption of the corresponding
colour.

Bodies may be classified as regards colour according to the
nature of the action they exert on white light. In the case
of ordinary opaque bodies a certain proportion of the incident
light is irregularly reflected or scattered from their surfaces. A
white object is one which reflects nearly all the light of all colours;
a black object absorbs nearly all. A body which reflects only
a portion of the light, but which exhibits no predominance in
any particular hue, is called grey. A white surface looks grey
beside a similar surface more brilliantly illuminated.

The next class is that of most transparent bodies, which owe
their colour to the light which is transmitted, either directly
through, or reflected back again at the farther surface. A body
which transmits all the visible rays equally well is said to be
colourless; pure water, for example, is nearly quite colourless,
though in large masses it appears bluish-green. A translucent
substance is one which partially transmits light. Translucency
is due to the light being scattered by minute embedded particles
or minute irregularities of structure. Some fibrous specimens
of tremolite and gypsum are translucent in the direction of the
fibres, and practically opaque jn a transverse direction. Coloured
transparent objects vary in shade and hue according to their
size; thus, a conical glass filled with a red liquid commonly
appears yellow at the bottom, varying through orange up to
red at the upper part. A coloured powder is usually of a much

lighter tint than the substance in bulk, as the light is reflected
back after transmission through only a few thin layers. For
the same reason the powders of transparent substances are
opaque.

Polished bodies, whether opaque or transparent, when illumi-
nated with white light and viewed at the proper angle, reflect
the incident light regularly and appear white, without showing
much of their distinctive colours.

Some bodies reflect light of one colour and transmit that of
another; such bodies nearly always possess the properties of
selective or metallic reflection and anomalous dispersion. Most
of the coal-tar dyes belong to this category. Solid eosin, for
example, reflects a yellowish-green and transmits a red light.
Gold appears yellow under ordinary circumstances, but if the
light is reflected many times from the surface it appears a ruby
colour. On the other hand, a powerful beam of light transmitted
through a thin gold-leaf appears green.

Some solutions exhibit the curious phenomenon of dickro-
matism (from 5t-, double, and \p&na., colour), that is, they
appear of one colour when viewed in strata of moderate thickness,
but of a different colour in greater thicknesses (see ABSORPTION
OF LIGHT).

The blue colour of the sky (q.v.) has been explained by Lord
Rayleigh as due to the scattering of light by small suspended
particles and air molecules, which is most effective in the case
of the shorter waves (blue). J. Tyndall produced similar effects
in the laboratory. The green colour of sea-water near the shore
is also due to a scattering of light.

The colours of bodies which are gradually heated to white
incandescence occur in the order red, orange, yellow, white.
This is because the longer waves of red light are first emitted,
then the yellow as well, so that orange results, then so much
green that the total effect is yellow, and lastly all the colours,
compounding to produce white. Fluorescent bodies have the
power of converting light of one colour into that of another
(see FLUORESCENCE).

Besides the foregoing kinds of colorization, a body may
exhibit, under certain circumstances, a colouring due to some
special physical conditions rather than to the specific properties
of the material; such as the colour of a white object when
illuminated by light of some particular colour; the colours
seen in a film of oil on water or in mother-of-pearl, or soap-
bubbles, due to interference (q.v.); the colours seen through
the eyelashes or through a thin handkerchief held up to the
light, due to diffraction (q.v.) ; and the colours caused by ordinary
refraction, as in the rainbow, double refraction and polarization
(qq.v.).

Composition of Colours. It has been already pointed out
that white light is a combination of all the colours in the spectrum.
This was shown by Newton, who recombined the spectral
colours and produced white. Newton also remarks that if a
froth be made on the surface of water thickened a little with
soap, and examined closely, it will be seen to be coloured with
all the colours of the spectrum, but at a little distance it looks
white owing to the combined effect on the eye of all the colours.

The question of the composition of colours is largely a physio-
logical one, since it is possible, by mixing colours, say red and
yellow, to produce a new colour, orange, which appears identical
with the pure orange of the spectrum, but is physically quite
different, since it can- be resolved by a prism into red and yellow
again. There is no doubt that the sensation of colour-vision
is threefold, in the sense that any colour can be produced by
the combination, in proper proportions, of three standard
colours. The question then arises, what are the three primary
colours? Sir David Brewster considered that they were red,
yellow and blue; and this view has been commonly held by
painters and others, since all the known brilliant hues can be
derived from the admixture of red, yellow and blue pigments.
For instance, vermilion and chrome yellow will give an orange,
chrome yellow and ultramarine a green, and vermilion and
ultramarine a purple mixture. But if we superpose the pure
spectral colours on a screen, the resulting colours are quite

COLOURS, MILITARY

729

different. This is especially the case with yellow and blue,
which on the screen combine to produce white, generally with
a pink tint, but cannot be made to give green. The reason of
this difference in the two results is that in the former case we do
not get a true combination of the colours at all. When the
mixed pigments are illuminated by white light, the yellow
particles absorb the red and blue rays, but reflect the yellow
along with a good deal of the neighbouring green and orange.
The blue particles, on the other hand, absorb the red, orange
and yellow, but reflect the blue and a good deal of green and
violet. As much of the light is affected by several particles,
most of the rays are absorbed except green, which is reflected
by both pigments. Thus, the colour of the mixture is not a
mixture of the colours yellow and blue, but the remainder of
white light after the yellow and blue pigments have absorbed
all they can. The effect can also be seen in coloured solutions.
If two equal beams of white light are transmitted respectively
through a yellow solution of potassium bichromate and a blue
solution of copper sulphate in proper thicknesses, they can be
compounded on a screen to an approximately white colour;
but a single beam transmitted through both solutions appears
green. Blue and yellow pigments would produce the effect
of white only if very sparsely distributed. This fact is made use
of in laundries, where cobalt blue is used to correct the yellow
colour of linen after washing.

Thomas Young suggested red, green and violet as the primary
colours, but the subsequent experiments of J. Clerk Maxwell
appear to show that they should be red, green and blue. Sir
William Abney, however, assigns somewhat different places in
the spectrum to the primary colours, and, like Young, considers
that they should be red, green and violet. All other hues can
be obtained by combining the three primaries in proper propor-
tions. Yellow is derived from red and green. This can be done
by superposition on a screen or by making a solution which
will transmit only red and green rays. For this purpose Lord
Rayleigh recommends a mixture of solutions of blue litmus
and yellow potassium chromate. The litmus stops the yellow
and orange light, while the potassium chromate stops the blue
and violet. Thus only red and green are transmitted, and the
result is a full compound yellow which resembles the simple
yellow of the spectrum in appearance, but is resolved into red
and green by a prism. The brightest yellow pigments are those
which give both the pure and compound yellow. Since red and
green produce yellow, and yellow and blue produce white, it
follows that red, green and blue can be compounded into
white. H. von Helmholtz has shown that the only pair of
simple spectral colours capable of compounding to white are
a greenish-yellow and blue.

Just as musical sounds differ in pitch, loudness and quality,
so may colours differ in three respects, which Maxwell calls
hue, shade and tint. All hues can be produced by combining
every pair of primaries in every proportion. The addition of
white alters the tint without affecting the hue. If the colour
be darkened by adding black or by diminishing the illumination,
a variation in shade is produced. Thus the
hue red includes every variation in tint from
red to white, and every variation in shade
from red to black, and similarly for other
hues. We can represent every hue and tint
on a diagram in a manner proposed by
Young, following a very similar suggestion
B of Newton's. Let RGB (fig. i) be an
equilateral triangle, and let the angular
points be coloured red, green and blue of such intensities
as to produce white if equally combined; and let the colour
of every point of the triangle be determined by combining
such proportions of the three primaries, that three weights
in the same proportion would have their centre of gravity
at the point. Then the centre of the triangle will be a neutral
tint, white or grey; and the middle points of the sides Y, S, P
will be yellow, greenish-blue and purple. The hue varies all
round the perimeter. The tint varies along any straight line

FIG. i.

through W. To vary the shade, the whole triangle must be
uniformly darkened.

The simplest way of compounding colours is by means of
Maxwell's colour top, which is a broad spinning-top over the
spindle of which coloured disks can be slipped (fig. 2). The disks
are slit radially so that they can be slipped partially over each
other and the surfaces exposed in any desired ratio. Three
disks are used together, and a match is obtained between these
and a pair of smaller ones mounted on the same spindle. If
any five colours are taken, two of which may be
black and white, a match can be got between them
by suitable adjustment. This shows that a relation
exists between any four colours (the black being
only needed to obtain the proper intensity) and
that consequently the number of independent
colours is three. A still better instrument for FlG ' 2-
combining colours is Maxwell's colour box, in which the colours
of the spectrum are combined by means of prisms. Sir W.
Abney has also invented an apparatus for the same purpose,
which is much the same in principle as Maxwell's colour box.
Several methods of colour photography depend on the fact that
all varieties of colour can be compounded from red, green and
blue in proper proportions.

Any two colours which together give white are called comple-
mentary colours. Greenish-yellow and blue are a pair of comple-
mentaries, as already men-
tioned. Any number of pairs
may be obtained by a simple
device due to Helmholtz and
represented in fig. 3. A beam
of white light, decomposed by
the prism P, is recompounded
into white light by the lens /
and focussed on a screen at /.
If the thin prism p is inserted
near the lens, any set of
colours may be deflected to
another point n, thus pro-
ducing two coloured and com-
plementary images of the source of light.

Nature of White Light. The question as to whether white light
actually consists of trains of waves of regular frequency has been
discussed in recent years by A. Schuster, Lord Rayleigh and
others, and it has been shown that even if it consisted of a suc-
cession of somewhat irregular impulses, it would still be resolved,
by the dispersive property of a prism or grating, into trains of
regular frequency. We may still, however, speak of white light
as compounded of the rays of the spectrum, provided we mean
only that the two systems are mathematically equivalent, and
not that the homogeneous trains exist as such in the original
light.

See also Newton's Opticks, bk. i. pt. ii. ; Maxwell's Scientific
Papers; Helmholtz's papers in Poggendorfs Annalen; Sir G. G.
Stokes, Burnett Lectures for 1884-5-6; Abney's Colour Vision

(1895). a- R. c.)

COLOURS, MILITARY, the flags carried by infantry regiments
and battalions, sometimes also by troops of other arms. Cavalry
regiments and other units have as a rule standards and guidons
(see FLAG). Colours are generally embroidered with mottoes,
symbols, and above all with the names of battles.

From the earliest time at which men fought in organized
bodies of troops, the latter have possessed some sort of insignia
visible over all the field of battle, and serving as a rallying-point
for the men of the corps and an indication of position for the
higher leaders and the men of other formed bodies. In the
Roman army the eagle, the vexiUum, &c. had all the moral and
sentimental importance of the colours of to-day. During the
dark and the middle ages, however, the basis of military force
being the individual knight or lord, the banner, or other flag
bearing his arms, replaced the regimental colour which had
signified the corporate body and claimed the devotion of each
individual soldier in the ranks, though the original meaning of the

(After Muiler-Pouillet's Lekrbuch dcr
Physik, 1897.)

FIG. 3.

730

COLOURS, MILITARY

colour as a corps, not a personal distinction, was sometimes
maintained by corporate bodies (such as trade-gilds) which took
the field as such. An example is the famous carroccio or standard
on wheels, which was frequently brought into the field of battle
by the citizen militia of the Italian cities, and was fought for with
the same ardour as the royal standard in other medieval battles.

The application of the word " colour " to such insignia, how-
ever, dates only from the i6th century. It has been suggested
that, as the professional captain gradually ousted the nobleman
from the command of the drilled and organized companies of
foot the man of gentle birth, of course, maintained his ascend-
ancy in the cavalry far longer the leaders of such bodies, no
longer possessing coat-armour and individual banners, had
recourse to small flags of distinctive colour instead. " Colour "
is in the i6th century a common name in England and middle
Europe for the unit of infantry; in German the FUhnlein (colour)
of landsknechts was a strong company of more than 300 foot.
The ceremonial observances and honours paid nowadays to the
colours of infantry were in fact founded for the most part by the
landsknechts, for whom the flag (carried by their " ensign ")
was symbolical of their intense regimental life and feeling. The
now universal customs of constituting the colour guard of picked
men and of saluting the colours were in equal -honour then;
before that indeed, the appearance of the personal banner of a
nobleman implied his actual presence with it, and the due
honours were paid, but the colour of the i6th century was not
the distinction of one man, but the symbol of the corporate life
and unity of the regiment, and thus the new colour ceremonial
implied the same allegiance to an impersonal regimental spirit,
which it has (with the difference that the national spirit has been
blended with the regimental) retained ever since. The old
soldier rallied to the colours as a matter of habit in the confusion
of battle, and the capture or the loss of a colour has always been
considered a special event, glorious or the reverse, in the history
of a regiment, the importance of this being chiefly sentimental,
but having as a very real background the fact that, if its colour
was lost, a regiment was to all intents and purposes dissolved
and dispersed. Frederick the Great and Napoleon always
attached the highest importance to the maintenance at all costs
of the regimental colours. Even over young troops the influence
of the colour has been extraordinary, and many generals have
steadied their men in the heat of battle by taking a regimental
colour themselves to lead the advance or to form up the troops.
Thus in the first battle of Bull Run (1861) the raw Confederate
troops were rallied under a heavy fire by General Joseph John-
ston, their commander-in-chief, who stood with a colour in his
hand until the men gathered quickly in rank and file. The arch-
duke Charles at Aspern (1809) led his young troops to the last
assault with a colour in his hand. Marshal Schwerin was killed
at the battle of Prague while carrying a regimental colour.

In the British army colours are carried by guards and line
(except rifle) battalions, each battalion having two colours, the
king's and the regimental. The size of the colour is 3 ft. 9 in.
by 3 ft., and the length of the stave 8 ft. 7 in. The colour has
a gold fringe and gold and crimson tassels, and bears various
devices and " battle honours." Beth colours are carried by
subaltern officers, and an escort of selected non-commissioned
officers forms the rest of the colour party. The ceremony of
presenting new colours is most impressive. The old colours
are " trooped " (see below) before being cased and taken to the
rear. The new colours are then placed against a pile of drums
and then uncased by the senior majors and the senior subalterns.
The consecration follows, after which the colours are presented
to the senior subalterns. The battalion gives a general salute
when the colours are unfurled, and the ceremony concludes with
a march past. " Trooping the colour " is a more elaborate
ceremonial peculiar to the British service, and is said to have
been invented by the duke of Cumberland. In this, the colour
is posted near the left of the line, the right company or guard
moves up to it, and an officer receives it, after which the guard,
with the colour files between the ranks of the remainder from
left to right until the right of the line is reached.

In the United States army the infantry regiment has two
colours, the national and the regimental. They are carried in
action.

In the French army one colour (drapeau) is carried by each
infantry regiment. It is carried by an officer, usually a sous-
lieutenant, and the guard is composed of a non-commissioned
officer and a party of "first class ' ' soldiers. Regiments which have
taken an enemy's colour or standard in battle have their own
colours "decorated," that is, the cross of the Legion of Honour
is affixed to the stave near the point. Battle honours are em-
broidered on the white of the tricolour. The eagle was, in the
First and Third Empires, the infantry colour, and was so called
from the gilt eagle which surmounted the stave. The chasseurs
a pied, like the rifles of the British army, carry no colours, but
the battalion quartered for the time being at Vincennes carries
a colour for the whole arm in memory of the first chasseurs de
Vincennes. As in other countries, colours are saluted by all
armed bodies and by individual officers and men. When the
drapeau is not present with the regiment its place is taken by
an ordinary flag.

The colours of the German infantry, foot artillery and en-
gineers vary in design with the states to which the corps belong
in the first instance; thus, black and white predominate in
Prussian colours, red in those of Wiirttemberg regiments, blue
in Bavarian, and so on. The point of the colour stave is decorated
in some cases with the iron cross, in memory of the War of
Liberation and of the war of 1870. Each battalion of an infantry
regiment has its own colour, which is carried by a non-com-
missioned officer, and guarded as usual by a colour party. The
colour is fastened to the stave by silver nails, and the ceremony
of driving the first nail into the stake of a new colour is one of
great solemnity. Rings of silver on the stave are engraved with
battle honours, the names of those who have fallen in action
when carrying the colour, and other commemorative names
and dates. The oath taken by each recruit on joining is sworn
on the colour (Fahneneid).

The practice in the British army of leaving the colours behind
on taking the field dates from the battle of Isandhlwana (22nd
January 1879), in which Lieutenants Melvill and Coghill lost
their lives in endeavouring to save the colours of the 24th
regiment. In savage warfare, in which the British regular
army is more usually engaged, it is true that no particular reason
can be adduced for imperilling the colours in the field. It is
questionable, however, whether this holds good in civilized
warfare. Colours were carried in action by both the Russians
and the Japanese in the war of 1904-5, and they were supple-
mented on both sides by smaller flags or camp colours. The
conception of the colour as the emblem of union, the rallying-
point, of the regiment has been mentioned above. Many hold
that such a rallying-point is more than ever required in the
modern guerre de masses, when a national short-service army
is collected in all possible strength on the decisive battle-field,
and that scarcely any risks or loss of life would be dispropor-
tionate to the advantages gained by the presence of the colours.
There is further a most important factor in the problem, which
has only arisen in recent years through modern perfection in
armament. In the first stages of an attack, the colours could
remain, as in the past, with the closed reserves or line of battle,
and they would not be uncased and sent into the thick of the
fight at all hazards until the decisive assault was being delivered.
Then, it is absolutely essential, as a matter of tactics, that the
artillery (q.v.), which covers the assault with all the power given
it by modern science and training, should be well informed as
to the progress of the infantry. This covering fire was main-
tained by the Japanese until the infantry was actually in the
smoke of their own shrapnel. With uniforms of neutral tint
the need of some means whereby the artillery officers can, at
4000 yds. range, distinguish their own infantry from that of the
enemy, is more pronounced than ever. The best troops are apt
to be unsteadied by being fired into by their own guns (e.g. at
Elandslaagte), and the more powerful the shell, and the more
rapid and far-ranging the fire of the guns, the more necessary it

COLOUR-SERGEANTCOLOURS OF ANIMALS

73 1

becomes to prevent such accidents. A practicable solution of
the difficulty would be to display the colours as of old, and this
course would not only have to an enhanced degree the advan-
tages it formerly possessed, but would also provide the simplest
means for ensuring the vitally necessary co-operation of infantry
and artillery in the decisive assault. The duty of carrying the
colours was always one of special danger, and sometimes, in the
old short-range battles, every officer who carried a flag was
shot. That this fate would necessarily overtake the bearer under
modern conditions is far from certain, and in any case the few
men on the enemy's side who would be brave enough to shoot
accurately under heavy shell fire would, however destructive
to the colour party, scarcely inflict as much damage on the
battalion as a whole, as a dozen or more accidental shells from
the massed artillery of its own side.

COLOUR-SERGEANT, a non-commissioned officer of infantry,
ranking, in the British army, as the senior non-commissioned
officer of each company. He is charged with many adminis-
trative duties, and usually acts as pay sergeant. A special dutyof
the colour-sergeants of a battalion is that of attending and guard-
ing the colours and the officers carrying them. In some foreign
armies the colours are actually carried by colour-sergeants.
The rank was created in the British army in 1813.

COLOURS OF ANIMALS. Much interest attaches in modern
biology to the questions involved in the colours of animals.
The subject may best be considered in two divisions: (i) as
regards the uses of colour in the struggle for existence and in
sexual relationships; (2) as regards the chemical causation.

i. BIONOMICS

Use of Colour for Concealment. Cryptic colouring is by far the
commonest use of colour in the struggle for existence. It is
employed for the purpose of attack (aggressive resemblance or
anticryptic colouring) as well as of defence (protective resemblance
or procryptic colouring). The fact that the same method, con-
cealment, may be used both for attack and defence has been
well explained by T. Belt (The Naturalist in Nicaragua, London,
1888), who suggests as an illustration the rapidity of movement
which is also made use of by both pursuer and pursued, which is
similarly raised to a maximum in both by the gradual dying
out of the slowest through a series of generations. Cryptic
colouring is commonly associated with other aids in the struggle
for life. Thus well-concealed mammals and birds, when dis-
covered, will generally endeavour to escape by speed, and will
often attempt to defend themselves actively. On the other hand,
small animals which have no means of active defence, such as
large numbers of insects, frequently depend upon concealment
alone. Protective resemblance is far commoner among animals
than aggressive resemblance, in correspondence with the fact
that predaceous forms are as a rule much larger and much less
numerous than their prey. In the case of insectivorous Verte-
brata and their prey such differences exist in an exaggerated
form. Cryptic colouring, whether used for defence or attack,
may be either general or special. In general resemblance the
animal, in consequence of its colouring, produces the same effect
as its environment, but the conditions do not require any special
adaptation of shape and outline. General resemblance is
especially common among the animals inhabiting some uni-
formly coloured expanse of the earth's surface, such as an ocean
or a desert. In the former, animals of all shapes are frequently
protected by their transparent blue colour; on the latter, equally
diverse forms are defended by their sandy appearance. The
effect of a uniform appearance may be produced by a combina-
tion of tints in startling contrast. Thus the black and white
stripes of the zebra blend together at a little distance, and " their
proportion is such as exactly to match the pale tint which arid
ground possesses when seen by moonlight " (F. Galton, South
Africa, London, 1889). Special resemblance is far commoner
than general, and is the fcrm which is usually met with on the
diversified surface of the earth, on the shores, and in shallow
water, as well as on the floating masses of Algae on the surface
of the ocean, such as the Sargasso Sea. In these environments

the cryptic colouring of animals is usually aided by special
modifications of shape, and by the instinct which leads them to
assume particular attitudes. Complete stillness and the assump-
tion of a certain attitude play an essential part in general resem-
blance on land; but in special resemblance the attitude is often
highly specialized, and perhaps more important than any other
element in the complex method by which concealment is effected.
In special resemblance the combination of colouring, shape and
attitude is such as to produce a more or less exact resemblance
to some one of the objects in the environment, such as a leaf or
twig, a patch of lichen, or flake of bark. In all cases the resem-
blance is to some object which is of no interest to the enemy
or prey respectively. The animal is not. hidden from view by
becoming indistinguishable from its background, as in the cases
of general resemblance, but it is mistaken for some well-known
object.

In seeking the interpretation of these most interesting and
elaborate adaptations, attempts have been made along two
lines. First, it is sought to explain the effect as a result of the
direct influence of the environment upon the individual (G. L. L.
Buffon), or by the inherited effects of effort and the use and
disuse of parts (J. B. P. Lamarck). Second, natural selection
is believed to have produced the result, and afterwards main-
tained it by the survival of the best concealed in each generation.
The former suggestions break down when the complex nature
of numerous special resemblances is appreciated. Thus the
arrangement of colours of many kinds into an appropriate
pattern requires the co-operation of a suitable shape and the
rigidly exact adoption of a certain elaborate attitude. The latter
is instinctive, and thus depends on the central nervous system.
The cryptic effect is due to the exact co-operation of all these
factors; and in the present state of science the only possible
hope of an interpretation lies in the theory of natural selection,
which can accumulate any and every variation which tends
towards survival. A few of the chief types of methods by which
concealment is effected may be briefly described. The colours
of large numbers of Vertebrate animals are darkest on the back,
and become gradually lighter on the sides, passing into white
on the belly. Abbott H. Thayer (The Auk, vol. xiii., 1896) has
suggested that this gradation obliterates the appearance of
solidity, which is due to shadow. The colour-harmony, which
is also essential to concealment, is produced because the back
is of the same tint as the environment (e.g. earth) bathed in the
cold blue-white of the sky, while the belly, being cold blue-white
bathed in shadow and yellow earth reflections, produces the
same effect. Thayer has made models (in the natural history
museums at London, Oxford and Cambridge) which support
his interpretation in a very convincing manner. This method
of neutralizing shadow for the purpose of concealment by
increased lightness of tint was first suggested by E. B. Poulton
in the case of a larva (Trans. Ent. Soc. Land., 1887, p. 294) and
a pupa (Trans. Ent. Soc. Land., 1888, pp. 596, 597), but he did
not appreciate the great importance of the principle. In an
analogous method an animal in front of a background of dark
shadow may have part of its body obliterated by the existence
of a dark tint, the remainder resembling, e.g., a part of a leaf
(W. Muller, Zool Jahr. J. W. Spengel, Jena, 1886). This method
of rendering invisible any part which would interfere with the
resemblance is well known in mimicry. A common aid to
concealment is the adoption by different individuals of two or
more different appearances, each of which resembles some
special object to which an enemy is indifferent. Thus the
leaf-like butterflies (Kattima) present various types of colour and
pattern on the under side of the wings, each of which closely
resembles some well-known appearance presented by a dead leaf;
and the common British yellow under- wing moth (Tryphaena
pronuba) is similarly polymorphic on the upper side of its upper
wings, which are exposed as it suddenly drops among dead
leaves. Caterpillars and pupae are also commonly dimorphic,
green and brown. Such differences as these extend the area
which an enemy is compelled to search in order to make a living.
In many cases the cryptic colouring changes appropriately

732

COLOURS OF ANIMALS

during the course of an individual life, either seasonally, as in the
ptarmigan or Alpine hare, or according as the individual enters
a new environment in the course of its growth (such as larva,
pupa, imago, &c.). In insects with more than one brood in the
year, seasonal dimorphism is often seen, and the differences are
sometimes appropriate to the altered condition of the environ-
ment as the seasons change. The causes of change in these and
Arctic animals are insufficiently worked out: in both sets there
are observations or experiments which indicate changes from
within the organism, merely following the seasons and not
caused by them, and other observations or experiments which
prove that certain species are susceptible to the changing
external influences. In certain species concealment is effected
by the use of adventitious objects, which are employed as a
covering. Examples of this allocryptic defence are found in the
tubes of the caddis worms (Phryganea), or the objects made use
of by crabs of the genera Hyas, Stenorhynchus, &c, Such
animals are concealed in any environment. If sedentary, like
the former example, they are covered up with local materials;
if wandering, like the latter, they have the instinct to reclothe.
Allocryptic methods may also be used for aggressive purposes,
as the ant-lion larva, almost buried in sand, or the large frog
Ceratophrys, which covers its back with earth when waiting for
its prey. Another form of allocryptic defence is found in the
use of the colour of the food in the digestive organs showing
through the transparent body, and in certain cases the adven-
titious colour may be dissolved in the blood or secreted in super-
ficial cells of the body: thus certain insects make use of the
chlorophyll of their food (Poulton, Proc. Roy. Soc. liv. 417).
The most perfect cryptic powers are possessed by those animals
in which the individuals can change their colours into any tint
which would be appropriate to a normal environment. This
power is widely prevalent in fish, and also occurs in Amphibia
and Reptilia (the chameleon affording a well-known example).
Analogous powers exist in certain Crustacea and Cephalopoda.
All these rapid changes of colour are due to changes in shape
or position of superficial pigment cells controlled by the nervous
system. That the latter is itself stimulated by light through
the medium of the eye and optic nerve has been proved in many
cases. Animals with a short life-history passed in a single
environment, which, however, may be very different in the
case of different individuals, may have a different form of
variable cryptic colouring, namely, the power of adapting their
colour once for all (many pupae), or once or twice (many larvae).
In these cases the effect appears to be produced through the
nervous system, although the stimulus of light probably acts on
the skin and not through the eyes. Particoloured surfaces do not
produce particoloured pupae, probably because the antagonistic
stimuli neutralize each other in the central nervous system,
which then disposes the superficial colours so that a neutral or
intermediate effect is produced over the whole surface (Poulton,
Trans. Ent. Soc. Land., 1892, p. 293). Cryptic colouring may
incidentally produce superficial resemblances between animals;
thus desert forms concealed in the same way may gain a likeness
to each other, and in the same way special resemblances, e.g.
to lichen, bark, grasses, pine-needles, &c., may sometimes lead
to a tolerably close similarity between the animals which are
thus concealed. Such likeness may be called syncryplic or
common protective (or aggressive} resemblance, and it is to be
distinguished from mimicry and common warning colours, in
which the likeness is not incidental, but an end in itself. Syn-
cryptic resemblances have much in common with those in-
cidentally caused by functional adaptation, such as the mole-like
forms produced in the burrowing Insectivora, Rodentia and
Marsupialia. Such likeness may be called syntechnic resemblance,
incidentally produced by dynamic similarity, just as syncryptic
resemblance is produced by static similarity.

Use 0} Colour for Warning and Signalling, or Sematic Coloration.
The use of colour for the purpose of warning is the exact
opposite of the one which has been just described, its object
being to render the animal conspicuous to its enemies, so that it
can be easily seen, well remembered, and avoided in future.

Warning colours are associated with some quality or weapon
which renders the possessor unpleasant or dangerous, such as
unpalatability, an evil odour, a sting, the poison-fang, &c. The
object being to warn an enemy off, these colours are also called
aposematic. Recognition markings, on the other hand, are
episematic, assisting the individuals of the same species to keep
together when their safety depends upon numbers, or easily to
follow each other to a place of safety, the young and inexperienced
benefiting by the example of the older. Episematic characters
are far less common than aposematic, and these than cryptic;
although, as regards the latter comparison, the opposite im-
pression is generally produced from the very fact that conceal-
ment is so successfully attained. Warning or aposematic
colours, together with the qualities they indicate, depend, as
a rule, for their very existence upon the abundance of palatable
food supplied by the animals with cryptic colouring. Unpalata-
bility, or even the possession of a sting, is not sufficient defence
unless there is enough food of another kind to be obtained at the
same time and place (Poulton, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1887, p. 191).
Hence insects with warning colours are not seen in temperate
countries except at the time when insect life as a whole is most
abundant; and in warmer countries, with well-marked wet and
dry seasons, it will probably be found that warning colours are
proportionately less developed in the latter. In many species
of African butterflies belonging to the genus Junonia (including
Precis) the wet-season broods are distinguished by the more or
less conspicuous under sides of the wings, those of the dry season
being highly cryptic. Warning colours are, like cryptic, assisted
by special adaptations of the body-form, and especially by move-
ments which assist to render the colour as conspicuous as possible.
On this account animals with warning colours generally move
or fly slowly, and it is the rule in butterflies that the warning
patterns are similar on both upper and under sides of the wings.
Many animals, when attacked or disturbed, " sham death " (as
it is commonly but wrongly described), falling motionless to the
ground. In the case of well-concealed animals this instinct gives
them a second chance of escape in the earth or among the leaves,
&c., when they have been once detected; animals with warning
colours are, on the other hand, enabled to assume a position in
which their characters are displayed to the full (J. Portschinsky,
Lepidopterorum Rossiae Biologia, St Petersburg, 1890, plate i.
figs. 1 6, 17). In both cases a definite attitude is assumed, which
is not that of death. Other warning characters exist in addition
to colouring: thus sound is made use of by the disturbed rattle-
snake and the Indian Echis, &c. Large birds, when attacked,
often adopt a threatening attitude, accompanied by a terrifying
sound. The cobra warns an intruder chiefly by attitude and the
dilation of the flattened neck, the effect being heightened in some
species by the " spectacles." In such cases we often see the
combination of cryptic and sematic methods, the animal being
concealed until disturbed, when it instantly assumes an apo-
sematic attitude. The advantage to the animal itself is clear: a
poisonous snake gains nothing by killing an animal it cannot eat;
while the poison does not cause immediate death, and the enemy
would have time to injure or destroy the snake. In the case of
small unpalatable animals with warning colours the enemies
would only first become aware of the unpleasant quality by
tasting and often destroying their prey; but the species would
gain by the experience thus conveyed, even though the individual
might suffer. An insect-eating animal does not come into the
world with knowledge: it has to be educated by experience, and
warning colours enable this education as to what to avoid to
be gained by a small instead of a large waste of life. Further-
more, great tenacity of life is usually possessed by animals with
warning colours. The tissues of aposematic insects generally
possess great elasticity and power of resistance, so that large
numbers of individuals can recover after very severe treatment.
The brilliant warning colours of many caterpillars attracted
the attention of Darwin when he was thinking over his hypo-
thesis of sexual selection, and he wrote to A. R. Wallace on the
subject (C. Darwin, Life and Letters, London, 1887, iii. 93).
Wallace, in reply, suggested their interpretation as warning

COLOURS OF ANIMALS

733

colours, a suggestion since verified by experiment (Proc. Enf. Soc.
Land., 1867, p. Ixxx; Trans. Ent. Soc. Land., 1869, pp. 21 and
27). Although animals with warning colours are probably but
little attacked by the ordinary enemies of their class, they have
special enemies which keep the numbers down to the average.
Thus the cuckoo appears to be an insectivorous bird which will
freely devour conspicuously coloured unpalatable larvae. The
effect of the warning colours of caterpillars is often intensified
by gregarious habits. Another aposematic use of colours and
structures is to divert attention from the vital parts, and thus
give the animal attacked an extra chance of escape. The large,
conspicuous, easily torn wings of butterflies and moths act in
this way, as is found by the abundance of individuals which may
be captured with notches bitten symmetrically out of both wings
when they were in contact. The eye-spots and " tails " so
common on the hinder part of the hind wing, and the conspicuous
apex so frequently seen on the fore wing, probably have this
meaning. Their position corresponds to the parts which are most
often found to be notched. In some cases (e.g. many Lycaenidae)
the " tail " and eye-spot combine to suggest the appearance of
a head with antennae at the posterior end of the butterfly, the
deception being aided by movements of the hind wings. The
flat-topped " tussocks " of hair on many caterpillars look like
conspicuous fleshy projections of the body, and they are held
prominently when the larva is attacked. If seized, the " tus-
sock " comes out, and the enemy is greatly inconvenienced by the
fine branched hairs. The tails of lizards, which easily break off,
are to be similarly explained, the attention of the pursuer being
probably still further diverted by the extremely active move-
ments of the amputated member. Certain crabs similarly throw
off their claws when attacked, and the claws continue to snap
most actively. The tail of the dormouse, which easily comes off,
and the extremely bushy tail of the squirrel, are probably of use
in the same manner. Animals with warning colours often tend
to resemble each other superficially. This fact was first pointed
out by H. W. Bates in his paper on the theory of mimicry (Trans.
Linn. Soc. vol. xxiii., 1862, p. 495). He snowed that the con-
spicuous, presumably unpalatable, tropical American butterflies,
belonging to very different groups, which are mimicked by others,
also tend to resemble each other, the likeness being often remark-
ably exact. These resemblances were not explained by his theory
of mimicry, and he could only suppose that they had been
produced by the direct influence of a common environment.
The problem was solved in 1879 by Fritz Mtiller (see Proc. Ent.
Soc. Land., 1879, p. xx.), who suggested that life is saved by this
resemblance between warning colours, inasmuch as the education
of young inexperienced enemies is facilitated. Each species
which falls into a group with common warning (synaposematic)
colours contributes to save the lives of the other members. It
is sufficiently obvious that the amount of learning and remember-
ing, and consequently of injury and loss of life involved in the
process, are reduced when many species in one place possess the
same aposematic colouring, instead of each exhibiting a different
" danger-signal." These resemblances are often described as
" Miillerian mimicry," as distinguished from true or " Batesian
mimicry " described in the next section. Similar synapose-
matic resemblances between the specially protected groups of
butterflies were afterwards shown to exist in tropical Asia, the
East Indian Islands and Polynesia by F. Moore (Proc. Zool.
Soc., 1883, p. 201), and in Africa by E. B. Poulton (Report Brit.
Assoc., 1897, p. 688). R. Meldola (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist,
j.., 1882, p. 417) first pointed out and explained in the same
manner the remarkable general uniformity of colour and pattern
which runs through so many species of each of the distasteful
groups of butterflies; while, still later, Poulton (Proc. Zool. Soc.,
1887, p. 191) similarly extended the interpretation to the syn-
aposematic resemblances between animals of all kinds in the
same country. Thus, for example, longitudinal or circular
bands of the same strongly contrasted colours are found in
species of many groups with distant affinities.

Certain animals, especially the Crustacea, make use of the
special defence and warning colours of other animals. Thus

the English hermit-crab, Pagurus Bernhardus, commonly carries
:he sea-anemone, Sagarlia parasitica, on its shell; while another
English species, Pagurus Prideauxii, inhabits a shell which is
invariably clothed by the flattened Adamsia palliata.

The white patch near the tail which is frequently seen in the
gregarious Ungulates, and is often rendered conspicuous by
adjacent black markings, probably assists the individuals in
keeping together; and appearances with probably the same
interpretation are found in many birds. The white upturned
tail of the rabbit is probably of use in enabling the individuals
to follow each other readily. The difference between a typical
aposematic character appealing to enemies, and episematic
intended for other individuals of the same species, is well seen
when we compare such examples as (i) the huge banner-like
white tail, conspicuously contrasted with the black or black and
white body, by which the slow-moving skunk warns enemies of its
power of emitting an intolerably offensive odour; (2) the small
upturned white tail of the rabbit, only seen when it is likely
to be of use and when the owner is moving, and, if pursued, very
rapidly moving, towards safety.

Mimicry (see also MIMICRY) or Pseudo-sematic Colours. The
fact that animals with distant affinities may more or less closely
resemble each other was observed long before the existing ex-
planation was possible. Its recognition is implied in a number
of insect names with the termination -formis, usually given to
species of various orders which more or less closely resemble the
stinging Hymenoptera. The usefulness of the resemblance was
suggested in Kirby and Spence's Introduction to Entomology,
London, 1817, ii. 223. H. W. Bates (Trans. Linn. Soc. voL
xxiii., 1862, p. 495) first proposed an explanation of mimicry
based on the theory of natural selection. He supposed that
every step in the formation and gradual improvement of the
likeness occurred in consequence of its usefulness in the struggle
for life. The subject is of additional interest, inasmuch as it
was one of the first attempts to apply the theory of natural
selection to a large class of phenomena up to that time well known
but unexplained. Numerous examples of mimicry among
tropical American butterflies were discussed by Bates in his
paper; and in 1866 A. R. Wallace extended the hypothesis to
the butterflies of the tropical East (Trans. Linn, Soc. vol. xxv.,
1866, p. 19); Roland Trimen (Trans. Linn. Soc. vol. xxvi., 1870,
p. 497) to those of Africa in 1870. The term mimicry is used in
various senses. It is often extended, as indeed it was by Bates,
to include all the superficial resemblances between animals and
any part of their environment. Wallace, however, separated the
cryptic resemblances already described, and the majority of
naturalists have followed this convenient arrangement. In
cryptic resemblance an animal resembles some object of no
interest to its enemy (or prey), and in so doing is concealed; in
mimicry an animal resembles some other animal which is
specially disliked by its enemy, or some object which is specially
attractive to its prey, and in so doing becomes conspicuous.
Some naturalists have considered mimicry to include all super-
ficial likenesses between animals, but such a classification would
group together resemblances which have widely different uses,
(i) The resemblance of a mollusc to the coral on which it lives,
or an external parasite to the hair or skin of its host, would be
procryptic; (2) that between moths which resemble lichen,
syncryptic; (3) between distasteful insects, synaposematic; (4)
betwee'n the Insectivor mole and the Rodent mole-rat, syn-
technic; (5) the essential element in mimicry is that it is a
false warning (pseud-aposematic) or false recognition (pseud-
episematic) character. Some have considered that mimicry
indicates resemblance to a moving object; but apart from the
non-mimetic likenesses between animals classified above, there are
ordinary cryptic resemblances to drifting leaves, swaying bits
of twig, &c., while truly mimetic resemblances are often specially
adapted for the attitude of rest. Many use the term mimicry
to include synaposematic as well as pseudo-sematic resemblances,
calling the former " Miillerian," the latter " Batesian," mimicry.
The objection to this grouping is that it takes little account
of the deceptive element which is essential in mimicry. In

734

COLOURS OF ANIMALS

synaposematic colouring the warning is genuine, in pseud-
aposematic it is a sham. The term mimicry has led to much mis-
understanding from the fact that in ordinary speech it implies
deliberate imitation. The production of mimicry in an individual
animal has no more to do with consciousness or " taking thought"
than any of the other processes of growth. Protective mimicry
is here defined as an advantageous and superficial resemblance
of one animal to another, which latter is specially defended so
as to be disliked or feared by the majority of enemies of the
groups to which both belong a resemblance which appeals to
the sense of sight, sometimes to that of hearing, and rarely to
smell, but does not extend to deep-seated characters except
when the superficial likeness is affected by them. Mutatis
mutandis this definition will apply to aggressive (pseud-
episematic) resemblance. The conditions under which mimicry
occurs have been stated by Wallace: " (i) that the imitative
species occur in the same area and occupy the same station as
the imitated; (2) that the imitators are always the more defence-
less; (3) that the imitators are always less numerous in indi-
viduals; (4) that the imitators differ from the bulk of their
allies; (5) that the imitation, however minute, is external and
visible only, never extending to internal characters or to such
as do not affect the external appearance." It is obvious that
conditions 2 and 3 do not hold in the case of Mullerian mimicry.
Mimicry has been explained, independently of natural selection,
by the supposition that it is the common expression of the direct
action of common causes, such as climate, food, &c.; also by
the supposition of independent lines of evolution leading to the
same result without any selective action in consequence of
advantage in the struggle; also by the operation of sexual
selection.

It is proposed, in conclusion, to give an account of the broad
aspects of mimicry, and attempt a brief discussion of the theories
of origin of each class of facts (see Poulton, Linn. Soc. Journ.
Zool., 1898, p. 558). It will be found that in many cases the
argument here made use of applies equally to the origin of
cryptic and sematic colours. The relationship between these
classes has been explained: mimicry is, as Wallace has stated
(Darwinism, London, 1889), merely " an exceptional form of
protective resemblance." Now, protective (cryptic) resemblance
cannot be explained on any of the lines suggested above, except
natural selection; even sexual selection fails, because cryptic
resemblance is especially common in the immature stages of
insect life. But it would be unreasonable to explain mimetic
resemblance by one set of principles and cryptic by another and
totally different set. Again, it may be plausible to explain the
mimicry of one butterfly for another on one of the suggested
lines, but the resemblance of a fly or moth to a wasp is by no
means so easy, and here selection would be generally conceded;
yet the appeal to antagonistic principles to explain such closely
related cases would only be justified by much direct evidence.
Furthermore, the mimetic resemblances between butterflies are
not haphazard, but the models almost invariably belong only to
certain sub-families, the Danainae and Acraeinae in all the
wanner parts of the world, and, in tropical America, the Itho-
miinae and Heliconinae as well. These groups have the char-
acteristics of aposematic species, and no theory but natural
selection explains their invariable occurrence as models wherever
they exist. It is impossible to suggest, except by natural
selection, any explanation of the fact that mimetic resemblances
are confined to changes which produce or strengthen a super-
ficial likeness. Very deep-seated changes are generally involved,
inasmuch as the appropriate instincts as to attitude, &c., are as
important as colour and marking. The same conclusion is
reached when we analyse the nature of mimetic resemblance
and realize how complex it really is, being made up of colours,
both pigmentary and structural, pattern, form, attitude and
movement. A plausible interpretation of colour may be wildly
improbable when applied to some other element, and there is
no explanation except natural selection which can explain all
these elements. The appeal to the direct action of local con-
ditions in common often breaks down upon the slightest investi-

gation, the difference in habits between mimic and model in the
same locality causing the most complete divergence in their
conditions of life. Thus many insects produced from burrowing
larvae mimic those whose larvae live in the open. Mimetic
resemblance is far commoner in the female than in the male, a
fact readily explicable by selection, as suggested by Wallace, for
the female is compelled to fly more slowly and to expose itself
while laying eggs, and hence a resemblance to the slow-flying
freely exposed models is especially advantageous. The facts that
mimetic species occur in the same locality, fly at the same time
of the year as their models, and are day-flying species even
though they may belong to nocturnal groups, are also more or
less difficult to explain except on the theory of natural selection,
and so also is the fact that mimetic resemblance is produced
in the most varied manner. A spider resembles its model, an
ant, by a modification of its body-form into a superficial resem-
blance, and by holding one pair of legs to represent antennae;
certain bugs (Hemiptera) and beetles have also gained a shape
unusual in their respective groups, a shape which superficially
resembles an ant; a Locustid (Myrmecophana) has the shape
of an ant painted, as it were, on its body, all other parts resem-
bling the background and invisible; a Membracid (Homoptera)
is entirely unlike an ant, but is concealed by an ant-like shield.
When we further realize that in this and other examples of
mimicry " the likeness is almost always detailed and remarkable,
however it is attained, while the methods differ absolutely," we
recognize that natural selection is the only possible explanation
hitherto suggested. In the cases of aggressive mimicry an animal
resembles some object which is attractive to its prey. Examples
are found in the flower-like species of Mantis, which attract the
insects on which they feed. Such cases are generally described
as possessing " alluring colours," and are regarded as examples
of aggressive (anticryptic) resemblance, but their logical position
is here.

Colours displayed in Courtship, Secondary Sexual Characters,
Epigamic Colours. Darwin suggested the explanation of these
appearances in his theory of sexual selection ( The Descent of Man,
London, 1874). The rivalry of the males for the possession of
the females he believed to be decided by the preference of the
latter for those individuals with especially bright colours, highly
developed plumes, beautiful song, &c. Wallace does not accept
the theory, but believes that natural selection, either directly
or indirectly, accounts for all the facts. Probably the majority
of naturalists follow Darwin in this respect. The subject is most
difficult, and the interpretation of a great proportion of the
examples in a high degree uncertain, so that a very brief account
is here expedient. That selection of some kind has been opera-
tive is indicated by the diversity of the elements into which the
effects can be analysed. The most complete set of observations
on epigamic display was made by George W. and Elizabeth
G. Peckham upon spiders of the family Attidae (Nat. Hist. Soc.
of Wisconsin, vol. i., 1889). These observations afforded the
authors " conclusive evidence that the females pay close atten-
tion to the love-dances of the males, and also that they have
not only the power, but the will, to exercise a choice among the
suitors for their favour." Epigamic characters are often con-
cealed except during courtship; they are found almost exclu-
sively in species which are diurnal or semi-diurnal in their habits,
and are excluded from those parts of the body which move too
rapidly to be seen. They are very commonly directly associated
with the nervous system; and in certain fish, and probably
in other animals, an analogous heightening of effect accompanies
nervous excitement other than sexual, such as that due to fighting
or feeding. Although there is epigamic display in species with
sexes alike, it is usually most marked in those with secondary
sexual characters specially developed in the male. These are
an exception to the rule in heredity, in that their appearance is
normally restricted to a single sex, although in many of the
higher animals they have been proved to be latent in the other,
and may appear after the essential organs of sex have been
removed or become functionless. This is also the case in the
Aculeate Hymenoptera when the reproductive organs have been

COLOURS OF ANIMALS

735

destroyed by the parasite Stylops. J. T. Cunningham has argued
(Sexual Dimorphism in the Animal Kingdom, London, 1900) that
secondary sexual characters have been produced by direct
stimulation due to contests, &c., in the breeding period, and have
gradually become hereditary, a hypothesis involving the assump-
tion that acquired characters are transmitted. Wallace suggests
that they are in part to be explained as " recognition characters,"
in part as an indication of surplus vital activity in the male.

AUTHORITIES. The following works may also be consulted:
T. Eimer, Orthogenesis der Schmetterlinge (Leipzig, 1898); E. B.
Poulton, The Colours of Animals (London, 1890); F. E. Beddard,
Animal Coloration (London, 1892); E. Haase, Researches on Mimicry
(translation, London, 1896); A. R. Wallace, Natural Selection and
Tropical Nature (London, 1895); Darwinism (London, 1897); A. H.
Thayer and G. H. Thayer, Concealing-Coloration in the Animal
Kingdom (New York, 1910). (E. B. P.)

2. CHEMISTRY

The coloration of the surface of animals is caused either by
pigments, or by a certain structure of the surface by means of which
the light falling on it, or reflected through its superficial trans-
parent layers, undergoes diffraction or other optical change.
Or it may be the result of a combination of these two causes.
It plays an important part in the relationship of the animal to
its environment, in concealment, in mimicry, and so on; the
presence of a pigment in the integument may also serve a more
direct physiological purpose, such as a respiratory function. The
coloration of birds' feathers, of the skin of many fishes, of many
insects, is partially at least due to structure and the action of the
peculiar pigmented cells known as " chroma tophores " (which
W. Garstang defines as pigmented cells specialized for the
discharge of the chromatic function), and is much better marked
when these have for their background a " reflecting layer " such
as is provided by guanin, a substance closely related to uric acid.
Such a mechanism is seen to greatest advantage in fishes. Among
these, guanin may be present in a finely granular form, causing
the light falling on it to be scattered, thus producing a white
effect; or it may be present in a peculiar crystalline form, the
crystals being known as " iridocytes "; or in a layer of closely
apposed needles forming a silvery sheet or mirror. In the iris of
some fishes the golden red colour is produced by the light
reflected from such a layer of guanin needles having to pass
through a thin layer of a reddish pigment, known as a " h'po-
chrome." Again, in some lepidopterous insects a white or a
yellow appearance is produced by the deposition of uric acid or
a nearly allied substance on the surface of the wings. In many
animals, but especially among invertebrates, colouring matters
or pigments play an important r61e in surface coloration; in some
cases such coloration may be of benefit to the animal, but in
others the integument simply serves as an organ for the excretion
of waste pigmentary substances. Pigments (i) may be of direct
physiological importance; (2) they may be excretory; or (3)
they may be introduced into the body of the animal with the
food.

Of the many pigments which have been described up to the
present time, very few have been subjected to elementary
chemical analysis, owing to the great difficulties attending their
isolation. An extremely small amount of pigment will give rise
to a great amount of coloration, and the pigments are generally
accompanied by impurities of various kinds which cling to them
with great tenacity, so that when one has been thoroughly
cleansed very little of it remains for ultimate analysis. Most of
these substances have been detected by means of the spectroscope,
their absorption bands serving for their recognition, but mere
identity of spectrum does not necessarily mean chemical identity,
and a few chemical tests have also to be applied before a con-
clusion can be drawn. The absorption bands are referred to
certain definite parts of the spectrum, such as the Fraunhofer
lines, or they may be given in wave-lengths. For this purpose
the readings of the spectroscope are reduced to wave-lengths by
means of interpolation curves; or if Zeiss's microspectroscope
be used, the position of bands in wave-lengths (denoted by the
Greek letter X) may be read directly.

Haemoglobin, the red colouring matter of vertebrate

blood,

and its derivatives haematin,
, and haematoporphyrin, CuHwNjOj, are colouring
matters about which we possess definite chemical knowledge, as
they have been isolated, purified and analysed. Most of the
bile pigments of mammals have likewise been isolated and
studied chemically, and all of these are fully described in the
text-books of physiology and physiological chemistry. Haemo-
globin, though physiologically of great importance in the re-
spiratory process of vertebrate animals, is yet seldom used for
surface pigmentation, except in the face of white races of man or
in other parts in monkeys, &c. In some worms the transparent
skin allows the haemoglobin of the blood to be seen through the
integument, and in certain fishes also the haemoglobin is visible
through the integument. It is a curious and noteworthy fact
that in some invertebrate animals in which no haemoglobin
occurs, we meet with its derivatives. Thus haematin is found in
the so-called bile of slugs, snails, the limpet and the crayfish.
In sea-anemones there is a pigment which yields some of the
decomposition-products of haemoglobin, and associated with
this is a green pigment apparently identical with biliverdin
(CieHigNzO.)), a green bile pigment. Again, haematoporphyrin
is found in the integuments of star-fishes and slugs, and occurs
in the " dorsal streak " of the earth-worm Lumbricus terreslris, and
perhaps in other species. Haematoporphyrin and biliverdin also
occur in the egg-shells of certain birds, but in this case they are
derived from haemoglobin. Haemoglobin is said to be found as
low down in the animal kingdom as the Echinoderms, e.g. in
Ophiactis virens and Thyonella gemmata. It also occurs in the
blood of Planorbis corneus and in the pharyngeal muscles of
other mollusca.

A great number of other pigments have been described; for
example, in the muscles and tissues of animals, both vertebrate
and invertebrate, are the histohaematins, of which a special
muscle pigment, myohaematin, is one. In vertebrates the latter
is generally accompanied by haemoglobin, but in invertebrates
with the exception of the pharyngeal muscles of the mollusca
it occurs alone. Although closely related to haemoglobin or its
derivative haemochromogen, the histohaematins are yet totally
distinct, and they are found in animals where not a trace of
haemoglobin can be detected. Another interesting pigment is
turacin, which contains about 7% of nitrogen, found by Pro-
fessor A. H. Church in the feathers of the Cape lory and other
plantain-eaters, from which it can be extracted by water
containing a trace of ammonia. It has been isolated, purified
and analysed by Professor Church. From it may be obtained
turacoporphyrin, which is identical with haematoporphyrin, and
gives the band in the ultra-violet which J. L. Soret and subse-
quently A. Gamgee have found to be characteristic of haemoglobin
and its compounds. Turacin itself gives a peculiar two-banded
spectrum, and contains about 7% of copper in its molecule.
Another copper-containing pigment is haemocyanin, which in the
oxidized state gives a blue colour to the blood of various Mollusca
and Arthropoda. Like haemoglobin, it acts as an oxygen-carrier
in respiration, but it takes no part in surface coloration. ,,

A class of pigments widely distributed among plants and
animals are the lipochromes. As their name denotes, they are
allied to fat and generally accompany it, being soluble in fat
solvents. They play an important part in surface coloration,
and may be greenish, yellow or red in colour. They contain
no nitrogen. As an example of a lipochrome which has been
isolated, crystallized and purified, we may mention carotin,
which has recently been found in green leaves. Chlorophyll,
which is so often associated with a lipochrome, has been found
in some Infusoria, and in Hydra and Spongilla, &c. In some
cases it is probably formed by the animal; in other cases it may
be due to symbiotic algae, while in the gastric gland of many
Mollusca, Crustacea and Echinodermata it is derived from
food-chlorophyll. Here it is known as entero-chlorophyll.
The black pigments which occur among both vertebrate and
invertebrate animals often have only one attribute in common,
viz. blackness, for among the discordant results of analysis one
thing is certain, viz. that the melanins from vertebrate animals

COLSTON COLT'S-FOOT

are not identical with those from invertebrate animals. The
melanosis or blackening of insect blood, for instance, is due to
the oxidation of a chromogen, the pigment produced being
known as a uranidine. In some sponges a somewhat similar
pigment has been noticed. Other pigments have been described,
such as actiniochrome, echinochrome, pentacrinin, antedonin,
polyperythrin (which appears to be a haematoporphyrin), the
floridines, spongioporphyrin, &c., which need no mention here;
all these pigments can only be distinguished by means of the
spectroscope.

Most of the pigments are preceded by colourless substances
known as " chromogens," which by the action of the oxygen
of the air and by other agencies become changed into the corre-
sponding pigments. In some cases the pigments are built up
in the tissues of an animal, in others they appear to be derived
more or less directly from the food. Derivatives of chlorophyll
and lipochromes especially, seem to be taken up from the intes-
tine, probably by the agency of leucocytes, in which they may
occur in combination with, or dissolved by, fatty matters and
excreted by the integument. In worms especially, the skin
seems to excrete many effete substances, pigments included.
No direct connexion has been traced between the chlorophyll
eaten with the food and the haemoglobin of blood and muscle.
Attention may, however, be drawn to the work of Dr E. Schunck,
who has shown that a substance closely resembling haemato-
porphyrin can be prepared from chlorophyll; this is known as
phylloporphyrin. Not only does the visible spectrum of this
substance resemble that of haematoporphyrin, but the invisible
ultra-violet also, as shown by C. A. Schunck.

The reader may refer to E. A. Schafer's Text-Book of Physiology
(1898) for A. Gamgee's article " On Haemoglobin, and its Com-
pounds " ; to the writer's papers in the Phil. Trans, and Proc. Roy.
Soc. from 1881 onwards, and also Quart. Journ. Micros. Science and
Journ. of Physiol. ; to C. F. W. Krukenberg's Vergleichende physio-
logische Studten from 1879 onwards, and to his Vortrdge. Miss M. I.
Newbigin collected in Colour in Nature (1898) most of the recent
literature of this subject. Dr E. Schunck's papers will be found
under the heading " Contribution to the Chemistry of Chlorophyll "
in Proc. Roy. Soc. from 1885 onwards; and Mr C. A. Schunck's
paper in Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. Ixiii. (C. A. MACM.)

COLSTON, EDWARD (1636-1721), English philanthropist,
the son of William Colston, a Bristol merchant of good position,
was born at Bristol on the 2nd of November 1636. He is gener-
ally understood to have spent some years of his youth and man-
hood as a factor in Spain, with which country his family was long
connected commercially, and whence, by means of a trade in
wines and oil, great part of his own vast fortune was to come.
On his return he seems to have settled in London, and to have
bent himself resolutely to the task of making money. In 1681,
the date of his father's decease, he appears as a governor of
Christ's hospital, to which noble foundation he afterwards gave
frequently and largely. In the same year he probably began to
take an active interest in the affairs of Bristol, where he is found
about this time embarked in a sugar refinery; and during the
remainder of his life he seems to have divided his attention pretty
equally between the city of his birth and that of his adoption. In
1682 he appears in the records of the great western port as ad-
vancing a sum of 1800 to its needy corporation; in 1683 as
"a free burgess and meire (St Kitts) merchant" he was made a
member of the Merchant's Hall; and in 1684 he was appointed
one of a committee for managing the affairs of Clifton. In 1685
he again appears as the city's creditor for about 2000, repayment
of which he is found insisting on in 1686. In 1689 he was chosen
auditor by the vestry at Mortlake, where he was residing in an
old house once the abode of Ire ton and Cromwell. In 1691, on
St Michael's Hill, Bristol, at a cost of 8000, he founded an alms-
house for the reception of 24 poor men and women, and endowed
with accommodation for " Six Saylors," at a cost of 600, the
merchant's almsbouses in King Street. In 1696, at a cost of
8000, he endowed a foundation for clothing and teaching 40
boys (the books employed were to have in them " no tincture
of Whiggism ") ; and six years afterwards he expended a further
sum of 1500 in rebuilding the school-house. In 1708, at a cost
of 41,200, he built and endowed his great foundation on Saint

Augustine's Back, for the instruction, clothing, maintaining
and apprenticing of 100 boys; and in time of scarcity, during
this and next year, he transmitted " by a private hand " some
20,000 to the London committee. In 1710, after a poll of four
days, he was sent to parliament, to represent, on strictest Tory
principles, his native city of Bristol; and in 1713, after three
years of silent political life, he resigned this charge. He died
at Mortlake in 1721, having nearly completed his eighty-fifth
year; and was buried in All Saints' church, Bristol.

Colston, who was in the habit of bestowing large sums yearly
for the release of poor debtors and the relief of indigent age and
sickness, and who gave (1711) no less than 6000 to increase
Queen Anne's Bounty Fund for the augmentation of small livings,
was always keenly interested in the organization and manage-
ment of his foundations; the rules and regulations were all
drawn up by his hand, and the minutest details of their consti-
tution and economy were dictated by him. A high churchman
and Tory, with a genuine intolerance of dissent and dissenters,
his name and example have served as excuses for the formation
of two political benevolent societies the " Anchor " (founded
1769) and the "Dolphin" (founded 1749), and also the
" Grateful " (founded 1758), whose rivalry has been perhaps
as instrumental in keeping their patron's memory green as have
the splendid charities with which he enriched his native city
(see BRISTOL).

See Garrard, Edward Colston, the Philanthropist (410, Bristol,
1852); Pryce, A Popular History of Bristol (1861); Manchee,
Bristol Charities.

COLT, SAMUEL (1814-1862), American inventor, was born on
the igth of July 1814 at Hartford, Connecticut, where his
father had a manufactory of silks and woollens. At the age of
ten he left school for the factory, and at fourteen, then being
in a boarding school at Amherst, Massachusetts, he made a
runaway voyage to India, during which (in 1829) he constructed
a wooden model, still existing, of what was afterwards to be the
revolver (see PISTOL). On his return he learned chemistry
from his father's bleaching and dyeing manager, and under the
assumed name " Dr Coult " travelled over the United States
and Canada lecturing on that science. The profits of two years
of this work enabled him to continue his researches and experi-
ments. In 1835, having perfected a six-barrelled rotating
breech, he visited Europe, and patented his inventions in London
and Paris, securing the American right on his return; and the
same year he founded at Paterson, New Jersey, the Patent
Arms Company, for the manufacture of his revolvers only.
As early as 1837 revolvers were successfully used by United
States troops, under Lieut. -Colonel William S. Harney, in
fighting against the Seminole Indians in Florida. Colt's scheme,
however, did not succeed; the arms were not generally appreci-
ated; and in 1842 the company became insolvent. No revolvers
were made for five years, and none were to be had when General
Zachary Taylor wrote for a supply from the seat of war in
Mexico. In 1847 the United States government ordered 1000
from the inventor; but before these could be produced he had
to construct a new model, for a pistol of the company's make
could nowhere be found. This commission was the beginning
of an immense business. The little armoury at Whitneyville
(New Haven, Connecticut), where the order for Mexico was
executed, was soon exchanged for larger workshops at Hartford.
These in their turn gave place (1852) to the enormous factory
of the Colt's Patent Fire- Arms Manufacturing Company, doubled
in 1 86 1, on the banks of the Connecticut river, within the city
limits of Hartford, where so many millions of revolvers with
all their appendages have been manufactured. Thence was
sent, for the Russian and English governments, to Tula and
Enfield, the whole of the elaborate machinery devised by Colt
for the manufacture of his pistols. Colt introduced and patented
a number of improvements in his revolver, and also invented
a submarine battery for harbour defence. He died at Hartford
on the loth of January 1862.

COLT'S-FOOT, the popular name of a small herb, TussUago
Farfara, a member of the natural order Compositae, which is

COLUGO COLUMBAN

737

common in Britain in damp, heavy soils. It has a stout branching
underground stem, which sends up in March and April scapes
about 6 in. high, each bearing a head of bright yellow flowers,
the male in the centre surrounded by a much larger number of
female. The flowers are succeeded by the fruits, which bear a
soft snow-white woolly pappus. The leaves, which appear
later, are broadly cordate with an angular or lobed outline, and
are covered on the under-face with a dense white felt. The
botanical name, Tussilago, recalls its use as a medicine for
cough (tussis). The leaves are smoked in cases of asthma.

COLUGO, or COBEGO, either of two species of the zoological
genus Galeopithecus. These animals live in the forests of the
Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo and the Philippine Islands,
where they feed chiefly on leaves, and probably also on insects.
In size they may be compared with cats; the long slender
limbs are connected by a broad fold of skin extending outwards
from the sides of the neck and body, the fingers and toes are
webbed, and the hind-limbs joined by an outer membrane as in
bats. Their habits are nocturnal, and during the daytime they
cling to the trunks or limbs of trees head downwards in a state
of repose. With the approach of night their season of activity
commences, when they may be occasionally seen gliding from
tree to tree supported on their cutaneous parachute, and they
have been noticed as capable of traversing in this way a space
of 70 yds. with a descent of only about one in five. Europeans
in the East know these animals as " flying lemurs." (See
GALEOPITHECUS.)

COLUMBA, SAINT (Irish, Colum), Irish saint, was born on the
7th of December 521, in all probability at Gartan in Co. Donegal.
His father Feidlimid was a member of the reigning family in
Ireland and was closely allied to that of Dalriada (Argyll) . His
mother Eithne was of Leinster extraction and was descended
from an illustrious provincial king. To these powerful connexions
as much as to his piety and ability, he owed the immense influence
he possessed. Later lives state that the saint was also called
Crimthann (fox), and Reeves suggests that he may have had
two names, the one baptismal, the other secular. He was
afterwards known as Columkille, or Columba of the Church,
to distinguish him from others of the same name. During his
early years the Irish Church was reformed by Gildas and Finian
of Clonard, and numerous monasteries were founded which
made Ireland renowned as a centre of learning. Columba
himself studied under two of the most distinguished Irishmen
of his day, Finian of Moville (at the head of Strangford Lough)
and Finian of Clonard. Almost as a matter of course, under
such circumstances, he embraced the monastic life. He was
ordained deacon while at Moville, and afterwards, when about
thirty years of age, was raised to the priesthood. During his
residence in Ireland he founded, in addition to a number of
churches, two famous monasteries, one named Daire Calgaich
(Deny) on the banks of Lough Foyle, the other Dair-magh
(Durrow) in King's county.

In 563 he left his native land, accompanied by twelve disciples,
and went on a mission to northern Britain, perhaps on the
invitation of his kinsman Conall, king of Dalriada. Irish
accounts represent Columba as undertaking this mission in
consequence of the censure expressed against him by the clergy
after the battle of Cooldrevny; but this is probably a fabrication.
The saint's labours in Scotland must be regarded as a manifesta-
tion of the same spirit of missionary enterprise with which so
many of his countrymen were imbued. Columba established
himself on the island of Hy or lona, where he erected a church
and a monastery. About the year 565 he applied himself to
the task of converting the heathen kingdom of the northern
Picts. Crossing over to the mainland he proceeded to the
residence, on the banks of the Ness, of Brudc, king of the Picts.
By his preaching, his holy life, and, as his earliest biographers
assert, by the performance of miracles, he converted the king
and many of his subjects. The precise details, except in a few
cases, are unknown, or obscured by exaggeration and fiction;
but it is certain that the whole of northern Scotland was con-
verted by the labours of Columba, and his disciples and the

vi. 24

religious instruction of the people provided for by the erection
of numerous monasteries. The monastery of lona was reverenced
as the mother house of all these foundations, and its abbots were
obeyed as the chief ecclesiastical rulers of the whole nation of
the northern Picts. There were then neither dioceses nor parishes
in Ireland and Celtic Scotland; and by the Columbite rule the
bishops themselves, although they ordained the clergy, were
subject to the jurisdiction of the abbots of lona, who, like the
founder of the order, were only presbyters. In matters of
ritual they agreed with the Western Church on the continent,
save in a few particulars such as the precise time of keeping
Easter and manner of tonsure.

Columba was honoured by his countrymen, the Scots of
Britain and Ireland, as much as by his Pictish converts, and
in his character of chief ecclesiastical ruler he gave formal
benediction and inauguration to Aidan, the successor of Conall,
as king of the Scots. He accompanied that prince to Ireland
in 575, and took a leading part in a council held at Drumceat
in Ulster, which determined once and for all the position of the
ruler of Dalriada with regard to the king of Ireland. The last
years of Columba's life appear to have been mainly spent at
lona. There he was already revered as a saint, and whatever
credit may be given to some portions of the narratives of his
biographers, there can be no -doubt as to the wonderful influence
which he exercised, as to the holiness of his life, and as to the
love which he uniformly manifested to God and to his neighbour.

In the summer of 597 he knew that his end was approaching.
On Saturday the 8th of June he was able, with the help of one
of his monks, to ascend a little hill above the monastery and
to give it his farewell blessing. Returning to his cell he continued
a labour in which he had been engaged, the transcription of the
Psalter. Having finished the verse of the 34th Psalm where it
is written, " They who seek the Lord shall want no manner of
thing that is good," he said, " Here I must stop: what follows
let Baithen write "; indicating, as was believed, his wish that
his cousin Baithen should succeed him as abbot. He was
present at evening in the church, and when the midnight bell
sounded for the nocturnal office early on Sunday morning he
again went thither unsupported, but sank down before the altar
and passed away as in a gentle sleep.

Several Irish poems are ascribed to Columba, but they are
manifestly compositions of a later age. Three Latin hymns may,
however, be attributed to the saint with some degree of certainty.

The original materials for a life of St Columba are unusually full.
The earliest biography was written by one of his successors, Cuminius,
who became abbot of lona in 657. Much more important is the
enlargement of that work by Adamnan, who became abbot of lona
in 679. These narratives are supplemented by the brief but most
valuable notices given by the Venerable Bede. See W. Reeves,
Life of St Columba, written by Adamnan (Dublin, 1857); W. F.
Skene, Celtic Scotland, vol. ii. " Church and Culture " (Edinburgh,
1877). (E. C. QJ

COLUMBAN (543-615), Irish saint and writer, was born in
Leinster in 543, and was educated in the monastery of Bangor,
Co. Down. About the year 585 he left Ireland together with
twelve other monks, and established himself in the Vosges, among
the ruins of an ancient fortification called Anagrates, the present
Anegray in the department of Haute-Saone. His enemies accused
him before a synod of French bishops (602) for keeping Easter
according to the old British and now unorthodox way, and a more
powerful conspiracy was organized against him at the court
of Burgundy for boldly rebuking the crimes of King Theuderich
II. and the queen-mother Brunhilda. He was banished and
forcibly removed from his monastery, and with St Gall and
others of the monks he withdrew into Switzerland, where he
preached with no great success to the Suebi and Alamanni.
Being again compelled to flee, he retired to Italy, and founded
the monastery of Bobbio in the Apennines, where he remained
till his death, which took place on the 2ist of November 615.
His writings, which include some Latin poems, prove him a man
of learning, and he appears to have been acquainted not only
with the Latin classics, but also with Greek, and even Hebrew.

The collected edition of St Columban's writings was published by
Patrick Fleming in his Collectanea sacra Hiberni (Louvain, 1667),

COLUMBANI COLUMBIA

and reproduced by Migne, p. 4, vol. Ixxxvi. (Paris, 1844). See
further, Wright's Biographia Literaria. Columban's Regula Coeno-
bilalis cum FoenitenHah is to be found in the Codex Regularum
(Paris, 1638). A complete bibliography is given in U. Chevallier,
Repertoire des sources hist. (Bio. Bibliogr.), vol. i. 990 (Paris, 1905).

COLUMBANI, PLACIDO, Italian architectural designer, who
worked chiefly in England in the latter part of the i8th century.
He belonged to the school of the Adams and Pergolesi, and like
them frequently designed the enrichments of furniture. He
was a prolific producer of chimney-pieces, which are often
mistaken for Adam work, of moulded friezes, and painted plaques
for cabinets and the like. There can be no question that the
English furniture designers of the end of the i8th century, and
especially the Adams, Hepplewhite and Sheraton, owed much
to his graceful, flowing and classical conceptions, although they
are often inferior to those of Pergolesi. His books are still a
valuable store-house of sketches for internal architectural
decoration. His principal works are: Vases and Tripods
(1770); A New Book of Ornaments, containing a variety of elegant
designs for Modern Panels, commonly executed in Stucco, Wood
or Painting, and used in decorating Principal Rooms (1775);
A variety of Capitals, Friezes and Corniches, and how to increase
and decrease them, still retaining their proportions (1776). He
also assisted John Crunden in the production of The Chimney-
piece Makers' Daily Assistant (1776).

COLUMBARIUM (Lat. columba, a dove), a pigeon-house.
The term is applied in architecture to those sepulchral chambers
in and near Rome, the walls of which were sunk with small niches
(columbaria) to receive the cinerary urns. Vitruvius (iv. 2)
employs the term to signify the holes made in a wall to receive
the ends of the timbers of a floor or roof.

COLUMBIA, a city and the county-seat of Boone county,
Missouri, U.S.A., situated in the central part of the state, about
145 m. (by rail) W.N.W. of St Louis. Pop. (1890) 4000; (1900)
5651 (1916 negroes); (1910) 9662. Columbia is served by the
Wabash and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways. It is
primarily an educational centre, is a market for grain and farm
products, and has grain elevators, a packing house, a shoe
factory and brick works. Columbia is the seat of the University
of Missouri, a coeducational state institution, established in
1839 and opened in 1841; it received no direct financial support
from the state until 1867, and its founding was due to the self-
sacrifice of the people of the county. It is now liberally supported
by the state; in 1908 its annual income was about $650,000.
In 1908 the university had (at Columbia) 200 instructors and
2419 students, including 680 women; included in its library is
the collection of the State Historical Society. The School of
Mines of the university is at Rolla, Mo.; all other departments
are at Columbia. A normal department was established in 1867
and opened in 1868; and women were admitted to it in 1869.
The College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts became a depart-
ment of the university in 1870. The law department was opened
in 1872, the medical in 1873, and the engineering in 1877. The
graduate department was established in 1896, and in 1908 a
department of journalism was organized. On the university
campus in the quadrangle is the monument of grey granite
erected over the grave of Thomas Jefferson, designed after his
own plans, and bearing the famous inscription written by him.
It was given to the university by descendants of Jefferson when
Congress appropriated money for the monument now standing
over fiis grave. Near the city is the farm of the agricultural
college and the experiment station. At Columbia, also, are the
Parker Memorial hospital, the Teachers College high school,
the University Military Academy, the Columbia Business
College, Christian College (Disciples) for women, established in
1851, its charter being the first granted by Missouri for the
collegiate education of Protestant women; the Bible College
of the Disciples of Christ in Missouri; and Stephens College
(under Baptist control) for women, established in 1856. The
municipality owns the water-works and the electric lighting
plant. Columbia was first settled about 1821.

COLUMBIA, a borough of Lancaster county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Susquehanna river (here crossed

by a long steel bridge), opposite Wrightsville and about 81 m.
W. by N. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 10,599; (1900) 12,316,
of whom 772 were foreign-born; (1910) 11,454. It is served
by the Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington,
the Philadelphia & Reading, and the Northern Central railways,
and by interurban electric railways. The river here is about
a mile wide, and a considerable portion of the borough is built
on the slope of a hill which rises gently from the river-bank and
overlooks beautiful scenery. The Pennsylvania railway has
repair shops here, and among Columbia's manufactures are silk
goods, embroidery and laces, iron and steel pipe, engines,
laundry machinery, brushes, stoves, iron toys, umbrellas, flour,
lumber and wagons; the city is also a busy shipping and trading
centre. Columbia was first settled, by Quakers, in 1726; it
was laid out as a town in 1787; and in 1814 it was incorporated.
In 1790 it was one of several places considered in Congress for
a permanent site of the national capital.

COLUMBIA, the capital city of South Carolina, U.S.A., and
the county-seat of Richland county, on the E. bank of the
Congaree river, a short distance below the confluence of the
Saluda and the Broad rivers, about 130 m. N.W. of Charleston.
Pop. (1890) 15,353; (1900) 21,108, of whom 9858 were negroes;
and (1910) 26,319. It is served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the
Southern, the Seaboard Air Line, and the Columbia, Newberry
& Laurens railways. Columbia is picturesquely situated on the
level top of a bluff overlooking the Congaree, which falls about
36 ft. in passing by, but is navigable for the remainder of its
course. The surrounding country is devoted chiefly to cotton
culture. The state house, United States government building and
city hall are fine structures. Some of the new business houses
are ten or more storeys in height. The state penitentiary and
the state insane asylum are located here, and Columbia is an
important educational centre, being the seat of the university
of South Carolina, the Columbia College for women (Methodist
Episcopal South, 1854), the College for women (Presbyterian,
1890), and the Presbyterian Theological Seminary (1828); and
the Allen University (African Methodist Episcopal; coedu-
cational, 1880), and the Benedict College (Baptist) for negroes.
The University of South Carolina, organized in 1801 and opened
in 1805, was known as South Carolina College in 1805-1863,
1878-1887 and 1891-1906, and as the university of South
Carolina in 1866-1877, 1888-1891 and after 1906; in 1907-1908
it had departments of arts, science, pedagogy and law, an enrol-
ment of 285 students, and a faculty of 25 instructors. By
means of a canal abundant water power is furnished by the
Congaree, and the city has some of the largest cotton mills in the
world; it has, besides, foundries and machine shops and manu-
factories of fertilizers and hosiery. The manufactures under
the factory system were valued at $3,133,903 in 1900 and at
$4,676,944 in 1905 a gain, greater than that of any other city
in the state, of 49-2% in five years. In the neighbourhood are
several valuable granite quarries. The municipality owns and
operates its water-works.

While much of the site was still a forest the legislature, in
1786, chose it for the new capital. It was laid out in the same
year, and in 1790 the legislature first met here. Until 1805,
when it was incorporated as a village, Columbia was under the
direct government of the legislature; in 1854 it was chartered
as a city. On the morning of the I7th of February 1865 General
W. T. Sherman, on his march through the Carolinas, entered
Columbia, and on the ensuing night a fire broke out which was
not extinguished until most of the city was destroyed. The
responsibility for this fire was charged by the Confederates upon
the Federals and by the Federals upon the Confederates.

COLUMBIA, a city and the county-seat of Maury county,
Tennessee, U.S.A., situated on the Duck river, in the central part
of the state, 46 m. S. of Nashville. Pop. (1890) 5370; (1900)
6052 (2716 negroes); (1910) 5754. Columbia is served by the
Louisville & Nashville, and the Nashville, Chattanooga & St
Louis railways. It is the seat of the Columbia Institute for girls
(under Protestant Episcopal control), founded in 1836, and of
the Columbia Military Academy. Columbia is in a fine farming

COLUMBIA RIVER COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

739

region; is engaged extensively in the mining and shipping
of phosphates; has an important trade in live-stock, especially
mules; manufactures cotton, lumber, flour, bricks, pumps and
woollen goods; and has marble and stone works. Columbia
was settled about 1807 and was incorporated in 1822. During
the Civil War it was the base from which General N. B. Forrest
operated in 1862-1863, and was alternately occupied by Con-
federate and Federal forces during General Hood's Nashville
campaign (November-December 1864).

COLUMBIA RIVER, a stream of the north-west United States
and south-west Canada, about 939 m. in length, draining a basin
of about 250,000 sq. m., of which 38,395 are in British Columbia;
some 105,000 sq. m. belong to the valley of the Snake and
11,700 to that of the Willamette. The source of the river is
partly in the Yellowstone country, partly near the Titon peaks,
and partly in the pine-clad mountains of British Columbia.
Some American geographers regard the head as that of the Clark
Fork, but it is most generally taken to be in British Columbia
about 80 m. north of the United States line. From this point
it runs some 150 m. to the north-west to the " Big Bend," and
then in a great curve southward, enclosing the superb ranges of
the Selkirks, crossing the international line near the boundary
of Washington and Idaho, where it is joined by the Pend Oreille
river, or Clark Fork, already referred to. This latter river rises
in the Rocky Mountains west of Helena, Montana, falls with
a heavy slope (1323 ft. in 167 m.) to its confluence with the Flat-
head, flows through Lake Pend Oreille (27 m.) in northern Idaho,
and runs in deep canyons (falling 900 ft. in 200 m.) to its junction
with the Columbia, which from this point continues almost due
south for more than 106 m. Here the Columbia is joined by the
Spokane, a large river with heavy fall, and enters the " Great
Plain of the Columbia," an area of some 22,000 sq. m., resemb-
ling the " parks " of Colorado, shut in on all sides by mountains:
the Moses range to the north, the Bitter Root and Cceur d'Alene
on the east, the Blue on the south, and the Cascades on the west.
The soil is rich, yielding great harvests of grain, and the moun-
tains rich, in minerals as yet only slightly prospected. After
breaking into this basin the river turns sharply to the west and
skirts the northern mountain barrier for about 105 m. Where
it strikes the confines of the Cascades, it is joined by the
Okanogan, turns due south in the second Big Bend, and flows
about 200 m. to its junction with the Snake near Wallula.

After the confluence of the Snake with the Columbia the
greater river turns west toward the Pacific. Throughout its
course to this point it may be said that the Columbia has no
flood plain; everywhere it is cutting its bed; almost every-
where it is characterized by canyons, although above the Spokane
the valley is much broken down and there is considerable
timbered and fertile bench land. Below the Spokane the
canyon becomes more steep and rugged. From the mouth of
the Okanogan to Priests Rapids extends a superb canyon, with
precipitous walls of black columnar basalt 1000 to 3000 ft. in
height. The finest portion is below the Rock Island Rapids.
In this part of its course, along the Cascade range in the Great
Plain and at its passage of the range westward, rapids and
cascades particularly obstruct the imperfectly opened bed.
In the lower Columbia, navigation is first interrupted 160 m.
from the mouth at the Cascades, a narrow gorge across the
Cascade range 4-5 m. long, where the river falls 24 ft. in 2500;
the rapids are evaded by a canal constructed (1878-1896) by the
Federal government, and by a portage railway (1890-1891).
Fifty-three miles above this are the Dalles, a series of falls,
rapids and rock obstructions extending some 12 m. and ending
at Celilo, 115 m. below Wallula, with a fall of 20 ft. There are
also impediments just below the mouth of the Snake; others
in the lower course of this river below Riparia; and almost
continuous obstructions in the Columbia above Priests Rapids.
The commerce of the Columbia is very important, especially
that from Portland, Vancouver, Astoria, and other outlets of
the Willamette -valley and the lower Columbia. The grain
region of the Great Plain, the bottom-land orchards and grain
field on the plateaus of the Snake, have not since 1880 been

dependent upon the water navigation for freighting, but in their
interest costly attempts have been made to open the river below
the Snake uninterruptedly to commerce.

The Columbia is one of the greatest salmon streams of the
world (see OREGON). The tonnage of deep-sea vessels in and out
over the bar at the river's mouth from 1890-1899 was 9,423,637
tons. From 1872-1899 the United States government expended
for improvement of the Snake and Columbia $6,925,649. The
mouth of the latter is the only deep-water harbour between
San Francisco and Cape Flattery (700 m.), and the only fresh
water harbour of the Pacific coast. To facilitate its entrance,
which, owing to bars, tides, winds, and the great discharge of
the river, has always been difficult, a great jetty has been con-
structed (1885-1895, later enlarged) to scour the bars. It was
about 4-5 miles long, and in 1903 work was begun to make it 2-5
miles longer. The tides are perceptible 150 m. above the mouth
(mean tide at Astoria c. 6-2 ft.), the average tidal flow at the
mouth being about 1,000,000 cub. ft. per second; while the
fresh water outflow is from 90,000 to 300,000 cub. ft. according
to the stage of water, and as high as 1,000,000 cub. ft. in time
of flood. Improvements were undertaken by the Federal govern-
ment and a state commission in 1902 in order to secure a 25-ft.
channel from Portland to the sea.

In 1792, and possibly also in 1788, the river mouth was entered
by Captain Robert Gray (1755-1806) of Boston, Mass., who
named the river after his own vessel, " Columbia," which name
has wholly supplanted the earlier name, " Oregon." In 1804-
1805 the river was explored by Meriwether Lewis and William
Clark. Upon these discoveries the United States primarily
based its claim to the territory now embraced in the states of
Oregon and Washington.

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, one of the oldest and most im-
portant of the higher institutions of learning in the United
States, located for the most part on Morningside Heights,
New York city. It embraces Columbia College, founded as
King's College in 1754; a school of medicine (the College of
Physicians and Surgeons) founded in 1767, in West 59th Street;
a school of law, founded in 1858; schools of applied science,
including a school of mines and schools of chemistry and engineer-
ing, separately organized in 1896; a school of architecture,
organized in 1881 ; graduate schools of political science, organized
in 1880, philosophy, organized in 1890, and pure science,
organized in 1892; and a school of journalism; closely affiliated
with it are the College of Pharmacy, founded in 1829, in West
68th Street; Teachers' College, founded in 1886, as the New
York College for the Training of Teachers, and essentially a
part of the university since 1899; and Barnard College (for
women) founded in 1889, and essentially a part of the university
since 1 900. Reciprocal relations also exist between the university
and both the General Theological Seminary of the Protestant
Episcopal Church and the Union Theological Seminary, thus
practically adding to the university a theological department.
Columbia also nominates the American professors who lecture at
German universities by the reciprocal arrangement made in 1905,
the German professors lecturing in America being nominated by
the Prussian ministry of education. Women are now admitted to
all the university courses except those in law, medicine, techno-
logy and architecture. Since 1900 a summer session has been
held for six weeks and attended largely by teachers. Teachers
and others, under the direction of the Teachers' College, are
afforded an opportunity to pursue courses in absentia and so meet
some of the requirements for an academic degree or a teacher's
diploma. All students of good ability are enabled to complete
the requirements for the bachelor's degree together with any one
of the professional degrees by six years of study at the university.
Several courses of lectures designed especially for the public
notably the Hewitt Lectures, in co-operation with Cooper Union
are delivered at different places in the city and at the university.

In 1908 there were in Columbia University in all departments
609 instructors and 4096 students; of these 420 were in Barnard
College, 850 were in the Teachers' College, and 229 were in the
College of Pharmacy. The numerous University publications

740

COLUMBINE COLUMBIUM

include works embodying the results of original research pub-
lished by the University Press; " Studies " published in the
form of a series by each of several departments, various periodi-
cals edited by some members of the faculty, such as the
Columbia University Quarterly, the Political Science Quarterly,
and the School of Mines Quarterly; and several papers or
periodicals published by the students, among which are the
Columbia Spectator, a daily paper, the Columbia Law Review,
the Columbia Monthly and the Columbia Jester.

With two or three unimportant exceptions the buildings of
the university on Morningside Heights have been erected since
1896. They include, besides the several department buildings,
a library building, a university hall (with gymnasium), Earl
Hall (for social purposes), St Paul's chapel (dedicated in 1907),
two residence halls for men, and one for women. The library
contains about 450,000 volumes exclusive of duplicates and
unbound pamphlets. The highest authority in the government
of the institution is vested in a board of twenty-four trustees,
vacancies in which are filled by co-optation; but the immediate
educational interests are directed largely by the members of the
university council, which is composed of the president of the
university, the dean and one other representative from the
faculty of each school. The institution is maintained by the
proceeds from an endowment fund exceeding $15,000,000, by
tuition fees ranging, according to the school, from $150 to $250
for each student, and by occasional gifts for particular objects.

The charter (1754) providing for the establishment of King's
College was so free from narrow sectarianism as to name ministers
of five different denominations for ex-officio governors, and the
purpose of the institution as set forth by its first president,
Dr Samuel Johnson (1696-1772) was about as broad as that
now realised. In 1756 the erection of the first building was
begun at the lower end of Manhattan Island, near the Hudson,
and the institution prospered from the beginning. From 1776
to 1784, during the War of Independence, the exercises of the
college were suspended and the library and apparatus were
stored in the New York city hall. In 1 784 the name was changed
to Columbia College, and an act of the legislature was passed for
creating a state university, of which Columbia was to be the
basis. But the plan was not a success, and three years later, in
1787, the act was repealed and the administration of Columbia
was entrusted to a board of trustees of which the present board
is a successor. In 1857 there was an extensive re-organization
by which the scope of the institution was much enlarged, and at
the same time it was removed to a new site on Madison Avenue
between 49th and soth Streets. From 1890 to 1895 much
centralization in its administration was effected, in 1896 the
name of Columbia University was adopted, and in the autumn
of 1897 the old site and buildings were again abandoned for new,
this time on Morningside Heights.

See A History of Columbia University, by members of the faculty
(New York, 1904) ; and J. B. Pine, " King's College, now Columbia
University," in Historic New York (New York, 1897).

COLUMBINE (Ital. columbina, from columba, a dove), in
pantomime (q.v.) the fairy-like dancer who is courted by
Harlequin. In the medieval Italian popular comedy she was
Harlequin's daughter.

COLUMBINE, an erect perennial herbaceous plant known
botanically as AquUegia vulgaris (natural order Ranunculaceae).
In Med. Latin it was known as Columbina sc. herba, the dove's
plant. The slender stem bears delicate, long-stalked, deeply
divided leaves with blunt segments, and a loose panicle of
handsome drooping blue or white flowers, which are characterized
by having all the five petals spurred. The plant occurs wild
in woods and thickets in England and Ireland, and flowers in
early summer. It is well known in cultivation as a favourite
spring flower, in many varieties, some of which have red
flowers.

COLUMBITE, a rare mineral consisting of iron niobate,
FeNbjOe, in which the iron and niobium are replaced by varying
amounts of manganese and tantalum respectively, the general
formula being (Fe, Mn) (Nb, Ta) 2 6 . It was in this mineral that

Charles Hatchett discovered, in 1801, the element niobium,
which he himself called columbium after the country (Columbia
or America) whence came the specimen in the British Museum
collection which he examined. The species has also been
called niobite. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system,
and the black, opaque crystals are often very
brilliant with a sub-metallic lustre. Twinned
crystals are not uncommon, and there is a dis-
tinct cleavage parallel to the face marked b in the
figure. Hardness 6; specific gravity 5-3. With
increasing amount of tantalum the specific
gravity increases up to 7-3, and members at this
end of the series are known as tantalite (FeTa2Oe) .
Specimens in which the iron is largely replaced
by manganese are known as manganocolumbite
or manganotantalite, according as they contain
more niobium or more tantalum. Columbite
occurs as crystals and compact masses in granite
and pegmatite at Rabenstein in Lower Bavaria,

Crystal of
Columbitc.

the Ilmen Mountains in the Urals, Haddam in Connecticut, and
several other localities in the United States; also in the cryolite
of Greenland. Tantalite is from Finland, and it has recently
been found in some abundance in the deposits of cassiterite in
the tin-field of Greenbushes in the Blackwood district, Western
Australia.

Dimorphous with columbite and tantalite are the tetragonal
minerals tapiolite (= skogbolite) and mossite, so that the four
form an isodimorphous group with the general formula
(Fe, Mn) (Nb, Ta^Oe. Mossite is from a pegmatite vein near
Moss in Norway, and tapiolite is from Finland. All these
minerals contain tin in small amount. (L. J. S.)

COLUMBIUM, or NIOBIUM (symbol Cb or Nb, atomic weight
94), one of the metallic elements of the nitrogen group, first
detected in 1801 by C. Hatchett in a specimen of columbite
(niobite) from Massachusetts (Phil. Trans. 1802, 49). It is
usually found associated with tantalum, the chief minerals
containing these two elements being tantalite, columbite,
fergusonite and yttrotantalite; it is also a constituent of
pyrochlor, euxenite and samarskite. Columbium compounds are
usually prepared by fusing columbite with an excess of acid
potassium sulphate, boiling out the fused mass with much water,
and removing tin and tungsten from the residue by digestion
with ammonium sulphide, any iron present being simultaneously
converted into ferrous sulphide. The residue is washed, ex-
tracted by dilute hydrochloric acid, and again well washed with
boiling water. It is then dissolved in hydrofluoric acid and
heated in order to expel silicon fluoride; finally the columbium,
tantalum and titanium fluorides are separated by the different
solubilities of their double fluorides (C. Marignac, Ann. chim.
et phys. 1866 [4], 8, p. 63; 1868, 13, p. 28; see also W. Gibbs,
Jahresb. 1864, p. 685; R. D. Hall and E. F. Smith, Proc. A mer.
Philos. Soc. 1905, 44, p. 177).

The metal was first obtained by C. W. Blomstrand (Journ.
prak. C/;ew. 1 866, 9 7 , p. 3 7) by reducing the chloride with hydrogen ;
it has more recently been prepared by H. Moissan by reducing
the oxide with carbon in the electric furnace (the product
obtained always contains from 2-3% of combined carbon), and
by H. Goldschmidt and C. Vautin (Journ. Soc. Chem. Industry,
1898, 19, p. 543) by reducing the oxide with aluminium powder.
As obtained by the reduction of the chloride, it is a steel grey
powder of specific gravity 7-06. It burns on heating in air; and
is scarcely attacked by hydrochloric or nitric acids, or by aqua
regia; it is soluble in warm concentrated sulphuric acid.

Columbium hydride, CbH, is obtained as a greyish metallic
powder, when the double fluoride, CbFj, 2 KF, is reduced with sodium.
It burns when heated in air, and is soluble in warm concentrated
sulphuric acid. Three oxides of columbium are certainly known,
namely the dioxide, Cb 2 O 2 , the tetroxide, CbjOj, and the pentoxide,
Cb 2 O 6 , whilst a fourth oxide, columbium tripxide, Ct^Os, has been
described by E. F. Smith and P. Maas (Zeit. f. anorg. Chem. 1894,
7, p. 97). Columbium dioxide, Cb 2 O 2 , is formed when dry potassium
columbium oxyfluoride is > reduced by sodium (H. Rose, Fogg. Ann.
1858, 104, p. 312). It burns readily in air, and is converted into the
pentoxide when fused with acid potassium sulphate. Columbium

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER

teiroxide, CbsO<, is obtained as a black powder when the pentoxide
is heated to a high temperature in a current of hydrogen. It is un-
attacked by acids. Columbium pentoxide (columbic acid), CbaOs,
is obtained from columbite, after the removal of tantalum (see
above). The mother liquors are concentrated, and the double salt
of composition 2KF-CbOFa-H2O, which separates, is decomposed
by sulphuric acid, or by continued boiling with water (C. Marignac;
see also G. Kriiss and L. F. Nilson, Ber. 1887, 20. p. 1676). It is a
white amorphous infusible powder, which when strongly heated in
sulphuretted hydrogen, yields an oxysulphide. Several hydrated
forms are known, yielding salts known as columbates. A percolumbic
acid, HCbO4-nH 2 O, has been prepared by P. Melikoff and L. Pissar-
jewsky (Zeit.f. anorg. Chem. 1899, 20, p. 341), as a yellow amorphous
powder by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on the potassium salt,
which is formed when columbic acid is fused in a silver crucible with
eight times its weight of caustic potash (loc. cit.). Salts of the acid
HsCbOs have been described by C. W. Balke and E. F. Smith (Jour.
Amer. Chem. Soc. 1908, 30, p. 1637).

Columbium trichloride, CbCls, is obtained in needles or crystalline
crusts, when the vapour of the pentachloride is slowly passed
through a red-hot tube. When heated in a current of carbon dioxide
it forms the oxychloride CbOCls, and carbon monoxide. Columbium
pentachloride, CbCU, is obtained in yellow needles when a mixture
of the pentoxide and sugar charcoal is heated in a current of air-free
chlorine. It melts at 194 C. (H. Deville) and boils at 240-5 C.
It is decomposed by water, and dissolves in hydrochloric acid.
Columbium oxychloride, CbOCls, is formed when carbon tetrachloride,
and columbic acid are heated together at 440" C. : 3CC1 +Cb2Os =
2CbOCU +3CpCU,and also by distilling the pentachloride.in a current
of carbon dioxide, over ignited columbic acid. It forms a white silky
mass which volatilizes at about 400 C. It deliquesces in moist air, and
is decomposed violently by water. Columbium pentafluoride, CbFo,
is obtained when the pentoxide is dissolved in hydrofluoric acid.
It is only known in solution ; evaporation of the solution yields the
pentoxide. The oxyfluoride, CbOFs, results when a mixture of the
pentoxide and fluorspar is heated in a current of hydrochloric acid.
It forms many double salts with other metallic fluorides.

Columbium oxysulphide, CbOS s , is obtained as a dark bronze
coloured powder when the pentoxide is heated to a white heat in a
current of carbon bisulphide vapour; or by gently heating the
oxychloride in a current of sulphuretted hydrogen. It burns when
heated in air, forming the pentoxide and sulphur dioxide.

Columbium nitride, CbsNs (?), is formed when dry ammonia gas is
passed into an ethereal solution of the chloride. A heavy white
precipitate, consisting of ammonium chloride and columbium
nitride, is thrown down, and the ammonium chloride is removed by
washing it out with hot water, when the columbium nitride remains
as an amorphous residue (Hall and Smith, loc. cit.).

Potassium fluoxy percolumbate, I^CbC^Fs-HsO, is prepared by
dissolving potassium columbium oxyfluoride in a 3 % solution of
hydrogen, peroxide. The solution turns yellow in colour, and, when
saturated, deposits a pasty mass of crystals. The salt separates
from solutions containing hydrofluoric acid in large plates, which
are greenish yellow in colour.

The atomic weight was determined by C. Marignac (Ann. chim. el
phys. 1866 (4), 8, p. 16) to be 94 from the analysis of potassium
columbium oxyfluoride, and the same value has been obtained by
T. W. Richards (Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 1898, 20, p. 543).

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER [in Spanish CRISTOBAL COLON]
(c. 1446, or perhaps rather 1451, -1506) was the eldest son of
Domenico Colombo and Suzanna Fontanarossa, and was born at
Genoa either about 1446 or in 1451, the exact date being un-
certain. His father was a wool-comber, of some small means,
who lived till 1498. According to the life of Columbus by his
son Ferdinand (a statement supported by Las Casas), young
Christopher was sent to the university of Pavia, where he
devoted himself to astronomy, geometry and cosmography.
Yet, according to the admiral's own statement, he became a
sailor at fourteen. Evidently this statement, however, cannot
mean the abandonment of all other employment, for in 1470,
1472, and 1473 we find him engaged in trade at Genoa, following
the family business of weaving, and (in 1473) residing at the
neighbouring Savona. In 1474-1475 he appears to have visited
Chios, where he may have resided some time, returning to
Genoa perhaps early in 1476. Thence he seems to have again
set out on a voyage in the summer of 1476, perhaps bound for
England; on the I3th of August 1476, the four Genoese vessels
he accompanied were attacked off Cape St Vincent by a privateer,
one Guillaume de Casenove, surnamed Coullon or Colombo
(" Columbus ") ; two of the four ships escaped, with Christopher,
to Lisbon. In December 1476, the latter resumed their voyage
to England, probably carrying with them Columbus, who, after
a short stay in England, claims to have made a voyage in the

northern seas, and even to have visited Iceland about February
1477. This last pretension is gravely disputed, but it is perhaps
not to be rejected, and we may also trace the Genoese about this
time at Bristol, at Galway, and probably among the islands west
and north of Scotland. Soon after this he returned to Portugal,
where (probably in 1478) he married a lady of some rank, Felipa
Moniz de Perestrello, daughter of Bartholomew Perestrello, a
captain in the service of Prince Henry the Navigator, and one of
the early colonists and first governor of Porto Santo. Felipa was
also a cousin of the archbishop of Lisbon at this time (1478).

About 1479 Columbus visited Porto Santo, here as in Portugal
probably employing his time in making maps and charts for a
livelihood, while he pored over the logs and papers of his deceased
father-in-law, and talked with old seamen of their voyages, and
of the mystery of the western seas. About this time, too, if
not earlier, he seems to have arrived at the conclusion that much
of the world remained undiscovered, and step by step conceived
that design of reaching Asia by sailing west which was to result
in the discovery of America. In 1474 he is said to idea of
have corresponded with Paolo Toscanelli, the Floren- western
tine physician and cosmographer, and to have received p****ge
from him valuable suggestions, both by map and toA * la -
letter, for such a Western enterprise. (The whole of this incident
has been disputed by some recent critics.) He had perhaps
already begun his studies in a number of works, especially the
Book of Marco Polo and the Imago Mundi of Pierre d'Ailly, by
which his cosmographical and geographical conceptions were
largely moulded. His views, as finally developed and presented
to the courts of Portugal and Spain, were supported by three
principal lines of argument, derived from natural reasons, from
the theories of geographers, and from the reports and traditions
of mariners. He believed the world to be a sphere; he under-
estimated its size; he overestimated the size of the Asiatic
continent. And the farther that continent extended towards
the east, the nearer it came towards Spain. Nor were these
theories the only supports of his idea. Martin Vicente, a Portu-
guese pilot, was said to have found, 400 leagues to the westward
of Cape St Vincent, and after a westerly gale of many days'
duration, a piece of strange wood, wrought, but not with iron;
Pedro Correa, Columbus's own brother-in-law, was said to have
seen another such waif at Porto Santo, with great canes capable
of holding four quarts of wine between joint and joint, and to
have heard of two men being washed up at Flores " very broad-
faced, and differing in aspect from Christians." West of Europe,
now and then, men fancied there hove in sight the mysterious
islands of St Brandan, of Brazil, of Antillia or of the Seven
Cities. In his northern journey, too, some vague and formless
traditions may have reached the explorer's ear of the voyages
of Leif Ericson and Thorfinn Karlsefne, and of the coasts of
Markland and Vinland. All were hints and rumours to bid the
bold mariner sail towards the setting sun, and this he at length
determined to do.

The concurrence of some state or sovereign, however, was
necessary for the success of this design. Columbus, on the
accession of John II. of Portugal, seems to have
entered the service of this country, to have accom-
panied Diego d'Azambuja to the Gold Coast, and to
have taken part in the construction of the famous fort of St
George at El Mina (1481-1482). On his return from this ex-
pedition, he submitted to King John the scheme he had now
matured for reaching Asia by a western route across the ocean.
The king was deeply interested in the rival scheme (of an eastern
or south-eastern route round Africa to India) which had so long
held the field, which had been initiated by the Genoese in 1291,
and which had been revived, for Portugal, by Prince Henry
the Navigator; but he listened to the Genoese, and referred
him to a committee of council for geographical affairs. The
council's report was adverse; but the king, who was yet inclined
to favour the theory of Columbus, assented to the suggestion
of the bishop of Ceuta that the plan should be carried out in
secret and without its author's knowledge. A caravel was
despatched; but it returned after a brief absence, the sailors

Quest of
a patron.

742

having lost heart, and refused to venture farther. Upon dis-
covering this treachery, Columbus left Lisbon for Spain (1484),
taking with him his son Diego, the only issue of his marriage
with Felipa Mofiiz, who was by this time dead. He departed
secretly; according to some writers, to give the slip to King
John; according to others, to escape his creditors.

Columbus next betook himself to the south of Spain, and
while meditating an appeal to the king of France, opened his
plans to the count (from 1491, duke) of Medina Celi. The
latter gave him great encouragement, entertained him for two
years, and even determined to furnish him with three or four
caravels, to carry out his great design. Finally, however,
being deterred by the consideration that the enterprise was
too vast for a subject, he turned his guest from the determination
he had come to of making application at the court of France,
by writing on his behalf to Queen Isabella; and Columbus
repaired to the court at Cordova at her bidding (1486).

It was an ill moment for the navigator's fortune. Castile
and Leon were in the thick of that struggle which resulted in
the final conquest of the Granada Moors; and neither Ferdinand
nor Isabella had time as yet to give due consideration to Colum-
bus' proposals. The adventurer was indeed kindly received;
he was handed over to the care of Alonso de Quintanilla, whom
he speedily converted into an enthusiastic supporter of his
theory. He made many other friends, and among them Beatriz
Enriquez, the mother of his second son Fernando. But the
committee, presided over by the queen's confessor, Fray Her-
nando de Talavera, which had been appointed to consider the
new project, reported that it was vain and impracticable.

From Cordova Columbus followed the court to Salamanca,
having already been introduced by Quintanilla to the notice
of the grand cardinal, Pedro Gonzalez de Mendoza, " the third
king of Spain "; the latter had befriended and supported the
Genoese, and apparently arranged the first interview between
him and Queen Isabella. At Salamanca prolonged discussions
took place upon the questions now raised; the Dominicans
of San Esteban entertained Columbus during the conferences
(1486-1487). In 1487 Columbus, who had been following the
court from place to place (billeted in towns as an officer of the
sovereigns, and gratified from time to time with sums of money
towards his expenses), was present at the siege of Malaga. In
1488 he was invited by the king of Portugal, his " especial
friend," to return to that country, and was assured of protection
against arrest or proceedings of any kind (March 20): he had
probably made fresh overtures to King John shortly before;
and in the autumn of 1488 we find him in Lisbon, conferring
with his brother Bartholomew and laying plans for the future.
We have no record of the final negotiations of Columbus with
the Portuguese government, but they clearly did not issue in
anything definite, for Christopher now returned to Spain (though
not till he had witnessed the return of Bartholomew Diaz from
the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope and his reception by
King John), while Bartholomew proceeded to England with a
mission to interest King Henry VII. in the Columbian schemes.
If the London enterprise was unsuccessful (as indeed it proved),
it was settled that Bartholomew should carry the same invitation
to the French court. He did so; and here he remained till
summoned to Spain in 1493. Meantime Christopher, unable
throughout 1490 to get a hearing at the Spanish court, was in
1491 again referred to a. junta, presided over by Cardinal Mendoza;
but this junta, to Columbus' dismay, once more rejected his
proposals; the Spanish sovereigns merely promised him that
when the Granada war was over, they would reconsider what
he had laid before them.

Columbus was now in despair. He at once betook himself
to Huelva, a little maritime town in Andalusia, north-west of
Cadiz, with the intention of taking ship for France. He halted,
however, at the monastery of La Rabida, near Huelva, and
still nearer Palos, where he seems to have made lasting friend-
ships on his first arrival in Spain in January 1485, where he
especially enlisted the support of Juan Perez, the guardian, who
invited him to take up his quarters in the monastery, and

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER

introduced him to Garcia Fernandez, a physician and student
of geography. Juan Perez had been the queen's confessor;
he now wrote to her in urgent terms, and was summoned to her
presence; and money was sent to Columbus to bring him once
more to court. He reached Granada in time to witness the
surrender of the city (January 2, 1492), and negotiations were
resumed. Columbus believed in his mission, and stood out
for high terms; he asked for the rank of admiral at once
(" Admiral of the Ocean " in all those islands, seas, and continents
that he might discover), the vice-royalty of all he should discover,
and a tenth of the precious metals discovered within his admiralty.
These conditions were rejected, and the negotiations were again
interrupted. An interview with Mendoza appears to have
followed ; but nothing came of it, and before the close of January
1492, Columbus actually set out for France. At length, however,
on the entreaty of the Queen's confidante, the Marquesa de
Moya, of Luis de Santangel, receiver of the ecclesiastical revenues
of the crown of Aragon, and of other courtiers, Isabella was
induced to determine on the expedition. A messenger was sent
after Columbus, and overtook him near a bridge called " Pinos,"
6 m. from Granada. He returned to the camp at Santa Fe;
and on the I7th of April 1492, the agreement between him and
their Catholic majesties was signed and sealed.

As his aims included not only the discovery of Cipangu or
Japan, but also the opening up of intercourse with the grand
khan of Cathay, he received a royal letter of introduction to
the latter. The town of Palos was ordered to find him two ships,
and these were soon placed at his disposal. But no crews could
be got together, in spite of the indemnity offered to criminals
and "broken men" who would serve on the expedition; and
had not Juan Perez succeeded in interesting in the cause the
Palos " magnates " Martin Alonso Pinzon and Vicente Yafiez
Pinzon, Columbus' departure had been long delayed. At last,
however, men, ships and stores were ready. The expedition
consisted of the " Santa Maria," a decked ship of 100 tons with
a crew of 52 men, commanded by the admiral in person; and
of two caravels; the " Pinta " of 50 tons, with 18 men, under
Martin Pinzon; and the " Nina," of 40 tons, with 18 men,
under his brother Vicente Yanez, afterwards (1499) the first to
cross the line in the American Atlantic.

The adventurers numbered 88 souls; and on Friday, the 3rd
of August 1492, at eight in the morning, the little fleet weighed
anchor, and stood for the Canary Islands. An abstract
of the admiral's diary made by Las Casas is yet
extant; and from it many particulars may be gleaned
concerning this first voyage. Three days after the ships had set
sail the " Pinta " lost her rudder; the admiral was in some
alarm, but comforted himself with the reflection that Martin
Pinzon was energetic and ready-witted; they had, however,
to put in at Teneriffe, to refit the caravel. On the 6th of
September they weighed anchor once more with all haste,
Columbus having been informed that three Portuguese caravels
were on the look-out to intercept him. On the i3th of September
the westerly variations of the magnetic needle were for the first
time observed; on the isth a meteor fell into the sea at four or
five leagues distance; soon after they arrived at those vast
plains of seaweed called the Sargasso Sea; while all the time,
writes the admiral, they had most temperate breezes, the sweet-
ness of the mornings being especially delightful, the weather
like an Andalusian April, and only the song of the nightingale
wanting. On the i7th the men began to murmur; they were
frightened by the strange phenomena of the variation of the
compass, but the explanation Columbus gave restored their
tranquillity. On the i8th they saw many birds, and a great
ridge of low-lying cloud; and they expected to see land. On
the 20th they saw boobies and other birds, and were sure the
land must be near. In this, however, they were disappointed;
and thenceforth Columbus, who was keeping all the while a
double reckoning, one for the crew and one for himself, had great
difficulty in restraining the evil-disposed from the excesses
they meditated. On the 25th Martin Alonso Pinzon raised the
cry of land, but it proved false, as did the rumour to the same

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER

743

America
discovered.

effect on the 7th of October, from the " Nifla." But on the
i ith the " Pinta " fished up a cane, a pole, a stick which appeared
to have been wrought with iron, and a board, while the " Nifia "
sighted a branch covered with berries; " and with these signs
all of them breathed and were glad." At ten o'clock on that
night Columbus himself perceived and pointed out
ht ahead, and at two in the morning of Friday,
the 1 2th of October 1492, Rodrigo de Triana, a sailor
aboard the " Nifla," announced the appearance of what proved
to be the New World. The land sighted was an island, called by
the Indians Guanahani, and named by Columbus San Salvador.
It is generally identified with Watling Island.

The same morning Columbus landed, richly clad, and bearing
the royal banner of Spain. He was accompanied by the brothers
Pinzon, bearing banners of the Green Cross (a device of the
admiral's), and by great part of the crew. When they all had
" given thanks to God, kneeling upon the shore, and kissed the
ground with tears of joy, for the great mercy received," the
admiral named the island, and took solemn possession of it for
their Catholic majesties of Castile and Leon. At the same time
such of the crews as had shown themselves doubtful and mutinous
sought his pardon weeping, and prostrated themselves at his feet.
Into the remaining detail of this voyage, of highest interest
as it is, it is impossible to go further. It will be enough to say
that it resulted in the discovery of the islands of Santa Maria
de la Concepcion (Rum Cay), Fernandina (Long Island), Isabella
(Crooked Island), Cuba or Juana (named by Columbus in honour
of the young prince of Spain), and Hispaniola, Haiti, or San
Domingo. Off the last of these the " Santa Maria " went
agr&und, owing to the carelessness of the steersman. No lives
were lost, but the ship had to be unloaded and abandoned ; and
Columbus, who was anxious to return to Europe with the news
of his achievement, resolved to plant a colony on the island, to
build a fort out of the material of the stranded hulk, and to leave
the crew. The fort was called La Navidad; 44 Europeans were
placed in charge. On the 4th of January 1493 Columbus, who
had lost sight of Martin Pinzon, set sail alone in the " Nina "
for the east; and two days afterwards the " Pinta " joined her
sister-ship. A storm, however, separated the vessels, and it
was not until the i8th of February that Columbus reached the
island of Santa Maria in the Azores. Here he was threatened
with capture by the Portuguese governor, who could not for
some time be brought to recognize his commission. On the
24th of February, however, he was allowed to proceed, and
on the 4th of March the '' Nina " dropped anchor off Lisbon.
The king of Portugal received the admiral with the highest
honours. On the I3th of March the " Nina " put out from the
Tagus, and two days afterwards, Friday, the isth of March,
ie reached Palos.

The court was at Barcelona; and thither, after despatching
letter announcing his arrival, Columbus proceeded in person,
fe entered the city in a sort of triumphal procession, was received
by their majesties in full court, and, seated in their presence,
related the story of his wanderings, exhibiting the " rich and
strange " spoils of the new-found lands, the gold, the cotton,
the parrots, the curious arms, the mysterious plants, the un-
known birds and beasts, and the Indians he had brought with
him for baptism. All his honours and privileges were confirmed
to him; the title of Don was conferred on himself and his
brothers; he rode at the king's bridle; he was served and saluted
as a grandee of Spain. A new and magnificent scutcheon was
also blazoned for him (4th May 1493), whereon the royal castle
and lion of Castile and Leon were combined with the five anchors
of his own coat of arms. Nor were their Catholic highnesses
less busy on their own account than on that of their servant.
On the 3rd and 4th of May Alexander VI. granted bulls confirm-
g to the crowns of Castile and Leon all the lands discovered,
to be discovered, west of a line of demarcation drawn 100
gues west of the Azores, on the same terms as those on which
e Portuguese held their colonies along the African coast. A
.ew expedition was got in readiness with all possible despatch,
secure and extend the discoveries already made.

Second
voyage.

After several delays the fleet weighed anchor on the 24th of
September 1493 and steered westwards. It consisted of three
great carracks (galleons) and fourteen caravels (light
frigates), having on board over 1500 men, besides the
animals and materials necessary for colonization.
Twelve missionaries accompanied the expedition, under the
orders of Bernardo Buil or Boil, a Benedictine; Columbus had
been already directed (29th May 1493) to endeavour by all means
in his power to Christianize the inhabitants of the islands, to
make them presents, and to " honour them much", while all
under him were commanded to treat them " well and lovingly,"
under pain of severe punishment. On the I3th of October the
ships, which had put in at the Canaries, left Ferro; and on
Sunday, the 3rd of November, after a single storm, " by the
goodness of God and the wise management of the admiral " an
island was sighted to the west, which was named Dominica.
Northwards from this the isles of Marigalante and Guadalupe
were next discovered and named; while on the north-western
course to La Navidad those of Montserrat, Antigua, San Martin,
Santa Cruz and the Virgin Islands were sighted, and the island
now called Porto Rico was touched at, hurriedly explored, and
named San Juan Bautista. On the 22nd of November Columbus
came in sight of Hispaniola, and sailing westward to La Navidad,
found the fort burned and the colony dispersed. He decided
on building a second fort, and coasting on 30 m. east of Monte
Cristi, he pitched on a spot where he founded the city of Isabella.

The climate proved unhealthy; the colonists were greedy of
gold, impatient of control, proud, ignorant and mutinous; and
Columbus, whose inclination drew him westward, was doubtless
glad to escape the worry and anxiety of his post, and to avail
himself of the instructions of his sovereigns as to further dis-
coveries. On the 2nd of February 1494 he sent home, by
Antonio de Torres, that despatch to their Catholic highnesses
by which he may be said to have founded the West Indian slave
trade. He established the mining camp of San Tomaso in the
gold country of Central Hispaniola; and on the 24th of April
1494, having nominated a council of regency under his brother
Diego, and appointed Pedro Margarit his captain-general, he
again put to sea. After following the southern shore of Cuba
for some days, he steered southwards, and discovered (May I4th)
the island of Jamaica, which he named Santiago. He then
resumed his exploration of the Cuban coast, threaded his way
through a labyrinth of islets which he named the Garden of the
Queen (Jardin de la Reyna), and, after coasting westwards for
many days, became convinced that he had discovered continental
land. He therefore caused Perez de Luna, the notary, to draw
up a document to this effect (i2th of June 1494), which was
afterwards taken round and signed (the admiral's steward
witnessing) by the officers, men and boys of his three caravels,
the " Nifia," the " Cordera," and the " San Juan." He then
stood to the south-east, and sighted the island of Evangelista
(now Isla de los Pinos), revisited Jamaica, coasted the south of
Hispaniola, and on the 24th of September touched at and named
the island of La Mona, in the channel between Hispaniola and
Porto Rico. Thence he had intended to sail eastwards and
complete the survey of the Caribbean Archipelago; but he
was exhausted by the terrible tear and wear of mind and body
he had undergone (he says himself that on this expedition he
was three-and-thirty days almost without sleep), and on the day
following his departure from La Mona he fell into a lethargy,
that deprived him of sense and memory, and had well-nigh
proved fatal to life. At last, on the 29th of September, the little
fleet dropped anchor off Isabella, and in his new city the admiral
lay sick for five months.

The colony was in a sad plight. Every one was discontented,
and many were sick, for the climate was unhealthy and there
was nothing to eat. Margarit and Boil had deserted the settle-
ment and fled to Spain, but ere his departure the former, in his
capacity of captain-general, had done much to outrage and
alienate the Indians. The strongest measures were necessary
to undo this mischief, and, backed by his brother Bartholomew,
Columbus proceeded to reduce the natives under Spanish sway.

Third
voyage.

744

Alonso de Ojeda succeeded by a brilliant coup de main in captur-
ing the cacique Caonabo, and the rest submitted. Five ship-loads
of Indians were sent off to Seville (24th June 1495) to be sold as
slaves; and a tribute was imposed upon their fellows, which
must be looked upon as the origin of that system of reparli-
micntos or encomiendas which was afterwards to work such
mischief among the conquered. In October 1495 Juan Aguado
arrived at Isabella, with a royal commission to report on the
state of the colony; here he took up the position of a judge
of Columbus's government; and much recrimination followed.
Columbus decided to return home; he appointed his brother
Bartholomew adelantado of the island; and on the loth of March
1496 he quitted Hispaniola in the " Nina." The vessel, after
a protracted and perilous voyage, reached Cadiz on the nth of
June 1496, where the admiral landed, wearing the habit of a
Franciscan. He was cordially received by his sovereigns, and
a new fleet of eight vessels was put at his disposal. By royal
patent, moreover, a tract cf land in Hispaniola, of 50 leagues by
20, was offered to him, with the title of duke or marquis (which he
declined); for three years he was to receive an eighth of the
gross and a tenth of the net profits on each voyage; the right
of creating a mayorazgo or perpetual entail of titles and estates
was granted him; and his two sons were received into Isabella's
service as pages.

Meanwhile, however, the preparing of the fleet proceeded
slowly, and it was not till the 3oth of May 1498 that he set
sail with his main fleet of six ships two caravels had
already been sent on ahead. From San Lucar he
steered for Porto Santo, Madeira, and Gomera,
despatching three vessels direct from the Canaries to Hispaniola.
He next proceeded to the Cape Verde Islands, which he quitted
on the sth of July. On the 3ist of the same month, being
greatly in need of water, and fearing that no land lay westwards
as he had hoped, Columbus had turned his ship's head north,
when Alonzo Perez of Huelva saw land about 15 leagues to the
south-west. It was crowned with three hill-tops, from which
circumstance, and in fulfilment of a vow made at starting (to
name the first land discovered on this voyage in honour of the
Trinity), the admiral named it Trinidad, which name it yet bears.
On Wednesday, the ist of August, he beheld for the first time
the mainland of South America, the continent he had sought
so long. It seemed to him but an insignificant island, and he
called it Isla Santa. Sailing westwards, next day he saw the
Gulf of Paria (named by him the Golfo de la Ballena), into which
he was borne at immense risk on the ridge of waters formed by
the meeting of the sea and the Orinoco estuaries. For several
days he coasted the continent, esteeming as islands the various
projections he saw, and naming them accordingly, nor was it
until he had realized the volume poured out by the Orinoco
that he began to perceive the truly continental character of his
last discovery. He was now anxious to revisit the colony in
Hispaniola; and after sighting Tobago, Grenada, and Mar-
garita, made for San Domingo, the new capital of the settlement,
where he arrived on the 3ist of August. He found that affairs
had not prospered well in his absence. By the vigour and
activity of the adelantado, the whole island had been reduced
under Spanish sway; but under the leadership of Francisco
Roldan the malcontent settlers had risen in revolt, and Columbus
had to compromise matters in order to restore peace. Roldan
retained his office of chief justice; and such of his followers as
chose to remain in the island were gratified with repartimientos
of land and labour.

At home, however, court favour had turned against Columbus.
For one thing, the ex-colonists were often bitterly hostile to the
admiral and his brothers. They were wont to parade their
grievances in the very court-yards of the Alhambra, to surround
the king when he came forth with complaints and reclamations,
to insult the discoverer's young sons with shouts and jeers.
Again, the queen began to criticize severely the shipment of
Indians from the new-found lands to Spain. And once more,
there was no doubt that the colony itself, whatever the cau'se,
had not prospered so well as might have been desired. Fer-

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER

dinand's support of Columbus had never been very hearty, and
his inclination to supersede the Genoese now prevailed over the
queen's friendliness. Accordingly, on the 2ist of May 1499,
Francisco Bobadilla was appointed governor and judge of
Hispaniola during royal pleasure, with authority to examine
into all complaints. Columbus was ordered to deliver up his
charge to Bobadilla, and to accept whatever the latter should
deliver him from the sovereigns. Bobadilla left Spain in June
1500, and landed in Hispaniola on the 23rd of August.

Columbus, meanwhile, had restored such tranquillity as was
possible in his government. With Roldan's help he had beaten
off an attempt on the island of the adventurer Ojeda, his old
lieutenant; the Indians were being collected into villages and
Christianized. Gold-mining was profitably pursued; in three
years, he calculated, the royal revenues might be raised to an
average of 60,000,000 reals. The arrival of Bobadilla, however,
speedily changed this state of affairs. On landing, he took
possession of the admiral's house and summoned him and his
brothers before him. Accusations of severity, of injustice, of
venality even, were poured down on their heads, and Columbus
anticipated nothing less than a shameful death. Bobadilla put
all three in irons, and shipped them off to Spain.

Alonso Vallejo, captain of the caravel in which the illustrious
prisoners sailed, still retained a proper sense of the honour and
respect due to Columbus, and would have removed the fetters;
but to this Columbus would not consent. He would wear them,
he said, until their highnesses, by whose order they had been
affixed, should order their removal; and he would keep them
afterwards " as relics and as memorials of the reward of his
service." He did so. His son Fernando " saw them always
hanging in his cabinet, and he requested that when he died they
might be buried with him." Whether this last wish was complied
with is not known.

A heart-broken and indignant letter from Columbus to Dona
Juana de Torres, formerly nurse of the infante Don Juan,
arrived at court before the despatch of Bobadilla. It was read
to the queen, and its tidings were confirmed by communications
from Alonso Vallejo and the alcaide of Cadiz. There was a great
movement of indignation; the tide of popular and royal feeling
turned once more in the admiral's favour. He received a large
sum to defray his expenses; and when he appeared at court, on
the 1 7th of December 1 500, he was no longer in irons and disgrace,
but richly apparelled and surrounded with friends. He was
received with all honour and distinction. The queen is said to
have been moved to tears by the narration of his story. Their
majesties not only repudiated Bobadilla's proceedings, but
declined to inquire into the charges that he at the same time
brought against his prisoners, and promised Columbus com-
pensation for his losses and satisfaction for his wrongs. A new
governor, Nicolas de Ovando, was appointed, and left San Lucar
on the I3th of February 1502, with a fleet of thirty ships, to
supersede Bobadilla. The latter was to be impeached and sent
home; the admiral's property was to be restored; and a fresh
start was to be made in the conduct of colonial affairs. Thus
ended Columbus's history as viceroy and governor of the new
Indies which he had presented to the country of his adoption.

His hour of rest, however, was not yet come. Ever anxious
to serve their Catholic highnesses, " and particularly the queen,"
he had determined to find a strait through which he ^

might penetrate westwards into Portuguese Asia. voyage.
After the usual inevitable delays his prayers were
granted, and on the 9th of May 1502, with four caravels and
1 50 men, he weighed anchor from Cadiz, and sailed on his fourth
and last great voyage. He first betook himself to the relief of
the Portuguese fort of Arzilla, which had been besieged by the
Moors, but the siege had been raised before he arrived. He put
to sea westwards once more, and on the isth of June discovered
the island of Martinino (probably St Lucia). He had received
positive instructions from his sovereigns on no account to touch
at Hispaniola; but his largest caravel was greatly in need of
repairs, and he had no choice but to abandon her or disobey
orders. He preferred the latter alternative, and sent a boat

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER

74-5

ashore to Ovando, asking for a new ship and for permission to
enter the harbour to weather a hurricane which he saw was
coming on. But his requests were refused, and he coasted the
island, casting anchor under lee of the land. Here he weathered
the storm, which drove the other caravels out to sea, and anni-
hilated the homeward-bound fleet, the richest that had till then
been sent from Hispaniola. Roldan and Bobadilla perished with
others of the admiral's enemies; and Fernando Columbus, who
accompanied his father on this voyage, wrote long afterwards,
" I am satisfied it was the hand of God, for had they arrived in
Spain they had never been punished as their crimes deserved,
but rather been favoured and preferred."

After recruiting his flotilla at Azua, Columbus put in at
Jaquimo and refitted his four vessels; and on the I4th of July
1502 he steered for Jamaica. For several days the ships
wandered painfully among the keys and shoals he had named the
Garden of the Queen, and only an opportune easterly wind
prevented the crews from open mutiny. The first land sighted
(July 3Oth) was the islet of Guanaja, about 40 m. east of the

ast of Honduras. Here he got news from an old Indian of a
rich and vast country lying to the eastward, which he at once
concluded must be the long-sought-for empire of the grand khan.
Steering along the coast of Honduras, great hardships were
ndured, but nothing approaching his ideal was discovered.
On the 1 2th of September Cape Gracias-a-Dios was rounded.
The men had become clamorous and insubordinate; not until
the 5th of December, however, would he tack about and retrace

> course. It now became his intention to plant a colony on the
river Veragua, which was afterwards to give his descendants a
title of nobility; but he had hardly put about when he was caught
in a storm, which lasted eight days, wrenched and strained his
crazy, worm-eaten ships severely, and finally, on Epiphany
Sunday 1503, blew him into an embouchure which he named
Belem or Bethlehem. Gold was very plentiful in this place,
and here he determined to found his settlement. By the end of
March 1 503 a number of huts had been run up, and in these the
adelantado (Bartholomew Columbus), with 80 men, was to
remain, while Christopher returned to Spain for men and supplies.

uarrels, however, arose with the natives; the cacique was
nade prisoner, but escaped again; and before Columbus could
eave the coast he had to abandon a caravel, to take the settlers
on board, and to relinquish the enterprise of colonization.
Steering eastwards, he left a second caravel at Puerto Bello; he
hence bore northwards for Cuba, where he obtained supplies
rom the natives. From Cuba he bore up for Jamaica, and there,

the harbour of San Gloria, now St Ann's Bay, he ran his
ships aground in a small inlet still called Don Christopher's
Cove (June 23rd, 1503).

The expedition was received with great kindness by the natives,
ad here Columbus remained upwards of a year, awaiting the
return of his lieutenant Diego Mendez, whom he had despatched
to Ovando for assistance. During his critical sojourn here, the
admiral suffered much from disease and from the lawlessness of
his followers, whose misconduct had alienated the natives, and
provoked them to withhold their accustomed supplies, until he
dexterously worked upon their superstitions by prognosticating
an eclipse. Two vessels having at last arrived for his relief,
Columbus left Jamaica on the 28th of June 1504, and, after
calling at Hispaniola, set sail for Spain on the i2th of September.
After a tempestuous voyage he landed once more at San Lucar
on the yth of November 1504.

As he was too ill to go to court, his son Diego was sent thither
in his place, to look after his interests and transact his business.
Letter after letter followed the young man from Seville one
by the hands of Amerigo Vespucci. A licence to ride on mule-
back was granted him on the 23rd of February 1505; and in
the following May he was removed to the court at Segovia, and
thence again to Valladolid. On the landing of Philip and Juana
at Corufia (25th of April 1506), although " much oppressed with
the gout and troubled to see himself put by his rights," he is
nown to have sent off the adelantado to pay them his duty and

assure them that he was yet able to do them extraordinary

service. The last documentary note of him is contained in a final
codicil to the will of 1498, made at Valladolid on the igth of
May 1506. By this the old will is confirmed; the mayorazgp
is bequeathed to his son Diego and his heirs male, failing these
to Fernando, his second son, and failing these to the heirs male
of Bartholomew; only in case of the extinction of the male line,
direct or collateral, is it to descend to the females of the family;
and those into whose hands it may fall are never to diminish it,
but always to increase and ennoble it by all means possible. The
head of the house is to sign himself " The Admiral." A tenth
of the annual income is to be set aside yearly for distribution
among the poor relations of the house. A chapel is founded and
endowed for the saying of masses. Beatriz Enriquez is left to the
care of the young admiral. Among other legacies is one of " half
a mark of silver to a Jew who used to live at the gate of the
Jewry, in Lisbon." The codicil was written and signed with
the admiral's own hand. Next day (2oth of May 1506) he died.
After the funeral ceremonies at Valladolid, Columbus's remains
were transferred to the Carthusian monastery of Santa Maria de
las Cuevas, Seville, where the bones of his son Diego, the second
admiral, were also laid. Exhumed in 1542, the bodies of both
father and son were taken over sea to Hispaniola and interred
in the cathedral of San Domingo. In 1795-1796, on the cession
of that island to the French, the relics were re-exhumed and
transferred to the cathedral of Havana, whence, after the Spanish-
American War of 1898 and the loss of Cuba, they were finally
removed to Seville cathedral, where they remain. The present
heir and representative of Columbus belongs to the Larreategui
family, descendant's of the discoverer through the female line,
and retains the titles of admiral and duke of Veragua.

S- A .

Columbus Cipher.

The interpretation of the seven-lettered cipher, accepting the
smaller letters of the second line as the final ones of the words, seems
to be Salve Christus, Maria, Yosephus. The name Christopher
(Chrisloferens) appears in the last line.

In person Columbus was tall and shapely. The only authentic
portrait of him is that which once belonged to Paulusjovius, and
is still in the possession of the de Orchi family (related to Jovius
by female descent) at Como. It shows us a venerable man with
clean-shaven face, thin grey hair, high forehead, sad thoughtful
eyes. It bears the inscription Columbus Lygur. novi orbis repertor.

AUTHORITIES. Fernando Columbus, Historie del Signor Don
Fernando Colombo . . . e vera relatione della vita . . . dell' Am-
miraglio D. Christoforo Colombo (the Spanish original of this, written
before 1539, is lost; only the Italian version remains, first published
at Venice in 1571; a good edition appeared in London in 1867);
Bartolom6 de las Casas, Historia de las Indias, written 1527-1561,
but first printed at Madrid in 1875, after remaining in manuscript
more than three centuries; Andres Hernandez, Historia de los Reyes
Catolicos (contemporary with Fernando Columbus's Historie, but first
printed at Granada in 1856; best edition, Seville, 1870); Gonzalo
Fernandez Oviedo y Valdes, Historia general de las Indias (Seville,
1535; best edition, Madrid, 1851-1855); Peter Martyr d'Anghiera,
Opus Epistolarum, first published in 1530, and De Orbe Novo (De-
cades), printed in 1511 and 1530; Francisco Lopez de Gomara,
Historia general de las Indias (Saragossa, 1552-1553, and Antwerp,
1554) ; Antonio de Herrera, Historia general de las Indias occidentals
(publication first completed in 1615, but best edition perhaps that of
1730, Madrid); Juan Bautista Mufioz, Historia del Nuevo Mundo
(Madrid, 1793); Martin Fernandez Navarrete, Coleccion de los
Viages y descubrimientos que hicieron par mar los Espanoles (Madrid,
1825-1837); Washington Irving, History of the Life and Voyages of
Christopher Columbus (London, 1827-1828); Alex, von Humboldt,
Examen critique (Paris, 1836-1839); R. H. Major, Select Letters oj

746

COLUMBUS

Columbus (London, Hakluyt Society, 1847); Fernandez Duro,
Colon y Pinzon (Madrid, 1883); Henry Harrisse, Christophe Colomb
(Paris, 1884), and Christophe Colomb devant I'histoire (Paris, 1892);
Justin Winsor, Christopher Columbus (Cambridge, Mass., 1891);
Jose Maria Asensio, Cristoval Colon (Barcelona, 1892); Clements
R. Markham, Life of Christopher Columbus (London, 1892) ; John
Fiske, Discovery of America (Boston and New York, 1892'); E. J.
Payne, History of the New World called America, vol. i. (Oxford,
1892); Paul Gaffarel, Histoire de la decouverte de I'Amerique (Paris,
1892); Charles I. Elton, Career of Columbus (London, 1892);
Raccolta Colombiana (1892, &c.) ; Spphus Ruge, Columbus (Berlin,
1902); John Boyd Thatcher, Christopher Columbus (New York,
1903-1904); Henry Vignaud, La Lettre et la carte de Toscanelli
(Paris, 1901), and tudes critiques sur la vie de Colomb avant ses
decouvertes (Paris, 1905); Filson Young, Christopher Columbus and
the New World of his discovery (London, 1906). (C. R. B.)

COLUMBUS, a city and the county-seat of Muscogee county,
Georgia, U.S.A., on the E. bank and at the head of navigation of
the Chattahoochee river, about 100 m. S.S.W. of Atlanta.
Pop. (1890) 17,303; (1000) 17,614, of whom 7267 were negroes;
(1910, census) 20,554. There is also a considerable suburban
population. Columbus is served by the Southern, the Central
of Georgia, and the Seaboard Air Line railways, and three steam-
boat lines afford communication with Apalachicola, Florida.
The city has a public library. A fall in the river of 115 ft.
within a mile of the city furnishes a valuable water-power,
which has been utilized for public and private enterprises. The
most important industry is the manufacture of cotton goods;
there are also cotton compresses, iron works, flour and woollen
mills, wood-working establishments, &c. The value of the city's
factory products increased from $5,061,485 in 1900 to $7,079,702
in 1905, or 39-9%; of the total value in 1905, $2,759,081, or
39%, was the value of the cotton goods manufactured. There
are many large factories just outside the city limits. Columbus
was one of the first cities in the United States to maintain, at
public expense, a system of trade schools. It has a large whole-
sale and retail trade. The city was founded in 1827 and was
incorporated in 1828. In the latter year Mirabeau Buonaparte
Lamar (1798-1859) established here the Columbus Independent,
a State's-Rights newspaper. For the first twenty years the
city's leading industry was trade in cotton. As this trade was
diverted by the railways to Savannah, the water-power was
developed and manufactories were established. During the
Civil War the city ranked next to Richmond in the manufacture
of supplies for the Confederate army. On the i6th of April
1865 it was captured by a Union force under General James
Harrison Wilson (b. 1837); 1200 Confederates were taken
prisoners; large quantities of arms and stores were seized,
and the principal manufactories and much other property were
destroyed.

COLUMBUS, a city and the county-seat of Bartholomew
county, Indiana, U.S.A., situated on the E. fork of White river,
a little S. of the centre of the state. Pop. (1890) 6719; (1900)
8130, of whom 313 were foreign-born and 224 were of negro
descent (1910 census) 8813. In 1900 the centre of popula-
tion of the United States was 5 m. S.E. of Columbus. The
city is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis,
and the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways,
and is connected with Indianapolis and with Louisville, Ky.,
by an electric interurban line. Columbus is situated in a
fine farming region, and has extensive tanneries, threshing-
machine and traction and automobile engine works, structural
iron works, tool and machine shops, canneries and furniture
factories. In 1905 the value of the city's factory product was
$2,983,160, being 28-4% more than in 1900. The water-supply
system and electric-lighting plant are owned and operated by
the city.

COLUMBUS, a city and the county-seat of Lowndes county,
Mississippi, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Tombigbee river, at
the head of steam navigation, 1 50. m. S. E. of Memphis, Tennessee.
Pop. (1890) 4559; (1900) 6484 (3366 negroes); (1910) 8988.
It is served by the Mobile & Ohio and the Southern railways,
and by passenger and freight steamboat lines. It has cotton
and knitting mills, cotton-seed oil factories, machine shops, and
wagon, stove, plough and fertilizer factories; and is a market

and jobbing centre for a fertile agricultural region. It has a
public library, and is the seat of the Mississippi Industrial
Institute and College (1885) for women, the first state college for
women the successor of the Columbus Female Institute (1848)
of Franklin Academy (1821), and of the Union Academy (1873)
for negroes. The site was first settled about 1818; the city was
incorporated in 1821, and in 1830 it became the county-seat
of the newly formed Lowndes county. During the Civil War
the legislature met here in 1863 and 1865, and in the former
year Governor Charles Clark (1810-1877) was inaugurated
here.

COLUMBUS, a city, a port of entry, the capital of Ohio, U.S.A.,
and the county-seat of Franklin county, at the confluence of the
Scioto and Olentangy rivers, near the geographical centre of the
state, 120 m. N.E. of Cincinnati, and 138 m. S.S.W. of Cleveland.
Pop. (1890) 88,150; (1900) 125,560, of whom 12,328 were
foreign-born and 8201 were negroes; (1910) 181,511. Colum-
bus is an important railway centre and is served by the
Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis, the Pittsburg,
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis (Pennsylvania system), the
Baltimore & Ohio, the Ohio Central, the Norfolk & Western, the
Hocking Valley, and the Cleveland, Akron & Columbus (Penn-
sylvania system) railways, and by nine interurban electric lines.
It occupies a land area of about 17 sq. m., the principal portion
being along the east side of the Scioto in the midst of an extensive
plain. High Street, the principal business thoroughfare, is
zoo ft. wide, and Broad Street, on which are many of the finest
residences, is 120 ft. wide, has four rows of trees, a roadway for
heavy vehicles in the middle, and a driveway for carriages on
either side.

The principal building is the state capitol (completed in 1857)
in a square of ten acres at the intersection of High and Broad
streets. It is built in the simple Doric style, of grey limestone
taken from a quarry owned by the state, near the city; is
304 ft. long and 184 ft. wide, and has a rotunda 158 ft. high,
on the walls of which are the original painting, by William Henry
Powell (1823-1879), of 0. H. Perry's victory on Lake Erie, and
portraits of most of the governors of Ohio. Other prominent
structures are the U.S. government and the judiciary buildings,
the latter connected with the capitol by a stone terrace, the
city hall, the county court house, the union station, the board
of trade, the soldiers' memorial hall (with a seating capacity of
about 4500), and several office buildings. The city is a favourite
meeting-place for conventions. Among the state institutions
in Columbus are the university (see below), the penitentiary, a
state hospital for the insane, the state school for the blind, and
the state institutions for the education of the deaf and dumb
and for feeble-minded youth. In the capitol grounds are monu-
ments to the memory of Ulysses S. Grant, Rutherford B. Hayes,
James A. Garfield, William T. Sherman, Philip H. Sheridan,
Salmon P. Chase, and Edwin M. Stanton, and a beautiful
memorial arch (with sculpture by H. A. M'Neil) to William
McKinley.

The city has several parks, including the Franklin of 90 acres,
the Goodale of 44 acres, and the Schiller of 24 acres, besides
the Olentangy, a well-equipped amusement resort on the banks
of the river from which it is named, the Indianola, another
amusement resort, and the United States military post and
recruiting station, which occupies 80 acres laid out like a park.
The state fair grounds of 115 acres adjoin the city, and there
is also a beautiful cemetery of 220 acres.

The Ohio State University (non-sectarian and co-educational),
opened as the Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College in 1873,
and reorganized under its present name in 1878, is 3 m. north of
the capitol. It includes colleges of arts, philosophy and science,
of education (for teachers), of engineering, of law, of pharmacy,
of agriculture and domestic science, and of veterinary medicine.
It occupies a campus of no acres, has an adjoining farm of
325 acres, and 18 buildings devoted to instruction, 2 dormitories,
and a library containing (1906) 67,709 volumes, besides excellent
museums of geology, zoology, botany and archaeology and
history, the last being owned jointly by the university and by

COLUMELLA COLUMN

747

the state archaeological and historical society. In 1908 the
faculty numbered 175, and the students 2277. The institution
owed its origin to federal land grants; it is maintained by the
state, the United States, and by small fees paid by the students;
tuition is free in all colleges except the college of law. The
government of the university is vested in a board of trustees
appointed by the governor of the state for a term of seven years.
The first president of the institution (from 1873 to 1881) was
,e distinguished geologist, Edward Orton (1820-1899), who
is professor of geology from 1873 to 1899.
Other institutions of learning are the Capital University and
ivangelical Lutheran Theological Seminary (Theological Semi-
opened in 1830; college opened as an academy in 1850),
ith buildings just east of the city limits; Starling Ohio
!edical College, a law school, a dental school and an art insti-
._te. Besides the university library, there is the Ohio state
library occupying a room in the capitol and containing in 1908
126,000 volumes, including a "travelling library" of about
36,000 volumes, from which various organizations in different
parts of the state may borrow books; the law library of the
supreme court of Ohidf containing complete sets of English,
Scottish, Irish, Canadian, United States and state reports,
statutes and digests; the public school library of about 68,000
volumes, and the public library (of about 55,000), which is
msed in a marble and granite building completed in 1906.
Columbus is near the Ohio coal and iron-fields, and has an
tensive trade in coal, but its largest industrial interests are
manufactures, among which the more important are foundry
d machine-shop products (1905 value, $6,259,579); boots
_ shoes (1905 value, $5,425,087, being more than one-sixtieth
if the total product value of the boot and shoe industry in the
nited States, and being an increase from $359,000 in 1890);
tent medicines and compounds (1905 value, $3,214,096);
carriages and wagons (1905 value, $2,197,960); malt liquors
(1905 value, $2,133,955); iron and steel; regalia and society
mblems; steam-railway cars, construction and repairing; and
ileo-margarine. In 1905 the city's factory products were valued
at $40,435,531, an increase of 16-4% in five years. Immediately
iutside the city limits in 1905 were various large and important
nufactories, including railway shops, foundries, slaughter-
iuses, ice factories and brick-yards. In Columbus there is a
rge market for imported horses. Several large quarries also
e adjacent to the city.

The waterworks are owned by the municipality. In 1904-
1905 the city built on the Scioto river a concrete storage dam,
aving a capacity of 5,000,000,000 gallons, and in 1908 it com-
leted the construction of enormous works for filtering and
iftening the water-supply, and of works for purifying the flow
sewage the two costing nearly $5,000,000. The filtering
rks include 6 lime saturators, 2 mixing or softening tanks,
settling basins, 10 mechanical filters and 2 clear-water reser-
lirs. A large municipal electric-lighting plant was completed
1908.

The first permanent settlement within the present limits of
the city was established in 1797 on the west bank of the Scioto,
named FranklintOn, and in 1803 was made the county-seat.
In 1810 four citizens of Franklin ton formed an association to
secure the location of the capital on the higher ground of the
it bank; in 1812 they were successful and the place was laid
out while still a forest. Four years later, when the legislature
held its first session here, the settlement was incorporated as
the Borough of Columbus. In 1 8 24 the county-seat was removed
here from Franklinton; in 1831 the Columbus branch of the
Ohio Canal was completed; in 1834 the borough was made a
city; by the close of the same decade the National Road extend-
ing from Wheeling to Indianapolis and passing through Columbus
was completed; in 1871 most of Franklinton, which was never
incorporated, was annexed, and several other annexations
followed.

See ]. H. Studer, Columbus, Ohio; its History and Resources
(Columbus, 1873); A. E. Lee, History of the City of Columbus, Ohio
(New York, 1892).

COLUMELLA, LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS, of Gades,
writer on agriculture, contemporary of Seneca the philosopher,
flourished about the middle of the ist century A.D. His extant
works treat, with great fulness and in a diffuse but not inelegant
style which well represents the silver age, of the cultivation of
all kinds of corn and garden vegetables, trees, flowers, the
vine, the olive and other fruits, and of the rearing of cattle,
birds, fishes and bees. They consist of the twelve books of the
De re rustica (the tenth, which treats of gardening, being in
dactylic hexameters in imitation of Virgil), and of a book De
arboribus, the second book of an earlier and less elaborate work
on the same subject.

The best complete edition is by J. G. Schneider (1794). Of a new
edition by K. J. Lundstr6m, the tenth book appeared in 1902 and
De arboribus in 1897. There are English translations by R. Bradley
[1725), and anonymous (1745); and treatises, De Columellae vita el
scriptis, by V. Barberet (1887), and G. R. Becher (1897), a compact
dissertation with notes and references to authorities.

COLUMN (Lat. columna), in architecture, a vertical support
consisting of capital, shaft and base, used to carry a horizontal
beam or an arch. The earliest example in wood (2684 B.C.) was
that found at Kahun in Egypt by Professor Flinders Petrie,
which was fluted and stood on a raised base, and in stone the
octagonal shafts of the early temple at Deir-el-Bahri (c. 2850).
In the tombs at Beni Hasan (2723 B.C.) are columns of two
kinds, the octagonal or polygonal shaft, and the reed or lotus
column, the horizontal section of "which is a quatrefoil. This
became later the favourite type, but it was made circular on plan.
In all these examples the column rests on a stone base. (See
also CAPITAL and ORDER.)

The column was employed in Assyria in small structures only,
such as pavilions or porticoes. In Persia the column, employed
to carry timber superstructures only, was very lofty, being
sometimes 12 diameters high; the shaft was fluted, the number
of flutes varying from 30 to 52.

The earliest example of the Greek column is that represented
in the temple fresco at Cnossus (c. 1600 B.C.), of which portions
have been found. The columns were in cypress wood raised on
a stone base and tapered downwards. 1 The same, though to a
less degree, is found in the stone semi-detached columns which
flank the doorway of the Tomb of Agamemnon at Mycenae;
the shafts of these columns were carved with the chevron
design.

The earliest Greek columns in stone as isolated features are
those of the Temple of Apollo at Syracuse (early 7th century B.C.),
the shafts of which were monoliths, but as a rule the Greek
columns were all built of drums, sometimes as many as ten or
twelve. There was no base to the Doric column, but the shafts
were fluted, 20 flutes being the usual number. In the Archaic
Temple of Diana at Ephesus there were 52 flutes. In the later
examples of the Ionic order the shaft had 24 flutes. In the
Roman temples the shafts were very often monoliths.

Columns were occasionally used as supports for figures or
other features. The Naxian column at Delphi of the Ionic
order carried a sphinx. The Romans employed columns in
various ways: the Trajan and the Antonine columns carried
figures of the two emperors; the columna rostrata (260 B.C.)
in the Forum was decorated with the beaks of ships and was
a votive column, the miliaria column marked the centre of
Rome from which all distances were measured. In the same
way the column in the Place Vend6me in Paris carries a statue
of Napoleon I.; the monument of the Fire of London, a finial
with flames sculptured on it; the duke of York's column
(London), a statue of the duke of York.

With the exception of the Cretan and Mycenaean, all the
shafts of the classic orders tapered from the bottom upwards,
and about one-third up the column had an increment, known
as the entasis, to correct an optical illusion which makes tapering
shafts look concave; the proportions of diameter to height varied
with the order employed. Thus, broadly speaking, a Roman
Doric column will be eight, a Roman Ionic nine, a Corinthian

1 The tree-trunk used as a column was inverted to retain the sap ;
hence the shape.

COLURE COMA

ten diameters in height. Except in rare cases, the columns
of the Romanesque and Gothic styles were of equal diameter
at top and bottom, and had no definite dimensions as regards
diameter and height. They were also grouped together round
piers which are known as clustered piers. When of exceptional
size, as in Gloucester and Durham cathedrals, Waltham Abbey
and Tewkesbury, they are generally called " pillars," which was
apparently the medieval term for column. The word columna,
employed by Vitruvius, was introduced into England by the
Italian writers of the Revival.

In the Renaissance period columns were frequently banded,
the bands being concentric with the column as in France, and
occasionally richly carved as in Philibert De L'Orme's work at the
Tuileries. In England Inigo Jones introduced similar features,
but with square blocks sometimes rusticated, a custom lately
revived in England, but of which there are few examples either
in Italy or Spain.

The word " column " is used, by analogy with architecture,
for any upright body or mass, in chemistry, anatomy, typo-
graphy, &c. (R. P. S.)

COLURE (from Gr. KO\OS, shortened, and oiipd, tail), in
astronomy, either of the two principal meridians of the celestial
sphere, one of which passes through the poles and the two
solstices, the other through the poles and the two equinoxes;
hence designated as solstitial colure and equinoxial colure,
respectively.

COLUTHUS, or COLLUTHTJS, of Lycopolis in the Egyptian
Thebaid, Greek epic poet, flourished during the reign of Anas-
tasius I. (491-518). According to Suidas, he was the author of
Calydoniaca (probably an account of the Calydonian boar hunt),
Persica (an account, of the Persian wars), and Encomia (laudatory
poems). These are all lost, but his poem in some 400 hexa-
meters on The Rape of Helen ('Aprra-yi) 'EXr)s) is still extant,
having been discovered by Cardinal Bessarion in Calabria. The
poem is dull and tasteless, devoid of imagination, a poor imitation
of Homer, and has little to recommend it except its harmonious
versification, based upon the technical rules of Nonnus. It
related the history of Paris and Helen from the wedding of
Peleus and Thetis down to the elopement and arrival at Troy.

The best editions are by Van Lennep (1747), G. F. Schafer (1825),
E. Abel (1880).

COLVILLE, JOHN (c. 1540-1605), Scottish divine and author,
was the son of Robert Colville of Cleish, in the county of Kinross.
Educated at St Andrews University, he became a Presbyterian
minister, but occupied himself chiefly with political intrigue,
sending secret information to the English government concerning
Scottish affairs. He joined the party of the earl of Gowrie, and
took part in the Raid of Ruthven in 1582. In 1587 he for a
short time occupied a seat on the judicial bench, and was com-
missioner for Stirling in the Scottish parliament. In December
1591 he was implicated in the earl of Bothwell's attack on
Holyrood Palace, and was outlawed with the earl. He retired
abroad, and is said to have joined the Roman Church. He
died in Paris in 1605. Colville was the author of several works,
including an Oratio Funebris on Queen Elizabeth, and some
political and religious controversial essays. He is said to be the
author also of The Historic and Life of King James the Sext
(edited by T. Thompson for the Bannatyne Club, Edinburgh,
1825).

Colyille's Original Letters, 1582-1603, published by the Bannatyne
Club in 1858, contains a biographical memoir by the editor, David
Laing.

COLVIN, JOHN RUSSELL (1807-1857), lieutenant-governor
of the North- West Provinces of India during the mutiny of 1857,
belonged to an Anglo-Indian family of Scottish descent, and was
born in Calcutta on the 2pth of May 1807. Passing through
Haileybury he entered the service of the East India Company
in 1826. In 1836 he became private secretary to Lord Auckland,
and his influence over the viceroy has been held partly respon-
sible for the first Afghan war of 1837; but it has since been
shown that Lord Auckland's policy was dictated by the secret
committee of the company at home. In 1853 Mr Colvin was

appointed lieutenant-governor of the North-West Provinces
by Lord Dalhousie. On the outbreak of the mutiny in 1857 he
had with him at Agra only a weak British regiment and a native
battery, too small a force to make head against the mutineers;
and a proclamation which he issued to the natives was censured
at the time for its clemency, but it followed the same lines as
those adopted by Sir Henry Lawrence and subsequently followed
by Lord Canning. Exhausted by anxiety and misrepresentation
he died on the 9th of September, his death shortly preceding
the fall of Delhi.

His son, SIR AUCKLAND COLVIN (1838-1008), followed him
in a distinguished career in the same service, from 1858 to 1879.
He was comptroller-general in Egypt (1880 to 1882), and financial
adviser to the khedive (1883 to 1887), and from 1883 till 1892
was back again in India, first as financial member of council,
and then, from 1887, as lieutenant-governor of the North-West
Provinces and Oudh. He was created K.C.M.G. in 1881, and
K.C.S.I. in 1892, when he retired. He published The Making
of Modern Egypt in 1906, and a biography of his father, in the
" Rulers of India " series, in 1895. He died at Surbiton on the
24th of March 1908.

COLVIN, SIDNEY (1845- ), English literary and art
critic, was born at Norwood, London, on the i8th of June 1845.
A scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge, he became a fellow of
his college in 1868. In 1873 he was Slade piofessor of fine art,
and was appointed in the next year to the directorship of the
Fitzwilliam Museum. In 1884 he removed to London on his
appointment as keeper of prints and drawings hi the British
Museum. His chief publications are lives of Landor (1881)
and Keats (1887), in the English Men of Letters series; the
Edinburgh edition of R. L. Stevenson's works (1894-1897);
editions of the letters of Keats (1887), and of the Vailima Letters
(1899), which R. L. Stevenson chiefly addressed to him; A
Florentine Picture-Chronicle (1898), and Early History of En-
graving in England (1905). But in the field both of art and of
literature, Mr Colvin's fine taste, wide knowledge and high
ideals made his authority and influence extend far beyond his
published work.

COLWYN BAY, a watering-place of Denbighshire, N. Wales,
on the Irish Sea, 405 m. from Chester by the London & North-
Western railway. Pop. of urban district of Colwyn Bay and
Colwyn (1901) 8689. Colwyn Bay has become a favourite
bathing-place, being near to, and cheaper than, the fashionable
Llandudno, and being a centre for picturesque excursions.
Near it is Llaneilian village, famous for its " cursing well "
(St Eilian's, perhaps Aelianus'). The stream Colwyn joins the
Gwynnant. The name Colwyn is that of lords of Ardudwy; a
Lord Colwyn of Ardudwy, in the loth century, is believed to
have repaired Harlech castle, and is considered the founder of
one of the fifteen tribes of North Wales. Nant Colwyn is on the
road from Carnarvon to Beddgelert, beyond Llyn y gader
(gadair), " chair pool," and what tourists have fancifully called
Pitt's head, a roadside rock resembling, or thought to resemble,
the great statesman's profile. Near this is Llyn y dywarchen
(sod pool), with a floating island.

COLZA OIL, a non-drying oil obtained from the seeds of
Brassica campestris, var. oleifera, a variety of the plant which
produces Swedish turnips. Colza is extensively cultivated in
France, Belgium, Holland and Germany; and, especially in
the first-named country, the expression of the oil is an important
industry. In commerce colza is classed with rape oil, to which
both in source and properties it is very closely allied. It is a
comparatively inodorous oil of a yellow colour, having a specific
gravity varying from 0-912 to 0-920. The cake left after ex-
pression of the oil is a valuable feeding substance for cattle.
Colza oil is extensively used as a lubricant for machinery, and
for burning in lamps.

COMA (Gr. KUfia, from Koifiav, to put to sleep), a deep
sleep ; the term is, however, used in medicine to imply something
more than its Greek origin denotes, namely, a complete and
prolonged loss of consciousness from which a patient cannot be
roused. There are various degrees of coma: in the slighter

COMA BERENICES COMAYAGUA

749

forms the patient can be partially roused only to relapse again
into a state of insensibility; in the deeper states, the patient
cannot be roused at all, and such are met with in apoplexy,
already described. Coma may arise abruptly in a patient who
has presented no pre-existent indication of such a state occurring.
Such a condition is called primary coma, and may result from
the following causes: (i) concussion, compression or laceration
of the brain from head injuries, especially fracture of the skull;
(2) from alcoholic and narcotic poisoning; (3) from cerebral
haemorrhage, embolism and thrombosis, such being the causes
of apoplexy. Secondary coma may arise as a complication in
the following diseases: diabetes, uraemia, general paralysis,
meningitis, cerebral tumour and acute yellow atrophy of the
liver; in such diseases it is anticipated, for it is a frequent cause
of the fatal termination. The depth of insensibility to stimulus
is a measure of the gravity of the symptom; thus the con-
junctival reflex and even the spinal reflexes may be abolished,
the only sign of life being the respiration and heart-beat, the
muscles of the limbs being sometimes perfectly flaccid. A
characteristic change in the respiration, known as Cheyne-
Stokes breathing occurs prior to death in some cases; it indicates
that the respiratory centre in the medulla is becoming exhausted,
and is stimulated to action only when the venosity of the blood
has increased sufficiently to excite it. The breathing consequently
loses its natural rhythm, and each successive breath becomes
deeper until a maximum is reached; it then diminishes in depth
by successive steps until it dies away completely. The condition
of apnoea, or cessation of breathing, follows, and as soon as the
venosity of the blood again affords sufficient stimulus, the signs
of air-hunger commence; this altered rhythm continues until
the respiratory centre becomes exhausted and death ensues.

Coma Vigil is a state of unconsciousness met with in the
algide stage of cholera and some other exhausting diseases. The
patient's eyes remain open, and he may be in a state of low
muttering delirium; he is entirely insensible to his surroundings,
and neither knows nor can indicate his wants.

There is a distinct word " coma " (Gr. (c6/i??, hair), which
is used in astronomy for the envelope of a comet, and in botany
for a tuft.

COMA BERENICES (" BERENICE'S HAIR "), in astronomy,
a constellation of the northern hemisphere; it was first mentioned
by Callimachus, and Eratosthenes (3rd century B.C.), but is not
included in the 48 asterisms of Ptolemy. It is said to have been
named by Conon, in order to console Berenice, queen of Ptolemy
Euergetes, for the loss of a lock of her hair, which had been
stolen from a temple to Venus. This constellation is sometimes,
but wrongly, attributed to Tycho Brahe. The most interesting
member of this group is 24 Comae, a fine, wide double star,
consisting of an orange star of magnitude 55, and a blue star,
magnitude 7.

COMACCHIO, a town of Emilia, Italy, in the province of
Ferrara, 30 m. E.S.E. by road from the town of Ferrara, on the
level of the sea, in the centre of the lagoon of Valli di Comacchio,
just N. of the present mouth of the Reno. Pop. (1901) 7944
(town), 10,745 (commune). It is built on no less than thirteen
different islets, joined by bridges, and its industries are the
fishery, which belongs to the commune, and the salt-works.
The seaport of Magnavacca lies 4 m. to the east. Comacchio
appears as a city in the 6th century, and, owing to its position
in the centre of the lagoons, was an important fortress. It was
included in the " donation of Pippin "; it was taken by the
Venetians in 854, but afterwards came under the government
of the archbishops of Ravenna; in 1299 it came under the
dominion of the house of Este. In 1508 it became Venetian,
but in 1597 was elaimed by Clement VIII. as a vacant fief.

COMANA, a city of Cappadocia [frequently called CHRYSE or
AUREA, i.e. the golden, to distinguish it from Comana in Pontus;
mod. Shahr], celebrated in ancient times as the place where the
rites of Ma-Enyo, a variety of the great west Asian Nature-
goddess, were celebrated with much solemnity. The service
was carried on in a sumptuous temple with great magnificence
by many thousands of hierodvli (temple-servants). To defray

expenses, large estates had been set apart, which yielded a more
than royal revenue. The city, a mere apanage of the temple,
was governed immediately by the chief priest, who was always
a member of the reigning Cappadocian family, and took rank
next to the king. The number of persons engaged in the service
of the temple, even in Strabo's time, was upwards of 6000, and
among these, to judge by the names common on local tomb-
stones, were many of Persian race. Under Caracalla, Comana
became a Roman colony, and it received honours from later
emperors down to the official recognition of Christianity. The
site lies at Shahr, a village in the Anti-Taurus on the upper
course of the Sarus (Sihun), mainly Armenian, , but surrounded
by new settlements of Avshar Turkomans and Circassians. The
place has derived importance both in antiquity and now from
its position at the eastern end of the main pass of the western
Anti-Taurus range, the Kuru Chai, through which passed the
road from Caesarea-Mazaca (mod. KaisarieK) to Melitene
(Malatia), converted by Septimius Severus into the chief military
road to the eastern frontier of the empire. The extant remains
at Shahr include a theatre on the left bank of the river, a fine
Roman doorway and many inscriptions; but the exact site
of the great temple has not been satisfactorily identified. There
are many traces of Severus' road, including a bridge at Kemer,
and an immense number of milestones, some in their original
positions, others in cemeteries.

See P. H. H. Massy in Geog. Journ. (Sept. 1905) ; E. Chantre,
Mission en Cappadocie (1898). (D. G. H.)

COMANA (mod. Gumenek), an ancient city of Pontus, said
to have been colonized from Comana in Cappadocia. It stood
on the river Iris (Tozanli Su or Yeshil Irmak), and from its
central position was a favourite emporium of Armenian and
other merchants. The moon-goddess was worshipped in the
city with a pomp and ceremony in all respects analogous to those
employed in the Cappadocian city. The slaves attached to the
temple alone numbered not less than 6000. St John Chrysostom
died there on the way to Constantinople from his exile at Cocysus
in the Anti-Taurus. Remains of Comana are still to be seen
near a village called Gumenek on the Tozanli Su, 7 m. from Tokat,
but they are of the slightest description. There is a mound;
and a few inscriptions are built into a bridge, which here spans
the river, carrying the road from Niksar to Tokat. (D. G. H.)

COMANCHES, a tribe of North American Indians of Sho-
shonean stock, so called by the Spaniards, but known to the
French as Padoucas, an adaptation of their Sioux name, and
among themselves as nimen im (people). Theynumbersome 1400,
attached to the Kiowa agency, Oklahoma. When first met by
Europeans, they occupied the regions between the upper waters
of the Brazos and Colorado on the one hand, and the Arkansas
and Missouri on the other. Until their final surrender in 1875
the Comanches were the terror of the Mexican and Texan
frontiers, and were always famed for their bravery. They were
brought to nominal submission in 1783 by the Spanish general
Anza, who killed thirty of their chiefs, During the igth century
they were always raiding and fighting, but in 1867, to the
number of 2500, they agreed to go on a reservation. In 1872
a portion of the tribe, the Quanhada or Staked Plain Comanches,
had again to be reduced by military measures.

COMAYAGUA, the capital of the department of Comayagua
in central Honduras, on the right bank of the river Ulua, and
on the interoceanic railway from Puerto Cortes to Fonseca Bay.
Pop. (1900) about 8000. Comayagua occupies part of a fertile
valley, enclosed by mountain ranges. Under Spanish rule it
was a city of considerable size and beauty, and in 1827 its in-
habitants numbered more than 18,000. A fine cathedral, dating
from 1715, is the chief monument of its former prosperity, for
most of the handsome public buildings erected in the colonial
period have fallen into disrepair. The present city chiefly
consists of low adobe houses and cane huts, tenanted by Indians.
The university founded in 1678 has ceased to exist, but thm-
is a school of jurisprudence. In the neighbourhood are
ancient Indian ruins (see CENTRAL AMERICA:

Founded in 1540 by Alonzo Caceres, who had been i

750

COMB COMBE, G.

by the Spanish government to find a site for a city midway
between the two oceans, Valladolid la Nueva, as the town was first
named, soon became the capital of Honduras. It received the
privileges of a city in 1557, and was made an episcopal see in
1561. Its decline dates from 1827, when it was burned by
revolutionaries; and in 1854 its population had dwindled to
2000.. It afterwards suffered through war and rebellion, notably
in 1872 and 1873, when it was besieged by the Guatemalans.
In 1880 Tegucigalpa (q.i>.), a city 37 m. east-south-east, super-
seded it as the capital of Honduras.

COMB (a word common in various forms to Teut. languages,
cf . Ger. Kamm, the Indo-Europ. origin of which is seen in -yo/K^os,
a peg or pin, and Sanskrit, gambhas, a tooth), a toothed article
of the toilet used for cleaning and arranging the hair, and also
for holding it in place after it has been arranged; the word is
also applied, from resemblance in form or in use, to various
appliances employed for dressing wool and other fibrous sub-
stances, to the indented fleshy crest of a cock, and to the ridged
series of cells of wax filled with honey in a beehive. Hair combs
are of great antiquity, and specimens made of wood, bone and
horn have been found in Swiss lake-dwellings. Among the
Greeks and Romans they were made of boxwood, and in Egypt
also of ivory. For modern combs the same materials are used,
together with others such as tortoise-shell, metal, india-rubber
and celluloid. There are two chief methods of manufacture.
A plate of the selected material is taken of the size and thickness
required for the comb, and on one side of it, occasionally on both
sides, a series of fine slits are cut with a circular saw. This
method involves the loss of the material cut out between the
teeth. The second method, known as " twinning " or " part-
ing," avoids this loss and is also more rapid. The plate of
material is rather wider than before, and is formed into two
combs simultaneously, by the aid of a twinning machine. Two
pairs of chisels, the cutting edges of which are as long as the
teeth are required to be and are set at an angle converging
towards the sides of the plate, are brought down alternately
in such a way that the wedges removed from one comb form
the teeth of the other, and that when the cutting is complete
the plate presents the appearance of two combs with their teeth
exactly inosculating or dovetailing into each other. In india-
rubber combs the teeth are moulded to shape and the whole
hardened by vulcanization.

COMBACONUM, or KUMBAKONAM, a city of British India, in
the Tanjore district of Madras, in the delta of the Cauvery, on the
South Indian railway, 194 m. from Madras. Pop. (1901) 59,623,
showing an increase of 10 % in the decade. It is a large town with
wide and airy streets, and is adorned with pagodas, gateways and
other buildings of considerable pretension. The great gopuram, or
gate-pyramid, is one of the most imposing buildings of the kind,
rising in twelve stories to a height of upwards of 100 ft., and
ornamented with a profusion of figures of men and animals formed
in stucco. One of the water- tanks inthetown is popularly reputed
to be filled with water admitted from the Ganges every twelve
years by a subterranean passage 1200 m. long; and it con-
sequently forms a centre of attraction for large numbers of
devotees. The city is historically interesting as the capital of the
Chola race, one of the oldest Hindu dynasties of which any traces
remain, and from which the whole coast of Coromandel, or more
properly Cholamandal, derives its name. It contains a govern-
ment college. Brass and other metal wares, silk and cotton cloth
and sugar are among the manufactures.

COMBE, ANDREW (1797-1847), Scottish physiologist, was
born in Edinburgh on the 27th of October 1797, and was a
younger brother of George Combe. He served an apprenticeship
in a surgery, and in 1817 passed at Surgeons' Hall. He proceeded
to Paris to complete his medical studies, and whilst there he
investigated phrenology on anatomical principles. He became
convinced of the truth of the new science, and, as he acquired
much skill in the dissection of the brain, he subsequently gave
Additional interest to the lectures of his brother George, by his
practical demonstrations of the convolutions. He returned to
Edinburgh in 1819 with the intention of beginning practice; but

being attacked by the first symptoms of pulmonary disease, he
was obliged to seek health in the south of France and in Italy
during the two following winters. He began to practise in 1823,
and by careful adherence to the laws of health he was enabled
to fulfil the duties of his profession for nine years. During that
period he assisted in editing the Phrenological Journal and
contributed a number of articles to it, defended phrenology
before the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh, published his
Observations on Mental Derangement (1831), and prepared the
greater portion of his Principles of Physiology Applied to Health
and Education, which was issued in 1834, and immediately
obtained extensive public favour. In 1836 he was appointed
physician to Leopold I., king of the Belgians, and removed to
Brussels, but he speedily found the climate unsuitable and
returned to Edinburgh, where he resumed his practice. In 1836
he published his Physiology of Digestion, and in 1838 he was
appointed one of the physicians extraordinary to the queen in
Scotland. Two years later he completed his Physiological and
Moral Management of Infancy, which he believed to be his best
work and it was his last. His latter years were mostly occupied
in seeking at various health resorts some alleviation of his
disease; he spent two winters in Madeira, and tried a voyage
to the United States, but was compelled to return within a few
weeks of the date of his landing at New York. He died at Gorgie,
near Edinburgh, on the 9th of August 1847.

His biography, written by George Combe, was published in 1850.

COMBE, GEORGE (1788-1858), Scottish phrenologist, elder
brother of the above, was born in Edinburgh on the 2ist of
October 1788. After attending Edinburgh high school and
university he entered a lawyer's office in 1804, and in 1812 began
to practise on his own account. In 1815 the Edinburgh Review
contained an article on the system of " craniology " of F. J. Gall
and K. Spurzheim, which was denounced as " a piece of thorough
quackery from beginning to end." Combe laughed like others
at the absurdities of this so-called new theory of the brain, and
thought that it must be finally exploded after such an exposure;
and when Spurzheim delivered lectures in Edinburgh, in refuta-
tion of the statements of his critic, Combe considered the subject
unworthy of serious attention. He was, however, invited to a
friend's house where he saw Spurzheim dissect the brain, and he
was so far impressed by the demonstration that he attended
the second course of lectures. Investigating the subject for
himself, he became satisfied that the fundamental principles
of phrenology were true namely " that the brain is the organ
of mind; that the brain is an aggregate of several parts, each
subserving a distinct mental faculty; and that the size of the
cerebral organ is, caeteris paribus, an index of power or energy
of function." In 1817 his first essay on phrenology was pub-
lished in the Scots Magazine; and a series of papers on the same
subject appeared soon afterwards in the Literary and Statistical
Magazine; these were collected and published in 1819 in book
form as Essays on Phrenology, which in later editions became
A System of Phrenology. In 1820 he helped to found the Phreno-
logical Society, which in 1823 began to publish a Phrenological
Journal. By his lectures and writings he attracted public
attention to the subject on the continent of Europe and in
America, as well as at home; and a long discussion with Sir
William Hamilton in 1827-1828 excited general interest.

His most popular work, The Constitution of Man, was published
in 1828, and in some quarters brought upon him denunciations
as a materialist and atheist. From that time he saw everything
by the light of phrenology. He gave time, labour and money
to help forward the education of the poorer classes; he estab-
lished the first infant school in Edinburgh; and he originated
a series of evening lectures on chemistry, physiology, history
and moral philosophy. He studied the criminal classes, and
tried to solve the problem how to reform as well as to punish
them; and he strove to introduce into lunatic asylums a humane
system of treatment. In 1836 he offered himself as a candidate
for the chair of logic at Edinburgh, but was rejected in favour
of Sir William Hamilton. In 1838 he visited America and spent
about two years lecturing on phrenology, education and the

COMBE, W. COMBES

treatment of the criminal classes. On his return in 1840 he
published his Moral Philosophy, and in the following year his
Notes on the United Slates of North America. In 1842 he delivered,
in German, a course of twenty-two lectures on phrenology in
the university of Heidelberg, and he travelled much in Europe,
inquiring into the management of schools, prisons and asylums.
The commercial crisis of 1855 elicited his remarkable pamphlet
on The Currency Question (1858). The culmination of the
religious thought and experience of his life is contained in his
work On the Relation between Science and Religion, first publicly
issued in 1857. He was engaged in revising the ninth edition
of the Constitution of Man when he died at Moor Park, Farnham,
on the I4th of August 1858. He married in 1833 Cecilia Siddons,
a daughter of the great actress.

COMBE, WILLIAM (1741-1823), English writer, the creator
of " Dr Syntax," was born at Bristol in 1741. The circum-
stances of his birth and parentage are somewhat doubtful, and
it is questioned whether his father was a rich Bristol merchant,
or a certain William Alexander, a London alderman, who died
in 1762. He was educated at Eton, where he was contemporary
with Charles James Fox, the 2nd Baron Lyttelton and William
Beckford. Alexander bequeathed him some 2000 a little
fortune that soon disappeared in a course of splendid extrava-
gance, which gained him the nickname of Count Combe; and
after a chequered career as private soldier, cook and waiter,
he finally settled in London (about 1771), as a law student and
bookseller's hack. In 1776 he made his first success in London
with The Diaboliad, a satire full of bitter personalities. Four
years afterwards (1780) his debts brought him into the King's
Bench; and much of his subsequent life was spent in prison.
His spurious Letters of the Late Lord Lyttelton 1 (1780) imposed
on many of his contemporaries, and a writer in the Quarterly
Review, so late as 1851, regarded these letters as authentic, basing
upon them a claim that Lyttelton was " Junius." An early
acquaintance with Lawrence Sterne resulted in his Letters
supposed to have been written by Yorick and Eliza (1779).
Periodical literature of all sorts pamphlets, satires, bur-
lesques, " two thousand columns for the papers," " two hundred
biographies " filled up the next years, and about 1789 Combe
was receiving 200 yearly from Pitt, as a pamphleteer. Six
volumes of a Devil on Two Sticks in England won for him the
title of " the English le Sage "; in 1794-1796 he wrote the
text for Boydell's History of the River Thames; in 1803 he began
to write for The Times. In 1809-1811 he wrote for Ackermann's
Political Magazine the famous Tour of Dr Syntax in search of
the Picturesque (descriptive and moralizing verse of a somewhat
doggerel type), which, owing greatly to Thomas Rowlandson's
designs, had an immense success. It was published separately
in 1812 and was followed by two similar Tours, " in search of
Consolation," and " in search of a Wife," the first Mrs Syntax
having died at the end of the first Tour. Then came Six Poems
in illustration of drawings by Princess Elizabeth (1813), The
English Dance of Death (1815-1816), The Dance of Life (1816-
1817), The Adventures of Johnny Quae Genus (1822) all written
for Rowlandson's caricatures; together with Histories of Oxford
and Cambridge, and of Westminster Abbey for Ackermann;
Picturesque Tours along the Rhine and other rivers, Histories
of Madeira, Antiquities of York, texts for Turner's Southern
Coast Views, and contributions innumerable to the Literary
Repository. In his later years, notwithstanding a by no means
unsullied character, Combe was courted for the sake of his charm-
ing conversation and inexhaustible stock of anecdote. He died
in London on the igth of June 1823.

Brief obituary memoirs of Combe appeared in Ackermann's
Literary Repository and in the Gentleman s Magazine for August
1823; and in May 1859 a list of his works, drawn up by his own
hand, was printed in the latter periodical. See also Diary of H.
Crabb Robinson, Notes and Queries for 1869.

1 Thomas, 2nd Baron Lyttelton (1744-1779), commonly known
as the " wicked Lord Lyttelton," was famous for his abilities and
his libertinism, also for the mystery attached to his death, of which
it was alleged he was warned in a dream three days before the
event.

COMBE, or COOMB, a term particularly in use in south-western
England for a short closed-in valley, either on the side of a down
or running up from the sea. It appears in place-names as a ter-
mination, e.g. Wiveliscombe, Ilfracombe, and as a prefix, e.g.
Combemartin. The etymology of the word is obscure, but
" hollow " seems a common meaning to similar forms in many
languages. In English " combe " or " cumb " is an obsolete
word for a " hollow vessel," and the like meaning attached to
Teutonic forms kumm and kumme. The Welsh cwm, in place-
names, means hollow or valley, with which may be compared
cum in many Scots place-names. , The Greek KVftfiri also means
a hollow vessel, and there is a French dialect word combe meaning
a little valley.

COMBERMERE, STAPLETON COTTON, ist VISCOUNT (1773-
1865), British field-marshal and colonel of the ist Life Guards,
was the second son of Sir Robert Salusbury Cotton of Comber-
mere Abbey, Cheshire, and was born on the I4th of November
1773) at Llewenny Hall in Denbighshire. He was educated at
Westminster School, and when only sixteen obtained a second
lieutenancy in the 23rd regiment (Royal Welsh Fusiliers). A
few years afterwards (1793) he became by purchase captain in
the 6th Dragoon Guards, and he served in this regiment during
the campaigns of the duke of York in Flanders. While yet in
his twentieth year, he joined the 25th Light Dragoons (subse-
quently 22nd) as lieutenant-colonel, and, while in attendance
with his regiment on George III. at Weymouth, he became a
great favourite of the king. In 1796 he went with his regiment
to India, taking part en route in the operations in Cape Colony
(July-August 1796), and in 1799 served in the war with Tippoo
Sahib, and at the storming of Seringapatam. Soon after this,
having become heir to the family baronetcy, he was, at his father's
desire, exchanged into a regiment at home, the i6th Light
Dragoons. He was stationed in Ireland during Emmett's
insurrection, became colonel in 1800, and major-general five
years later. From 1806 to 1814 he was M.P. for Newark. In
1808 he was sent to the seat of war in Portugal, where he shortly
rose to the position of commander of Wellington's cavalry, and
it was here that he most displayed that courage and judgment
which won for him his fame as a cavalry officer. He succeeded
to the baronetcy in 1809, but continued his military career.
His share in the battle of Salamanca (22nd of July 1812) was
especially marked, and he received the personal thanks of
Wellington. The day after, he was accidentally wounded. He
was now a lieutenant-general in the British army and a K.B.,
and on the conclusion of peace (1814) was raised to the peerage
under the style of Baron Combermere. He was not present at
Waterloo, the command, which he expected, and bitterly re-
gretted not receiving, having been given to Lord Uxbridge.
When the latter was wounded Cotton was sent for to take over
his command, and he remained in France until the reduction
of the allied army of occupation. In 1817 he was appointed
governor of Barbadoes and commander of the West Indian forces.
From 1822 to 1825 he commanded in Ireland. His career of
active service was concluded in India (1826), where he besieged
and took Bhurtpore a fort which twenty-two years previously
had defied the genius of Lake and was deemed impregnable. For
this service he was created Viscount Combermere. A long period
of peace and honour still remained to him at home. In 1834 he
was sworn a privy councillor, and in 1852 he succeeded Welling-
tion as constable of the Tower and lord lieutenant of the Tower
Hamlets. In 1855 he was made a field-marshal and G.C.B.
He died at Clifton on the 2ist of February 1865. An equestrian
statue in bronze, the work of Baron Marochetti, was raised in
his honour at Chester by the inhabitants of Cheshire. Comber-
mere was succeeded by his only son, Wellington Henry (1818-
1891), and the viscountcy is still held by his descendants.

See Viscountess Combermere and Captain W. W. Knollys, The
Combermere' Correspondence (London, 1866).

COMBES, [JUSTIN LOUIS] EMILE (1835- ), French states-
man, was born at Roquecourbe in the department of the Tarn.
He studied for the priesthood, but abandoned the idea before
ordination, and took the diploma of doctor of letters (1860).

752

COMBINATION COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS

Then he studied medicine, taking his degree in 1867, and set ting up
in practice at Pons in Charente-Inf6rieure. In 1881 he presented
himself as a political candidate for Saintes, but was defeated.
In 1885 he was elected to the senate by the department of
Charente-Inf6rieure. He sat in the Democratic left, and was
elected vice-president in 1893 and 1894. The reports which he
drew up upon educational questions drew attention to him, and
on the 3rd of November 1895 he entered the Bourgeois cabinet
as minister of public instruction, resigning with his colleagues
on the zist of April following. He actively supported the
Waldeck-Rousseau ministry, and upon its retirement in 1903 he
was himself charged with the formation of a cabinet. In this he
took the portfolio of the Interior, and the main energy of the
government was devoted to the struggle with clericalism. The
parties of the Left in the chamber, united upon this question in
the Bloc republicain, supported Combes in his application of
the law of 1901 on the religious associations, and voted the new
bill on the congregations (1904), and under his guidance France
took the first definite steps toward the separation of church and
state. He was opposed with extreme violence by all the Con-
servative parties, who regarded the secularization of the schools
as a persecution of religion. But his stubborn enforcement of
the law won him the applause of the people, who called him
familiarly le petit pere. Finally the defection of the Radical
and Socialist groups induced him to resign on the 17th of
January 1905, although he had not met an adverse vote in the
Chamber. His policy was still carried on; and when the law
of the separation of church and state was passed, all the leaders
of the Radical parties entertained him at a noteworthy banquet
in which they openly recognized him as the real originator of
the movement.

COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine), a term meaning
an association or union of persons for the furtherance of a common
object, historically associated with agreements amongst workmen
for the purpose of raising their wages. Such a combination was
for a long time expressly prohibited by statute. See TRADE
UNIONS; also CONSPIRACY and STRIKES AND LOCK Ours.

COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS. The Combinatorial Analysis,
as it was understood up to the end of the i8th century, was of
limited scope and restricted application. P. Nicholson,
Historical j n jjj s ssa y s on the Combinatorial Analysis, published
auction. i n 1818, states that " the Combinatorial Analysis is a
branch of mathematics which teaches us to ascertain
and exhibit all the possible ways in which a given number of
things may be associated and mixed together; so that we may be
certain that we have not missed any collection or arrangement of
these things that has not been enumerated." Writers on the
subject seemed to recognize fully that it was in need of cultiva-
tion, that it was of much service in facilitating algebraical
operations of all kinds, and that it was the fundamental method
of investigation in the theory of Probabilities. Some idea of its
scope may be gathered from a statement of the parts of algebra
to which it was commonly applied, viz., the expansion of a
multinomial, the product of two or more multinomials, the
quotient of one multinomial by another, the reversion and
conversion of series, the theory of indeterminate equations, &c.
Some of the elementary theorems and various particular problems
appear in the works of the earliest algebraists, but the true
pioneer of modern researches seems to have been Abraham
Demoivre, who first published in Phil. Trans. (1697) the law
of the general coefficient in the expansion of the series
a+bx+cx*+dx 3 + . . . raised to any power. (See also Miscel-
lanea Analytica, bk. iv. chap. ii. prob. iv.) His work on Proba-
bilities would naturally lead him to consider questions of
this nature. An important work at the time it was pub-
lished was the De Partitione Numerorum of Leonhard
Euler, in which the consideration of the reciprocal of the
product (i-xz) (i-x*z) (i-x 3 z) . . . establishes a fundamental
connexion between arithmetic and algebra, arithmetical addition
being made to depend upon algebraical multiplication, and a close
bond is secured between the theories of discontinuous and
continuous quantities. (Cf. NUMBERS, PARTITION or.) The

multiplication of the two powers xf, x b , viz. x a +x b =x a+l ' l
showed Euler that he could convert arithmetical addition into
algebraical multiplication, and in the paper referred to he gives
the complete formal solution of the main problems of the partition
of numbers. He did not obtain general expressions for the co-
efficients which arose in the expansion of his generating functions,
but he gave the actual values to a high order of the coefficients
which arise from the generating functions corresponding to various
conditions of partitionment. Other writers who have contributed
to the solution of special problems are James Bernoulli, Ruggiero
Guiseppe Boscovich, Karl Friedrich Hindenburg (1741-1808),
William Emerson (1701-1782), Robert Woodhouse (1773-1827),
Thomas Simpson and Peter Barlow. Problems of combination
were generally undertaken as they became necessary for the
advancement of some particular part of mathematical science:
it was not recognized that the theory of combinations is in
reality a science by itself, well worth studying for its own sake
irrespective of applications to other parts of analysis. There was
a total absence of orderly development, and until the first third of
the igth century had passed, Euler's classical paper remained
alike the chief result and the only scientific method of combina-
torial analysis.

In 1846 Karl G. J. Jacobi studied the partitions of numbers by
means of certain identities involving infinite series that are met
with in the theory of elliptic functions. The method employed
is essentially that of Euler. Interest in England was aroused,
in the first instance, by Augustus De Morgan in 1846, who, in a
letter to Henry Warburton, suggested that combinatorial analysis
stood in great need of development, and alluded to the theory of
partitions. Warburton, to some extent under the guidance of De
Morgan, prosecuted researches by the aid of a new instrument,
viz. the theory of finite differences. This was a distinct advance,
and he was able to obtain expressions for the coefficients in
partition series in some of the simplest cases ( Trans. Camb. Phil.
Soc., 1849). This paper inspired a valuable paper by Sir John
Herschel (Phil. Trans. 1850), who, by introducing the idea and
notation of the circulating function, was able to present results
in advance of those of Warburton. The new idea involved a
calculus of the imaginary roots of unity. Shortly afterwards, in
1855, the subject was attacked simultaneously by Arthur Cayley
and James Joseph Sylvester, and their combined efforts resulted
in the practical solution of the problem that we have to-day.
The former added the idea of the prime circulator, and the latter
applied Cauchy's theory of residues to the subject, and invented
the arithmetical entity termed a denumerant. The next distinct
advance was made by Sylvester, Fabian Franklin, William
Pitt Durfee and others, about the year 1882 (Amer. Journ.
Math. vol. v.) by the employment of a graphical method. The
results obtained were not only valuable in themselves, but
also threw considerable light upon the theory of algebraic series.
So far it will be seen that researches had for their object the
discussion of the partition of numbers. Other branches of
combinatorial analysis were, from any general point of view,
absolutely neglected. In 1888 P. A. MacMahon investigated the
general problem of distribution, of which the partition of a
number is a particular case. He introduced the method of
symmetric functions and the method of differential operators,
applying both methods to the two important subdivisions, the
theory of composition and the theory of partition. He introduced
the notion of the separation of a partition, and extended all the
results so as to include multipartite as well as unipartite numbers.
He showed how to introduce zero and negative numbers, uni-
partite and multipartite, into the general theory; he extended
Sylvester's graphical method to three dimensions; and finally,
1898, he invented the " Partition Analysis " and applied it to the
solution of novel questions in arithmetic and algebra. An im-
portant paper by G. B. Mathews, which reduces the problem of
compound partition to that of simple partition, should also be
noticed. This is the problem which was known to Euler and his
contemporaries as "The Problem of the Virgins," or "the Rule
of Ceres "; it is only now, nearly 200 years later, that it has been
solved.

COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS

753

The most important problem of combinatorial analysis is con-
nected with the distribution of objects into classes. A number n
may be regarded as enumerating n similar objects ; it
Funds- ; s t nen said to be unipartite. On the o ther hand, if the
objects be not all similar they cannot be effectively enu-
merated by a single integer; we require a succession of
integers. If the objects be p in number of one kind, q of a second
kind, r of a third, &c., the enumeration is given by the succession
pqr . . . which is termed a multipartite number, and written,

where p+q+r+ ...=. If the order of magnitude of the
numbers p, q, r, . . . is immaterial, it is usual to write them in
descending order of magnitude, and the succession may then
be termed a partition of the number n, and is written (pqr . . .).
The succession of integers thus has a twofold signification: (i.)
as a multipartite number it may enumerate objects of different

nds; (ii.) it may be viewed as a partitionment into separate
parts of a unipartite number. We may say either that the
objects are represented by the multipartite number pqr . . .,
or that they are defined by the partition (pqr . . . ) of the uni-

artite number n. Similarly the classes into which they are
iistributed may be m in number all similar; or they may be
pi of one kind, qi of a second, r\ of a third, &c., where
pi + ?i +n + . . . =m. We may thus denote the classes either
by the multipartite numbers piqiri . . ., or by the partition
(piq\r\ . . . ) of the unipartite number m. The distributions to be

onsidered are such that any number of objects may be in

ay one class subject to the restriction that no class is empty.
Two cases arise. If the order of the objects in a particular class
is immaterial, the class is termed a parcel; if the order is material,
the class is termed a group. The distribution into parcels is
alone considered here, and the main problem is the enumeration
of the distributions of objects defined by the partition (pqr . . . )

' the number n into parcels defined by the partition (p\qiri . . . )
of the number m. (See " Symmetric Functions and the Theory
of Distributions," Proc. London Mathematical Society, vol. xix.)
Three particular cases are of great importance. Case I. is the

' one-to-one distribution," in which the number of parcels is
equal to the number of objects, and one object is distributed in
each parcel. Case II. is that in which the parcels are all different,
being defined by the partition (mi . . . ), conveniently written
(i m ); this is the theory of the compositions of unipartite and

nultipartite numbers. Case III. is that in which the parcels are
all similar, being defined by the partition (m) ; this is the theory
of the partitions of unipartite and multipartite numbers. Pre-
vious to discussing these in detail, it is necessary to describe the
method of symmetric functions which will be largely utilized.
Let a, /3, 7, . . . be the roots cf the equation

n 1 n 2 A

x^-a-fX +a^x ... = 0.

The symmetric function Sa p |8*y..., where p+q+r+ . . . =n
is, in the partition notation, written (pqr . . . ). Let
The dis- A denote the number of ways of distri-

tributlon IW"V/I \PiQir\'")

function, buting the n objects defined by the partition (pqr . . . )
into the m parcels defined by the partition (piq^i . . . ).
The expression

vhere the numbers pi, qi,r\ . . . are fixed and assumed to be in
descending order of magnitude, the summation being for every
artition (pqr . . . )of the number n, is defined to be the distribu-
tion function of the objects defined by (pqr . . . ) into the parcels
defined by (piqiri . . .). It gives a complete enumeration of
n objects of whatever species into parcels of the given species,
i. One-to-One Distribution. Parcels m in number (i.e. m = n).
Let h, be the homogeneous product-sum of degree s of
the quantities o, /3, 7, ... so that
(l o*. 1 fix. 1yx. ...)~ 1 =

Form the product h Pl h, l h T1 . . .

Any term in h Pl may be regarded as derived from pi objects dis-
tributed into pi similar parcels, one object in' each parcel, since
the order of occurrence of the letters o, /J, y, . . . in any term is
immaterial. Moreover, every selection of pi letters from the
letters in o^'y . . . will occur in some term of h pj , every further
selection of qi letters will occur in some term of A,^ and so on.
Therefore in the product ft^A,,*,, . . . the term a'P'y . . ., and there-
fore also the symmetric function (pqr . . .), will occur as many times
as it is possible to distribute objects defined by (pqr . . .) into parcels
defined by (piqiri . . . ) one object in each parcel. Hence

^(wO- (,,,,...) <#9 r -> =k ri h, l hr l ....

This theorem is of algebraic importance; for consider the simple
particular case of the distribution of objects (43) into parcels (52),
and represent objects and parcels by 'small and capital letters
respectively. One distribution is shown by the scheme

AAAAABB

a a a a b b b

wherein an object denoted by a small letter is placed in a parcel
denoted by the capital letter immediately above it. We may
interchange small and capital letters and derive from it a distribution
of objects (52) into parcels (43) ; viz. :

AAAABBB

a a a a a b b'

The process is cjearly of general application, and establishes a one-
to-one correspondence between the distribution of objects (pqr ...)
into parcels (piqiri . . .) and the distribution of objects (piqiri . . .)
into parcels (pqr . . .). It is in fact, in Case I., an intuitive observa-
tion that we may either consider an object placed in or attached to
a parcel, or a parcel placed in or attached to an object. Analytically
we have

Theorem. "The coefficient of symmetric function (pqr ...) in
the development of the product hp^Jt^ ... is equal to the coefficient
of symmetric function (piqiri . . . ) in the development of the product

Wr--""

The problem of Case I. may be considered when the distributions
are subject to various restrictions. If the restriction be to the
effect that an aggregate of similar parcels is not to contain more
than one object of a kind, we have clearly to deal with the elementary
symmetric functions ai, 02, a>, ... or (i), (i 2 ), (i 1 ), ... in lieu of the
quantities hi,ht,ht, . . . The distribution function has then the value
a^a,,^... or (1'i) (1'^ (1'j)..., and by interchange of object and
parcel we arrive at the well-known theorem of symmetry in sym-
metric functions, which states that the coefficient of symmetric
function (pqr . . . ) in the development of the product a fl a, l a ri ... in
a series of monomial symmetric functions, is equal to the coefficient
of the function (piqiri . . . ) in the similar development of the product
a p a q Or ....

The general result of Case I. may be further analysed with im-
portant consequences.
Write . Xi = (l)*i,

X, = (2)*, + (!)*,

and generally X, = 2(X/u- ..^

the summation being in regard to every partition of s. Consider

the result of the multiplication

To determine the nature of the symmetric function P a few definitions
are necessary.

Definition I. Of a number n take any partition (XiX 2 X 3 ... X.)
and separate it into component partitions thus:

(X 1 X2)(X 3 X 1 X 6 )(X I1 )...

in any manner. This may be termed a separation of the partition,
the numbers occurring in the separation being identical with those
which occur in the partition. In the theory of symmetric functions
the separation denotes the product of symmetric functions

The portions (XiX 2 ), (XsX 4 X6), (Xs), . . . are termed separates, and if
Xi+X 2 =pi, X 3 +X < +X s = gi, X = ri. . . be in descending order of magni-
tude, the usual arrangement, the separation is said to have a species
denoted by the partition (piqiri . . . ) of the number n.

Definition II. If in any distribution of n objects into n parcels
(one object in each parcel), we write down a number , whenever
we observe similar objects in similar parcels we will obtain a
succession of numbers {i, | 2 , { 3 , . . . , where fe, | 2 , 3 . . . ) is some parti-
tion of n. The distribution is then said to have a specification denoted
by the partition (i 2 |3. . .).

Now it is clear that P consists of an aggregate of terms, each of
which, to a numerical factor pres, is a separation of the partition

(i"i^ij 3 ...) of species (piqjTi. . .). Further, P is the distribution

function of objects into parcels denoted by (piqiri . . . ), subject to the
restriction that the distributions have each of them the specification

754

denoted by the partition
notation we may write

COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS

. Employing a more general

and then P is the distribution function of objects into parcels
(p*ip*'p">...\ the distributions being such as to have the specifica-
tion (s" l f" t s" > ...\ Multiplying out P so as to exhibit it as a sum
of monomials, we get a result

indicating that for distributions of specification ($*' jpj*'...) there
are 9 ways of distributing n objects denoted by (X'^j 3 -.) amongst
n parcels denoted by (0JVJVJ*"')' one object in each parcel. Now

observe that as before we may interchange parcel and object, and
that this operation leaves the specification of the distribution un-
changed. Hence the number of distributions must be the same,
and if

then also

This extensive theorem of algebraic reciprocity includes many
known theorems of symmetry in the theory of Symmetric Functions.

The whole of the theory has been extended to include symmetric
functions symbolized by partitions which contain as well zero and
negative parts

2. The Compositions of Multipartite Numbers. Parcels denoted by
(i). There are here no similarities between the parcels.
Let (JTI 7T2 ITS...) be a partition of m.

Cmsf II / _,

(Pi Pl 2 P ,') a partition of n.

Of the whole number of distributions of the n objects, there will be a
certain number such that n\ parcels each contain pi objects, and in
general jr. parcels each contain p, objects, where s = i, 2, 3,

Consider the product h" l h"V... which can be permuted in

Pi P2 Pi

, "* ! , ways. For each of these ways fc'W... will be a dis-

TTilT^lTTs!... Pi Pi Pi

tribution function for distributions of the specified type. Hence,
regarding all the permutations, the distribution function is

, ,
iri! Train's!... Pi Pi Pi

and regarding, as well, all the partitions of n into exactly m parts,
the desired distribution function is

-iriiirj!*-,!... Pi Pi Pi"
that is, it is the coefficient of x" in (hix+h i x'*-\-hiX 3 -r. . .)". The
value of A(yri"2"3 .)_ (l") is the coefficient oi(p' 1 p^p^...')x n in

the development of the above expression, and is easily shown to
have the value

(pi+m-l\ " l (pt+m-l\ '* /pi+m-l\ **
\ Pi I \ Pi I \ Pi I
_ /m\ (pi+m-2\ "' ip*+m-2\ " /pi+m-2\ "*

w V pi } \ pi / \ pi /

(pi+m-3\ *i ipi+m-S\ "' /p,+m-3\ *'
\ Pi I \ Pt I \ PS )
...to m terms. "

Observe that when i = />2 = />s= . . . =iri=iri=v3. . . = I this ex-
pression reduces to the mth divided differences of o". The expression

gives the compositions of the multipartite number Pl l p^p" 1 . . . into

m parts. Summing the distribution function from m = i to m = <x>
and putting x=i, as we may without detriment, we find that the

totality of the compositions is given by ^ 2hhh wn ' c h
may be given the form I -^t a ^L a ^. a ^ y- Adding J we bring

this to the still more convenient form

..
Let F(/>" J /)^j 8 ...)denote the total number of compositions of the

multipartite

Then

i+ZF()i', and thence

F(p) = 2 p - 1 . Again i t _ 2(g | g _ a)3) = i+ZFfofr)a'0 p ',andexpand-
ing the left-hand side we easily find

F(p,p,)

We have found that the number of compositions of the multi-
partite piptp...p, is equal to the coefficient of symmetric function
(pipiptpi) or of the single term of'o* >l aJ 1 ...aP' in the development
according to ascending powers of the algebraic fraction

} __ . _ I _

1 2(Soi

This result can be thrown into another suggestive form, for it can
be proved that this portion of the expanded fraction

which is composed entirely of powers of

'li, <2<* 2 , 130.3, ...1,0..

has the expression

i 1

' l-2(

and therefore the coefficient of

in the latter fraction,

when ft, fe, &c., are put equal to unity, is equal to the coefficient of
the same term in the product

This result gives a direct connexion between the number of composi-
tions and the permutations of the letters in the product a pl a st ...o p *.
Selecting any permutation, suppose that the letter a, occurs q, times
in the last p r +pr+i +...+P, places of the permutation; the co-
efficient in question may be represented by j22 1+ 9 s+ --- + 9', the
summation being for every permutation, and since q\ = pi this may

be written

Ex. Gr. For the bipartite 22, pi
scheme :

, = 2, and we have the following

j (12

2 Oi

?2=2

= 1
= 1
= 1

Hence F(22) =2(2* +2 +2 +2 +2 +2*) =26.

We may regard the fraction

02 2
Ol 2
0201

01 02

02 Ol
Ol Ol

as a redundant generating function, the enumeration of the com-
positions being given by the coefficient of

The transformation of the pure generating function into a factorized
redundant form supplies the key to the solution of a large number
of questions in the theory of ordinary permutations, as will be seen
later.

[The transformation of the last section involves The theory
a comprehensive theory of Permutations, which it is ofpermu-
convenient to discuss shortly here. tatioas.

If Xi, X 2 , 'Xs, ... X be linear functions given by the matricular
relation

(Xi, Hi, ... Xn = (an 012 ... ai n )(x t , Xt, ...x n )

Oil Oft ... Q

Onl a ni ... Onn

that portion of the algebraic fraction,

which is a function of the products SiXi, SiXi, StXi. . .s a x n only is

where the denominator is in a symbolic form and denotes on ex-
pansion

where |an|, |onOjj|,. . .|onajj, . . .On B | denote the several co-axial
minors of the determinant

of the matrix. (For the proof of this theorem see MacMahon, " A
certain Class of Generating Functions in the Theory of Numbers,"
Phil. Trans. R. S. vol. clxxxv. A, 1894). It follows that the co-
efficient of

COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS

755

in the product

is equal to the coefficient of the same term in the expansion ascending-
wise of the fraction

If the elements of the determinant be all of them equal to unity,
we obtain the functions which enumerate the unrestricted permu-
tations of the letters in

(*,+*+... -

viz.

and l-(x,+x,+...+x.)

Suppose that we wish to find the generating function for the enumera-
tion of those permutations of the letters inx* ix^ . . . x*" which are such

that no letter x, is in a position originally occupied by an x for all
values of s. This is a generalization of the " Probleme des rencontres"
or of " derangements." We have merely to put

and the .remaining elements equal to unity. The generating product is

and to obtain the condensed form we have to evaluate the co-axial
minors of the invertebrate determinant

1 . .

The minors of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd. . .nth orders have respectively the
values

-1

therefore the generating function is

... .$2x1X2... *n-i . ( l)x:Xj...x,,

(x -x,) (x -x) ...(*-*)= x" -a,*"- 1 -fas*"-* -...,

1
or writing

this is

1 Oj 2a 3 3o 4 ... (

Again, consider the general problem of " derangements." We

have to find the number of permutations such that exactly m of

the letters are in places they originally occupied. We have the

particular redundant product

The

in which the sought number is the coefficient of a m x^ 'z^..
true generating function is derived from the determinant

a 1 1 1 . .

1 a 1 1 . .

1 1 a 1 . .

1 1 1 a .

and has the form

It is clear that a large class of problems in permutations can be
solved in a similar manner, viz. by giving special values to the
elements of the determinant of the matrix. The redundant pro-
duct leads uniquely to the real generating function, but the latter
has generally more than one representation as a redundant
product, in the cases in which it is representable at all. For the
existence of a redundant form, the coefficients of Xi,Xt, . . .x\Xt . . .
in the denominator of th real generating function must satisfy
2' 2 +w~2 conditions, and assuming this to be the case, a
redundant form can be constructed which involves n i un-
determined quantities. We are thus able to pass from any par-
ticular redundant generating function to one equivalent to it,
but involving n i undetermined quantities. Assuming these
quantities at pleasure we obtain a number of different algebraic
products, each of which may have its own meaning in arithmetic,

and thus the number of arithmetical correspondences obtainable
is subject to no finite limit (cf. MacMahon, he. cit. pp. 125
et seq.)]

3. The Theory of Partitions. Parcels defined by (m). When an
ordinary unipartite number n is broken up into other numbers,
and the order of occurrence of the numbers is immaterial, -^ ...
the collection of numbers is termed a partition of the
number n. It is usual to arrange the numbers comprised in the
collection, termed the parts of the partition, in descending order of
magnitude, and to indicate repetitions of the same part by the use
of exponents. Thus (32111), a partition of 8, is written (321*).
Euler s pioneering work in the subject rests on the observation that
the algebraic multiplication

Is equivalent to the arithmetical addition of the exponents a,b,c,....

He showed that the number of ways of composing n with p integers

drawn from the series a, b, c, . . . , repeated or not, is equal to the

coefficient of fx" in the ascending expansion of the fraction

_ 1 _

1-fx". l-fx. 1-fx". ..."

which he termed the generating function of the partitions in question.
If the partitions are to be composed of p, or fewer parts, it is

merely necessary to multiply this fraction by ... Similarly, if

the parts are to be unrepeated.the generating^unction is the algebraic
product

if each part may occur at most twice,

and generally if each part may occur at most k i times it is
l-f*x* a !-{**** 1-f***'

l-f*x* a !-{
1 -fa? 1 ' 1-

It is thus easy to form generating functions for the partitions of
numbers into parts subject to various restrictions. If. there be no
restriction in regard to the numbers of the parts, the generating
function is

_ 1 _

1 x". 1 -x 6 . 1 -x". ...

and the problems of finding the partitions of a number n, and of
determining their number, are the same as those of solving and
enumerating the solutions of the indeterminate equation in positive
integers

ax+by+cz+... =n.

Euler considered also the question of enumerating the solutions
of the indeterminate simultaneous equation in positive integers

ax+by+cz+... = n

a'x+b'y+c'z+...=n'

a'x+b"y+c"z+...=n'

which was called by him and those of his time the " Problem of
the Virgins." The .enumeration is given by the coefficient of
x n y n 'z"" . . . in the expansion of the fraction

which enumerates the partitions of the multipartite number nrin* ...
into the parts ___ ^_

abc..., a'b'c'..., a"b"c"... ......

Sylvester has determined an analytical expression for the coefficient
of x" in the expansion of

To explain this we have two lemmas:

Lemma i. The coefficient of x" 1 , i.e., after Cauchy, the residue
in the ascending expansion of (i *)"*, is i. For when is unity,
it is obviously the case, and

( 1 -e*)-*'- 1 - (1 -*)-+*(! -e 1 )-*- 1

Here the residue of -^ (1 *)~'j is zero, and therefore the residue

of (i *)"* is unchanged when i is increased by unity, and is
therefore always I for all values of i.

Lemma 2. The constant term in any proper algebraical fraction
developed in ascending powers of its variable is the same as the
residue, with changed sign, of the sum _cf the fractions obtained
by substituting in the given fraction, in lieu of the variable, its ex-
ponential multiplied in succession by each of its values (zero excepted,
if there be such), which makes tne given fraction infinite. For
write the proper algebraical fraction

756

COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS

The constant term is 2S-^S-

Let a* be a value of x which makes the fraction infinite. The
residue of

222- '* I ^ + 2 A ^

is equal to the residue of

222-

and when =it, the residue vanishes, so that we have to consider

22-

a^(l f)
residue of this is, by the first lemma,

-M^A

and the

t. c *n

which proves the lemma.

l_ x t\ =~^isincethesought number

TakeF(x) = x / 1 _ a; .\^_ x t\ (l x') =< ^T' smcetnesou 8 nt number
is its constant term.

Let p be a root of unity which makes /(x) infinite when substituted
for x. The function of which we have to take the residue is

-p.-)(i _

pier")

We may divide the calculation up into sections by considering
separately that portion of the summation which involves the primi-
tive otn roots of untiy, q being a divisor of one of the numbers
a, b,. . .1. Thus the gth wave is

which, putting for p, and K=n+j(o+6+. ..+/) may be written

and the calculation in simple cases is practicable.
Thus Sylvester finds for the coefficient of x" in

1 -x. 1 - x 2 . 1 - x s

the expression l2~72~S^~^ 1 '^'9( l '>"^ p '*'^

where i>=+3.
Sylvester, Franklin, Durfee, G. S. Ely and others have

evolved a constructive theory of partitions, the object of
which is the contemplation of the partitions them-
se ' ves > an d tne evolution of their properties from a

method. study of their inherent characters. It is concerned
for the most part with the partition of a number into

parts drawn from the natural series of numbers i, 2, 3 ....

Any partition, say (521) of the number 8, is represented by nodes

placed in order at the points of a rectangular lattice,

when the partition is given by the enumeration of the nodes by
lines. If we enumerate by columns we obtain another partition
of 8, viz. (3 2 1 3 ), which is termed the conjugate of the former.
The fact or conjugacy was first pointed out by Norman Macleod
Ferrers. If the original partition is one of a number n in i parts,
of which the largest is j, the conjugate is one into _;' parts, of
which the largest is i, and we obtain the theorem : " The

number of partitions of any number into i par t s P or fewer

having the largest part equSS^tfaan/, 1 * 01 ^ the same
when the numbers iandj are interchanged."

The study of this representation on a lattice (termed by

Sylvester the " graph ") yields many theorems similar to that just
given, and, moreover, throws considerable light upon the expan-
sion of algebraic series.

The theorem of reciprocity just established shows that the number
of partitions of n into j parts or fewer, is the same as the number of
ways of composing n with the integers i, 2, 3,. . .j. Hence we can

ex P and 1 -a. 1 -ox. 1 -ox 2 .! -ax>...ad inf. in Bending powers of a ;
for the coefficient of a'x" in the expansion is the number of ways
of composing n with j or fewer parts, and this we have seen in the

coefficients of x" in the ascending expansion of r-^. i _ . _ f .

Therefore

1 a a 1

1 a. 1 ox. 1 ax 2 ....

c T l-x. 1-x 1 ^

. -x. 1 -**....! -*>+-

The coefficient of o'x" in the expansion of

I a. 1 ox. 1 ax 2 . ...1 ox'

denotes the number of ways of composing n with j or fewer parts,
none of which are greater than i. The expansion is known to be

It has been established by the constructive method by F. Franklin
(Amer. Jour, of Math. v. 254), and shows that the generating function
for the partitions in question is

1-X. 1-3?. ...1-X'

which, observe, is unaltered by interchange of * and j.

Franklin has also similarly established the identity of Euler

(1 -x)(l -x 2 ) (1 -x->)...ad inf. = 2(-)JxJ<3j+>>,

known as the " pentagonal number theorem," which on interpre-
tation shows that the number of ways of partitioning n into an
even number of unrepeated parts is equal to that into an uneven
number, except when n has the pentagonal form ^(zf+j),j positive
or negative, when the difference between the numbers of the partitions
is (-)'.

To illustrate an important dissection of the graph we will consider
those graphs which read the same by
columns as by lines; these are called self-
conjugate. Such a graph may be obvi-
ously dissected into a square, containing
say 8 1 nodes, and into two graphs, one
lateral and or.s subjacent, the latter being
the conjugate of the former. The former
graph is limited to contain not more than
8 parts, but is subject to no other con-
dition. Hence the number of self-conjugate
partitions of n which are associated with a square of e 2 nodes is
clearly equal to the number of partitions of ?(n fl 2 ) into 8 or few
parts, i.e. it is the coefficient of xJ'"" 92 ' in

x" 2

or of *" in . l-*. -. -

and the whole generating function is

1+2

I-* 2 . 1-x 4 . l-x....l-x 2

Now the graph is also composed of 8 angles of nodes, each angle con-
taining an uneven number of nodes; hence the partition is trans-
formable into one containing 8 unequal uneven numbers. In the
case depicted this partition is (17, 9, 5, i). Hence the number of the
partitions based upon a square of 2 nodes is the coefficient of a e x
in the product (i+ox)(i+ox*)(i+ox 6 ). . . (i+ax**" 1 " 1 ). . ., and thence

-m
the coefficient of a* in this product is i_ x t

and we have the expansion

1-x*. 1-x 6 . ...l-x*

(l+ax)(l+ox 3 )(l+ox 6 )...ao f inf.
x

1 -X 4 . 1 -I

Again, if we restrict the part magnitude to , the largest angle of
nodes contains at most 21 1 nodes, and based upon a square of
9 2 nodes we have partitions enumerated by the coefficient of o*x n
in the product (i +ax)(i +ax 3 )(i+ox 6 ). . . (l+ax 2 '" 1 ); moreover
the same number enumerates the partition of ^(n8 2 ) into 8 or
fewer parts, of which the largest part is equal to or less than i 8,
and is thus given by the coefficient of x^"* 8 ' in the expansion of

COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS

757

1-x. I-* 2 . 1 -*....! -*<>

or of x in -i-**.i-*.r-*'.T.:r^

hence the expansion

= 1+2
fl-i

1 -X 2 . 1 -X*. 1 -X 6 . ...1 -*"

There is no difficulty in extending the graphical method to three

dimensions, and we have then a theory of a special kind

Extension Q f part j t i on o f multipartite numbers. Of such kind is the

sloas. <iia 2 a 3 ...,

of the multipartite number

> 3 ..., CiC 2 c 3 ..., ...

.... o,+& 3 +c,+ ^0

for then the graphs of the parts aia 2 o 3 ..., &iW> s ..., ... are super-
posable, and we have what we may term &_regular graph in three
dimensions. Thus the partition (643, 632", 41!) of the multipartite
(16, 8, 6) leads to the graph

(Oi

and every such graph is readable in six ways, the axis of z being
perpendicular to the plane of the paper.

Ex. Cr.

Plane parallel to xy, direction O* reads(643, 632,411)

xy, Oy (333211,332111,311100)
yz, Oy
Oz
Oz

zx,

(333322,322100,321000)
(664,431,321)

the partitions having reference to the multipartite numbers 16, 8, 6,
976422, 13, 11, 6, which are brought into relation through the
medium of the graph. The graph in question is more conveniently
represented by a numbered diagram, viz.

333322
3221
3 2 1

and then we may evidently regard it as a unipartite partition on
the points of a lattice,

the descending order of magnitude of part being maintained along
every line of route which proceeds from the origin in the positive
directions of the axes.

This brings in view the modern notion of a partition, which has
enormously enlarged the scope of the theory. We consider any
number of points in piano or in solido connected (or not) by lines
in pairs in any desired manner and fix upon any condition, such
as is implied by the symbols ^, >, =, <, ., ^, as affecting any
pair of points so connected. Thus in ordinary unipartite partition
we have to solve in integers such a system as

01+02+03 +

the points being in a straight line. In the simplest example of
the three-dimensional graph we have to solve the system

Ml \V
ason

01+02+011+04 = n,

and a system for the general lattice constructed upon the same
principle. The system has been discussed by MacMahon, Phil.
Trans, vol. clxxxvii. A, 1806, pp. 619-673, with the conclusion that
if the numbers of nodes along the axes of x, y, z be limited not to

exceed the numbers m, n, I respectively, then writing for brevity
I x* = (s), the generating function is given by the product of the
factors

(2T-

' (m+n-1)

one factor appearing at each point of the lattice.

In general, partition problems present themselves which depend
upon the solution of a number of simultaneous relations in integers
of the form

Xioi+X s a 2 +Xjo 8 +....S:0,

the coefficients X being given positive or negative integers, and in
some cases the generating function has been determined in a form
which exhibits the fundamental solutions of the problems from
which all other solutions are derivable by addition. (See MacMahon,
Phil. Trans, vol. cxcii. (1899), pp. 351-401; and Trans. Camb.
Phil. Soc. vol. xviii. (1899), pp. 12-34.)

The number of distributions of n objects (pifapi . . .) into pircels
(m) is the coefficient of b m (pipipi . . .)*" in the development
of the fraction. Method of

I symmetric

1-bax.l-bpx.l-byx... ~~) fractions.

.l-bpt?... )

X(l-ba.W.l-ba?Px 3 .l-ba0yx i ...)

and if we write the expansion of that portion which involves products
of the letters a, 0, y, . . . of degree r in the form

we may write the development

r-l

and picking out the coefficient of b m x" we find

where ST = TO, 2r< = n.

The quantities h are symmetric functions of the quantities o, 0, y, . . .
which in simple cases can be calculated without difficulty, and
then the distribution function can be formed.

Ex. Gr. Required the enumeration of the partitions of all multi-
partite numbers (pipzpa . . .) into exactly two parts. We find

and paying attention to the fact that in the expression of h, t the
term h r is absent when r is uneven, the law is clear. The generating
function is

Taking A4+Aj =

= 2(4) +3(31) +4(2 2 )+5(21 ! ) +7(1 ),

the term s(2i 2 ) indicates that objects such as a, o, b, c can be
partitioned in five ways into two parts. These are a \ a, b, c;
b\ a, a, c; c | a, a, b; a, a\ b, c; a, b\ a, c. The function h r ,
has been studied. (See MacMahon, Proc. Land. Math. Soc. vol.
xix.) Putting x equal to unity, the function may be written
(hi+h t +h e +...) (1+^1+^2+^3+^4+...), a convenient formula.

The method of differential operators, of wide application to
problems of combinatorial analysis, has for its leading idea the

designing of a function and of a differential operator, .. ... . .

1 method of

so that when the operator is performed upon the func- aaier-
tion anumberisreachedwhichenumeratesthesolutions eatial
of the given problem. Generally speaking, the prob- P erator *-
lems considered are such as are connected with lattices, or as
it is possible to connect with lattices.

To take the simplest possible example, consider the problem of
finding the number of permutations of n different letters. The

758

function is here*", and the operator l^-\ =t t , yielding x z =
the number which enumerates the permutations. In fact
i,x"=& x .x.x.x.x.x

and differentiating we obtain a sum of n terms by striking out an
x from the product in all possible ways. Fixing upon any one of
these terms, say x.f.x.x...., we again operate with , by striking
out an * in all possible ways, and one of the terms so reached is

x.f.x.f.x Fixing upon this term, and again operating and

continuing the process, we finally arrive at one solution of the
problem, which (taking say n = 4) may be said to be in correspondence
with the operator diagram

COMBUSTION

and the solutions are enumerated by

or say

the number in each row of compartments denoting an operation
of ; . Hence the permutation problem is equivalent to that of
placing n units in the compartments of a square lattice of order
n in such manner that each row and each column contains a single
unit. Observe that the method not only enumerates, but also gives
a process by which each solution is actually formed. The same
problem is that of placing n rooks upon a chess-board of n 1 com-
partments, so that no rook can be captured by any other rook.

Regarding these elementary remarks as introductory, we proceed
to give some typical examples of the method. Take a lattice of m
columns and n rows, and consider the problem of placing units in
the compartments in such wise that the sth column shall contain X,
units (s = i, 2, 3, ... m), and the fth row />, units (<=l, 2, 3, ...n).

Writing

and Dp = ^-j(S 0l + cn& a2 + 02*03 + ) p , the multiplication being symbolic,
so that Dp is an operator of order p, the function is

and the operator D Pl D, 2 D P3 ...D Pn . The number

D Pl D rr ..D fn a Xl a^a^ 3 ...a^ m enumerates the solutions. For the mode

of operation of D

the section on " Differential Operators

FORMS. Writing

p upon a product reference must be made to
" in the article ALGEBRAIC

Pl P2

=...+AZa, a .

. +-

or, in partition notation,

and the law by which the operation is performed upon the product
shows that the solutions of the given problem are enumerated by
the number A, and that the process of operation actually represents
each solution.

Ex. Gr. Take X, =3, X, =2, X, = 1,

/>i=2, pi =2, p, = l, p 4 = l,

and the process yields the eight diagrams:

1
1
T

i
~T

i
i

i
"T

viz. every solution of the problem. Observe that transposition of the
diagrams furnishes a proof of the simplest of the laws of symmetry in
the theory of symmetric functions.

For the next example we have a similar problem, but no restriction
is placed upon the magnitude of the numbers which may appear in
the compartments. The function is now Ajjftx 2 ... h\ n , Ax w being
the homogeneous product sum of the quantities a, of order x" The
operator is as before

D P1 D P2 ...D,

Putting as before Xi=3, Xj-2, Xi = l, p\=2, fa = 2, p,= i, p t = i,
the reader will have no difficulty in constructing the diagrams of
the eighteen solutions.

The next and last example of a multitude that might be given
shows the extraordinary power of the method by solving the famous
problem of the " Latin Square," which for hundreds of years had
proved beyond the powers of mathematicians. The problem consists
in placing n letters a, b, c,...n in the compartments of a square
lattice of n 2 compartments, no compartment being empty, so that
no letter occurs twice either in the same row or in the same column.
The function is here

and the operator D"
i -i

(-, *n 1 n 2 . \

Sa ! ^ - <-!) '

the enumeration being given by

( i~l . 8 \ n

2a* a 2 ... a 2 O B I

See Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc. vol. xvi. pt. iv. pp. 262-290.

AUTHORITIES. P. A. MacMahon, " Combinatory Analysis: A
Review of the Present State of Knowledge," Proc. Land. Math. Soc.
vol. xxviii. (London, 1897). Here will be found a bibliography of
the Theory of Partitions. Whitworth, Choice and Chance; douard
Lucas, Thtorie des nombres (Paris, 1891); Arthur Cay ley, Collected
Mathematical Papers (Cambridge, 1898), ii. 419; iii. 36, 37; iv. 166-
170; v. 62-65, 617; vii. 575; ix. 480-483; x. 16, 38, 611; xi. 61,

62, 357-364, 589-591; xii. 217-219, 273-274; xiii. 47, 93-113, 269;
Sylvester, Amer. Jour, of Math. v. 119 251 ; MacMahon, Proc. Land.
Math. Soc. xix. 228 et seq.; Phil. Trans, clxxxiv. 835-901 ; clxxxv.

111-160; clxxxvii. 619-673; cxcii. 351-401; Trans' Camb. Phil.
Soc. xvi. 262-290. j; (P. A. M.)

COMBUSTION (from the Lat. comburere, to burn up), in
chemistry, the process of burning or, more scientifically, the
oxidation of a substance, generally with the production of
flame and the evolution of heat. The term is more customarily
given to productions of flame such as we have in the burning of
oils, gas, fuel, &c., but it is conveniently extended to ether cases
of oxidation, such as are met with when metals are heated for
a long time in air or oxygen. The term " spontaneous com-
bustion " is used when a substance smoulders or inflames
apparently without the intervention of any external heat or
light; in such cases, as, for example, in heaps of cotton- waste
soaked in oil, the oxidation has proceeded slowly, but steadily,
for some time, until the heat evolved has raised the mass to the
temperature of ignition.

The explanation of the phenomena of combustion was at-
tempted at very early times, and the early theories were generally
bound up in the explanation of the nature of fire or flame. The
idea that some extraneous substance is essential to the process
is of ancient date; Clement of Alexandria (c. ycA century A.D.)
held that some " air " was necessary, and the same view was
accepted during the middle ages, when it had been also found
that the products of combustion weighed more than the original
combustible, a fact which pointed to the conclusion that some
substance had combined with the combustible during the process.
This theory was supported by the French physician Jean Ray,
who showed also that in the cases of tin and lead there was a
limit to the increase in weight. Robert Boyle, who made many
researches on the origin and nature of fire, regarded the increase
as due to the fixation of the particles of fire. Ideas identical
with the modern ones were expressed by John Mayow in his
Traclatus quinque medico-physici (1674), but his death in 1679
undoubtedly accounts for the neglect of his suggestions by his
contemporaries. Mayow perceived the similarity of the processes
of respiration and combustion, and showed that one constituent
of the atmosphere, which he termed spiritus nilro-aereus, was
essential to combustion and life, and that the second constituent,
which he termed spiritus nitri acidi, inhibited combustion and
life. At the beginning of the i8th century a new theory of com-
bustion was promulgated by Georg Emst Stahl. This theory
regarded combustibility as due to a principle named phlogiston
(from the Gr. $Ao7rr6s, burnt), which was present in all
combustible bodies in an amount proportional to their degree
of combustibility; for instance, coal was regarded as practically

COMEDY COMET

759

pure phlogiston. On this theory, all substances which could be
burnt were composed of phlogiston and some other substance, and
the operation of burning was simply equivalent to the liberation
of the phlogiston. The Stahlian theory, originally a theory of
combustion, came to be a general theory of chemical reactions,
since it provided simple explanations of the ordinary chemical
processes(when regarded qualitatively) and permitted generaliza-
tions which largely stimulated its acceptance. Its inherent
defect that the products of combustion were invariably heavier
than the original substance instead of less as the theory de-
manded was ignored, and until late in the i8th century it
dominated chemical thought. Its overthrow was effected by
Lavoisier, who showed that combustion was simply an oxidation,
the oxygen of the atmosphere (which was isolated at about this
time by K. W. Scheele and J. Priestley) combining with the
substance burnt.

COMEDY, the general term applied to a type of drama the
chief object of which, according to modern notions, is to amuse.
It is contrasted on the one hand with tragedy and on the other
with farce, burlesque, &c. As compared with tragedy it is dis-
tinguished by having a happy ending (this being considered for
a long time the essential difference), by quaint situations, and
by lightness of dialogue and character-drawing. As compared
with farce it abstains from crude and boisterous jesting, and is
marked by some subtlety of dialogue and plot. It is, however,
difficult to draw a hard and fast line of demarcation, there being
a distinct tendency to combine the characteristics of farce with
those of true comedy. This is perhaps more especially the case
in the so-called " musical comedy," which became popular in
Great Britain and America in the later igth century, where
true comedy is frequently subservient to broad farce and specta-
cular effects.

The word " comedy " is derived from the Gr. K<anqSia, which
is a compound either of /cw^ios (revel) and doidos (singer;
aei5av, $8tu>, to sing), or of KOJ/LIT; (village) and ootSos: it is
possible that KCO/IOS itself is derived from KW/UIJ, and originally
meant a village revel. The word comes into modern usage
through the Lat. comoedia and Ital. commedia. It has passed
through various shades of meaning. In the middle ages it meant
simply a story with a happy ending. Thus some of Chaucer's
Tales are called comedies, and in this sense Dante used the term
in the title of his poem, La Commedia (cf. his Epistola X., in
which he speaks of the comic style as " loquutio vulgaris, in qua
et mulierculae communicant"; again "comoedia vero remisse
et humiliter"; "differt a tragoedia per hoc, quod t. in principio
est admirabilis et quieta, in fine sive exitu est foetida et horri-
bilis "). Subsequently the term is applied to mystery plays with
a happy ending. The modern usage combines this sense with
that in which Renaissance scholars applied it to the ancient
comedies.

The adjective " comic " (Gr. /cco/xucos), which strictly means
that which relates to comedy, is in modern usage generally
confined to the sense of "laughter-provoking": it is distin-
guished from " humorous " or " witty " inasmuch as it is applied
to an incident or remark which provokes spontaneous laughter
without a special mental effort. The phenomena connected
with laughter and that which provokes it, the comic, have been
carefully investigated by psychologists, in contrast with other
phenomena connected with the emotions. It is very generally
agreed that the predominating characteristics are incongruity
or contrast in the object, and shock or emotional seizure on the
part of the subject. It has also been held that the feeling of
superiority is an essential, if not the essential, factor: thus
Hobbes speaks of laughter as a " sudden glory." Physiological
explanations have been given by Kant, Spencer and Darwin.
Modern investigators have paid much attention to the origin
both of laughter and of smiling, babies being watched from
infancy and the date of their first smile being carefully recorded.
For an admirable analysis and account of the theories see James
Sully, On Laughter (1902), who deals generally with the develop-
ment of the " play instinct " and its emotional expression.

See DRAMA; also HUMOUR; CARICATURE; PLAY, &c.

COMENIUS (or KOMENSKY), JOHANN AMOS (1592-1671), a
famous writer on education, and the last bishop of the old church
of the Moravian and Bohemian Brethren, was born at Comna,
or, according to another account, at Niwnitz, in Moravia, of
poor parents belonging to the sect of the Moravian Brethren.
Having studied at Herborn and Heidelberg, and travelled in
Holland and England, he became rector of a school at Prerau, and
after that pastor and rector of a school at Fulnek. In 1621 the
Spanish invasion and persecution of the Protestants robbed hjm
of all he possessed, and drove him into Poland. Soon after he
was made bishop of the church of the Brethren. He supported
himself by teaching Latin at Lissa, and it was here that he pub-
lished his Pansophiae prodromus (1630), a work on education,
and his Janua linguarum reserata (1631), the latter of which
gained for him a widespread reputation, being produced in
twelve European languages, and also in Arabic, Persian and
Turkish. He subsequently published several other works of
a similar kind, as the Eruditionis scholaslicae janua and the
Janua linguarum trilinguis. His method of teaching languages,
which he seems to have been the first to adopt, consisted in giving,
in parallel columns, sentences conveying useful information, in
the vernacular and the languages intended to be taught (i.e. in
Comenius's works, Latin and sometimes Greek). In some of
his books, as the Orbis sensualium pictus (1658), pictures are
added; this work is, indeed, the first children's picture-book.
In 1638 Comenius was requested by the government of Sweden
to draw up a scheme for the management of the schools of that
country; and a few years after he was invited to join the com-
mission that the English parliament then intended to appoint, in
order to reform the system of education. He visited England in
1641, but the disturbed state of politics prevented the appoint-
ment of the commission, and Comenius passed over to Sweden
in August 1642. The great Swedish minister, Oxenstjerna,
obtained for him a pension, and a commission to furnish a plan
for regulating the Swedish schools according to his own method.
Devoting himself to the elaboration of his scheme, Comenius
settled first at Elbing, and then at Lissa; but, at the burning
of the latter city by the Poles, he lost nearly all his manuscripts,
and he finally removed to Amsterdam, where he died in 1671.

As an educationist, Comenius holds a prominent place in
history. He was disgusted at the pedantic teaching of his own
day, and he insisted that the teaching of words and things must
go together. Languages should be taught, like the mother
tongue, by conversation on ordinary topics; pictures, object
lessons, should be used; teaching should go hand in hand with
a happy life. In his course he included singing, economy,
politics, world-history, geography, and the arts and handicrafts.
He was one of the first to advocate teaching science in schools.

As a theologian, Comenius was greatly influenced by Boehme.
In his Synopsis physicae ad lumen dimnum reformatae he gives
a physical theory of his ov/n, said to be taken from the book of
Genesis. He was also famous for his prophecies and the support
he gave to visionaries. In his Lux in tenebris he published the
visions of Kotterus, Dabricius and Christina Poniatovia. At-
tempting to interpret the book of Revelation, he promised the
millennium in 1672, and guaranteed miraculous assistance to
those who would undertake the destruction of the Pope and
the house of Austria, even venturing to prophesy that Cromwell,
Gustavus Adolphus, and Rakoczy, prince of Transylvania, would
perform the task. He also wrote to Louis XIV., informing him
that the empire of the world should be his reward if he would
overthrow the enemies of God.

Comenius also wrote against the Socinians, and published three
historical works Ratio disciplinae ordinisque in imitate fratrum
Bohemorum, which was repupRshed with remarks by Buddaeus,
Historia persecutionum ecctesiae Bohemicae (1648), and Martyro-
logium Bohemicum. See Raumer's Geschichte der Padogogik, and
Carpzov's Religionsuntersuchung der bohmischen und mahrischen
Bruder.

COMET (Gr. Ko/t^np, long-haired), in astronomy, one of a class
of seemingly nebulous bodies, moving under the influence of the
sun's attraction in very eccentric orbits. A comet is visible only
in a small arc of its orbit near perihelion, differing but slightly

y6o

COMET

from the arc of a parabola. An obvious but not sharp classi-
fication of comets is into bright comets visible to the naked eye,
and telescopic comets which can be seen only with a telescope.
The telescopic class is much the more numerous of the two, only
from 20 to 30 bright comets usually appearing in any one century,
while several telescopic comets, frequently 6 or 8, are generally
observed in the course of a year.

A bright comet consists of (i) a star-like nucleus; (2) a nebu-
lous haze, called the coma, surrounding this nucleus, the latter
fading into the haze by insensible gradations; (3) a tail or
luminous stream flowing from the coma in a direction opposite
to that of the sun. The nuclei and comae of different comets
exhibit few peculiarities to the unaided vision except in respect
to brightness; but the tails of comets differ widely, both in
brightness and in extent. They range from a barely visible
brush or feather of light to a phenomenon extending over a
considerable arc of the heavens, which, comparatively bright
near the head of the comet, becomes gradually fainter and more
diffuse towards its end, fading out by gradations so insensible
that a precise length cannot be assigned to it. When a telescopic
comet is first discovered the nucleus is frequently invisible, the
object presenting the appearance of a faint nebulous haze,
scarcely distinguishable in aspect from a nebula. When the
nucleus appears it may at first be only a comparatively faint
condensation, and may or may not develop into a point of light
as the comet approaches the sun. A tail also is generally not
seen at great distances from the sun, but gradually develops
as the comet approaches perihelion, to fade away again as the
comet recedes from the sun.

A few comets are known to revolve in orbits with a regular
period, while, -in the case of others, no evidence is afforded by
observation that the orbit deviates from a parabola. Were the
orbit a parabola or hyperbola the comet would never return
(see ORBIT). Periodicity may be recognized in two ways:
observations during the apparition may show that the motion
is in an elliptic and not in a parabolic orbit; or a comet may
have been observed at more than one return. In the latter case
the comet is recognized as distinctly periodic, and therefore a
member of the solar system. The shortest periods range between
3 and 10 years. The majority of comets which have been ob-
served are shown by observation to be periodic; the period is
usually very long, being sometimes measured by centuries, but
generally by thousands of years. It is conceivable that a comet
might revolve in a hyperbolic orbit. Although there are several
of these bodies observations on which indicate such an orbit, the
deviation from the parabolic form has not in any case been so
well marked as to be fully established. Circumstances lead
to the classification of newly appearing comets as expected and
unexpected. An expected comet is a periodic one of which the
return is looked for at a determinate time and in a certain
region of the heavens. When this is not the case the comet is an
unexpected one.

Physical Constitution of Comets. The subject of the physical
constitution of these bodies is one as to the details of which
much uncertainty still exists. The considerations on which
conclusions in this field rest are very various, and can best be
set forth by beginning with what we may consider to be the
best established facts.

We must regard it as well established that comets are not,
like planets and satellites, permanent in mass, but are con-
tinuously losing minute portions of the matter which belongs
to them, through a progressive dissipation at least when they
are in the neighbourhood of the sun. When near perihelion
the matter of a comet is seen to be undergoing a process in the
nature of evaporation, successive envelopes of vapour rising from
the nucleus to form the coma, and then gradually repelled from
the sun to form the tail. If this process went on indefinitely
every comet would, in the course of ages, be entirely dissipated.
This result has actually happened in the case of some known
comets, the best established example of which is that of Biela,
in which the process of disintegration was clearly followed. As
the amount of matter lost by a comet at any one return cannot

be estimated, and may be very small, it is impossible to set any
limit to the period during which its life may continue. It is
still an unsettled question whether, in every case, the eva-
poration will ultimately cease, leaving a residuum as permanent
as any other mass of matter.

The next question in logical order is one of great difficulty.
It is whether the nucleus of a comet is an opaque solid body, a
cluster of such bodies, or a mass of particles of extreme tenuity.
Some light is thrown on this and other questions by the spectro-
scope. This instrument shows in the spectrum of nearly every
comet three Bright bands, recognized as those of hydrocarbons.
The obvious conclusion is that the light forming these bands is
not reflected sunlight, but light radiated by the gaseous hydro-
carbons. Since a gas at so great a distance from the sun cannot
be heated to incandescence, the question arises how incan-
descence is excited. The generalizations of recent years growing
out of the phenomena of radioactivity make it highly probable
that the source is to be found in some form of electrical excitation,
produced by electrons or other corpuscles thrown out by the sun.
The resemblance of the cometary spectrum to the spectrum
of hydrocarbons in the Geissler tube lends great plausibility
to this view. It is remarkable that the great comet of 1882 also
showed the bright lines of sodium with such intensity that they
were observed in daylight by R. Copeland and W. O. Lohse.
In addition to these gaseous spectra, all but the fainter comets
show a continuous spectrum, crossed by the Fraunhofer lines,
which is doubtless due to reflected sunlight. It happens that,
since the spectroscope has been perfected, no comet of great
brilliancy has been favourably situated for observation. Until
the opportunity is offered, the conclusions to be derived from
spectroscopic observation cannot be further extended.

In the telescope the nucleus of a bright comet appears as an
opaque mass, one or more seconds in diameter, the absolute
dimensions comparing with those of the satellites of the planets,
sometimes, indeed, equal to our moon. But the actual results
of micrometric measures are found to differ very widely. In
the case of Donati's comet of 1858 the nucleus seemed to grow
smaller as perihelion was approached. This is evidently due to
the fact that the coma immediately around the nucleus was so
bright as apparently to form a part of it at considerable distances
from the sun. G. P. Bond estimated the diameter of the actual
nucleus at 500 m. That the nucleus is a body of appreciable
mass seems to be made probable by the fact that, except for the
central attraction of such a body, a comet would speedily be
dissipated by the different attractions of the sun on different
parts of the mass, which would result in each particle pursuing
an orbit of its own. It follows that there must be a mass sufficient
to hold the parts of the comet, if not absolutely together, at least
in each other's immediate neighbourhood. How great a central
mass may be required for this is a subject not yet investigated.
It might be supposed that the amount of matter must be sufficient
to make the nucleus quite opaque. But two considerations
based on observations militate against this view. One is that an
opaque body, reflecting much sunlight, would show a brighter
continuous spectrum than has yet been found in any comet.
Another and yet more remarkable observation is on record which
goes far to prove not only the tenuity, but the transparency of
a cometary nucleus. The great comet of 1882 made a transit
over the sun on the 1 7th of September, an occurrence unique in
the history of astronomy. But the fact of the transit escaped
attention except at the observatory of the Cape of Good Hope.
Here the comet was watched by W. H. Finlay and by W. L.
Elkin as it approached the sun, and was kept in sight until it
came almost or quite in contact with the sun's disk, when it
disappeared. It should, if opaque, have appeared a few minutes
later, projected on the sun's disk; but not a trace of it could be
seen. The sun was approaching Table Mountain at the critical
moment, and its limb was undulating badly, making the detection
of a minute point difficult. The possibility of a very small opaque
nucleus is therefore still left open; yet the remarkable conclusion
still holds, that, immediately around a possible central nucleus,
the matter of the head of the comet was so rare as not to intercept

COMET

PLATE I.

FIG. i. COMET 1892, I. (SWIFT), 1892, APRIL 26.

By permission of Lick Observatory (E. E. Barnard)

FIG. 2. COMET C, 1908, NOV. i6d. I3h. lorn.

VI.760

By permission of Yerkes Observatory (E. E. Barnard).

PLATE II.

COMET

FIG. 3. HALLEY'S COMET, 1910, APRIL 27.

By permission of Helwan Observatory, Egypt

FIG. 4 HALLEY'S COMET, 1910, MAY 4.

By permission of Yerkes Observatory (E. E. Barnard).

COMET

761

any appreciable fraction of the sun's light. This result seems
also to show that, with the possible exception of a very small
central mass, what seems to telescopic vision as a nucleus is
really only the central portion of the coma, which, as the distance
from the centre increases, becomes less and less dense by imper-
ceptible gradations.

Another fact tending towards this same conclusion is that
after this comet passed perihelion it showed several nuclei
following each other. Evidently the powerful attraction of the
sun had separated the parts of the apparent nucleus, which were
following each other in nearly the same orbit. As they could not
have been completely brought together again, we may suppose
that in such cases the smaller nuclei were permanently separated
from the main body. In addition to this, the remarkable
similarity of the orbit of this comet to that of several others
indicates a group of bodies moving in nearly the same orbit.
The other members of the group were the great comets of 1843,
i88oand 1887. The latter, though so bright as to be conspicuous
to the naked eye, showed no nucleus whatever. The closely
related orbits of the four bodies are also remarkable for approach-
ing nearer the sun at perihelion than does the orbit of any other
known body. All of these comets pass through the matter of the
sun's corona with a velocity of more than 100 m. per second
without suffering any retardation. As it is beyond all reasonable
probability that several independent bodies should have moved
in orbits so nearly the same, the conclusion is that the comets
were originally portions of one mass, which gradually separated
in the course of ages by the powerful attraction of the sun as the
collection successively passed the perihelion. It may be remarked
that observations on the comet of 1843 seemed to show a slight
ellipticity of the orbit, corresponding to a period of several
centuries; but the deviation of all the orbits from a parabola is
too slight to be established by observations. The periods of
the comets are therefore unknown except that they must be
counted by centuries and possibly by thousands of years.

Another fact which increases the complexity of the question is
the well-established connexion of comets with meteoric showers.
The shower of November 13-15, now known as the Leonids,
which recurred for several centuries at intervals of about one-
third of a century, are undoubtedly due to a stream of particles
left behind by a comet observed in 1866. The same is true of
Biela's comet, the disintegrated particles of which give rise to
the Andromedids, and probably true also of the Perseids, or
August meteors, the orbits of which have a great similarity to
a comet seen in 1862. The general and well-established conclu-
sion seems to be that, in addition to the visible features of a
comet, every such body is followed in its orbit by a swarm of
meteoric particles which must have been gradually detached and
separated from it. (See METEOR.)

The source of the repulsive force by which the matter forming
the tail of a comet is driven away from the sun is another question
that has not yet been decisively answered. Two causes have
been suggested, of which one has only recently been brought to
light. This is the repulsion of the sun's rays, a form of action
the probability of which was shown by J. Clerk Maxwell in 1870,
and which was experimentally established about thirty years later.
The intensity of this action on a particle is proportional to the
surface presented by the particle to the rays, and therefore to
the square of its diameter, while its mass, and therefore its
gravitation to the sun, are proportional to the cube of the
diameter. It follows that if the size and mass of a particle in
space are below a certain limit, the repulsion of the rays will
exceed the attraction of the sun, and the particle will be driven
off into space. But, in order that this repulsive force may act,
the particles, however minute they may be, must be opaque.
Moreover, theory shows that there is a lower as well as an upper
limit to their magnitude, and that it is only between certain
definable limits of magnitude that the force acts. Conceiving
the particle to be of the density of water, and considering its
diameter as a diminishing variable, theory shows that the repul-
sion will balance gravity when the diameter has reached 0-0015
of a millimetre. As the diameter is reduced below this limit

the ratio of the repulsive to the attractive force increases, but
soon reaches a maximum, after which it diminishes down to a
diameter of 0-00007 mm. , when the two actions are again balanced.
Below this limit the light speedily ceases to act. It follows that
a purely gaseous body, such as would emit a characteristic bright
line spectrum, would not be subject to the repulsion. We must
therefore conclude that both the solid and gaseous forms of
matter are here at play, and this view is consonant with the fact
that the comet leaves behind it particles of meteoric matter.

Another possible cause is electrical repulsion. The probability
of this cause is suggested by recent discoveries in radioactivity
and by the fact that the sun undoubtedly sends forth electrical
emanations which may ionize the gaseous molecules rising from
the nucleus, and lead to their repulsion from the sun, thus
resulting in the phenomena of the tail. But well-established
laws are not yet sufficiently developed to lead to definite con-
clusions on this point, and the question whether both causes are
combined, and, if not, to which one the phenomena in question
are mainly due, must be left to the future.

A curious circumstance, which may be explained by a duplex
character of the matter forming a cometary tail, is the great
difference between the visual and photographic aspect of these
bodies. The soft, delicate, feathery-like form which the comet
with its tail presents to the eye is wanting in a photograph,
which shows principally a round head with an irregularly formed
tail much like the knotted stalk of a plant. It follows that the
light emitted by the central axis of the tail greatly exceeds in
actinic power the diffuse light around it. A careful comparison
of the form and intensity of the photographic and visual tails
may throw much light on the question of the constitution of
these bodies, but no good opportunity of making the comparison
has been afforded since the art of celestial photography has been
brought to its present state of perfection.

The main conclusion to which the preceding facts and con-
siderations point is that the matter of a comet is partly solid
and partly gaseous. The gaseous form is shown conclusively
by the spectroscope, but in view of the extreme delicacy of the
indications with this instrument no quantitative estimate of
the gas can be made. As there is no central mass sufficient to
hold together a continuous atmosphere of elastic gas of any sort,
it seems probable that the gaseous molecules are only those
rising from the coma, possibly by ordinary evaporation, but
more probably by the action of the ultra-violet and other rays
of the sun giving rise to an ionization of disconnected gaseous
molecules. The matter cannot be wholly gaseous because in
this case there could be no central force sufficient to keep the
parts of the comet together.

The facts also point to the conclusion that the solid matter
of a comet is formed of a swarm or cloud of small disconnected
masses, probably having much resemblance to the meteoric
masses which are known to be flying through the solar system
and possibly of the same general kind as these. The question
whether there is any central solid of considerable mass is still
undecided; it can only be said that if so, it is probably small
relative to cosmic masses in general more likely less than
greater than 100 m. in diameter. The light of the comet therefore
proceeds from two sources: one the incandescence of gases,
the other the sunlight reflected from the solid parts. No estimate
can be formed of the ratio between these two kinds of light
until a bright comet shall be spectroscopically observed during
an entire apparition.

Origin and Orbits of Comets. The great difference which we
have pointed out between comets and the permanent bodies of
the solar system naturally suggested the idea that these bodies
do not belong to that system at all, but are nebulous masses,
scattered through the stellar spaces, and brought one by one
into the sphere of the sun's attraction. The results of this
view are easily shown to be incompatible with the observed
facts. The sun, carrying the whole solar system with it, is
moving through space with a speed of about 10 m. per second.
If it approached a comet nearly at rest the result would be a
relative motion of this amount which, as the comet came nearer,

762

COMET

would be constantly increased, and would result in the comet
describing relative to the sun a markedly hyperbolic orbit,
deviating too widely from a parabola to leave any doubt, even
in the most extreme cases. Moreover, a large majority of comets
would then have their aphelia in the direction of the sun's
motion, and therefore their perihelia in the opposite direction.
Neither of these results corresponds to the fact. The conclusion
is that if we regard a comet as a body not belonging to the solar
system, it is at least a body which before its approach to the
sun had the same motion through the stellar spaces that the sun
has. As this unity of motion must have been maintained
from the beginning, \ve may regard comets as belonging to the
solar system in the sense of not being visitors from distant
regions of space.

The acceptance of this seemingly inevitable conclusion leads
to another: that no comet yet known moves in a really hyper-
bolic orbit, but that the limit of eccentricity must be regarded
as i , or that of the parabola. It is true that seeming evidence
of hyperbolic eccentricity is sometimes afforded by observations
and regarded by some astronomers as sufficient. The objections
to the reality of the hyperbolic orbit are two. (i) A comet
moving in a decidedly hyperbolic orbit must have come from
so great a distance within a finite time, say a few millions of
years ; as to have no relation to the sun, and must after its
approach to the sun return into space, never again to visit our
system. In this case the motion of the sun through space
renders it almost infinitely improbable that the orbit would have
been so nearly a parabola as all such orbits are actually found
to be. (2) The apparent deviation from a very elongated
ellipse has never been in any case greater than might have been
the result of errors of observation on bodies of this class.

This being granted, a luminous view of the causes which lead
to the observed orbits of comets is readily gained by imagining
these bodies to be formed of nebulous masses, which originally
accompanied the sun in its journey through space, but at
distances, in most cases, vastly greater than that of the farthest
planet. Such a mass, when drawn towards the sun, would move
round it in a nearly parabolic orbit, similar to the actual orbits
of the great majority of comets. The period might be measured
by thousands, tens of thousands, or hundreds of thousands of
years, According to the distances of the comet in the beginning;
but instead of bodies extraneous to the system, we should have
bodies properly belonging to the system and making revolutions
around the sun.

Were it not for the effect of planetary attraction long periods
like these would be the general rule, though not necessarily
universal. But at every return to perihelion the motion of a
comet will be to some extent either accelerated or retarded by
the action of Jupiter or any other planet in the neighbourhood
of which it may pass. Commonly the action will be so slight
as to have little influence on the orbit and the time of revolution.
But should the comet chance to pass the orbit of Jupiter just
in front of the planet, its motion would be retarded and the
orbit would be changed into one of shorter period. Should
it pass behind the planet, its motion would be accelerated and
its period lengthened. In such cases the orbit might be changed
to a hyperbola, and then the comet would never return. It
follows that there is a tendency towards a gradual but constant
diminution in the total number of comets. If we call Ae the
amount by which the eccentricity of a cometary orbit is less
than unity, Ae will be an extremely minute fraction in the case
of the original orbits. If we call =*= S the change which the
eccentricity i - Ae undergoes by the action of the planets during
the passage of the comet through our system, it will leave the
system with the eccentricity i - Ae =t 5. The possibilities are
even whether S shall be positive or negative. If negative, the
eccentricity will be diminished and the period shortened. If
positive, and greater than Ae, the eccentricity i-Ae + 5 will
be greater than i, and then the comet will be thrown into a
hyperbolic orbit and become for ever a wanderer through the
stellar spaces.

The nearer a comet passes to a planet, especially to Jupiter,

the greatest planet, the greater 5 may be. If 5 is a considerable
negative fraction, the eccentricity will be so reduced that the
comet will after the approach be one of short period. It follows
that, however long the period of a comet may be, there is a
possibility of its becoming one of short period if it approaches
Jupiter. There have been several cases of this during the past
two centuries, the most recent being that of Brooks's comet,
1889, V. Soon after its discovery this body was found to have
a period of only about seven years. The question why it had
not been observed at previous returns was settled after the
orbit had been determined by computing its motion in the past.
It was thus found that in October 1886 the comet had passed
in the immediate neighbourhood of Jupiter, the action of which
had been such as to change its orbit from one of long period
to the short observed period. A similar case was that of Lexel's
comet, seen in 1770. Originally moving in an unknown orbit, it
encountered the planet Jupiter, made two revolutions round the
sun, in the second of which it was observed, then again encoun-
tered the planet, to be thrown out of its orbit into one which did
not admit of determination. The comet was never again found.

A general conclusion which seems to follow from these con-
ditions, and is justified by observations, so far as the latter go,
is that comets are not to be regarded as permanent bodies like
the planets, but that the conglomerations cf matter which
compose them are undergoing a process of gradual dissipation
in space. This process is especially rapid in the case of the
fainter periodic comets. It was first strikingly brought out in
the case of Biela's comet. This object was discovered in 1772,
was observed to be periodic after several revolutions had been
made, and was observed with a fair degree of regularity at
different returns until 1852. At the previous apparition it was
found to have separated into two masses, and in 1852 these
masses were so widely separated that they might be considered
as forming two comets. Notwithstanding careful search at
times and places when the comet was due, no trace of it has
since been seen. An examination of the table of periodic comets
given at the end of this article will show that the same thing is
probably true of several other comets, especially Brorsen's and
Tempel's, which have each made several revolutions since last
observed, and have been sought for in vain.

In view of the seemingly inevitable dissipation of comets in
the course of ages, and of the actually observed changes of their
orbits by the attraction of Jupiter, the question arises whether
the orbits of all comets of short period may not have been
determined by the attraction of the planets, especially of Jupiter.
In this case the orbit would, for a period of several centuries,
have continued to nearly intersect that of the planet. We find,
as a matter of fact, that several periodic comets either pass near
Jupiter or have their aphelia in the neighbourhood of the orbit
of Jupiter. The approach, however, is not sufficiently close to
have led to the change unless in former times the proximity of
the orbits was much greater than it is now. As the orbits of all
the bodies of the solar system are subject to a slow secular change
of their form and position, this may only show that it must have
been thousands of years since the comet became one of short
period. The two cases of most difficulty are those of Halley's
and Encke's comets. The orbit of the former is so elongated and
so inclined to the general plane of the planetary orbits that its
secular variation must be very slow indeed. But it does not pass
near the orbit of any planet except Venus; and even here the
proximity is far from being sufficient to have produced an
appreciable change in the period. The orbit of Encke's comet
is entirely within the orbit of Jupiter, and it also cannot have
passed near enough to a planet for thousands of years to have
had its orbit changed by the action in question. It therefore
seems difficult to regard these two comets as other than per-
manent members of the solar system.

Special Periodic Comets. One of the most remarkable periodic
comets with which we are acquainted is that known to
astronomers as Halley's. Having perceived that the elements
of the comet of 1682 were nearly the same as those of two comets
which had respectively appeared in 1531 and 1607, Edmund

COMET-SEEKER COMITIA

7 6 3

Halley concluded that all the three orbits belonged to the same
comet, of which the periodic time was about 76 years. After
a rough estimate of the perturbations it must sustain from the
attraction of the planets, he predicted its return for 1757, a
bold prediction at that time, but justified by the event, for the
comet again made its appearance as was expected, though it did
not pass through its perihelion till the month of March 1759,
the attraction of Jupiter and Saturn having caused, as was

when the resemblance of the two orbits led to the conclusion of
the identity of the bodies, the period of which was soon made
evident by continued observations. The comets of Pons and
Olbers are remarkable for having an almost equal period. But
their orbits are otherwise totally different, so that there does not
seem to be any connexion between them. Brorsen's comet seems
also to be completely dissipated, not having been seen since 1879.
There are also a number of cases in which a comet has been

computed by Clairault previously to its return, a retardation I observed through one apparition, and found to be apparently

of 618 days. This comet had been observed in 1066, and the

accounts which have been preserved represent it as having then

appeared to be four times the size of Venus, and to have shone

with a light equal to a fourth of that of the moon. History is

silent respecting it from that time till the year 1456, when it

passed very near to the earth: its tail then extended over 60

of the heavens, and had the form of a sabre. It returned to its

perihelion in 1835, and was well observed in almost every

observatory. But its brightness was far from comparing with

the glorious accounts of its former apparitions. That this should

have been due to the process of dissipation does not seem possible

in so short a period; we must therefore consider either that the

earlier accounts are greatly exaggerated, or that the brightness

of the comet is subject to changes from some unknown cause.

Previous appearances of Halley's comet have been calculated

by J. R. Hind, and more recently by P. H. Cowell and A. C. D.

Crommelin of Greenwich, the latter having carried the comet back

to 87 B.C. with certainty, and to 240 B.C. with fair probability.

It was detected by Max Wolf at Heidelberg on plates exposed on

Sept. n, 1909, and subsequently on a Greenwich plate of Sept. 9.

The known comet of shortest period bears the name of J. F.
Encke, the astronomer who first investigated its orbit and
showed its periodicity. It was originally discovered in 1789,
but its periodicity was not recognized until 1818, after it had
been observed at several returns. This comet has given rise to
a longer series of investigations than any other, owing to Encke's
result that the orbit was becoming smaller, and the revolutions
therefore accelerated, by some unknown cause, of which the most
plausible was a resisting medium surrounding the sun. As this
comet is almost the only one that passes within the orbit of
Mercury, it is quite possible that it alone would show the effect
of such a medium. Recent investigations of this subject have
been made at the Pulkova Observatory, first by F. E. von Asten
and later by J. O. Backlund who, in 1909, was awarded the
Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society for his researches
in this field. During some revolutions there was evidence of a
slight acceleration of the return, and during others there was not.

The following is a list (compiled in 1909) of comets which are
well established as periodic, through having been observed at

periodic, but which was not seen to return at the end of its
supposed period. In some of these cases it seems likely that the
comet passed near the planet Jupiter and thus had its orbit
entirely changed. It is possible that in other cases the apparent
periodicity is due to the unavoidable errors of observation to
which, owing to their diffused outline, the nuclei of comets are
liable. (S. N.)

COMET-SEEKER, a small telescope (g.v.) adapted especially
to searching for comets: commonly of short focal length and
large aperture, in order to secure the greatest brilliancy of light.

COMILLA, or KUMILLA, a town of British India, headquarters
of Tippera district in Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated on the
river Gumti, with a station on the Assam-Bengal railway, 96 m.
from the coast terminus at Chittagong. Pop. (1901) 19,169.
The town has many large tanks and an English church, built
in 1875.

COMINES, or COMMINES (Flem. Komen), a town of western
Flanders, 13 m. N.N.W. of Lille by rail. It is divided by the
river Lys, leaving one part on French (department of Nord), the
other on Belgian territory (province of West Flanders). Pop. of
the French town 6359 (1906); of the Belgian town, 6453 (1904).
The former has a belfry of the I4th century, restored in the I7th
and i gth centuries, and remains of a chateau. Comines carries
on the spinning of flax, wool and cotton.

COMITIA, the name applied, always in technical and generally
in popular phraseology, to the most formal types of gathering
of the sovereign people in ancient Rome. It is the plural of
comitium, the old " meeting-place " (Lat. cum, together, ire, to go)
on the north-west of the Foium. The Romans had three words
for describing gatherings of the people. These were concilium,
comitia and contio. Of these concilium had the most general
significance. It could be applied to any kind of meeting and is
often used to describe assemblies in foreign states. It was,
therefore, a word that might be employed to denote an organized
gathering of a portion of the Roman people such as the plebs,
and in this sense is contrasted with comitia, which when used
strictly should signify an assembly of the whole people. Thus
the Roman draughtsman who wishes to express the idea
" magistrates of any kind as president of assemblies " writes

List of Periodic Comets observed at more than one Return.

Designation.

1st Perih.
Passage.

Last Perih.
Passage obs.

Period
Years.

Least Dist.
Ast. Units.

Gr. Dist.

Ast. Units.

Halley . . .

1456 June 8-2

1835 Nov. 15-9

75-9

0-58

35-42

Biela . . .

1772 Feb. 16-7

1852 Sept. 23-4

6-67

0-98

6-18

Encke .

1786 Jan. 30-9

1905 Jan. 1 1 -4

3-29

o-34

4-08

Tuttle . .

1 790 Jan. 30-9

1899 May 4-5

13-78

1-03

10-53

Pons . . .

1812 Sept. 15-3

1884 Jan. 25-7

72-28

0-78

33-70

Olbers . . .

1815 April 26-0

1887 Oct. 8-5

73-32

I-2I

33-99

Winnecke .

1819 July 18-9

1898 Mar. 20-4

5-67

0-77

5-55

Faye

1843 Oct. 17-1

1896 Mar. 19-3

7-5

5-93

De Vico . .

1844 Sept. 2-5

1894 Oct. 12-2

5-66

5-oi

Brorsen

1846 Feb. n-i

1879 Mar. 30'5

5-52

0-65

5-63

D'Arrest .

1851 July 8-7

1897 May 21-7

6-56

5-7i

Tempel I. .

1867 May 23-9

1879 May 7-0

5-84

4-82

Tempel-Swift .

1869 Nov. 18-8

1891 Nov. 15-0

5-'5i

5-i6

Tempel II.

1873 June 25-2

1904 Nov. 10-5

5-28

4-66

Wolf . . .

1884 Nov. 17-8

1898 July 4-6

6-80

5-57

Finlay .

1886 Nov. 22-4

1893 July 12-2

6-64

0-99

6-17

Brooks

1889 Sept. 30-3

1903 Dec. 6-5

7-10

1-95

5-44

Holmes

1892 June 13-2

1899 April 28-1

6-89

2-14

4-50

one or more returns. In addition to what has already been said
of several comets in this list the following remarks may be made.
Tuttle 's comet was first seen by P. F. A. M6chain in 1790, but
was not recognized as periodic until found by Tuttle in 1858,

" Magistratus queiquomque comitia con-
ciliumve habebit " (Lex Latina tabulae
Bantinae, I. 5), and formalism required that
a magistrate who summoned only a portion
of the people to meet him should, in his
summons, use the word concilium. This
view is expressed by Laelius Felix, a
lawyer probably of the age of Hadrian,
when he writes " Is qui non universum
populum, sed partem aliquam adesse jubet,
non comitia, sed concilium edicere debet"
(Gellius, Noctes Atticae, xv. 27). But
popular phraseology did not conform to
this canon, and comitia, which gained in
current Latin the sense of " elections " was
sometimes used of the assemblies of the
plebs (see the instances in Botsford, dis-
tinction between Comitia and Concilium,
p. 23). The distinction between comilia and
contio was more clearly marked. Both were
formal assemblies convened by a magistrate; but while, in the
case of the comitia, the magistrate's purpose was to ask a question
of the people and to elicit their binding response, his object in
summoning a conlio was merely to bring the people together either

7 6 4

COMITIA

for their instruction or for a declaration of his will as expressed in
an edict (" contionem habere est verba facere ad populum sine
ulla rogatione," Cell. op. cit. xiii. 6). The word comitia merely
means " meetings."

The earliest comitia was one organized on the basis of parishes
(curiae) and known in later times as the comitia curiata. The
curia voted as a single unit and thus furnished the type for that
system of group-voting which runs through all the later organiza-
tion of the popular assemblies. This comitia must originally
have been composed exclusively of patricians (?..) ; but there is
reason to believe that, at an early period of the Republic, it had,
in imitation of the centuriate organization, come to include
plebeians (see CURIA). The organization which gave rise to the
comitia centuriata was the result of the earliest steps in the political
emancipation of the plebs. Three stages in this process may be
conjectured. In the first place the plebeians gained full rights of
ownership and transfer, and could thus become freeholders of the
land which they occupied and of the appurtenances of this land
(res mancipi) . This legal capacity rendered them liable to military
service as heavy-armed fighting men, and as such they were
enrolled in the military units called centuriae. When the
enrolment was completed the whole host (exercitus) was the best
organized and most representative gathering that Rome could
show. It therefore either usurped, or became gradually
invested with voting powers, and gained a range of power which
for two centuries (508-287 B.C.) made it the dominant assembly
in the state. But its aristocratic organization, based as this was
on property qualifications which gave the greatest voting power
to the richest men, prevented it from being a fitting channel for
the expression of plebeian claims. Hence the plebs adopted a
new political organization of their own. The tribunate called
into existence a purely plebeian assembly, firstly, for the election of
plebeian magistrates; secondly, for jurisdiction in cases where
these magistrates had been injured; thirdly, for presenting
petitions on behalf of the plebs through the consuls to the
comitia centuriata. This right of petitioning developed into a
power of legislation. The stages of the process (marked by the
Valerio-Horatian laws of 449 B.C., the Publilian law of 339 B.C.,
and the Hortensian law of 287 B.C.) are unknown; but it is
probable that the two first of the laws progressively weakened the
discretionary power of senate and consuls in admitting such
petitions; and that the Hortensian law fully recognized the
right of resolutions of the plebs (plebiscita) to bind the whole
community. The plebeian assembly, which had perhaps
originally met by curiae, was organized on the basis of the terri-
torial tribes in 471 B.C. This change suggested a renewed
organization of the whole people for comitial purposes. The
comitia tributa populi was the result. This assembly seems to
have been already in existence at the epoch of the Twelve Tables
in 451 B.C., its electoral activity is perhaps attested in 447 B.C.,
and it appears as a legislative body in 357 B.C.

In spite of the formal differences of these four assemblies and
the real distinction springing from the fact that patricians were
not members of the plebeian bodies, the view which is appropriate
to the developed Roman constitution is that the people expressed
its will equally through all, although the mode of expression varied
with the channel. This will was in theory unlimited. It was re-
stricted only by the conservatism of the Roman, by the condition
that the initiative must always be taken by a magistrate, by the
de facto authority of the senate, and by the magisterial veto which
the senate often had at its command (see SENATE) . There were no
limitations on the legislative powers of the comitia except such as
they chose to respect or which they themselves created and might
repeal. They never during the Republican period lost the right
of criminal jurisdiction, in spite of the fact that so many spheres
of this jurisdiction had been assigned in perpetuity to standing
commissions (quaestiones perpetuae). This power of judging
exercised by the assemblies had in the main developed from the
use of the right of appeal (provocatio) against the judgments of
the magistrates. But it is probable that, in the developed
procedure, where it was known that the judgment pronounced
might legally give rise to the appeal, the magistrate pronounced

no sentence, but brought the case at once before the people. The
case was then heard in four separate contiones. After these
hearings the comitia gave its verdict. Finally, the people elected
to every magistracy with the exception of the occasional offices
of Dictator and Interrex. The distribution of these functions
amongst the various comitia, and the differences in their organiza-
tion, were as follows:

The comitia curiata had in the later Republic become a merely
formal assembly. Its main function was that of passing the lex
curiata which was necessary for the ratification both of the
imperium of the higher magistracies of the people, and of the
potestas of those of lower rank. This assembly also met, under
the name of the comitia calata and under the presidency of the
pontifex maximus, for certain religious acts. These were the
inauguration of the rex sacrorum and the flamens, and that
abjuration of hereditary worship (detestatio sacrorum) which was
made by a man who passed from his clan (gens) either by an act of
adrogation (see ROMAN LAW and ADOPTION) or by transition
from the patrician to the plebeian order. For the purpose of
passing the lex curiata, and probably for its other purposes as well,
this comitia was in Cicero's day represented by but thirty lictors
(Cic. de Lege Agraria, ii. 12, 31).

The comitia centuriata could be summoned and presided over
only by the magistrates with imperium. The consuls were its
usual presidents for elections and for legislation, but the praetors
summoned it for purposes of jurisdiction. It elected the magis-
trates with imperium and the censors, and alone had the power
of declaring war. According to the principle laid down in the
Twelve Tables (Cicero, de Legibus, iii. 4. n) capital cases were
reserved for this assembly. It was not frequently employed as
a legislative body after the two assemblies of the tribes, which
were easier to summon and organize, had been recognized as
possessing sovereign rights. The internal structure of the
comitia centuriata underwent a great change during the Republic
a change which has been conjecturally attributed to the
censorship of Flaminius in 220 B.C. (Mommsen, Staatsrecht, iii.
p. 270). In the early scheme, at a time when a pecuniary
valuation had replaced land and its appurtenances (res mancipi)
as the basis of qualification, five divisions (classes) were recog-
nized whose property was assessed respectively at 100,000,
75,000, 50,000, 25,000 and 11,000 (or 12,500) asses. The first
class contained 80 centuries; the second, third and fourth
20 each; the fifth 30. Added to these were the 18 centuries
of knights (see EQUITES). The combined vote of the first class
and the knights was thus represented by 98 centuries; that
of the whole of the other classes (including 4 or 5 centuries of
professional corporations connected with the army, such as the
fabri and i century of proletarii, i.e. of all persons below the
minimum census) was represented by 95 or 96 centuries. Thus
the upper classes in the community possessed more than half
the votes in the assembly. The newer scheme aimed at a greater
equality of voting power; but it has been differently interpreted.
The interpretation most usually accepted, which was first
suggested by Pantagathus, a 17th-century scholar, is based on
the view that the five classes were distributed over the tribes in
such a manner that there were 2 centuries of each class in a
single tribe. As the number of the tribes was 35, the total
number of centuries would be 350. To these we must add 18
centuries of knights, 4 of fabri, &c., and I of proletarii. Here
the first class and the knights command but 88 votes out of a
total of 373. Mommsen's interpretation (Staatsrecht, iii. p. 275)
was different. He allowed the 70 votes for the 70 centuries of
the first class, but thought that the 280 centuries of the other
classes were so combined as to form only ico votes. The total
votes in the comitia would thus be 70+100+5 (fabri, &c.) + i8
(knights), i.e. 193, as in the earlier arrangement. In 88 B.C. a
return was made to the original and more aristocratic system
by a law passed by the consuls Sulla and Pompeius. At least
this seems to be the meaning of Appian (Bellum Civile, i. 59)
when he says tariyovvTO. . . ras x^'Porowas jj.it Kara. <i>Xds dXXa
Kara Xoxow . . . ylyveffOai. But this change was not permanent
as the more liberal system prevails in the Ciceronian period

COMITY COMMENTARII

765

The comilia tribute was in the later Republic the usual organ
for laws passed by the whole people. Its presidents were the
magistrates of the people, usually the consuls and praetors,
and, for purposes of jurisdiction, the curule aediles. It elected
these aediles and other lower magistrates of the people. Its
jurisdiction was limited to monetary penalties.

The concilium plebis, although voting, like this last assembly,
by tribes, could be summoned and presided over only by plebeian
magistrates, and never included the patricians. Its utterances
(plebiscite) had the full force of law; it elected the tribunes of
the plebs and the plebeian aediles, and it pronounced judgment
on the penalties which they proposed. The right of this assembly
to exercise capital jurisdiction was questioned; but it possessed
the undisputed right of pronouncing outlawry (aquae et ignis
interdictio) against any one already in exile (Livy xxv. 4, and
xxvi. 3).

When the tenure of the religious colleges formerly filled up
by co-optation was submitted to popular election, a change
effected by a lex Domitia of 104 B.C., a new type of comitia was
devised for this purpose. The electoral body was composed of
17 tribes selected by lot from the whole body of 35.

There was a body of rules governing the comitia which were
concerned with the time and place of meeting, the forms of
promulgation and the methods of voting. Valid meetings might
be held on any of the 194 " comitial " days of the year which
were not market or festal days (nundinae, feriae). The comitia
curiate and the two assemblies of the tribes met within the walls,
the former usually in the Comitium, the latter in the Forum or
on the Area Capitolii; but the elections at these assemblies were
in the later Republic held in the Campus Martius outside the
walls. The comilia centuriata was by law compelled to meet
outside the city and its gathering place was usually the Campus.
Promulgation was required for the space of 3 nundinae (i.e. 24
days) before a matter was submitted to the people. The voting
was preceded by a contio at which a limited debate was permitted
by the magistrate. In the assemblies of the curiae and the tribes
the voting of the groups took place simultaneously, in that of
the centuries in a fixed order. In elections as well as in legislative
acts an absolute majority was required, and hence the candidate
who gained a mere relative majority was not returned.

The comitia survived the Republic. The last known act of
comitial legislation belongs to the reign of Nerva (A.D. 96-98).
After the essential elements in the election of magistrates had
passed to the senate in A.D. 14, the formal announcement of the
successful candidates (renunliatio) still continued to be made
to the popular assemblies. Early in the 3rd century Dio Cassius
still saw the comitia centuriata meeting with all its old solemnities
(Dio Cassius Iviii. 20).

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht, iii. p. 300 foil.
(3rd ed., Leipzig, 1887), and Romische Forschungen, Bd. i. (Berlin,
1879); Soltau, Entstehung und Zusamntensetzung der altro'mischen
Volksversammlungen, and Die Gultigkeit der Plebiscite (Berlin, 1884) ;
Huschke, Die Verfassung des Konigs Servius Tullius als Grundlage
ZK einer romischen Verfassungsgeschichte (Heidelberg, 1838); Bor-
geaud, Le Plebiscite dans I'antiquite. Grece et Rome (Geneva, 1838) ;
Greenidge, Roman Public Life, p. 65 foil., 102, 238 foil, and App. i.
(1901); G. W. Botsford, Roman Assemblies (1909). (A. H. J. G.)

COMITY (from the Lat. comitas, courtesy, from ccmis, friendly,
courteous), friendly or courteous behaviour; a term particularly
used in international law, in the phrase " comity of nations, "
for the courtesy of nations towards each other. This has been
held by some authorities to be the basis for the recognition by
courts of law of the judgments and rules of law of foreign tribunals
(see INTERNATIONAL LAW, PRIVATE). " Comity of nations "
is sometimes wrongly used, from a confusion with the Latin
comes, a companion, for the whole body or company of nations
practising such international courtesy.

COMMA (Gr. KO^IM, a thing stamped or cut off, from KOTTTtiv,
to strike), originally, in Greek rhetoric, a short clause, something
less than the "colon"; hence a mark (,), in punctuation, to
show the smallest break in the construction of a sentence. The
mark is also used to separate numerals, mathematical symbols
and the like. Inverted commas, or " quotation-marks," i.e.

pairs of commas, the first inverted, and the last upright, are
placed at the beginning and end of a sentence or word quoted,
or of a word used in a technical or conventional sense; single
commas are similarly used for quotations within quotations.
The word is also applied to comma-shaped objects, such as the
" comma-bacillus," the causal agent in cholera.

COMMANDEER (from the South African Dutch kommanderen,
to command), properly, to compel the performance of military
duty in the field, especially of the military service of the Boer
republics (see COMMANDO); also to seize property for military
purposes; hence used of any peremptory seizure for other than
military purposes.

COMMANDER, in the British navy, the title of the second
grade of captains. He commands a small vessel, or is second in
command of a large one. A staff commander is entrusted with
the navigation of a large ship, and ranks above a navigating
lieutenant. Since 1838 the officer next in rank to a captain in the
U.S. navy has been called commander.

COMMANDER Y (through the Fr. commanderie, from med.
Lat. commendaria, a trust or charge), a division of the landed
property in Europe of the Knights Hospitallers (see ST JOHN OF
JERUSALEM). The property of the order was divided into
" priorates," subdivided into " bailiwicks," which in turn were
divided into " commanderies "; these were placed in charge of
a " commendator " or commander. The word is also applied to
the emoluments granted to a commander of a military order of
knights.

COMMANDO, a Portuguese word meaning " command,"
adopted by the Boers in South Africa through whom it has come
into English use, for military and semi-military Expeditions
against the natives. More particularly a " commando " was the
administrative and tactical unit of the forces of the former Boer
republics, " commandeered " under the law of the constitutions
which made military service obligatory on all males between the
ages of sixteen and sixty. Each " commando " was formed from
the burghers of military age of an electoral district.

COMMEMORATION, a general term for celebrating some past
event. It is also the name for the annual act, or Encaenia, the
ceremonial closing of the academic year at Oxford University,
[t consists of a Latin oration in commemoration of benefactors
and founders; of the recitation of prize compositions in prose and
verse, and the conferring of honorary degrees upon English or
foreign celebrities. The ceremony, which is usually on the third
Wednesday after Trinity Sunday, is held in the Sheldonian
Theatre, in Broad St., Oxford. " Commencement " is the term
for the equivalent ceremony at Cambridge, and this is also used
in the case of American universities.

COMMENDATION (from the Lat. commendare, to entrust to
the charge of, or to procure a favour for), approval, especially
when expressed to one person on behalf of another, a recommenda-
tion. The word is used in a liturgical sense for an office commend-
ing the souls of the dying and dead to the mercies of God. In
feudal law the term is applied to the practice of a freeman
placing himself under the protection of a lord (see FEUDALISM),
and in ecclesiastical law to the granting of benefices in com-
mendam. A benefice was held in commendam when granted
either temporarily until a vacancy was filled up, or to a layman,
or, in case of a monastery or abbey, to a secular cleric to enjoy the
revenues and privileges for life (see ABBOT), or to a bishop to hold
together with his see. An act of 1836 prohibited the holding of
benefices in commendam in England.

COMMENTARII (Lat. =Gr. vwofivrinara) , notes to assist the
memory, memoranda. This original idea of the word gave rise to
a variety of meanings: notes and abstracts of speeches for the
assistance of orators; family memorials, the origin of many of
the legends introduced into early Roman history from a desire to
glorify a particular family; diaries of events occurring in their own
circle kept by private individuals, the day-book, drawn up for
Trimalchio in Petronius (Satyricon, 53) by his actuarius (a slave
to whom the duty was specially assigned) is quoted as an example ;
memoirs of events in which they had taken part drawn up by
public men, such were the " Commentaries " of Caesar on the

7 66

COMMENTRY COMMERCE

Gallic and Civil wars, and of Cicero on his consulship. Different
departments of the imperial administration and certain high
functionaries kept records, which were under the charge of an
official known as a commentariis (cf. a secretis, ab epistulis).
Municipal authorities also kept a register of their official acts.

The Commer.iarii Principis were the register of the official acts
of the emperor. They contained the decisions, favourable or
unfavourable, in regard to certain citizens; accusations brought
before him or ordered by him; lists of persons in receipt of
special privileges. These must be distinguished from the
commentarii diurni, a daily court-journal. At a later period
records called ephemerides were kept by order of the emperor;
these were much used by the Scriptores Historiae Augustae (see
AUGUSTAN HISTORY). The Commentarii Senatus, only once
mentioned (Tacitus, Annals, xv. 74) are probably identical with
the ACTA SENATUS (q.v.). There were also Commentarii of the
priestly colleges: (a) Pontificum, collections of their decrees and
responses for future reference, to be distinguished from their
Annales, which were historical records, and from their Ada,
minutes of their meetings; (b) Augurum, similar collections of
augural decrees and responses; (c) Decemvirorum; (d) Fratrum
Arvalium. Like the priests, the magistrates also had similar
notes, partly written by themselves, and partly records of which
they formed the subject. But practically nothing is known of
these Commentarii Magislratuum. Mention should also be made
of the Commentarii Regum, containing decrees concerning the
functions and privileges of the kings, and forming a record of the
acts of the king in his capacity of priest. They were drawn up in
historical times like the so-called leges regiae (jus Papirianum),
supposed to contain the decrees and decisions of the Roman
kings.

See the exhaustive article by A. von Premerstein in Pauly-
Wissowa, Realencydopddie (1901); Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman
Lit. (Eng. trans.), pp. 72, 77-79 ; and the concise account by H. The-
denat in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquitls.

COMMENTRY, a town of central France, in the department of
Allier, 42 m. S.W. of Moulins by the Orleans railway. Pop.
(1906) 7581. Commentry gives its name to a coalfield over
5000 acres in extent, and has important foundries and forges.

COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from cum, together, and
merx, merchandise), in its general acceptation, the international
traffic in goods, or what constitutes the foreign trade of all
countries as distinct from their domestic trade. /

In tracing the history of such dealings we may go back to the
early records found in the Hebrew Scriptures. Such a transac-
tion as that of Abraham, for example, weighing down " four
hundred shekels of silver, current with the merchant," for the field
of Ephron, is suggestive of a group of facts and ideas indicating
an advanced condition of commercial intercourse, property in
land, sale of land, arts of mining and purifying metals, the use of
silver of recognized purity as a common medium of exchange, and
merchandise an established profession, or division of labour.
That other passage in which we read of Joseph being sold by his
brethren for twenty pieces of silver to " a company of Ishmaelites,
coming from Gilead, with their camels bearing spicery and balm
and myrrh to Egypt," extends our vision still farther, and shows
us the populous and fertile Egypt in commercial relationship with
Chaldaea, and Arabians, foreign to both, as intermediaries in
their traffic, generations before the Hebrew commonwealth was
founded.

The first foreign merchants of whom we read, carrying goods
and bags of silver from one distant region to another, were the
southern Arabs, reputed descendants of Ishmael and Esau. The
first notable navigators and maritime carriers of goods were the
Phoenicians. In the commerce of the ante-Christian ages the
Jews do not appear to have performed any conspicuous part.
Both the agricultural and the theocratic constitution of their
society were unfavourable to a vigorous prosecution of foreign
trade. In such traffic as they had with other nations they were
served on their eastern borders by Arabian merchants, and on
the west and south by the Phoenician shippers. The abundance
of gold, silver and other precious commodities gathered from

distant parts, of which we read in the days of greatest Hebrew
prosperity, has more the character of spoils of war and tributes of
dependent states than the conquest by free exchange of their
domestic produce and manufacture. It was not until the Jews
were scattered by foreign invasions, and finally cast into the
world by the destruction of Jerusalem, that they began to
develop those commercial qualities for which they have since
been famous.

There are three conditions as essential to extensive inter-
national traffic as diversity of natural resources, division of
labour, accumulation of stock, or any other primal Prlm
element (i) means of transport/2) freedom of labour conditions
and exchange, and (3) security; and in all these it com'
conditions the ancient world was signally deficient. *

The great rivers, which became the first seats of population
and empire, must have been of much utility as channels of
transport, and hence the course of human power of which they
are the geographical delineation, and probably the idolatry with
which they were sometimes honoured. Nor were the ancient
rulers insensible of the importance of opening roads through their
dominions, and establishing post and lines of communication,
which, though primarily for official and military purposes, must
have been useful to traffickers and to the general population.
But the free navigable area of great rivers is limited, and when
diversion of traffic had to be made to roads and tracks through
deserts, there remained the slow and costly carriage of beasts
of burden, by which only articles of small bulk and the rarest
value could be conveyed with any hope of profit. Corn, though
of the first necessity, could only be thus transported in famines,
when beyond price to those who were in want, and under this
extreme pressure could only be drawn from within a narrow
sphere, and in quantity sufficient to the sustenance of but a small
number of people. The routes of ancient commerce were thus
interrupted and cut asunder by barriers of transport, and the
farther they were extended became the more impassable to any
considerable quantity or weight of commodities. As long as
navigation was confined to rivers and the shores of inland gulfs
and seas, the oceans were a terra incognita, contributing nothing
to the facility or security of transport from one part of the world
to another, and leaving even one populous part of Asia as
unapproachable from another as if they had been in different
hemispheres. The various routes of trade from Europe and
north-western Asia to India, which have been often referred to,
are to be regarded more as speculations of future development
than as realities of ancient history. It is not improbable that
the ancient traffic of the Red Sea may have been extended along
the shores of the Arabian Sea to some parts of Hindustan, but
that vessels braved the Indian Ocean and passed round Cape
Comorin into the Bay of Bengal, 2000 or even 1000 years before
mariners had learned to double the Cape of Good Hope, is
scarcely to be believed. The route by the Euxine and the
Caspian Sea has probably never in any age reached India. That
by the Euphrates and the Persian Gulf is shorter, and was
besides the more likely from passing through tracts of country
which in the most remote times were seats of great population.
There may have been many merchants who traded on all these
various routes, but that commodities were passed in bulk over
great distances is inconceivable. It may be doubted whether in
the ante-Christian ages there was any heavy transport over even
500 m., save for warlike or other purposes, which engaged the
public resources of imperial states, and in which the idea of
commerce, as now understood, is in a great measure lost.

The advantage which absolute power gave to ancient nations
in their warlike enterprises, and in the execution of public works
of more or less utility, or of mere ostentation and monumental
magnificence, was dearly purchased by the sacrifice of individual
freedom, the right to labour, produce and exchange under the
steady operation of natural economic principles, which more than
any other cause vitalizes the individual and social energies, and
multiplies the commercial resource of communities. Commerce
in all periods and countries has obtained a certain freedom and
hospitality from the fact that the foreign merchant has something

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desirable to offer; but the action of trading is reciprocal, and
requires multitudes of producers and merchants, as free agents,
on both sides, searching out by patient experiment wants more
advantageously supplied by exchange than by direct production,
before it can attain either permanence or magnitude, or can
become a vital element of national life. The ancient polities
offered much resistance to this development, and in their absolute
power over the liberty, industry and property of the masses of
their subjects raised barriers to the extension of commerce
scarcely less formidable than the want of means of communica-
tion itself. The conditions of security under which foreign trade
can alone flourish equally exceeded the resources of ancient
civilization. Such roads as exist must be protected from robbers,
the rivers and seas from pirates ; goods must have safe passage
and safe storage, must be held in a manner sacred in the territories
through which they pass, be insured against accidents, be
respected even in the madness of hostilities ; the laws of nations
must give a guarantee on which traders can proceed in their
operations with reasonable confidence; and the governments,
while protecting the commerce of their subjects with foreigners
as if it were their own enterprise, must in their fiscal policy, and
in all their acts, be endued with the highest spirit of commercial
honour. Every great breach of this security stops the continuous
circulation, which is the life of traffic and of the industries to
which it ministers. But in the ancient records we see commerce
exposed to great risks, subject to constant pilage, hunted down
in peace and utterly extinguished in war. Hence it became
necessary that foreign trade should itself be an armed force in the
world; and though the states of purely commercial origin soon
fell into the same arts and wiles as the powers to which they were
opposed, yet their history exhibits clearly enough the necessity
out of which they arose. Once organized, it was inevitable that
they should meet intrigue with intrigue, and force with force.
The political empires, while but imperfectly developing industry
and traffic within their own territories, had little sympathy with
any means of prosperity from without. Their sole policy was either
to absorb under their own spirit and conditions of rule, or to
destroy, whatever was rich or great beyond their borders.
Nothing is more marked in the past history of the world than
this struggle of commerce to establish conditions of security and
means of communication with distant parts. When almost
driven from the land, it often found both on the sea; and often,
when its success had become brilliant and renowned, it perished
under the assault of stronger powers, only to rise again in new
centres and to find new channels of intercourse.

While Rome was giving laws and order to the half-civilized
tribes of Italy, Carthage, operating on a different base, and by
Carthage otner methods, was opening trade with less accessible

parts of Europe. The strength of Rome was in her
legions, that of Carthage in her ships; and her ships could cover
ground where the legions were powerless. Her mariners had
passed the mythical straits into the Atlantic, and established the
port of Cadiz. Within the Mediterranean itself they founded
Carthagena and Barcelona on the same Iberian peninsula, and
ahead of the Roman legions had depots and traders on the shores
of Gaul. After the destruction of Tyre, Carthage became the
greatest power in the Mediterranean, and inherited the trade of
her Phoenician ancestors with Egypt, Greece and Asia Minor,
as well as her own settlements in Sicily and on the European
coasts. An antagonism between the great naval and the great
military power, whose interests crossed each other at so many
points, was sure to occur; and in the three Punic wars Carthage
measured her strength with that of Rome both on sea and on land
with no unequal success. But a commercial state impelled into
a series of great wars has departed from its own proper base; and
in the year 146 B.C. Carthage was so totally destroyed by the

Romans that of the great city, more than 20 m. in
conquests, circumference, and containing at one period near a

million of inhabitants, only a few thousands were found
within its ruined walls. In the same year Corinth, one of the
greatest of the Greek capitals and seaports, was captured,
plundered of vast wealth and given to the flames by a Roman

consul. Athens and her magnificent harbour of the Piraeus fell
into the same hands 60 years later. It may be presumed that
trade went on under the Roman conquests in some degree as
before ; but these were grave events to occur within a brief period,
and the spirit of the seat of trade hi every case having been
broken, and its means and resources more or less plundered and
dissipated in some cases, as in that of Carthage, irreparably
the most necessary commerce could only proceed with feeble and
languid interest under the military, consular and proconsular
licence of Rome at that period. Tyre, the great seaport of
Palestine, having been destroyed by Alexander the Palm ff
Great, Palmyra, the great inland centre of Syrian trade,
was visited with a still more complete annihilation by the Roman
Emperor Aurelian within little more than half a century after the
capture and spoliation of Athens. The walls were razed to their
foundations; the population men, women, children and the
rustics round the city were all either massacred or dispersed;
and the queen Zenobia was carried captive to Rome. Palmyra
had for centuries, as a centre of commercial intercourse and
transit, been of great service to her neighbours, east and west.
In the wars of the Romans and Parthians she was respected by
both as an asylum of common interests which it would have been
simple barbarity to invade or injure; and when the Parthians
were subdued, and Palmyra became a Roman annexe, she
continued to flourish as before. Her relations with Rome were
more than friendly; they became enthusiastic and heroic; and
her citizens having inflicted signal chastisement on the king of
Persia for the imprisonment of the emperor Valerian, the admira-
tion of this conduct at Rome was so great that their spirited
leader Odaenathus, the husband of Zenobia, was proclaimed
Augustus, and became co-emperor with Gallienus. It is obvious
that the destruction of Palmyra must not only have doomed
Palestine, already bereft of her seaports, to greater poverty and
commercial isolation than had been known in long preceding
ages, but have also rendered it more difficult to Rome herself to
hold or turn to any profitable account her conquests in Asia; and,
being an example of the policy of Rome to the seats of trade over
nearly the whole ancient world, it may be said to contain in
graphic characters a presage of what came to be the actual
event the collapse and fall of the Roman empire itself.

The repeated invasions of Italy by the Goths and Huns gave
rise to a seat of trade in the Adriatic, which was to sustain during
more than a thousand years a history of unusua!
splendour. The Veneti cultivated fertile lands on the
Po, and built several towns, of which Padua was the chief. They
appear from the earliest note of them in history to have been
both an agricultural and trading people ; and they offered a rich
prey to the barbarian hordes when these broke through every
barrier into the plains of Italy. Thirty years before Attila razed
the neighbouring city of Aquileia, the consuls and senate of
Padua, oppressed and terrified by the prior ravages of Alaric,
passed a decree for erecting Rialto, the largest of the numerous
islets at the mouth of the Po, into a chief town and port, not more
as a convenience to the islanders than as a security for themselves
and their goods. But every fresh incursion, every new act of
spoliation by the dreaded enemies, increased the flight of the rich
and the industrious to the islands, and thus gradually arose the
second Venice, whose glory was so greatly to exceed that of the
first. Approachable from the mainland only by boats, through
river passes easily defended by practised sailors against barbarians
who had never plied an oar, the Venetian refugees could look in
peace on the desolation which swept over Italy; their ware-
houses, their markets, their treasures were safe from plunder;
and stretching their hands over the sea, they found in it fish and
salt, and in the rich possessions of trade and territory which it
opened to them more than compensation for the fat lands and
inland towns which had long been their home. The Venetians
traded with Constantinople, Greece, Syria and Egypt. They
became lords of the Morea, and of Candia, Cyprus and other
islands of the Levant. The trade of Venice with India, though
spoken of, was probably never great. But the crusades of the
1 2th and i3th centuries against the Saracens in Palestine

Venice.

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The middle
ages.

extended her repute more widely east and west, and increased
both her naval and her commercial resources. It is enough,
indeed, to account for the grandeur of Venice that in course of
centuries, from the security of her position, the growth and
energy of her population, and the regularity of her government at
a period when these sources of prosperity were rare, she became
the great emporium of the Mediterranean all that Carthage,
Corinth and Athens had been in a former age on a scene the most
remarkable in the world for its fertility and facilities of traffic,
and that as Italy and other parts of the Western empire became
again more settled her commerce found always a wider range.
The bridge built from the largest of the islands to the opposite
bank became the " Rialto," or famous exchange of Venice, whose
transactions reached farther, and assumed a more consolidated
form, than had been known before. There it was where the first
public bank was organized; that bills of exchange were first
negotiated, and funded debt became transferable; that finance
became a science and book-keeping an art. Nor must the effect
of the example of Venice on other cities of Italy be left out of
account. Genoa, following her steps, rose into great prosperity
and power at the foot of the Maritime Alps, and became her rival,
and finally her enemy. Naples, Gaeta, Florence, many other
towns of Italy, and Rome herself, long after her fall, were
encouraged to struggle for the preservation of their municipal
freedom, and to foster trade, arts and navigation, by the brilliant
success set before them on the Adriatic; but Venice, from the
early start she had made, and her command of the sea, had the
commercial pre-eminence.

The state of things which arose on the collapse of the Roman
empire presents two concurrent facts, deeply affecting the course
of trade (i) the ancient seats of industry and civiliza-
tion were undergoing constant decay, while^tf*) the
energetic races of Europe were rising into more qvilized
forms and manifold vigour and copiousness of life. The fall of the
Eastern division of the empire prolonged the effect of the fall of
the Western empire; and the advance of the Saracens over Asia
Minor, Syria, Greece, Egypt, over Cyprus and other possessions of
Venice in the Mediterranean, over the richest provinces of Spain,
and finally across the Hellespont into the Danubian provinces of
Europe, was a new irruption of barbarians from another point of
the compass, and revived the calamities and disorders inflicted by
the successive invasions of Goths, Huns and other Northern
tribes. For more than ten centuries the naked power of the sword
was vivid and terrible as flashes of lightning over all the seats
of commerce, whether of ancient or more modern origin. The
feudal system of Europe, in organizing the open country under
military leaders and defenders subordinated in possession and
service under a legal system to each other and to the sovereign
power, must have been well adapted to the necessity of the times
in which it spread so rapidly; but it would be impossible to say
that the feudal syfetem was favourable to trade, or the extension
of trade. The commercial spirit in the feudal, as in preceding
ages, had to find for itself places of security, and it could only
find them in towns, armed with powers of self-regulation and
defence, and prepared, like the feudal barons themselves, to
resist violence from whatever quarter it might come. Rome, in
her best days, had founded the municipal system, and when this
system was more than ever necessary as the bulwark of arts
and manufactures, its extension became an essential element
of the whole European civilization. Towns formed themselves
into leagues for mutual protection, and out of leagues not
infrequently arose commercial republics. The Hanseatic League,
founded as early as 1241, gave the first note of an increasing
traffic betweftn countries on the Baltic and in northern Germany,
which a century or two before were sunk in isolated barbarism.
From Liibeck and Hamburg, commanding the navigation of the
Elbe, it gradually spread over 85 towns, including Amsterdam,
Cologne and Frankfort in the south, and Danzig, Konigsberg and
Riga in the north. The last trace of this league, long of much
service in protecting trade, and as a means of political mediation,
passed away in the erection of the German empire (1870), but
only from the same cause that had brought about its gradual

dissolution the formation of powerful and legal governments
which, while leaving to the free cities their municipal rights, were
well capable of protecting their mercantile interests. The towns
of Holland found lasting strength and security from other causes.
Their foundations were laid as literally in the sea as those of
Venice had been. They were not easily attacked whether by sea
or land, and if attacked had formidable means of defence. The
Zuyder Zee, which had been opened to the German Ocean in 1 282,
carried into the docks and canals of Amsterdam the traffic of the
ports of the Baltic, of the English Channel and of the south of
Europe, and what the seas did for Amsterdam from without the
Rhine and the Maese did for Dort and Rotterdam from the
interior. By the Union of Utrecht in 1579 Holland became an
independent republic, and for long after, as it had been for some
time before, was the greatest centre of maritime traffic in Europe.
The rise of the Dutch power in a low country, exposed to the most
destructive inundations, difficult to cultivate or even to inhabit,
affords a striking illustration of those conditions which in all times
have been found specially favourable to commercial development,
and which are not indistinctly reflected in the mercantile history
of England, preserved by its insular position from hostile in-
vasions, and capable by its fleets and arms to protect its goods
on the seas and the rights of its subjects in foreign lands.

The progress of trade and productive arts in the middle
ages, though not rising to much international exchange, was very
considerable both in quality and extent. The republics of Italy,
which had no claim to rival Venice or Genoa in maritime power
or traffic, developed a degree of art, opulence and refinement
commanding the admiration of modern times; and if any
historian of trans-Alpine Europe, when Venice had already
attained some greatness, could have seen it five hundred years
afterwards, the many strong towns of France, Germany and the
Low Countries, the great number of their artizans, the products
of their looms and anvils, and their various cunning workmanship,
might have added many a brilliant page to his annals. Two
centuries before England had discovered any manufacturing
quality, or knew even how to utilize her most valuable raw
materials, and was importing goods from the continent for the
production of which she was soon to be found to have special
resources, the Flemings were selling their woollen and linen fabrics,
and the French their wines, silks and laces in all the richer parts
of the British Islands. The middle ages placed the barbarous
populations of Europe under a severe discipline, trained them in
the most varied branches of industry, and developed an amount
of handicraft and ingenuity which became a solid basis for the
future. But trade was too walled in, too much clad in armour,
and too incessantly disturbed by wars and tumults, and violations
of common right and interest, to exert its full influence over the
general society, or even to realize its most direct advantages.
It wanted especially the freedom and mobility essential to much
international increase, and these it was now to receive from a
series of the most pregnant events.

The mariner's compass had become familiar in the European
ports about the beginning of the I4th century, and the seamen
of Italy, Portugal, France. Holland and England
entered upon a more enlightened and adventurous
course of navigation. The Canary Islands were sighted
by a French vessel in 1330, and colonized in 1418 by the
Portuguese, who two years later landed on Madeira. In 1431
the Azores were discovered by a shipmaster of Bruges. The
Atlantic was being gradually explored. In 1486, Diaz, a
Portuguese, steering his course almost unwittingly along the
coast of Africa, came upon the land's-end of that continent;
and eleven years afterwards Vasco da Gama, of the same nation,
not only doubled the Cape of Good Hope, but reached India.
About the same period Portuguese travellers penetrated to India
by the old time-honoured way of Suez ; and a land which
tradition and imagination had invested with almost fabulous
wealth and splendour was becoming more real to the European
world at the moment when the expedition of Vasco da Gama
had made an oceanic route to its shores distinctly visible. One
can hardly now realize the impression made by these discoveries

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in an age when the minds of men were awakening out of a long
sleep, when the printing press was disseminating the ancient
classical and sacred literature, and when geography and
astronomy were subjects of eager study in the seats both of
traffic and of learning. But their practical effect was seen in
swiftly-succeeding events. Before the end of the century
Columbus had thrice crossed the Atlantic, touched at San
Salvador, discovered Jamaica, Porto Rico and the Isthmus of
Darien, and had seen the waters of the Orinoco in South America.
Meanwhile Cabot, sent out by England, had discovered New-
foundland, planted the English flag on Labrador, Nova Scotia
and Virginia, and made known the existence of an expanse of
land now known as Canada. This tide of discovery by navigators
owed on without intermission. But the opening of a maritime
oute to India and the discovery of America, surprising as these
vents must have been at the time, were slow in producing the
suits of which they were a sure prognostic. The Portuguese
stablished in Cochin the first European factory in India a few
after Vasco da Gama's expedition, and other maritime
ations of Europe traced a similar course. But it was not till
1600 that the English East India Company was established, and
he opening of the first factory of the Company in India must be
ated some ten or eleven years later. So also it was one thing to
scover the two Americas, and another, in any real sense, to
ess or colonize them, or to bring their productions into the
eneral traffic and use of the world. Spain, following the stroke
of the valiant oar of Columbus, found in Mexico and Peru
aarkable remains of an ancient though feeble civilization, and a
vealth of gold and silver mines, which to Europeans of that period
vas fascinating from the rarity of the precious metals in their own
Jms, and consequently gave to the Spanish colonizations and
onquests in South America an extraordinary but unsolid
prosperity. The value of the precious metals in Europe was found
fall as soon as they began to be more widely distributed, a
process in itself at that period of no small tediousness; and it was
scovered further, after a century or two, that the production of
old and silver is limited like the production of other commodities
for which they exchange, and only increased in quantity at a
heavier cost, that is only reduced again by greater art and science
i the process of production. Many difficulties, in short, had to
overcome, many wars to be waged, and many deplorable
rrors to be committed, in turning the new advantages to account.
Jut given a maritime route to India and the discovery of a new
vorld of continent and islands in the richest tropical and sub-
opical latitudes, it could not be difficult to foresee that the course
of trade was to be wholly changed as well as vastly extended.
The substantial advantage of the oceanic passage to India by
Cape of Good Hope, as seen at the time, was to enable
European trade with the East to escape from the Moors,
to" Algerines and Turks who now swarmed round the
shores of the Mediterranean, and waged a predatory war
on ships and cargoes which would have been a formid-
ble obstacle even if traffic, after running this danger, had not to
further lost, or filtered into the smallest proportions, in the
inds of the Isthmus, and among the Arabs who commanded the
avigation of the Red and Arabian Seas. Venice had already
begun to decline in her wars with the Turks, and could in-
dequately protect her own trade in the Mediterranean. Armed
vessels sent out in strength from the Western ports often fared
idly at the hands of the pirates. European trade with India
an scarcely be said, indeed, to have yet come into existence.
The maritime route was round about, and it lay on the hitherto
.Imost untrodden ocean, but the ocean was a safer element than
Jand seas and deserts infested by the lawlessness and ferocity of
stile tribes of men. In short, the maritime route enabled
European traders to see India for themselves, to examine what
vere its products and its wants, and by what means a profitable
xchange on both sides could be established ; and on this basis of
nowledge, ships could leave the ports of their owners in Europe
nth a reasonable hope, via the Cape, of reaching the places
which they were destined without transhipment or other
utermediary obstacle. This is the explanation to be given of the

vi. 25

joy with which the Cape of Good Hope route was received, as well
as the immense influence it exerted on the future course and
extension of trade, and of the no less apparent satisfaction with
which it was to some extent discarded in favour of the ancient
line, via the Mediterranean, Isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea.

The maritime route to India was the discovery to the European
nations of a " new world " quite as much as the discovery of North
and South America and their central isthmus and
islands. The one was the far, populous Eastern world, l ^ KOver y
heard of from time immemorial, but with which there Americ*.
had been no patent lines of communication. The other
was a vast and comparatively unpeopled solitude, yet full of
material resources, and capable in a high degree of European
colonization. America offered less resistance to the action of
Europe than India, China and Japan; but on the other hand this
new populous Eastern world held out much attraction to trade.
These two great terrestrial discoveries were contemporaneous;
and it would be difficult to name any conjuncture of material
events bearing with such importance on the history of the world.
The Atlantic Ocean was the medium of both; and the waves of the
Atlantic beat into all the bays and tidal rivers of western Europe.
The centre of commercial activity was thus physically changed;
and the formative power of trade over human affairs was seen in
the subsequent phenomena the rise of great seaports on the
Atlantic seaboard, and the ceaseless activity of geographical
exploration, manufactures, shipping and emigration, of which
they became the outlets.

The Portuguese are entitled to the first place in utilizing the
new sources of wealth and commerce. They obtained Macao as a
settlement from the Chinese as early as 1537, and their f acrease of
trading operations followed close on the discoveries of trading
their navigators on the coast of Africa, in India and in settie-
the Indian Archipelago. Spain spread her dominion * n <* an '
over Central and South America, and forced the "*
labour of the subject natives into the gold and silver mines,
which seemed in that age the chief prize of her conquests. France
introduced her trade in both the East and West Indies, and was
the first to colonize Canada and the Lower Mississippi. The
Dutch founded New York in 1621; and England, which in
boldness of naval and commercial enterprize had attained high
rank in the reign of Elizabeth, established the thirteen colonies
which became the United States, and otherwise had a full share in
all the operations which were transforming the state of the world.
The original disposition of affairs was destined to be much
changed by the fortune of war; and success in foreign trade and
colonization, indeed, called into play other qualities besides those
of naval and military prowess. The products of so many new
countries tissues, dyes, metals, articles of food, chemical
substances greatly extended the range of European manu-
facture. But in addition to the. mercantile faculty of discovering
how they were to be exchanged and wrought into a profitable
trade, their use in arts and manufactures required skill, invention
and aptitude for manufacturing labour, and those again, in many
cases, were found to depend on abundant possession of natural
materials, such as coal and iron. In old and populous countries,
like India and China, modern manufacture had to meet and
contend with ancient manufacture, and had at once to learn from
and improve economically on the established models, before an
opening could be made for its extension. In many parts of the
New World there were .vast tracts of country, without population
or with native races too wild and savage to be reclaimed to
habits of industry, whose resources could only be developed by
the introduction of colonies of Europeans; and innumerable
experiments disclosed great variety of qualification among the
European nations for the adventure, hardship and perseverance
of colonial life. There were countries which, whatever their
fertility of soil or favour of climate, produced nothing for which a
market could be found ; and products such as the sugar-cane and
the seed of the cotton plant had to be carried from regions
where they were indigenous to other regions where they
might be successfully cultivated, and the art of planting had
to pass through an ordeal of risk and speculation. There were

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also countries where no European could labour; and the ominous
work of transporting African negroes as slaves into the colonies
begun by Spain in the first decade of the i6th century, followed
up by Portugal, and introduced by England in 1562 into the West
Indies, at a later period into New England and the Southern
States, and finally domiciled by royal privilege of trade in the
Thames and three or more outports of the kingdom, after being
done on an elaborate scale, and made the basis of an immense
superstructure of labour, property and mercantile interest over
nearly three centuries, had, under a more just and ennobling view
of humanity, to be as elaborately undone at a future time.

These are some of the difficulties that had to be encountered
in utilizing the great maritime and geographical conquests of
the new epoch. But one cannot leave out of view the obstacles,
arising from other sources, to what might be expected to be the
regular and easy course of affairs. Commerce, though an un-
dying and prevailing interest of civilized countries, is but one of
the forces acting on the policy of states, and has often to yield
the pace to other elements of national life. It were needless
to say what injury the great but vain and purposeless wars of
Louis XIV. of France inflicted in that country, or how largely
the fruitful and heroic energies of England were absorbed in the
civil wars between Charles and the Parliament, to what poverty
Scotland was reduced, or in what distraction and savagery
Ireland was kept by the same course of events. The grandeur
of Spain in the preceding century was due partly to the claim of
her kings to be Holy Roman emperors, in which imperial capacity
they entailed intolerable mischief on the Low Countries and on
the commercial civilization of Europe, and partly to their com-
mand of the gold and silver mines of Mexico and Peru, in an eager
lust of whose produce they brought cruel calamities on a newly-
discovered continent where there were many traces of antique
life, the records of which perished in their hands or under their
feet. These ephemeral causes of greatness removed, the hollow-
ness of the situation was exposed; and Spain, though rich in
her own natural resources, was found to be actually poor
poor in number of people, poor in roads, in industrial art,
and in all the primary conditions of interior development.
An examination of the foreign trade of Europe two centuries
after the opening of the maritime route to India and the discovery
of America would probably give more reason to be surprised
at the smallness than the magnitude of the use that had been
made of these events.

By the beginning of the igth century the world had been
well explored. Colonies had been planted on every coast; great
nations had sprung up in vast solitudes or in countries
century. inhabited only by savage or decadent races of men;
the most haughty and exclusive of ancient nations
had opened their ports to foreign merchantmen; and all parts
of the world been brought into habitual commercial intercourse.
The seas, subdued by the progress of navigation to the service
of man, had begun to yield their own riches in great abundance
and the whale, seal, herring, cod and other fisheries, prosecuted
with ample capital and hardy seamanship, had become the source
of no small traffic in themselves. The lists of imports and exports
and of the places from which they flowed to and from the centres
of trade, as they swelled in bulk from time to time, show how
busily and steadily the threads of commerce had been weaving
together the labour and interests of mankind, and extending a
security and bounty of existence unknown in former ages. The
1 9th century witnessed an extension of the commercial relations
of mankind of which there was no parallel in previous history.
The heavy debts and taxes, and the currency complications
in which the close of the Napoleonic wars left the European
nations, as well as the fall of prices which was the necessary
effect of the sudden closure of a, vast war expenditure and
absorption of labour, had a crippling effect for many years on
trading energies. Yet even under such circumstances commerce
is usually found, on its well-established modern basis, to make
steady progress from one series of years to another. The powers
of production had been greatly increased by a brilliant develop-
ment of mechanical arts and inventions. The United tates

had grown into a commercial nation of the first rank. The
European colonies and settlements were being extended, and
assiduously cultivated, and were opening larger and more varied
markets for manufactures. In 1819 the first steamboat crossed
the Atlantic from New York to Liverpool, and a similar adventure
was accomplished from England to India in 1825 events in
themselves the harbingers of a new era in trade. China, after
many efforts, was opened under treaty to an intercourse with
foreign nations which was soon to attain surprising dimensions.
These various causes supported the activity of commerce in the
first four decades ; but the great movement which made the
1 9th century so remarkable was chiefly disclosed in practical
results from about 1840. The outstanding characteristics of
the I9th century were the many remarkable inventions which so
widened the field of commerce by the discovery of new and
improved methods of production, the highly organized division
of labour which tended to the same end, and, above all, the
powerful forces of steam navigation, railways and telegraphs.

Commerce has thus acquired a security and extension, in all its
most essential conditions, of which it was void in any previous
age. It can hardly ever again exhibit that wandering course
from route to route, and from one solitary centre to another,
which is so characteristic of its ancient history, because it is
established in every quarter of the globe, and all the seas and
ways are open to it on terms fair and equal to every nation.
Wherever there is population, industry, resource, art and skill,
there will be international trade. Commerce will have many
centres, and one may relatively rise or relatively fall; but such
decay and ruin as have smitten many once proud seats of wealth
into dust cannot again occur without such cataclysms of war,
violence and disorder as the growing civilization and reason of
mankind, and the power of law, right and common interest
forbid us to anticipate. But the present magnitude of commerce
devolves serious work on all who are engaged in it. If in the
older times it was thought that a foreign merchant required to
be not only a good man of business, but even a statesman, it is
evident that all the higher faculties of the mercantile profession
must still more be called into request when imports and exports
are reckoned by hundreds instead of fives or tens of millions,
when the markets are so much larger and more numerous, the
competition so much more keen and varied, the problems to be
solved in every course of transaction so much more complex,
the whole range of affairs to be overseen so immensely widened.
It is not a company of merchants, having a monopoly, and doing
whatever they please, whether right or wrong, that now hold the
commerce of the world in their hands, but large communities of
free merchants in all parts of the world, affiliated to manu-
facturers and producers equally free, each under strong tempta-
tion to do what may be wrong in the pursuit of his own interest,
and the only security of doing right being to follow steady lights
of information and economic science common to all. Easy
transport of goods by land and sea, prompt intelligence from
every point of the compass, general prevalence of mercantile
law and safety, have all been accomplished; and the world
is opened to trade. But intellectual grasp of principles and
details, and the moral integrity which is the root of all commercial
success, are severely tested in this vaster sphere.

See TRADE ORGANIZATION ; ECONOMICS ; COMMERCIAL TREATIES,
and the sections under the headings of countries.

COMMERCE, the name of a card-game. Any number can play
with an ordinary pack. There are several variations of the game ,
but the following is a common one. Each player receives three
cards, and three more are turned up as a " pool." The first player
may exchange one or two of his cards for one or two of the
exposed cards, putting his own, face upwards, in their place.
His object is to " make his hand " (see below), but if he changes
all three cards at once he cannot change again. The next player
can do likewise, and so on. Usually there are as many rounds
as there are players, and a fresh card is added to the pool at
the beginning of each. If a player passes once he cannot ex-
change afterwards. When the rounds are finished the hands
are shown, the holder of the best either receiving a stake from

COMMERCIAL COURT COMMERCIAL TREATIES

771

all the others, or, supposing each has started with three " lives,"
taking one life from the lowest. The hands, in order of merit,
are: (i.) Tricon three similar cards, three aces ranking above
three kings, and so on. (ii.) Sequence three cards of the same
suit in consecutive order; the highest sequence is the best,
(iii.) Flush three cards of the same suit, the highest " point "
wins, i.e. the highest number of pips, ace counting eleven and
court-cards ten. (iv.) Pair two similar cards, the highest pair
winning. . (v.) Point the largest number of pips winning, as in
1 flush," but there is no restriction as to suit. Sometimes
' pair " and " point " are not recognized. A popular variation
of Commerce is Pounce Commerce. In this, if a player has
already three similar cards, e.g. three nines, and the fourth nine
comes into the pool, he says " Pounce!" and takes it, thus obtain-
ing a hand of four, which is higher than any hand of three:
whenever a pounce occurs, a new card is turned up from the pack.
COMMERCIAL COURT, in England, a court presided over
by a single judge of the king's bench division, for the trial, as
expeditiously as may be, of commercial cases. By the Rules of
the Supreme Court, Order xviii. a (made in November 1893), a
plaintiff was allowed to dispense with pleadings altogether,
provided that the indorsement of his writ of summons contained
a statement sufficient to give notice of his claim, or of the relief
or remedy required in the action, and stating that the plaintiff
intended to proceed to trial without pleadings. The judge might,
on the application of the defendant, order a statement of claim
to be delivered, or the action to proceed to trial without pleadings,
and if necessary particulars of the claim or defence to be delivered.
Out of this order grew the commercial court. It is not a distinct
court or division or branch of the High Court, and is not regulated
by any special rules of court made by the rule committee. It
originated in a notice issued by the judges of the queen's bench
division, in February 1895 (see W.N., 2nd of March 1895), the
provisions contained in which represent only " a practice agreed
on by the judges, who have the right to deal by convention
among themselves with this mode of disposing of the business
in their courts " (per Lord Esher in Barry v. Peruvian Corpora-
tion, 1896, i Q. B. p. 209). A separate list of causes of a com-
mercial character is made and assigned to a particular judge,
charged with commercial business, to whom all applications
before the trial are made. The 8th paragraph is as follows:

Such judge may at any time after appearance and without plead-
ings make such order as he thinks fit for the speedy determination,
in accordance with existing rules, of the questions really in con-
troversy between the parties.

Practitioners before Sir George Jessel, at the rolls, in the years
1873 to 1880, will be reminded of his mode of ascertaining the
point in controversy and bringing it to a speedy determination.
Obviously the scheme is only applicable to cases in which there
is some single issue of law or fact, or the case depends on the
construction of some contract or other instrument or section of
an act of parliament, and such issue or question is either agreed
upon by the parties or at once ascertainable by the judge. The
success of the scheme also depends largely on the personal
qualities of the judge to whom the list is assigned. Under the
able guidance of Mr (afterwards Lord) Justice Mathew (d. 1908),
the commercial court became very successful in bringing cases to
a speedy and satisfactory determination without any technicality
or unnecessary expense.

COMMERCIAL LAW, a term used rather indefinitely to
include those main rules and principles which, with more or less
minor differences, characterize the commercial transactions
and customs of most European countries. It includes within
its compass such titles as principal and agent; carriage by land
and sea; merchant shipping; guarantee; .marine, fire, life
and accident insurance; bills of exchange, partnership, &c.

COMMERCIAL TREATIES. A commercial treaty is a contract
between states relative to trade. It is a bilateral act whereby
definite arrangements are entered into by each contracting
party towards the other not mere concessions. As regards
technical distinctions, an " agreement," an " exchange of
notes," or a " convention " properly applies to one specific

subject; whereas a " treaty " usually comprises several matters,
whether commercial or political.

In ancient times foreign intercourse, trade and navigation
were in many instances regulated by international arrangements.
The text is extant of treaties of commerce and navigation con-
cluded between Carthage and Rome in 509 and 348 B.C. Aristotle
mentions that nations were connected by commercial treaties;
and other classical writers advert to these engagements. Under
the Roman empire the matters thus dealt with became regulated
by law, or by usages sometimes styled laws. When the territories
of the empire were contracted, and the imperial authority was
weakened, some kind of international agreements again became
necessary. At Constantinople in the loth century treaties cited
by Gibbon protected " the person, effects and privileges of the
Russian merchant "; and, in western Europe, intercourse,
trade and navigation were carried on, at first tacitly by usage
derived from Roman times, or under verbal permission given
to merchants by the ruler to whose court they resorted. After-
wards, security in these transactions was afforded by means of
formal documents, such as royal letters, charters, laws and other
instruments possessing the force of government measures.
Instances affecting English commercial relations are the letter
of Charlemagne in 796, the Brabant Charter of 1305, and the
Russian ukase of 1569. Medieval treaties of truce or peace
often contained a clause permitting in general terms the renewal
of personal and commercial communication as it subsisted before
the war. This custom is still followed. But these medieval
arrangements were precarious: they were often of temporary
duration, and were usually only effective during the lifetime
of the contracting sovereigns.

Passing over trade agreements affecting the Eastern empire, the
modern commercial treaty system came into existence in the 1 2th
century. Genoa, Pisa and Venice were then well-organized com-
munities, and were in keen rivalry. Whenever their position in a
foreign country was strong, a trading centre was established, and
few or no specific engagements were made on their part. But in
serious competition or difficulty another course was adopted: a
formal agreement was concluded for the better security of their
commerce and navigation. The arrangements of 1140 between
Venice and Sicily; the Genoese conventions of 1 149 with Valencia,
of 1161 with Morocco, and of 1181 with the Balearic Islands;
the Pisan conventions of 1173 with Sultan Saladin, and of 1184
with the Balearic Islands, were the earliest Western commercial
treaties. Such definite arrangements, although still of a personal
character, were soon perceived to be preferable to general pro-
visions in a treaty of truce or peace. They afforded also greater
security than privileges enjoyed under usage; or under grants of
various kinds, whether local or royal. The policy thus in-
augurated was adopted gradually throughout Europe. The first
treaties relative to the trade of the Netherlands were between
Brabant and Holland in 1203, Holland and Utrecht in 1204, and
Brabant and Cologne in 1251. Early northern commercial
treaties are those between Riga and Smolensk 1229, and between
Lubeck and Sweden 1269. The first commercial relations
between the Hanse Towns and foreign countries were arrange-
ments made by gilds of merchants, not by public authorities as a
governing body. For a long period the treaty system did not
entirely supersede conditions of intercourse between nations
dependent on permission.

The earliest English commercial treaty is that with Norway in
1217. It provides " ut mercatores et homines qui sunt de
potestate vestra libere et sine impedimento terram nostramadire
possint, et homines et mercatores nostri similiter vestram."
These stipulations are in due treaty form. The next early
English treaties are: with Flanders, 1274 and 1314; Portugal,
1308, 1352 and 1386; Baltic Cities, 1319 and 1388; Biscay and
Castile, 1351; Burgundy, 1417 and 1496; France, 1471, 1497
and 1510; Florence, 1490. The commercial treaty policy in
England was carried out systematically under Henry IV. and
Henry VII. It was continued under James I. to extend to
Scotland English trading privileges. The results attained in the
1 7th century were regularity in treaty arrangements; their

772

COMMERCIAL TREATIES

durable instead of personal nature; the conversion of permissive
into perfect rights; questions as to contraband and neutral trade
stated in definite terms. Treaties were at first limited to ex-
clusive and distinct engagements between the contracting states;
each treaty differing more or less in its terms from other similar
compacts. Afterwards by extending to a third nation privileges
granted to particular countries, the most favoured nation article
began to be framed, as a unilateral engagement by a particular
state. The Turkish capitulations afford the earliest instances;
and the treaty of 1641 between the Netherlands and Portugal
contains the first European formula. Cromwell continued the
commercial treaty policy partly in order to obtain a formal
recognition of the commonwealth from foreign powers. His
treaty of 1654 with Sweden contains the first reciprocal " most
favoured nation clause ": Article IV. provides that the people,
subjects and inhabitants of either confederate " shall have and
possess in the countries, lands, dominions and kingdoms of the
other as full and ample privileges, and as many exemptions,
immunities and liberties, as any foreigner doth or shall possess
in the dominions and kingdoms of the said confederate." The
government of the Restoration replaced and enlarged the
Protectorate arrangements by fresh agreements. The general
policy of the commonwealth was maintained, with further
provisions on behalf of colonial trade. In the new treaty of 1661
with Sweden the privileges secured were those which " any
foreigner whatsoever doth or shall enjoy in the said dominions
and kingdoms on both sides."

In contemporary treaties France obtained from Spain (1659)
that French subjects should enjoy the same liberties as had been
granted to the English; and England obtained from Denmark
(1661) that the English should not pay more or greater customs
than the people of the United Provinces and other foreigners, the
Swedes only excepted. The colonial and navigation policy of the
1 7th century, and the proceedings of Louis XIV., provoked
animosities and retaliatory tariffs. During the War of the
Spanish Succession the Methuen Treaty of 1703 was concluded.
Portugal removed prohibitions against the importation of
British woollens; Great Britain engaged that Portuguese wines
should pay one-third less duty than the rate levied on French
wines. At the peace of Utrecht in 1713 political and commercial
treaties were concluded. England agreed to remove prohibitions
on the importation of French goods, and to grant most favoured
nation treatment in relation to goods and merchandise of the like
nature from any other country in Europe; the French general
tariff of the i8th of September 1664, was to be again put in force
for English trade. The English provision was at variance with
the Methuen Treaty. A violent controversy arose as to the
relative importance in 17 13 of Anglo-Portuguese or Anglo-French
trade. In the end the House of Commons, by a majority of 9,
rejected the bill to give effect to the commercial treaty of 1713;
and trade with France remained on an unsatisfactory footing
until 1786. The other commercial treaties of Utrecht were very
complete in their provisions, equal to those of the present time ;
and contained most favoured nation articles England secured
in 1 7 1 5 reduction of duties on woollens imported into the Austrian
Netherlands; and trading privileges in Spanish America.
Moderate import duties for woollens were obtained in Russia by
the commercial treaty of 1 766. In the meanwhile the Bourbon
family compact of the isth of August 1761 assured national
treatment for the subjects of France, Spain and the Two Sicilies,
and for their trade in the European territories of the other two
states; and most favoured nation treatment as regards any
special terms granted to any foreign country. The first com-
mercial treaties concluded by the United States with European
countries contained most favoured nation clauses: this policy has
been continued by the United States, but the wording of the
clause has often varied.

In 1786 France began to effect tariff reform by means of
commercial treaties. The first was with Great Britain, and it
terminated the long-continued tariff warfare. But the wars of
the French Revolution swept away these reforms, and brought
about a renewal of hostile tariffs. Prohibitions and differential

duties were renewed, and prevailed on the continent until the
sixth decade of the igth century. In 1860 a government existed
in France sufficiently strong and liberal to revert to the policy of
1786. The bases of the Anglo-French treaty of 1860, beyond its
most favoured nation provisions, were in France a general
transition from prohibition or high customs duties to a moderate
tariff; in the United Kingdom abandonment of all protective
imposts, and reduction of duties maintained for fiscal purposes
to the lowest rates compatible with these exigencies. Other
European countries were obliged to obtain for their trade the
benefit of the conventional tariff thus established in France, as an
alternative to the high rates inscribed in the general tariff. A
series of commercial treaties was accordingly concluded by
different European states between 1861 and 1866, which effected
further reductions of customs duties in the several countries that
came within this treaty system. In 1871 the Republican
government sought to terminate the treaties of the empire. The
British negotiators nevertheless obtained the relinquishment of
the attempt to levy protective duties under the guise of com-
pensation for imposts on raw materials; the duration of the
treaty of 1860 was prolonged; and stipulations better worded
than those before in force were agreed to for shipping and most
favoured nation treatment. In 1882, however, France terminated
her existing European tariff treaties. Belgium and some other
countries concluded fresh treaties, less liberal than those of the
system of 1860, yet much better than anterior arrangements.
Great Britain did not formally accept these higher duties; the
treaty of the 28th of February 1882, with France, which secured
most favoured nation treatment in other matters, provided that
customs duties should be " henceforth regulated by the internal
legislation of each of the two states." In 1892 France also fell out
of international tariff arrangements; and adopted the system of
double columns of customs duties one, of lower rates, to be
applied to the goods of all nations receiving most favoured
treatment; and the other, of higher rates, for countries not on
this footing. Germany then took up the treaty tariff policy; and
between 1891 and 1894 concluded several commercial treaties.

International trade hi Europe in 1909 was regulated by a
series of tariffs which came into operation, mainly on the initia-
tive of Germany in 1906. Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Bulgaria,
Germany, Italy, Rumania, Russia, Servia and Switzerland, were
parties to them. Their object and effect was protectionist. The
British policy then became one of obtaining modifications to
remedy disadvantages to British trade, as was done in the case
of Bulgaria and Rumania. An important series of commercial
arrangements had been concluded between 1884 and 1900
respecting the territories and spheres of interest of European
powers in western, central and eastern Africa. In these regions
exclusive privileges were not claimed; most favoured nation
treatment was recognized, and there was a disposition to extend
national treatment to all Europeans and their trade.

The Turkish Capitulations (q.v.) are grants made by successive
sultans to Christian nations, conferring rights and privileges in
favour of their subjects resident or trading in the Ottoman
dominions, following the policy towards European states of the
Eastern empire. In the first instance capitulations were granted
separately to each Christian state, beginning with the Genoese in
1453, which entered into pacific relations with Turkey. After-
wards new capitulations were obtained which summed up in one
document earlier concessions, and added to them in general terms
whatever had been conceded to one or more other states; a
stipulation which became a most favoured nation article. The
English capitulations date from 1569, and then secured the same
treatment as the Venetians, French, Poles and the subjects of the
emperor of Germany; they were revised in 1675, and as then
settled were confirmed by treaties of subsequent date " now and
for ever." Capitulations signify that which is arranged under
distinct " headings "; the Turkish phrase is " ahid nameh,"
whereas a treaty is " mouahede " the latter does, and the former
does not, signify a reciprocal engagement. Thus, although the
Turkish capitulations are not in themselves treaties, yet by sub-
sequent confirmation they have acquired the force of commercial

COMMERCY

773

treaties of perpetual duration as regards substance and prin-
ciples, while details, such as rates of customs duties, may, by
mutual consent, be varied from time to time.

The most favoured nation article already referred to concedes to
the state in the treaty with which it is concluded whatever
advantages in the matters comprised within its stipulations have
been allowed to any foreign or third state. It does not in itself
directly confer any particular rights, but sums up the whole of the
rights in the matters therein mentioned which have been or may
granted to foreign countries. The value of the privileges
nder this article accordingly varies with the conditions as to
bese rights in each state which concedes this treatment.

The article is drafted in different form :

(1) That contracting states A. and B. agree to extend to each
ther whatever rights and privileges they concede to countries C.
nd D., or to C. and D. and any other country. The object in this
nstance is to ensure specifically to B. and A. whatever advantages

and D. may possess. A recent instance is Article XI. of the
:aty of May 10, 1871, between France and Germany, which binds
em respectively to extend to each other whatever advantages they
ant to Austria, Belgium, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Russia
nd Switzerland.

(2) The present general formula: A. and B. agree to extend to
ach other whatever advantages they concede to any third country ;
nd engage that no other or higher duties shall be levied on the
nportation into A. and B. respectively of goods the produce or
anufacture of B. and A. than are levied on the like goods the
oduce or manufacture of any third country the most favoured
i this respect. There is a similar clause in regard to exportation.

(3) The conditional or reciprocity formula, often used in the i8th
nd in the early part of the igth century, namely, that whenever

1. and B. make special concessions in return for corresponding
:pncessions, B. and A. respectively are either excluded from par-
ticipation therein, or must make some additional equivalent con-
:ssion in order to participate in those advantages.
It may further be observed that the word "like " relates to the
ods themselves, to their material or quality, not to conditions of
anufacture, mode of conveyance or anything beyond the fact of
their precise description; small local facilities allowed to traffic
" etween conterminous land districts are not at variance with this
tide.

A recent complete and concise English formula is that of Article 2
f the treaty of commerce and navigation of the 3ist of October
1905, with Rumania. " The contracting parties agree that, in all
alters relating to commerce, navigation and industry, any privi-
ge, favour or immunity which either contracting party has actually
anted, or may hereafter grant, to the subjects or citizens of any
ther foreign state, shall be extended immediately and uncondition-
illy to the subjects of the other; it being their intention that the
ommerce, navigation and industry of each country shall be placed,
L all respects, on the footing of the most favoured nation."

Colonies. The application of commercial treaties to colonies
depends upon the wording of each treaty. The earlier colonial
olicy of European states was to subordinate colonial interests to
hose of the mother country, to reserve colonial trade for the
lother country, and to abstain from engagements contrary to
hese general rules. France, Portugal and Spain have adhered
principle to this policy. Germany and Holland have been
nore liberal. The self-government enjoyed by the larger British
olonies has led since 1886 to the insertion of an article in British
ommercial and other treaties whereby the assent of each of these
olonies, and likewise of India, is reserved before they apply to
ich of these possessions. And further, the fact that certain other
British colonies are now within the sphere of commercial inter-
ourse controlled by the United States, has since 1891 induced the
British government to enter into special agreements on behalf of
colonies for whose products the United States is now the chief
arket. As regards the most favoured nation article, it is to be
emembered that the mother country and colonies are not
distinct not foreign or third countries with respect to each
Dther. The most favoured nation article, therefore, does not
preclude special arrangements between the mother country and
olonies, nor between colonies.

Termination. Commercial treaties are usually concluded for a
erm of years, and either lapse at the end of this period, or are
erminable then, or subsequently, if either state gives the required
notice. When a portion of a country establishes its independence,
ar example the several American republics, according to present
ge foreign trade is placed on a uniform most favoured nation

footing, and fresh treaties are entered into to regulate the com"
mercial relations of the new communities. In the case of former
Turkish provinces, the capitulations remain in force in principle
until they are replaced by new engagements. If one state is
absorbed into another, for instance Texas into the United States,
or when territory passes by conquest, for instance Alsace to
Germany, the commercial treaties of the new supreme govern-
ment take effect. In administered territories, as Cyprus and
formerly Bosnia, and in protected territories, it depends on the
policy of the administering power how far the previous fiscal
system shall remain in force. When the separate Italian states
were united into the kingdom of Italy in 1861, the commercial
engagements of Sardinia superseded those of the other states, but
fresh treaties were concluded by the new kingdom to place inter-
national relations on a regular footing. When the German
empire was established under the king of Prussia in 1871, the
commercial engagements of any state which were at variance with
a Zollverein treaty were superseded by that treaty.

Scope. The scope of commercial treaties is well expressed by
Calvo in his work on international law. They provide for the
importation, exportation, transit, transhipment and bonding of
merchandise; customs tariffs; navigation charges; quarantine;
the admission of vessels to roadsteads, ports and docks; coasting
trade; the admission of consuls and their rights; fisheries; they
determine the local position of the subjects of each state in the
other country in regard to residence, property, payment of taxes
or exemptions, and military service; nationality; and a most
favoured nation clause. They usually contain a termination, and
sometimes a colonial article. Some of the matters enumerated by
Calvo consular privileges, fisheries and nationality are now
frequently dealt with by separate conventions. Contraband and
neutral trade are not included as frequently as they were in the
1 8th century.

The preceding statement shows that commercial treaties afford
to foreigners, personally, legal rights, and relief from technical
disabilities: they afford security to trade and navigation, and
regulate other matters comprised in their provisions. In Europe
the general principles established by the series of treaties 1860-
1866 hold good, namely, the substitution of uniform rates of
customs duties for prohibitions or differential rates. The dis-
advantages urged are that these treaties involve government
interference and bargaining, whereas each state should act
independently as its interests require, that they are opposed to
free trade, and restrict the fiscal freedom of the legislature. It
may be observed that these objections imply some confusion of
ideas. All contracts may be designated bargains, and some of the
details of commercial treaties in Calvo's enumeration enter
directly into the functions of government; moreover, countries
cannot remain isolated. If two countries agree by simultaneous
action to adopt fixed rates of duty, this agreement is favourable to
commerce, and it is not apparent how it is contrary, even to free
trade principles. Moreover, security in business transactions,
a very important consideration, is provided.

Our conclusions are

1 i) that under the varying jurisprudence of nations commercial
treaties are adopted by common consent;

(2) that their provisions depend upon the general and fiscal
policy of each state;

(3) that tariff arrangements, if judiciously settled, benefit
trade;

(4) that commercial treaties are now entered in to by all states;
and that they are necessary under present conditions of com-
mercial intercourse between nations. (C. M. K.*)

See the British parliamentary Return (Cd. 4080) of all commercial
treaties between various countries in force on Jan. i, 1908.

COMMERCY, a town of north-eastern France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Meuse, on the left bank of
the Meuse, 26 m. E. of Bar-le-Duc by rail. Pop. (1906) 5622.
Commercy possesses a chateau of the i7th century, now used as
cavalry barracks, a Benedictine convent occupied by a training-
college for primary teachers, and a communal college for boys.
A statue of Dom Calmet, the historian, born in the vicinity, stands

774

COMMERS COMMISSION

in one of the squares. The industries include iron-working and
the manufacture of nails, boots and shoes, embroidery and
hosiery. The town has trade in cattle, grain and wood, and is well
known for its cakes (madeleines) , Commercy dates back to the
gth century, and at that time its lords were dependent on the
bishop of Metz. In 1544 it was besieged by Charles V. in person.
For some time the lordship was in the hands of Francois Paul de
Gondi, cardinal de Retz, who lived in the town for a number of
years, and there composed his memoirs. From him it was
purchased by Charles IV., duke of Lorraine. In 1744 it became
the residence of Stanislas, king of Poland, who spent a great
deal of care on the embellishment of the town, castle and
neighbourhood.

COMMERS (from Lat. commercium), the German term for the
German students' social gatherings held annually on occasions
such as the breaking-up of term and the anniversary of the
university's founding. A Commers consists of speeches and
songs and the drinking of unlimited quantities of beer. The
arrangements are governed by officials (Chargierte) elected by the
students from among themselves. Strict rules as to drinking
exist, and the chairman after each speech calls for what is called
a salamander (ad exercitium Salamandris bibite, tergite). All rise
and having emptied their glasses hammer three times on the
table with them. On the death of a student, his memory is
honoured with a salamander, the glasses being broken to atoms
at the close.

COMMINES, PHILIPPE DE<c. 1445-^. 1511), French historian,
called the father of modern history, was born at the castle of
Rehescure, near Hazebrouck in Flanders, a little earlier than
1447. He lost both father and mother in his earliest years. In
1463 his godfather, Philip V., duke of Burgundy, summoned him
to his court, and soon after transferred him to the household of his
son, afterwards known as Charles the Bold. He speedily acquired
considerable influence over Charles, and in 1468 was appointed
chamberlain and councillor; consequently when in the same
year Louis XI. was entrapped at Peronne, Commines was able
both to soften the passion of Charles and to give useful advice to
the king, whose life he did much to save. Three years later he was
charged with an embassy to Louis, who gained him over to
himself by many brilliant promises, and in 1472 he left Burgundy
for the court of France. He was at once made chamberlain and
councillor; a pension of 6000 livres was bestowed on him; he
received the principality of Talmont, the confiscated property of
the Amboise family, over which the family of La Tremoille
claimed to have rights. The king arranged his marriage with
Helene de Chambes, who brought him the fine lordship of
Argenton, and Commines took the name d'Argenton from then
(27th of January 1473). He was employed to carry out the
intrigues of Louis in Burgundy, and spent several months as
envoy in Italy. On his return he was received with the utmost
favour, and in 1479 obtained a decree confirming him in possession
of his principality.

On the death of Louis in 1483 a suit was commenced against
Commines by the family of La Tremoille, and he was cast in
heavy damages. He plotted against the regent, Anne of Beaujeu,
and joined the party of the duke of Orleans, afterwards
Louis XII. Having attempted to carry off the king, Charles
VIII., and so free him from the tutelage of his sister, he was
arrested, and put in one of his old master's iron cages at Loches.
In 1489 he was banished to one of his own estates for ten years,
and made to give bail to the amount of 10,000 crowns of gold for
his good behaviour. Recalled to the council in 1492, he strenu-
ously opposed the Italian expedition of Charles VIII., in which,
however, he took part, notably as representing the king in the
negotiations which resulted in the treaty of Vercelli. During the
rest of his life, notwithstanding the accession of Louis XII.,
whom he had served as duke of Orleans, he held no position of
importance; and his last days were disturbed by lawsuits. He
died at Argenton on the i8th of October, probably in 1511. His
wife Helene de Chambes survived him till 1532; their tomb is now
in the Louvre.

The Memoirs, to which Commines owes his reputation as a

statesman and man of letters, were written during his latter years.
The graphic style of his narrative and above all the keenness of
his insight into the motives of his contemporaries, an insight
undimmed by undue regard for principles of right and wrong,
make this work one of the great classics of history. His portrait
of Louis XI. remains unique, in that to such a writer was given
such a subject. Scott in Quentin Durward gives an interesting
picture of Commines, from whom he largely draws. Sainte-Beuve,
after speaking of Commines as being in date the first truly modern
writer, and comparing him with Montaigne, says that his history
remains the definitive history of his time, and that from it aU
political history took its rise. None of this applause is un-
deserved, for the pages of Commines abound with excellences.
He analyses motives and pictures manners ; he delineates men and
describes events; his reflections are pregnant with suggest! veness,
his conclusions strong with the logic of facts.

The Memoirs divided themselves into two parts, the first from
the reign of Louis XL, 1464-1483, the second on the Italian
expedition and the negotiations at Venice leading to the Vercelli
treaty, 1494-1495. The first part was written between 1489 and
1491, while Commines was at the chateau of Dreux, the second
from 1495 to 1498. Seven MSS. are known, derived from a single
holograph, and as this was undoubtedly badly written, the copies
were inaccurate; the best is that which belonged to Anne de
Polignac, niece of Commines, and it is the only one containing
books vii. and viii.

The best edition of Commines is the one edited by B. de
Mandrot and published at Paris in 1901-1903. For this edition
the author used a manuscript hitherto unknown and more com-
plete than the others, and in his introduction he gives an account
of the life of Commines.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The Memoirs remained in MS. till 1524, when
part of them were printed by Galliot du Pre, the remainder first
seeing light in 1525. Subsequent editions were put forth by Denys
Sauvage in 1552, by Dehys Godefroy in 1649, and by Lenglet Du-
fresnoy in 1747. Those of Mademoiselle Dupont (1841-1848) and
of M. de Chantelauze ( 1 88 1) have many merits, but the best was given
by Bernard de Mandrot: Memoirs de Philippe de Commynes, from
the MS. of Anne de Polignac (1901). Various translations of
Commines into English have appeared, from that of T. Danett in
1596 to that, based on the Dupont edition, which was printed in
Bohn's series in 1855. (C. B.*)

COMMISSARIAT, the department of an army charged with the
provision of supph'es, both food and forage, for the troops. The
supply of military stores such as ammunition is not included in
the duties of a commissariat. In almost every army the duties of
transport and supply are performed by the same corps of depart-
mental troops.

COMMISSARY (from Med. Lat. commissarius, one to whom a
charge or trust is committed), generally, a representative; e.g.,
the emperor's representative who presided in his absence over
the imperial diet; and especially, an ecclesiastical official who
exercises in special circumstances the jurisdiction of a bishop
(q.v.) ; in the Church of England this jurisdiction is exercised in a
Consistory Court (q.v.), except in Canterbury, where the court of
the diocesan as opposed to the metropolitan jurisdiction of the
archbishop is called a commissary court, and the judge is the
commissary general of the city and diocese of Canterbury. When
a see is vacant the jurisdiction is exercised by a " special com-
missary " of the metropolitan. Commissary is also a general
military term for an official charged with the duties of supply,
transport and finance of an army. In the 1 7th and i8th centuries
the commissaire des guerres, or Kriegskommissiir was an important
official in continental armies, by whose agency the troops, in
their relation to the civil inhabitants, were placed upon semi-
political control. In French military law, commissaires du
gouvernement represent the ministry of war on military tribunals,
and more or less correspond to the British judge-advocate (see
COURT-MARTIAL) .

COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere), the action of
committing or entrusting any charge or duty to a person, and the
charge or trust thus committed, and so particularly an authority,
or the document embodying such authority, given to some person
to act in a particular capacity. The term is thus applied to the

COMMISSIONAIRE

775

written authority to command troops, which the sovereign or
president, as the ultimate commander-in-chief of the nation's
armed forces, grants to persons selected as officers, or to the
similar authority issued to certain qualified persons to act as
justices of the peace. For the various commissions of assize see
ASSIZE. The word is also used of the order issued to a naval
officer to take the command of a ship of war, and when manned,
armed and fully equipped for active service she is said to be " put
in commission."

In the law of evidence (q.v.) the presence of witnesses may, for
ertain necessary causes, be dispensed with by the order of the
ourt, and the evidence be taken by a commissioner. Such
iridence in England is said to be " on commission " (see R.S.C.
ier XXXVII.). Such causes may be illness, the intention of
: witness to leave the country before the trial, residence out of
he country or the like. Where the witness is out of the jurisdic-
on of the court, and his place of residence is a foreign country
vhere objection is taken to the execution of a commission, or is a
Jritish colony or India, " letters of request " for the examination
: the witness are issued, addressed to the head of the tribunal in
lie foreign country, or to the secretary of state for the colonies or
or India.

Where the functions of an office are transferred from an
adividual to a body of persons, the body exercising these
elegated functions is generally known as a commission and the
aembers as commissioners; thus the office of lord high admiral
i Great Britain is administered by a permanent board, the lords
: the admiralty. Such a delegation may be also temporary, as
vhere the authority under the great seal to give the royal assent
i legislation is issued to lords commissioners. Similarly bodies
persons or single individuals may be specially charged with
arrying out particular duties; these may be permanent, such as
ae Charity Commission or the Ecclesiastical and Church Estates
ommission, or may be temporary, such as various international
lies of inquiry, like the commission which met in Paris in 1905
inquire into the North Sea incident (see DOGGER BANK), or
nch as the various commissions of inquiry, royal, statutory or
epartmental, of which an account is given below.
A commission may be granted by one person to another to act
his agent, and particularly in business; thus the term is
applied to that method of business in which goods are entrusted to
agent for sale, the remuneration being a percentage on the
iles. This percentage is known as the " commission," and hence
ae word is extended to all remuneration which is based on a
ercentage on the value of the work done. The right of an agent
remuneration in the form of a " commission " is always
ounded upon an express or implied contract between himself and
principal. Such a contract may be implied from custom or
age, from the conduct of the principal or from the circumstances
of the particular case. Such commissions are only payable on
ansactions directly resulting from agency and may be payable
hough the principal acquires no benefit. In order to claim
emuneration an agent must be legally qualified to act in the
apacity in which he claims remuneration. He cannot recover
respect of unlawful or wagering transactions, or in cases of
aisconduct or breach of duty.

Secret Commissions. The giving of a commission, in the sense
of a bribe or unlawful payment to an agent or employe in order
> influence him in relation to his principal's or employer's affairs,
grown to considerable proportions in modern times; it has
en rightly regarded as a gross breach of trust upon the part of
nployes and agents, inasmuch as it leads them to look to their
own interests rather than to those of their employers. In order to
suppress this bribing of employes the English legislature in 1906
passed the Prevention of Corruption Act, which enacts that if an
ent corruptly accepts or obtains for himself or for any other
erson any gift or consideration as an inducement or reward for
doing or forbearing to do any act or business, or for showing or
forbearing to show favour or disfavour to any person in relation to
Ms principal's affairs, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanour and
all be liable on conviction or indictment to imprisonment with
without hard labour for a term not exceeding two years, or to a

fine not exceeding 500, or to both, or on summary conviction to
imprisonment not exceeding four months with or without hard
labour or to a fine not exceeding 50 , or both. The act also applies
the same punishment to any person who corruptly gives or offers
any gift or consideration to an agent. Also if a person knowingly
gives an agent, or if an agent knowingly uses, any receipt, account
or document with intent to mislead the principal, they are
guilty of a misdemeanour and liable to the punishment already
mentioned. For the purposes of the act " consideration " in-
cludes valuable consideration of any kind, and " agent " includes
any person employed by or acting for another. No prosecution
can be instituted without the consent of the attorney-general,
and every information must be upon oath.

Legislation to the same effect has been adopted in Australia.
A federal act was passed in 1905 dealing with secret commissions,
and in the same year both Victoria and Western Australia passed
drastic measures to prevent the giving or receiving corruptly of
commissions. The Victorian act applies to trustees, executors,
administrators and liquidators as well as to agents. Both the
Victorian and the Western Australian acts enact that gifts to the
parent, wife, child, partner or employer of an agent are to be
deemed gifts to the agent unless the contrary is proved; also
that the custom of any trade or calling is not in itself a defence to
a prosecution.

Commissions of Inquiry, i.e. commissions for the purpose of
eliciting information as to the operation of laws, or investigating
particular matters, social, educational, &c., are distinguished,
according to the terms of their appointment, as royal, statutory
and departmental. A royal commission in England is appointed
by the crown, and the commissions usually issue from the office of
the executive government which they specially concern. The
objects of the inquiry are carefully defined in the warrant
constituting the commission, which is termed the " reference."
The commissioners give their services gratuitously, but where
they involve any great degree of professional skill compensation
is allowed for time and labour. The expenses incurred are
provided out of money annually voted for the purpose. Unless
expressly empowered by act of parliament, a commission cannot
compel the production of documents or the giving of evidence, nor
can it administer an oath. A commission may hold its sittings in
any part of the United Kingdom, or may institute and conduct
experiments for the purpose of testing the utility of invention, &c.
When the inquiry or any particular portion of it is concluded, a
report is presented to the crown through the home department.
All the commissioners, if unanimous, sign the report, but those
who are unable to agree with the majority can record their dissent,
and express their individual opinions, either in paragraphs ap-
pended to the report or in separately signed memoranda.

Statutory commissions are created by acts of parliament, and,
with the exception that they are liable to have their proceedings
questioned in parliament, have absolute powers within the limits
of their prescribed functions and subject to the provisions
of the act defining the same. Departmental commissions or
committees are appointed either by a treasury minute or by the
authority of a secretary of state, for the purpose of instituting
inquiries into matters of official concern or examining into
proposed changes in administrative arrangements. They are
generally composed of two or more permanent officials of the
department concerned in the investigation, along with a sub-
ordinate member of the administration. Reports of such com-
mittees are usually regarded as confidential documents.

A full account of the procedure in royal commissions wilkbe found
in A. Todd's Parliamentary Government in England, vol. ii.

COMMISSIONAIRE, the designation of an attendant, messen-
ger or subordinate employ6 in hotels on the continent of
Europe, whose chief duty is to attend at railway stations, secure
customers, take charge of their luggage, carry out the necessary
formalities with respect to it and have it sent on to the hotel.
They are also employed in Paris as street messengers, light porters,
&c. The Corps of Commissionaires, in England, is an associa-
tion of pensioned soldiers of trustworthy character, founded in
1859 by Captain Sir Edward Walter, K.C.B. (1823-1904).

776

COMMISSIONER COMMODIANUS

It was first started in a very small way, with the intention
of providing occupation for none but wounded soldiers. The
nucleus of the corps consisted of eight men, each of whom had
lost a limb. The demand, however, for neat, uniformed, trusty
men, to perform certain light duties, encouraged the founder to
extend his idea, and the corps developed into a large self-sup-
porting organization. In 1906 there were over 3000 members
of the corps, more than 2000 of/vhom served in London. Out-
stations were established in various large towns of the kingdom,
and the corps extended its operations also to the colonies.

COMMISSIONER, in general an officer appointed to carry out
some particular work, or to discharge the duty of a particular
office; one who is a member of a commission (q.v.). In this sense
the word is applied to members of a permanently constituted
department of the administration, as civil service commissioners,
commissioners of income tax, commissioners in lunacy, &c.
It is also the title given to the heads of or important officials in
various governmental departments, as commissioner of customs.
In some British possessions in Africa and the Pacific the head
of the government is styled high commissioner. In India a
commissioner is the chief administrative official of a division
which includes several districts. The office does not exist in
Madras, where the same duties are discharged by a board of
revenue, but is found in most of the other provinces. The com-
missioner comes midway between the local government and the
district officer. In the regulation provinces the district officer is
called a collector (q.v.), and in the non-regulation provinces a
deputy-commissioner. In the former he must always be a
member of the covenanted civil service, but in the latter he
may be a military officer.

A chief commissioner is a high Indian official, governing a
province inferior in status to a lieutenant-governorship, but in
direct subordination to the governor-general in council. The
provinces which have chief commissioners are the Central
Provinces and Berar, the North-West Frontier Province and
Coorg. The agent to the governor-general of Baluchistan is
also chief commissioner of British Baluchistan, the agent to the
governor-general of Rajputana is also chief commissioner of
the British district of Ajmere-Merwara, and there is a chief
commissioner of the Andaman and Nicobar islands. Several
provinces, such as the Punjab, Oudh, Burma and Assam, were
administered by chief commissioners before they were raised
to the status of lieutenant-governorships (see LIEUTENANT).

A commissioner for oaths in England is a solicitor appointed
by the lord chancellor to administer oaths to persons making
affidavits for the purpose of any cause or matter. The Com-
missioner for Oaths Act 1889 (with an amending act 1891),
amending and consolidating various other acts, regulates the
appointment and powers of such commissioners. In most large
towns the minimum qualification for appointment is six years'
continuous practice, and the application must be supported by
two barristers, two solicitors and at least six neighbours of
the applicant. The charge made by commissioners for every
oath, declaration, affirmation or attestation upon honour is
one shilling and sixpence; for marking each exhibit (a document
or other thing sworn to in an affidavit and shown to a deponent
when being sworn), one shilling.

COMMITMENT, in English law, a precept or warrant in writing,
made and issued by a court or judicial officer (including, in cases
of treason, the privy council or a secretary of state), directing
the conveyance of a person named or sufficiently described
therein to a prison or other legal place of custody, and his
detention therein for a time specified, or until the person to be
detained has done a certain act specified in the warrant, e.g. paid
a fine imposed upon him on conviction. Its character will be
more easily grasped by reference to a form now in use under
statutory authority:

In the county of A, Petty Sessional Division of B.

To each and all of the constables of the county of A and the
governor of His Majesty's Prison at C.

E. F. hereinafter called the defendant has this day been convicted
before the court of summary jurisdiction sitting at D.

(Here the conviction and adjudication is stated.)

You the said constables are hereby commanded to convey the
defendant to the said prison, and there deliver him to the governor
thereof together with this warrant: and you the governor of the
said prison to receive the defendant into your custody and keep
him to hard labour for the space of three calendar months.

Dated Signature and seal of

a justice of the peace.

A commitment as now understood differs from " committal,"
which is the decision of a court to send a person to prison, and
not the document containing the directions to executive and
ministerial officers of the law which are consequent on the
decision. An interval must necessarily elapse between the
decision to commit and the making out of the warrant of com-
mitment, during which interval the detention in custody of the
person committed is undoubtedly legal. A commitment differs
also from a warrant of arrest (mandat d'amener), in that it is not
made until after the person to be detained has actually appeared,
or has been summoned, before the court which orders committal,
to answer to some charge.

If not always, at any rate since 1679, a warrant of commitment
has been necessary to justify officers of the law in conveying
a prisoner to gaol and a gaoler in receiving and detaining him
there. It is ordinarily essential to a valid commitment that it
should contain a specific statement of the particular cause of the
detention ordered. To this the chief, if not the only exception,
is in the case of commitments by order of either House of Parlia-
ment (May, Parl. Pr., nth ed., 63, 70, 90). Commitments by
justices of the peace must be under their hands and seals. Com-
mitments by a court of record if formally drawn up are under
the seal of the court.

Every person in custody is entitled, under the Habeas Corpus
Act 1679, to receive within six hours of demand from the officer
in whose custody he is, a copy of any warrant of commitment
under which he is detained, and may challenge its legality by
application for a writ of habeas corpus.

So far as concerns the acts of justices and tribunals of limited
jurisdiction, the stringency of the rules as to commitments is an
important aid to the liberty of the subject.

In the case of superior courts no statutory forms of commit-
ment exist, and the same formalities are not so strictly enforced.
Committal of a person present in court for contempt of the court
is enforced by his immediate arrest by the tipstaff as soon as
committal is ordered, and he may be detained in prison on a
memorandum of the clerk or registrar of the court while a formal
order is being drawn up. And in the case of persons sentenced
at assizes and quarter sessions the only written authority for
enforcement is a calendar of the prisoners tried, on which the
sentences are entered up, signed by the presiding judge.

Commitments are usually made by courts of criminal juris-
diction in respect of offences against the criminal law, but are also
occasionally made as a punishment for disobedience to the orders
made in a civil court, e.g. where a judgment debtor having means
to pay refuses to satisfy the judgment debt, or in cases where
the person committed has been guilty of a direct contempt of
the court.

The expenses of executing a warrant of commitment, so far
as not paid by the prisoner, are defrayed out of the parliamentary
grants for the maintenance of prisons.

COMMITTEE (from commilte, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of
commettre, La.t. commitlere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent
comite is derived from the Eng.), a person or body of persons to
whom something is " committed " or entrusted. The term is
used of a person or persons to whom the charge of the body
("committee of the person") or of the property and business
affairs ("committee of the estate") of a lunatic is committed
by the court (see INSANITY). In this sense the English usage is
to pronounce the word commi-tlee. The more common meaning
of " committee " (pronounced commlti-y) is that of a body of
persons elected or appointed to consider and deal with certain
matters of business, specially or generally referred to it.

COMMODIANUS, a Christian Latin poet, who flourished about
A.D. 250. The only ancient writers who mention him are
Gennadius, presbyter. of Massilia (end of 5th century), in his De

COMMODORE COMMON LAW

777

scriptoribus ecclesiasticis, and Pope Gelasius in De libris
recipiendis et non recipiendis, in which his works are classed as
Apocryphi, probably on account of certain heterodox statements
contained in them. Commodianus is supposed to have been an
African. As he himself tells us, he was originally a heathen, but
was converted to Christianity when advanced in years, and felt
called upon to instruct the ignorant in the truth. He was the
author of two extant Latin poems, InslnCctiones and Carmen
apologeticum (first published in 1852 by J. B. Pitra in the
Spicilegium Solesmense, from a MS. in the Middlehill collection,
now at Cheltenham, supposed to have been brought from the
monastery ofBobbio). The Instructiones consist of 80 poems,
each of which is an acrostic (with the exception of 60, where the
initial letters are in alphabetical order). The initials of 80, read
backwards, give Commodianus Mendicus Christi. The Apolo-
geticum, undoubtedly by Commodianus, although the name of
the author (as well as the title) is absent from the MS., is free
from the acrostic restriction. The first part of the Instructiones
is addressed to the heathens and Jews, and ridicules the divinities
of classical mythology; the second contains reflections on
Antichrist, the end of the world, the Resurrection, and advice to
Christians, penitents and the clergy. In the Apologeticum all
mankind are exhorted to repent, in view of the approaching end of
ic world. The appearance of Antichrist, identified with Nero
the Man from the East, is expected at an early date,
.though they display fiery dogmatic zeal, the poems cannot be
msidered quite orthodox. To the classical scholar the metre
:one is of interest. Although they are professedly written in
hexameters, the rules of quantity are sacrificed to accent. The
first four lines of the Instructiones may be quoted by way of
illustration:

' Praefatio nostra viam erranti demonstrat,
Respectumque bonum, cum venerit saeculi meta,
Aeternum fieri, quod discredunt inscia corda :
Ego similiter erravi tempore multo."

These versus politici (as they are called) show that the change was
already passing over Latin which resulted in the formation of the
Romance languages. The use of cases and genders, the construc-
tion of verbs and prepositions, and the verbal forms exhibit
striking irregularities. The author, however, shows an acquaint-

rce with Latin poets Horace, Virgil, Lucretius.
The best edition of the text is by B. Dombart (Vienna, 1887), and
a good account of the poems will be found in M. Manitius, Geschichte
der christiich-lateinischen Poesie (1891), with bibliography, to which
may be added G. Boissier, " Commodien," in the Melanges Renier
(1887); H. Brewer, Kommodian von Gaza (Paderborn, 1906);
L. Vernier, " La Versification latine populaire en Afrique," in Revue
de philologie, xv. (1891); and C. E. Freppel, Commodien, Arnobe,
Lactance (1893). Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng.

rns., 384), should also be consulted.
COMMODORE (a form of " commander"; in the i;th century
the term " commandore " is used), a temporary rank in the
British navy for an officer in command of a squadron. There are
two kinds, one with and the other without a captain below him in
his ship, the first holding the temporary rank, pay, &c., of a rear-
admiral, the other that of captain. It is also given as a courtesy
title to the senior officer of a squadron of more than three vessels.
In the United States navy " commodore " was a courtesy title
given to captains who had been in command of a squadron. In
1862 it was made a commissioned rank, but was abolished in 1899.
The name is given to the president of a yacht club, as of the
Royal Yacht Squadron, and to the senior captain of a fleet of
aerchant vessels,

COMMODUS, LUCIUS AELIUS AURELIUS (161-192), also
led Marcus Antoninus, emperor of Rome, son of Marcus
^urelius and Faustina, was born at Lanuvium on the 3ist of
August 161. In spite of a careful education he soon showed a
sndness for low society and amusement. At the age of fifteen he
vas associated by his father in the government. Oh the death of
^urelius, whom he had accompanied in the war against the Quadi
ad Marcomanni, he hastily concluded peace and hurried back
i Rome (i 80) . The first years of his reign were uneventful, but in
83 he was attacked by an assassin at the instigation of his sister

Lucilla and many members of the senate, which felt deeply
insulted by the contemptuous manner in which Commodus
treated it. From this time he became tyrannical. Many
distinguished Romans were put to death as implicated in the
conspiracy, and others were executed for no reason at all. The
treasury was exhausted by lavish expenditure on gladiatorial and
wild beast combats and on the soldiery, and the property of the
wealthy was confiscated. At the same time Commodus, proud
of his bodily strength and dexterity, exhibited himself in the
arena, slew wild animals and fought with gladiators, and com-
manded that he should be worshipped as the Roman Hercules.
Plots against his life naturally began to spring up. That of his
favourite Perennis, praefect of the praetorian guard, was dis-
covered in time. The next danger was from the people, who were
infuriated by the dearth of corn. The mob repelled the praetorian
guard, but the execution of the hated minister Cleander quieted
the tumult. The attempt also of the daring highwayman
Maternus to seize the empire was betrayed ; but at last Eclectus
the emperor's chamberlain, Laetus the praefect of the praetorians,
and his mistress Marcia, finding their names on the list of those
doomed to death, united to destroy him. He was poisoned, and
then strangled by a wrestler named Narcissus, on the 3ist of
December 192. During his reign unimportant wars were success-
fully carried on by his generals Clodius Albinus, Pescennius
Niger and Ulpius Marcellus. The frontier of Dacia was success-
fully defended against the Scythians and Sarmatians, and a tract
of territory reconquered in north Britain. In 1874 a statue of
Commodus was dug up at Rome, in which he is represented as
Hercules a lion's skin on his head, a club in his right and the
apples of the Hesperides in his left hand.

See Aelius Lampridius, Herodian, and fragments in Dio Cassius;
H. Schiller, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit', J. Ziircher, " Com-
modus " (1868, in Biidinger's Untersuchungen zur romischen Kaiser-
geschichte, a criticism of Herodian's account) ; Pauly-Wissowa,
Realencyclopddie, ii. 2464 ff. (von Rohden) ; Heer, " Der historische
Wert des Vita Commodi " (Philologus, Supplementband ix.).

COMMON LAW, like " civil law," a phrase with many shades of
meaning, and probably best defined with reference to the various
things to which it is opposed. It is contrasted with statute law,
as law not promulgated by the sovereign body; with equity, as
the law prevailing between man and man, unless when the court
of chancery assumed jurisdiction; and with local or customary
law, as the general law for the whole realm, tolerating variations
in certain districts and under certain conditions. It is also
sometimes contrasted with civil, or canon, or international law,
which are foreign systems recognized in certain special courts
only and within limits defined by the common law. As against
all these contrasted kinds of law, it may be described broadly as
the universal law of the realm, which applies wherever they have
not been introduced, and which is supposed to have a principle
for every possible case. Occasionally, it would appear to be used
in a sense which would exclude the law developed by at all events
the more modern decisions of the courts.

Blackstone divides the civil law of England into lex scripta or
statute law, and lex non scripta or common law. The latter, he
says, consists of (i) general customs, which are the common law
strictly so called, (2) particular customs prevailing in certain
districts, and (3) laws used in particular courts. The first is the
law by which " proceedings and determinations in the king's
ordinary courts of justice are guided and directed." That the
eldest son alone is heir to his ancestor, that a deed is of BO validity
unless sealed and delivered, that wills shall be construed more
favourably and deeds more strictly, are examples of common law
doctrines, " not set down in any written statute or ordinance, but
depending on immemorial usage for their support." The validity
of these usages is to be determined by the judges " the de-
positaries of the law, the living oracles who must decide in all
cases of doubt, and who are bound by an oath to decide according
to the law of the land." Their judgments are preserved as
records, and " it is an established rule to abide by former pre-
cedents where the same points come again in litigation." The
extraordinary deference paid to precedents is the source of the
most striking peculiarities of the English common law. There

77 8

COMMON LODGING-HOUSECOMMON ORDER

can be little doubt that it was the rigid adherence of the common
law courts to established precedent which caused the rise of an
independent tribunal administering justice on more equitable
principles the tribunal of the chancellor, the court of chancery.
And the old common law courts the king's bench, common
pleas and exchequer were always, as compared with the court
of chancery, distinguished for a certain narrowness and techni-
cality of reasoning. At the same time the common law was never
a fixed or rigid system. In the application of old precedents to
the changing circumstances of society, and in the development
of new principles to meet new cases, the common law courts
displayed an immense amount of subtlety and ingenuity, and a
great deal of sound sense. The continuity of the system was not
less remarkable than its elasticity. Two great defects of form
long disfigured the English law. One was the separation of
common law and equity. The Judicature Act of 1873 remedied
this by merging the jurisdiction of all the courts in one supreme
court, and causing equitable principles to prevail over those of the
common law where they differ. The other is the overwhelming
mass of precedents in which the law is embedded. This can only
be removed by some well-conceived scheme of the nature of a
code or digest; to some extent this difficulty has been overcome
by such acts as the Bills of Exchange Act 1882, the Partnership
Act 1890 and the Sale of Goods Act 1893.

The English common law may be described as a pre-eminently
natio'nal system. Based on Saxon customs, moulded by Norman
lawyers, and jealous of foreign systems, it is, as Bacon says, as
mixedasthe English language and as truly national . And like the
language, it has been taken into other English-speaking countries,
and is the foundation of the law in the United States.

COMMON LODGING-HOUSE, " a house, or part of a house,
where persons of the poorer classes are received for gain, and in
which they use one or more rooms in common with the rest of
the inmates, who are not members of one family, whether for
eating or sleeping " (Langdon v. Broadbent, 1877, 37 L.T. 434;
Booth v. Ferrett, 1890, 25 Q.B.D. 87). There is no statutory
definition of the class of houses in England intended to be in-
cluded in the expression " common lodging-house," but the above
definition is very generally accepted as embracing those houses
which, under the Public Health and other Acts, must be registered
and inspected. The provisions of the Public Health Act 1875
are that every urban and rural district council must keep registers
showing the names and residences of the keepers of all common
lodging-houses in their districts, the situation of every such house,
and the number of lodgers authorized by them to be received
therein. They may require the keeper to affix and keep unde-
faced and legible a notice with the words " registered common
lodging-house " in some conspicuous place on the outside of the
house, and may make by-laws fixing the number of lodgers,
for the separation of the sexes, for promoting cleanliness and
ventilation, for the giving of notices and the taking of precautions
in case of any infectious disease, and generally for the well
ordering of such houses. The keeper of a common lodging-house
is required to limewash the walls and ceilings twice a year
in April and October and to provide a proper water-supply.
The whole of the house must be open at all times to the inspection
of any officer of a council. The county of London (except the
city) is under the Common Lodging Houses Acts 1851 and 1853,
with the Sanitary Act 1866 and the Sanitary Law Amendment
Act 1874. The administration of these acts was, from 1851 to
1894, in the hands of the chief commissioner of police, when it
was transferred to the London County Council.

COMMON ORDER, BOOK OF, sometimes called The Order
of Geneva, or Knox's Liturgy, a directory for public worship
in the Reformed Church in Scotland. In 1557 the Scottish
Protestant lords in council enjoined the use of the English
Common Prayer, i.e. the Second Book of Edward VI. Mean-
while, at Frankfort, among British Protestant refugees, a con-
troversy was going on between the upholders of the English
liturgy and the French Reformed Order of Worship respectively.
By way of compromise John Knox and other ministers drew up
a new liturgy based upon earlier Continental Reformed Services,

which was not deemed satisfactory, but which on his removal
to Geneva he published in 1556 for the use of the English con-
gregations in that city. The Geneva book made its way to
Scotland, and was used here and there by Reformed congregations.
Knox's return in 1559 strengthened its position, and in 1562 the
General Assembly enjoined the uniform use of it as the " Book
of Our Common Order " in " the administration of the Sacra-
ments and solemnization of marriages and burials of the dead."
In 1564 a new and enlarged edition was printed in Edinburgh,
and the Assembly ordered that " every Minister, exhorter and
reader " should have a copy and use the Order contained therein
not only for marriage and the sacraments but also " in Prayer,"
thus ousting the hitherto permissible use of the Second Book of
Edward VI. at ordinary service. " The rubrics as retained
from the Book of Geneva made provision for an extempore
prayer before the sermon, and allowed the minister some latitude
in the other two prayers. The forms for the special services
were more strictly imposed, but liberty was also given to vary
some of the prayers in them. The rubrics of the Scottish portion
of the book are somewhat stricter, and, indeed, one or two of
the Geneva rubrics were made more absolute in the Scottish
emendations; but no doubt the ' Book of Common Order '.
is best described as a discretionary liturgy."

It will be convenient here to give the contents of the edition
printed by Andrew Hart at Edinburgh in 1611, and described
(as was usually the case) as The Psalmesof DavidinMeeter, ivith
the Prose, whereunto is added Prayers commonly used in the Kirke,
and private houses; with a perpetuall Kalendar and all the Changes
of the Moone that shall happen for the space of Six Yeeres to come.
They are as follows:

(i.) The Calendar; (ii.) The names of the Faires of Scotland;
(iii.) The Confession of Faith used at Geneva and received by
the Church of Scotland; (iv.-vii.) Concerning the election and
duties of Ministers, Elders and Deacons, and Superintendent;
(viii.) An order of Ecclesiastical Discipline; (ix.) The Order of
Excommunication and of Public Repentance; (x.) The Visita-
tion of the Sick; (xi.) The Manner of Burial; (xii.) The Order of
Public Worship) Forms of Confession and Prayer after Sermon;
(xiii.) Other Public Prayers; (xiv.) The Administration of the
Lord's Supper; (xv.) The Form of Marriage; (xvi.) The Order
of Baptism; (xvii.) A Treatise on Fasting with the order thereof;
(xviii.) The Psalms of David; (xix.) Conclusions or Doxologies;
(xx.) Hymns metrical versions df the Decalogue, Magnificat,
Apostles' Creed, &c.; (xxi.) Calvin's Catechism; (xxii. and
xxiii.) Prayers for Private Houses and Miscellaneous Prayers, e.g.
for a man before he begins his work.

The Psalms and Catechism together occupy more than half
the book. The chapter on burial is significant. In place of the
long office of the Catholic Church we have simply this statement:
" The corpse is reverently brought to the grave, accompanied
with the Congregation, without any further ceremonies: which
being buried, the Minister (if he be present and required) goeth
to the Church, if it be not far off, and maketh some comfortable
exhortation to the people, touching death and resurrection."
This (with the exception of the bracketed words) was taken over
from the Book of Geneva. The Westminster Directory which
superseded the Book of Common Order also enjoins interment
" without any ceremony," such being stigmatized as " no way
beneficial to the dead and many ways hurtful to the living."
Civil honours may, however, be rendered.

Revs. G. W. Sprott and Thomas Leishman, in the introduction
to their edition of the Book of Common Order, and of the West-
minster Directory published in 1868, collected a valuable series
of notices as to the actual usage of the former book for the period
(1564-1645) during which it was enjoined by ecclesiastical law.
Where ministers were not available suitable persons (often old
priests, sometimes schoolmasters) were selected as readers. Good
contemporary accounts of Scottish worship are those of W.
Cowper (1568-1619), bishop of Galloway, in his Seven Days'
Conference between a Catholic Christian and a Catholic Roman
(c. 1615), and Alexander Henderson in The Government and Order
of the Church of Scotland (1641). There was doubtless a good

COMMONPLACE COMMONS

779

deal of variety at different times and in different localities.
Early in the i7th century under the twofold influence of the
Dutch Church, with which the Scottish clergy were in close
connexion, and of James I.'s endeavours to " justle out " a
liturgy which gave the liberty of " conceiving " prayers, ministers
began in prayer to read less and extemporize more.

Turning again to the legislative history, in 1567 the prayers
were done into Gaelic; in 1579 parliament ordered all gentlemen
and yeomen holding property of a certain value to possess copies.
The assembly of 1601 declined to alter any of the existing
prayers but expressed a willingness to admit new ones. Between
1606 and 1618 various attempts were made under English and
Episcopal influence, by assemblies afterwards declared unlawful,
set aside the " Book of Common Order." The efforts of
James I., Charles I. and Archbishop Laud proved fruitless;
in 1637 the reading of Laud's draft of a new form of service
based on the English prayer book led to riots in Edinburgh and to
general discontent in the country. The General Assembly of
ilasgow in 1638 abjured Laud's book and took its stand again
by the Book of Common Order, an act repeated by the assembly
of 1639, which also demurred against innovations proposed by
the English separatists, who objected altogether to liturgical
forms, and in particular to the Lord's Prayer, the Gloria Patri
and the minister kneeling for private devotion in the pulpit.
\.n Aberdeen printer named Raban was publicly censured for
iving on his own authority shortened one of the prayers.
The following years witnessed a counter attempt to introduce
he Scottish liturgy into England, especially for those who in the
southern kingdom were inclined to Presbyterianism. This
[fort culminated in the Westminster Assembly of divines
vhich met in 1643, at which six commissioners from the Church
of Scotland were present, and joined in the task of drawing up
a Common Confession, Catechism and Directory for the three
kingdoms. The commissioners reported to the General Assembly
of 1644 that this Common Directory " is so begun . . . that we
could not think upon any particular Directory for our own Kirk."
The General Assembly of 1645 after careful study approved
the new order. An act of Assembly on the 3rd of February and
an act of parliament on the 6th of February ordered its use in
every church, and henceforth, though there was no act setting
aside the " Book of Common Order," the Westminster Directory
vas of primary authority. The Directory was meant simply
to make known " the general heads, the sense and scope of the
Prayers and other parts of Public Worship," and if need be,
" to give a help and furniture." The act of parliament recogniz-
; the Directory was annulled at the Restoration and the book
as never since been acknowledged by a civil authority in Scot-
ind. But General Assemblies have frequently recommended its
e, and worship in Presbyterian churches is largely conducted
on the lines of the Westminster Assembly's Directory.

The modern Book of Common Order or Euchologion is a com-
pilation drawn from various sources and issued by the Church
ervice Society, an organization which endeavours to promote
iturgical usages within the Established Church of Scotland.

COMMONPLACE, a translation of the Gr. Koii'ds TOTTOS,
i.e. a passage or argument appropriate to several cases; a
" common-place book " is a collection of such passages or
quotations arranged for reference under general heads either
alphabetically or on some method of classification. To such a
ok the name adversaria was given, which is an adaptation of
the Latin adversaria scripta, notes written on one side, the side
pposite (adversus) , of a paper or book. From its original mean-
ng the word came to be used as meaning something hackneyed,
a platitude or truism, and so, as an adjective, equivalent to
trivial or ordinary. It was first spelled as two words, then with
, hyphen, and so still in the sense of a " common-place book."

COMMON PLEAS, COURT OF, formerly one of the three
English common law courts at Westminster the other two
being the king's bench and exchequer. The court of common
pleas was an offshoot of the Curia Regis or king's council.
Previous to Magna Carta, the king's council, especially that
ortion of it which was charged with the management of judicial

and revenue business, followed the king's person. This, as far as
private litigation was concerned, caused great inconvenience
to the unfortunate suitors whose plaints awaited the attention
of the court, for they had, of necessity, also to follow the king
from place to place, or lose the opportunity of having their
causes tried. Accordingly, Magna Carta enacted that common
pleas (communia placita) or causes between subject and subject,
should be held in some fixed place and not follow the court.
This place was fixed at Westminster. The court was presided
over by a chief (capitalis justiciarius de communi banco) and four
puisne judges. The jurisdiction of the common pleas was, by the
Judicature Act 1873, vested in the king's bench division of the
High Court of Justice.

COMMONS, 1 the term for the lands held in commonalty, a
relic of the system on which the lands of England were for the
most part cultivated during the middle ages. The
country was divided into vills, or townships often, bittory.
though not necessarily, or always, coterminous with
the parish. In each stood a cluster of houses, a village, in which
dwelt the men of the township, and around the village lay the
arable fields and other lands, which they worked as one common
farm. Save for a few small inclosures near the village for
gardens, orchards or paddocks for ycung stock the whole town-
ship was free from permanent fencing. The arable lands lay in
large tracts divided into compartments or fields, usually three
in number, to receive in constant rotation the triennial succession
of wheat (or rye), spring crops (such as barley, oats, beans or
peas), and fallow. Low-lying lands were used as meadows, and
there were sometimes pastures fed according to fixed rules.
The poorest land of the township was left waste to supply feed
for the cattle of the community, fuel, wood for repairs, and any
other commodity of a renewable or practically inexhaustible
character. 2 This waste land is the common of our own days.

It would seem likely that at one time there was no division,
as between individual inhabitants or householders, of any of the
lands of the township, but only of the products. But so far back
as accurate information extends the arable land is found to be
parcelled out, each householder owning strips in each field.
These strips are always long and narrow, and lie in sets parallel
with one another. The plough for cultivating the fields was
maintained at the common expense of the village, and the draught
oxen were furnished by the householders. From the time when
the crop was carried till the next sowing, the field lay open to the
cattle of the whole vill, which also had the free run of the fallow
field throughout the year. But when two of .the three fields were
under crops, and the meadows laid up for hay, it is obvious that
the cattle of the township required some other resort for pastur-
age. This was supplied by the waste or common. Upon it the
householder turned out the oxen and horses which he contributed
to the plough, and the cows and sheep, which were useful in
manuring the common fields, in the words of an old law case:
" horses and oxen to plough the land, and cows and sheep to
compester it." Thus the use of the common by each householder
was naturally measured by the stock which he kept for the service
of the common fields; and when, at a later period, questions
arose as to the extent of the rights on the common, the necessary
practice furnished the rule, that the commoner could turn out
as many head of cattle as he could keep by means of the lands
which were parcelled out to him, the rule of levancy and cou-
chancy, which has come down to the present day.

In the earliest post-conquest times the vill or township is
found to be associated with an over-lord. There has been much
controversy on the question, whether the vill originally
owned its lands free from any control, and was subse- twasbin
quently reduced to a state of subjection and to a large
extent deprived of its ownership, or whether its whole history
has been one of gradual emancipation, the ownership of the waste,

'For the commons (communitates) in a socio-political sense see
REPRESENTATION and PARLIAMENT.

2 There is an entry on the court rolls of the manor of Wimbledon
of the division amongst the inhabitants of the vill of the crab-apples
growing on the common.

780

COMMONS

minster
the Second.

or common, now ascribed by the law to the lord being a remnant
of his ownership of all the lands of the vill. (See MANOR.)

At whatever date the over-lord first appeared, and whatever
may have been the personal relations of the villagers to him from
time to time after his appearance, there can be hardly any doubt
that the village lands, whether arable, meadow or waste, were sub-
stantially the property of the villagers for the purposes of use and
enjoyment. They resorted freely to the common for such purposes
as were incident to their system of agriculture, and regulated its
use amongst themselves. The idea that the common was the
" lord's waste," and that he had the power to do what he liked
with it,subject to specific and limited qualifying rights in others,
was, there is little doubt, the creation of the Norman lawyers.

One of the earliest assertions of the lord's proprietary
interest in waste lands is contained in the Statute of Merton, a
statute which, it is well to notice, was passed in one
of Merton of the first assemblies of the barons of England, before
and West- the commons of the realm were summoned to parlia-
ment. This statute, which became law in the year
1 235, provided " that the great men of England (which
had enfeoffed knights and their freeholders of small tenements
in their great manors)" might " make their profit of their lands,
wastes, woods and pastures," if they left sufficient pasture
for the service of the tenements they had granted. Some fifty
years later, another statute, that of Westminster the Second,
supplemented the Statute of Merton by enabling the lord of the
soil to inclose common lands, not only against his own tenants,
but against " neighbours " claiming pasture there. These two
pieces of legislation undoubtedly mark the growth of the doctrine
which converted the over-lord's territorial sway into property
of the modern kind, and a corresponding loosening of the hold
of the rural townships on the wastes of their neighbourhood.
To what extent the two acts were used, it is very difficult to say.
We know, from later controversies, that they made no very great
change in the system on which the country was cultivated,
a system to which, as we have seen, commons were essential.
In some counties, indeed, inclosures had, by the Tudor
period, made greater progress than in others. T. Tusser, in his
eulogium on inclosed farming, cites Suffolk and Essex as inclosed
counties by way of contrast to Norfolk, Cambridgeshire and
Leicestershire, where the open or " champion " (champain)
system prevailed. The Statutes of Merton and Westminster
may have had something to do with the progress of inclosed
farming; but it is probable that their chief operation lay in
furnishing the lord of the manor with a farm on the new system,
side by side with the common fields, or with a deer park.

The first event which really endangered the village system was

the coming of the Black Death. This scourge is said to have

swept away half the population of the country. The

The Black ,. i_ i

Death. disappearance, by no means uncommon, of a whole
family gave the over-lord of the vill the opportunity
of appropriating, by way of escheat, the holding of the house-
hold in the common fields. The land-holding population of the
townships and the persons interested in the commons were thus
sensibly diminished.

During the Wars of the Roses the small cultivator is thought
to have again made headway. But his diminished numbers,
and the larger interest which the lords had acquired in the lands
of each vill, no doubt facilitated the determined attack on the
common-field system which marked the reigns of Henry VIII. and
Edward VI.

This attack, which had for its chief object the conversion of
arable land into pasture for the sake of sheep-breeding, was
The Tudor ^ e outcome of many caupes. It was no longer of
agrarian importance to a territorial magnate to possess a large
revolu- body of followers pledged to his interests by their
a "' connexion with the land. On the other hand, wool

commanded a high price, and the growth of towns and of foreign
commerce supplied abundant markets. At the same time the
confiscation of the monastic possessions introduced a race of
new over-lords not bound to their territories by any family
traditions, and also tended to spread the view that the strong

hand was its own justification. In order to keep large flocks
and send many bales of wool to market, each landowner strove
to increase his range of pasture, and with this view to convert the
arable fields of his vill into grass land. There is abundant
evidence both from the complaints of writers such as Latimer
and Sir Thomas More, and from the Statutes and royal com-
missions of the day, that large inclosures were made at this time,
and that the process was effected with much injustice and
accompanied by great hardship. " Where," says Bishop Latimer
in one of his courageous and vigorous denunciations of " inclosers
and rent-raisers," " there have been many householders and
inhabitants, there is now but a shepherd and his dog." In the
full tide of this movement, and despite Latimer's appeals, the
Statutes of Merton and Westminster the Second were confirmed
and re-enacted. Both common fields and commons no doubt
disappeared in many places; and the country saw the first
notable instalment of inclosure. But from the evidence of later
years it is clear that a very large area of the country was still
cultivated on the common-field system for another couple of
centuries. When inclosure on any considerable scale again
came into favour, it was effected on quite different principles;
and before describing what was essentially a modern movement,
it will be convenient to give a brief outline of the principles of
law applicable to commons at the present day.

Law. The distinguishing feature in law of common land is,
that it is land the soil of which belongs to one person, and from
which certain other persons take certain profits for
example, the bite of the grass by the mouth of cattle,
or gorse, bushes or heather for fuel or litter. The
right to take such a profit is a right of common; the right to feed
cattle on common land is a right of common of pasture; while
the right of cutting bushes, gorse or heather (more rarely of
lopping trees) is known as a right of common of estovers (estouviers)
or bates (respectively from the Norman-French estouffer, and the
Saxon botan, to furnish). Another right of common is that of
turbary, or the right to cut turf or peat for fuel. There are also
rights of taking sand, gravel or loam for the repair and mainten-
ance of land. The persons who enjoy any of these rights are
called commoners.

From the sketch of the common-field system of agriculture
which has been given, we shall readily infer that a large proportion
of the commons of the country, and of the peculiarities of the
law relating to commons, are traceable to that system. Thus,
common rights are mostly attached to, or enjoyed with, certain
lands or houses. A right of common of pasture usually consists
of the right to turn out as many cattle as the farm or other
private land of the commoner can support in winter; for, as
we have seen, the enjoyment of the common, in the village
system, belonged to the householders of the village, and was
necessarily measured by their holdings in the common fields.
The cattle thus commonable are said to be levant and couchant, i.e.
uprising and down-lying on the land. But it has now been
decided that they need not in fact be so kept. At the present
day a commoner may turn out any cattle belonging to him,
wherever they are kept, provided they do not exceed in number
the head of cattle which can be supported by the stored summer
produce of the land in respect of which the right is claimed,
together with any winter herbage it produces. The animals
which a commoner may usually turn out are those which were
employed in the village system horses, oxen, cows and sheep.
These animals are termed commonable animals. A right may be
claimed for other animals, such as donkeys, pigs and geese;
but they are termed non-commonable, and the right can only be
established on proof of special usage. A right of pasture attached
to land in the way we have described is said to be appendanl
or appurtenant to such land. Common of pasture appendant to
land can only be claimed for commonable cattle; and it is held
to have been originally attached only to arable land, though in
claiming the right no proof that the land was originally arable
is necessary. This species of common right is, in fact, the direct
survival of the use by the village householder of the common
of the township; while common of pasture appurtenant

COMMONS

781

represents rights which grew up between neighbouring townships,
or, in later times, by direct grant from the owner of the soil of the
common to some other landowner, or (in the case of copyholders)
by local custom.

The characteristic of connexion with house or land also marks
other rights of common. Thus a right of taking gorse or bushes,
or of lopping wood for fuel, called fire-bole, is limited to the taking
of such fuel as may be necessary for the hearths of a particular
house, and no more may be taken than is thus required. The
same condition applies to common of turbary, which in its more
usual form authorizes the commoner to cut the heather, which
grows thickly upon poor soils, with the roots and adhering earth,
to a depth of about 9 in. Similarly, wood taken for the repairs
of buildings (house-bole), or of hedges (hedge-bole or key-bole),
must be limited in quantity to the requirements of the house,
farm buildings and hedges of the particular property to which
the right is attached. And heather taken for litter cannot be
taken in larger quantities than is necessary for manuring the
lands in respect of which the right is enjoyed. It is illegal to
take the wood or heather from the common, and to sell it to any
one who has not himself a right to take it. So, also, a right of
digging sand, gravel, clay or loam is usually appurtenant to
land, and must be exercised with reference to the repair of the
roads, or the improvement of the soil, of the particular property
to which the right is attached.

We have already alluded to the fact that, in Norman and later
days, every vill or township was associated with some over-lord,
some one responsible to the crown, either directly or through
other superior lords, for the holding of the land and the per-
formance of certain duties of defence and military support.
To this lord the law has assigned the ownership of the soil of the
common of the vill; and the common has for many centuries
been styled the waste of the manor. The trees and bushes on
the common belong to the lord, subject to any rights of lopping
or cutting which the commoners may possess. The ground, sand
and subsoil are his, and even the grass, though the commoners
have the right to take it by the mouths of their cattle. To the
over-lord, also, was assigned a seignory over all the other lands
of the vill; and the vill came to be termed his manor. At the
present day it is the manorial system which must be invoked in
most cases as the foundation of the curiously conflicting rights
which co-exist on a common. (See MANOR.)

Within the bounds of a manor, speaking generally, there
are three classes of persons possessing an interest
in the land, viz.:-

(a) Persons holding land freely of the manor, or
freehold tenants.

(b) Persons holding land of the manor by copy of court roll,
or copyhold tenants.

(c) Persons holding from the lord of the manor, by lease or
agreement, or from year to year, land which was originally
demesne, or which was once freehold or copyhold and has come
into the lord's hands by escheat or forfeiture.

Amongst the first two classes we usually find the majority
of the commoners on the wastes or commons of the manor.
To every freehold tenant belongs a right of common of pasture
on the commons, such right being " appendant " to the land
which he holds freely of the manor. This right differs from most
other rights of common in the characteristic that actual exercise
of the right need not be proved. When once it is shown that
certain land is held freely of the manor, it follows of necessity
that a right of common of pasture for commonable cattle attaches
to the land, and therefore belongs to its owner, and may be
exercised by its occupant. " Common appendant," said the
Elizabethan judges, "is of common right, and commences by
operation of law and in favour of tillage."

Now this is exactly what we saw to be the case with reference
to the use of the common of the vill by the householder cultivating
the arable fields. The use was a necessity, not depending upon
the habits of this or that householder; it was a use for common-
able cattle only, and was connected with the tillage of the arable
lands. It seems almost necessarily to follow that the freehold

tenants of the manor are the representatives of the householders
of the vill. However this may be, it is amongst the freehold
tenants of the manor that we must first look for commoners on
the waste of the manor.

Owing, however, to the light character of the services rendered
by the freeholders, the connexion of their lands with the manor
is often difficult to prove. Copyhold tenure, on the other hand,
cannot be lost sight of; and in many manors copyholders are
numerous, or were, till quite recently. Copyholders almost
invariably possess a right of common on the'waste of the manor;
and when (as is usual) they exist side by side with freeholders,
their rights are generally of the same character. They do not,
however, exist as of common right, without proof of usage, but
by the custom of the manor. Custom has been defined by a
great judge (Sir George Jessel, M.R., in Hammerlon v. Honey)
as local law. Thus, while the freehold tenants enjoy their rights
by the general law of the land, the copyholders have a similar
enjoyment by the local law of the manor. This, again, is what
one might expect from the ancient constitution of a village
community. The copyholders, being originally serfs, had no
rights at law; but as they had a share in the tillage of the land,
and gradually became possessed of strips in the common fields,
or of other plots on which they were settled by the lord, they were
admitted by way of indulgence to the use of the common; and
the practice hardened into a custom. As might be expected,
there is more variety in the details of the rights they exercise.
They may claim common for cattle which are not commonable,
if the custom extends to such cattle; and their claim is not
necessarily connected with arable land.

In the present day large numbers of copyhold tenements have
been enfranchised, i.e. converted into freehold. The effect of
this step is to sever all connexion between the land enfranchised
and the manor of which it was previously held. Technically,
therefore, the common rights previously enjoyed in respect of
the land would be gone. When, however, there is no indication
of any intention to extinguish such rights, the courts protect
the copyholders in their continued enjoyment; and when an
enfranchisement is effected under the statutes passed in modern
years, the rights are expressly preserved. The commoners on
a manorial common then will be, prima facie, the freeholders
and copyholders of the manor, and the persons who own lands
which were copyhold of the manor but have been enfranchised.

The occupants of lands belonging to the lord of the manor,
though they usually turn out their cattle on the common, do so
by virtue of the lord's ownership of the soil of the common, and
can, as a rule, make no claim to any right of common as against,
the lord, even though the practice of turning out may have
obtained in respect of particular lands for a long series of years.
When, however, lands have been sold by the lord of the manor,
although no right of common attached by law to such lands in
the lord's hands, their owners may subsequently enjoy such a
right, if it appears from the language of the deeds of conveyance,
and all the surrounding circumstances, that there was an
intention that the use of the common should be enjoyed by the
purchaser. The rules on this point are very technical; it is
sufficient here to indicate that lands boug*ht from a lord of a
manor are not necessarily destitute of common rights.

So far we have considered common rights as they have arisen
out of the manorial system, and out of the still older system of
village communities. There may, however, be rights
of common quite unconnected with the manorial *'**' of

.... . . common

system. Such rights may be proved either by producing notcon-
a specific grant from the owner of the manor or by aected
long usage. It is seldom that an actual grant is '

produced, although it would seem likely that such v , tem .
grants were not uncommon at one time. But a claim
founded on actual user is by no means unusual. Such a claim
may be based (a) on immemorial usage, i.e. usage for which
no commencement later than the coronation of Richard I.
(1189) can be shown, (b) on a presumed modern grant which
has been lost, or (c) (in some cases) on the Prescription Act 1832.
There are special rules applicable to each kind of claim.

782

COMMONS

A right of common not connected with the manorial system
may be, and usually is, attached to land; it may be measured,
like a manorial right, by levancy and couchancy, or it may be
limited to a fixed number of animals. Rights of the latter
character seem to have been not uncommon in the middle ages.
In one of his sermons against inclosure, Bishop Latimer tells us
his father " had walk (i.e. right of common) for 100 sheep." This
may have been a right in gross, but was more probably attached
to the " farm of 3 or 4 by year at the uttermost " which his
father held. A right of common appurtenant may be sold
separately, and enjoyed by a purchaser independently of the
tenement to which it was originally appurtenant. It then
becomes a right of common in gross.

A right of common in gross is a right enjoyed irrespective of
the ownership or occupancy of any lands. It may exist by
express grant, or by user implying a modern lost grant, or by
immemorial usage. It must be limited to a certain number of
cattle, unless the right is claimed by actual grant. Such rights
seldom arise in connexion with commons in the ordinary sense,
but are a frequent incident of regulated or stinted pastures;
the right is then generally known as a cattle-gate or beast-gate.

There may be rights over a common which exclude the owner
of the soil from all enjoyment of some particular product of the
common. Thus a person, or a class of persons, may be entitled
to the whole of the corn, grass, underwood, or sweepage, (i.e.
everything which falls to the sweep of the scythe) of a tract of
land, without possessing any ownership in the land itself, or
in the trees or mines. Such a right is known as a right of sole
vesture.

A more limited right of the same character is a right of sole
pasturage the exclusive right to take everything growing on
the land in question by the mouths of cattle, but not in any other
way. Either of these rights may exist throughout the whole
year, or during part only. A right of sole common pasturage
and herbage was given to a certain class of commoners in Ash-
down Forest on the partition of the forest at the end of the i8th
century.

We have seen that the common arable fields and common

meadows of a vill were thrown open to the stock of the community

between harvest and seed-time. There is still to be

Rights la f ounc j nere an( j there, a group of arable common

common . ,

Helta. fields, and occasionally a piece of grass land with many
of the characteristics of a common, which turns out
to be a common field or meadow. The Hackney Marshes and
the other so-called commons of Hackney are really common
fields or common meadows, and along the valley of the Lea a
constant succession of such meadows is met with. They are
still owned in parcels marked by metes; the owners have the
right to grow a crop of hay between Lady day and Lammas
day; and from Lammas to March the lands are subject to the
depasturage of stock. In the case of some common fields and
meadows the right of feed during the open time belongs exclusively
to the owners; in others to a larger class, such as the owners
and occupiers of all lands within the bounds of the parish.
Anciently, as we have seen, the two classes would be identical.
In some places newcomers not owning strips in the fields were
admitted to the right of turn out; in others, not. Hence the
distinction. Similar divergences of practice will be found to
exist in Switzerland at the present day; nieder-gelassene, or
newcomers, are in some communes admitted to all rights,
while, in others, privileges are reserved to the burger, or old
inhabitant householders.

Some of the largest tracts of waste land to be found in England
are the waste or commonable lands of royal forests or chases.
The thickets and pastures of Epping Forest, now
happily preserved for London under the guardianship
forests. of the city corporation, and the noble woods and far-
stretching heaths of the New Forest, will be called to
mind. Cannock Chase, unhappily inclosed according to law,
though for the most part still lying waste, Dartmoor, and
Ashdown Forest in Sussex, are other instances; and the list
might be greatly lengthened. Space will not permit of any

description of the forest system; it is enough, in this connexion,
to say that the common rights in a forest were usually enjoyed
by the owners and occupiers of land within its bounds (the class
may differ in exact definition, but is substantially equivalent
to this) without reference to manorial considerations. Epping
Forest was saved by the proof of this right. It is often said that
the right was given, or confirmed, to the inhabitants in considera-
tion of the burden of supporting the deer for the pleasure of the
king or of the owner of the chase. It seems more probable
that the forest law prevented the growth of the manorial system,
and with it those rules which have tended to restrict the class
of persons entitled to enjoy the waste lands of the district.

We have seen that in the case of each kind of common there is
a division of interest. The soil belongs to one person; other
persons are entitled to take certain products of the
soil. This division of interest preserves the common
as an open space. The commoners cannot inclose,
because the land does not belong to them. The owner
of the soil cannot inclose, because inclosure is inconsistent with
the enjoyment of the commoners' rights. At a very early date
it was held that the right of a commoner proceeded out of every
part of the common, so that the owner of the soil could not set
aside part for the commoner and inclose the rest. The Statutes
of Merton and Westminster the Second were passed to get over
this difficulty. But under these statutes the burden of proving
that sufficient pasture was left was thrown upon the owner of
the soil; such proof can very seldom be given. Moreover, the
statutes have never enabled an inclosure to be made against
commoners entitled to estovers or turbary. It seems clear that
the statutes had become obsolete in the time of Edward VI., or
they would not have been re-enacted. And we know that the
zealous advocates of inclosure in the i8th century considered
them worthless for their purposes. Practically it may be taken
that, save where the owner of the soil of a common acquires all
the lands in the township (generally coterminous with the
parish) with which the common is connected, an inclosure cannot
legally be effected by him. And even in the latter case it may-
be that rights of common are enjoyed in respect of lands outside
the parish, and that such rights prevent an inclosure.

Modern Inclosure. When, therefore, the common-field system
began to fall out of gear, and the increase of population brought
about a demand for an increased production of corn, The
it was felt to be necessary to resort to parliament modern
for power to effect inclosure. The legislation which inclosure
ensued was based on two principles. One was that
all persons interested in the open land to be dealt with should
receive a proportionate equivalent in inclosed land; the other,
that inclosure should not be prevented by the opposition, or
the inability to act, of a small minority. Assuming that inclosure
was desirable, no more equitable course could have been adopted,
though in details particular acts may have been objectionable.
The first act was passed in 1709; but the precedent was followed
but slowly, and not till the middle of the i8th century did the
annual number of acts attain double figures. The high-water
mark was reached in the period from 1765 to 1785, when on an
average forty-seven acts were passed every year. From some
cause, possibly the very considerable expense attending upon the
obtaining of an act, the numbers then began slightly to fall off.
In the year 1793 a board of agriculture, apparently similar in
character to the chambers of commerce of our own day, was
established. Sir John Sinclair was its president, and Arthur
Young, the well-known agricultural reformer, was its secretary.
Owing to the efforts of this body, and of a select committee
appointed by the House of Commons on Sinclair's motion, the
first General Inclosure Act was passed in 1801. This act would
at the present day be called an Inclosure Clauses Act. It con-
tained a number of provisions applicable to inclosures, which
could be incorporated by reference, in a private bill. By this
means, it was hoped, the length and complexity, and consequently
the expense, of inclosure bills would be greatly diminished.
Under the stimulus thus applied inclosure proceeded apace.
In the year 1801 no less than 119 acts were passed, and the total

COMMONS

783

area inclosed probably exceeded 300,000 acres. Three inclosures
in the Lincolnshire Fens account for over S3. 000 acres. As
before, the movement after a time spent its force, the annual
average of acts falling to about twelve in the decade 1830-1840.
Another parliamentary committee then sat to consider how
Inclosure might be promoted; and the result was the Inclosure
Act 1845, which, though much amended by subsequent legisla-
tion, still stands on the statute-book. The chief feature of that
act was the appointment of a permanent commission to make
in each case all the inquiries previously made (no doubt
capriciously and imperfectly) by committees of the two Houses.
The commission, on being satisfied of the propriety of an inclosure
was to draw up a provisional order prescribing the general
conditions on which it was to be carried out, and this order
was to be submitted to parliament by the government of the day
for confirmation. It is believed that these inclosure orders
afford the first example of the provisional order system of legisla-
tion, which has attained such large proportions.

Again inclosure moved forward, and between 1845 and 1869
(when it received a sudden check) 600,000 acres passed through
the hands of the inclosure commission. Taking the whole period
of about a century and a half, when parliamentary inclosure was
in favour, and making an estimate of acreage where the acts do
not give it, the result may be thus summarized:

Acres.

From 1709 to 1797 2,744,926

1801 to 1842 1,307,964

1845 to 1869 618,000

Add for Forests inclosed under Special Acts . 100,000

4,770,890

The total area of England being 37,000,000 acres, we shall
probably not be far wrong in concluding that about one acre
in every seven was inclosed during the period in question.
During the first period, the lands inclosed consisted mainly of
common arable fields; during the second, many great tracts of
moor and fen were reduced to severally ownership. In the third
period, inclosure probably related chiefly to the ordinary manorial
common; and it seems likely that, on the whole, England would
have gained, had inclosure stopped in 1845.

As a fact it stopped in 1869. Before the inclosure commission
had been in existence twenty years the feeKng of the nation
towards commons began to change. The rapid growth
of towns, and especially of London, and the awakening
"movement . sense of the importance of protecting the public health,
brought about an appreciation of the value of commons
as open spaces. Naturally, the metropolis saw the birth of this
sentiment. An attempted inclosure in 1864 of the commons at
Epsom and Wimbledon aroused strong opposition; and a select
committee of the House of Commons was appointed to consider
how the London commons could best be preserved. The Metro-
politan Board of Works, then in the vigour of youth, though
eager to become the open-space authority for London, could
make no better suggestion than that all persons interested in
the commons should be bought out, that the board should defray
the expense by selling parts for building, and should make parks
of what was left. Had this advice been followed, London would
probably have lost two-thirds of the open space which she now
enjoys. Fortunately a small knot of men, who afterwards
formed the Commons Preservation Society, took a broader and
wiser view. Chief amongst them were the late Philip Lawrence,
who acted as solicitor to the Wimbledon opposition, and subse-
quently organized the Commons Preservation Society, George
Shaw-Lefevre, chairman of that society since its foundation,
the late John Locke, and the late Lord Mount Temple (then
Mr W. F. Cowper) . They urged that the conflict of legal interests,
which is the special characteristic of a common, might be trusted
to preserve it as an open space, and that all that parliament
could usefully do, was to restrict parliamentary inclosure, and
to pass a measure of police for the protection of commons as
open spaces. The select committee adopted this view. On their
report, was passed the Metropolitan Commons Act 1866, which
prohibited any further parliamentary inclosures within the

metropolitan police area, and provided means by which a common
could be put under local management. The lords of the manors
in which the London commons lay felt that their opportunity
of making a rich harvest out of land, valuable for building,
though otherwise worthless, was slipping away; and a battle
royal ensued. Inclosures were commenced, and the Statute of
Merton prayed in aid. The public retorted by legal proceedings
taken in the names of commoners. These proceedings which
culminated in the mammoth suit as to Epping Forest, with the
corporation of London as plaintiffs and fourteen lords of manors
as defendants were uniformly successful; and London
commons were saved. By degrees the manorial lords, seeing that
they could not hope to do better, parted with their interest for a
small sum to some local authority; and a large area of the
common land, not only in the county of London, but in the sub-
urbs, is now in the hands of the representatives of the ratepayers,
and is definitely appropriated to the recreation of the public.

Moreover, the Commons Preservation Society was able to
base, upon the uniform success of the commoners in the law
courts, a plea for the amendment of the law. The
Statute of Merton, we have seen, purports to enable
the lord of the soil to inclose a common, if he leaves statute of
sufficient pasture for the commoners. This statute Mertoa -
was constantly vouched in the litigation about London commons;
but in no single instance was an inclosure justified by virtue of
its provisions. It thus remained a trap to lords of manors, and
a source of controversy and expense. In the year 1893 Lord
Thring, at the instance of the Commons Preservation Society,
carried through parliament the Commons Law Amendment Act,
which provided that in future no inclosure under the Statute of
Merton should be valid, unless made with the consent of the
Board of Agriculture, which was to consider the expediency of
the inclosure from a public point of view.

The movement to preserve commons as open spaces soon
spread to the rural districts. Under the Inclosure Act of 1845
provision was made for the allotment of a part of the
land to be inclosed for field gardens for the labouring ^ moaf
poor, and for recreation. But those who were interested
in effecting an inclosure often convinced the inclosure com-
missioners that for some reason such allotments would be
useless. To such an extent did the reservation of such allotments
become discredited that, in 1869, the commission proposed to
parliament the inclosure of 13,000 acres, with the reservation
of only one acre for recreation, and none at all for field gardens.
This proposal attracted the attention of Henry Fawcett, who,
after much inquiry and consideration, came to the conclusion
that inclosures were, speaking generally, doing more harm than
good to the agricultural labourer, and that, under such conditions
as the commissioners were prescribing, they constituted a serious
evil. With characteristic intrepidity he opposed the annual
inclosure bill (which had come to be considered a mere form)
and moved for a committee on the whole subject. The ultimate
result was the passing, seven years later, of the Commons Act
1876. This measure, introduced by a Conservative government,
laid down the principle that an inclosure should not be allowed
unless distinctly shown to be for the benefit, not merely of
private persons, but of the neighbourhood generally and the
public. It imposed many checks upon the process, and following
the course already adopted in the case of metropolitan commons,
offered an alternative method of making commons more useful
to the nation, viz. their management and regulation as open
spaces. The effect of this legislation and of the changed attitude
of the House of Commons towards inclosure has been almost
to stop that process, except in the case of common fields or
extensive mountain wastes.

We have alluded to the regulation of commons as open spaces.
The primary object of this process is to bring a common under
the jurisdiction of some constituted authority, which Keguia-
may make by-laws, enforceable in a summary way **
before the magistrates of the district, for its protection,
and may appoint watchers or keepers to preserve order and
prevent wanton mischief. There are several means of attaining

7 8 4

COMMONWEALTH COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL

this object. Commons within the metropolitan police district
the Greater London of the registrar-general are in this respect
in a position by themselves. Under the Metropolitan Commons
Acts, schemes for their local management may be made by the
Board of Agriculture (in which the inclosure commission is now
merged) without the consent either of the owner of the soil or
the commoners who, however, are entitled to compensation
if they can show that they are injuriously affected. Outside
the metropolitan police district a provisional order for regulation
may be made under the Commons Act 1876, with the consent
of the owner of the soil and of persons representing two-thirds
in value of all the interests in the common. And under an act
passed in 1899 the council of any urban or rural district may,
with the approval of the Board of Agriculture and without
recourse to parliament, make a scheme for the management of
any common within its district, provided no notice of dissent is
served on the board by the lord of the manor or by persons
representing one-third in value of such interests in the common
as are affected by the scheme. There is yet another way of
protecting a common. A parish council may, by agreement,
acquire an interest in it, and may make by-laws for its
regulation under the Local Government Act 1894. The acts of
1894 and 1899 undoubtedly proceed on right lines. For, with
the growth of efficient local government, commons naturally
fall to be protected and improved by the authority of the
district.

It remains to say a word as to the extent of common land
still remaining open in England and Wales. In 1843 it was
Statistics estimated that there were still 10,000,000 acres of
common land and common-field land. In 1 8 74 another
return made by the inclosure commission made a guess of 2,63 2, 7 72.
These two returns were made from the same materials, viz.
the tithe commutation awards. As less than 700,000 acres had
been inclosed in the intervening period, it is obvious that the
two estimates are mutually destructive. In July 1875 another
version was given in the Return of Landowners (generally
known as the Modern Domesday Book), compiled from the
valuation lists made for the purposes of rating. This return
put the commons of the country (not including common fields)
at 1,542,648 acres. It is impossible to view any of these returns
as accurate. Those compiled from the tithe commutation awards
are based largely on estimates, since there are many parishes
where the tithes had not been commuted. On the other hand,
the valuation lists do not show waste and unoccupied land
(which is not rated), and consequently the information as to
such lands in the Return of Landowners was based on any
materials which might happen to be at the disposal of the clerk
of the guardians. All we can say, therefore, is that the acreage
of the remaining common land of the country is probably some-
where between 1,500,000 and 2,000,000 acres. It is most
capriciously distributed. In the Midlands there is very little
to be found, while in a county of poor soil, like Surrey, nearly
every parish has its common, and there are large tracts of heath
and moor. In 1866, returns were made to parliament by the
overseers of the poor of the commons within 15 and within 25 m.
of Charing Cross. The acreage within the larger area was put
at 38,450 acres, and within the smaller at 13,301; but owing
to the difference of opinion which sometimes prevails upon the
question, whether land is common or not, and the carelessness
of some parish authorities as to the accuracy of their returns,
even these figures cannot be taken as more than approximately
correct. The metropolitan police district, within which the
Metropolitan Commons Acts are in force, approaches in extent
to a circle of 15 miles' radius. Within this district nearly
12,000 acres of common land have been put under local manage-
ment, either by means of the Commons Acts or under special
legislation. London is fortunate in having secured so much
recreation ground on its borders. But when the enormous
population of the capital and its rapid growth and expansion
are considered, the conclusion is inevitable, that not one acre
of common land within an easy railway journey of the metropolis
can be spared.

AUTHORITIES. Marshall, Elementary and Practical Treatise on
Landed Property (London, 1804) ; F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book
and Beyond (Cambridge, 1897) ; Borough and Township (Cambridge,
1898) ; F. Seebohm, The English Village Community (London,
1883); Williams, Joshua, Rights of Common (London, 1880); C. l!
Elton, A Treatise on Commons and Waste Lands (1868); T. E.
Scrutton, On Commons and Common Fields (1887) ; H. R. Woolrych]
Rights of Common (1850); G. Shaw-Lefevre, English Commons and
Forests (London, 1894); Sir W. Hunter, The Preservation of Open
Spaces (London, 1896) ; " The Movements for the Inclosure and
Preservation of Open Lands," Journal of the Royal Statistical Society,
vol. Ix. part ii. (June 1897); Returns to House of Commons (1843),
No. 325; (1870), No. 326; (1874), No. 85; Return of Landowners
(1875); Annual Reports of Inclosure Commission and Board of
Agriculture; Revised Statutes and Statutes at large. (R. H.*)

COMMONWEALTH, a term generally synonymous with
commonweal, i.e. public welfare, but more particularly signifying
a form of government in which the general public have a direct
voice. " The Commonwealth " is used in a special sense to
denote the period in English history between the execution of
Charles I. in 1649 and the Restoration in 1660. Commonwealth is
also the official designation in America of the states of Massa-
chusetts, Pennsylvania, Virginia and Kentucky. The Common-
wealth of Australia is the title of the federation of Australian
colonies carried out in 1900.

COMMUNE (Med. Lat. communia, Lat. communis, common),
in its most general sense, a group of persons acting together for
purposes of self-government, especially in towns. (See BOROUGH,
and COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL, below.) " Commune " (Fr. commune,
Ital. comune, Ger. Gemeinde, &c.) is now the term generally applied
to the smallest administrative division in many European
countries. (See the sections dealing with the administration of
these countries under their several headings.) " The Commune"
is the name given to the period of the history of Paris from
March 18 to May 28, 1871, during which the commune of Paris
attempted to set up its authority against the National Assembly
at Versailles. It was a political movement, intended to replace
the centralized national organization by one based on a federation
of communes. Hence the " communists " were also called
" federalists." It had nothing to do with the social theories of
Communism (q.v.). (See FRANCE: History.)

COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL. Under this head it is proposed to
give a short account of the rise and development of towns in
central and western continental Europe since the downfall of
the Roman Empire. All these, including also the British towns
(for which, however, see BOROUGH), may be said to have formed
one unity, inasmuch as all arose under similar conditions,
economic, legal and political, irrespective of local peculiarities.
Kindred economic conditions prevailed in all the former provinces
of the Western empire, while new law concepts were everywhere
introduced by the Germanic invaders. It is largely for the latter
reason that it seems advisable to begin with an account of the
German towns, the term German to correspond to the limits of the
old kingdom of Germany, comprising the present empire, German
Austria, German Switzerland, Holland and a large portion of
Belgium. In their development the problem, as it were, worked
out least tainted by foreign interference, showing at the same
time a rich variety in detail; and it may also be said that their
constitutional and economic history has been more thoroughly
investigated than any other.

Like the others, the German towns should be considered from
three points of view, viz. as jurisdictional units, as self-adminis-
trative units and as economic units. One of the chief distinguish-
ing features of early as opposed to modern town-life is that each
town formed a jurisdictional district distinct from the country
around. Another trait, more in accordance with the conditions
of to-day, is that local self-government was more fully developed
and strongly marked in the towns than without. And, thirdly,
each town in economic matters followed a policy as independent
as possible of that of any other town or of the country in general.
The problem is, how this state of things arose.

From this point of view the German towns may be divided into
two main classes: those that gradually resuscitated on the ruins
of former Roman cities in the Rhine and Danube countries, and

COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL

785

those that were newly founded at a later date in the interior. 1
Foremost in importance among the former stand the episcopal
cities. Most of these had never been entirely destroyed during
the Germanic invasion. Roman civic institutions perished; but
probably parts of the population survived, and small Christian
congregations with their bishops in most cases seem to have
weathered all storms. Much of the city walls presumably re-
mained standing, and within them German communities soon
settled.

In the roth century it became the policy of the German
emperors to hand over to the bishops full jurisdictional and
administrative powers within their cities. The bishop hence-
forward directly or indirectly appointed all officers for the town's
government. The chief of these was usually the advocatus or
Vogt, some neighbouring noble who served as the proctor of the
church in all secular affairs. It was his business to preside three
times a year over the chief law-court, the so-called ecftte or
ungebotene Ding, under the cognizance of which fell all cases
relating to real property, personal freedom, bloodshed and
robbery. For the rest of the legal business and as president of
the ordinary court he appointed a Schultheiss, centenarius or
causidicus. Other officers were the Burggraf* or praefectus for
military matters, including the preservation of the town's
defences, walls, moat, bridges and streets, to whom also apper-
tained some jurisdiction over the craft-gilds in matters relating
to their crafts; further the customs-officer or teleonarius and the
mint-master or monetae magister. It was not, however, the fact
of their being placed under the bishop that constituted these
towns as separate jurisdictional units. The chief feature rather
is the existence within their walls of a special law, distinct in
important points from that of the country at large. The towns
enjoyed a special peace, as it was called, i.e. breaches of the peace
were more severely punished if committed in a town than
elsewhere. Besides, the inhabitants might be sued before the
town court only, and to fugitives from the country who had taken
refuge in the town belonged a similar privilege. This special
legal status probably arose from the towns being considered in
the first place as the king's fortresses 3 or burgs (see BOROUGH),
and, therefore, as participating in the special peace enjoyed by
the king's palace. Hence the terms " burgh," " borough " in
English, baurgs in Gothic, the earliest Germanic designations for a
town; " burgher," " burgess " for its inhabitants. What struck
the townless early Germans most about the Roman towns was
their mighty walls. Hence they applied to all fortified habita-
tions the term in use for their own primitive fortifications; the
walls remained with them the main feature' distinguishing a town
from a village; and the fact of the town being a fortified place
likewise necessitated the special provisions mentioned for
maintaining the peace.

The new towns in the interior of Germany were founded on
land belonging to the founder, some ecclesiastical or lay lord,
and frequently adjoining the cathedral close of one of the new sees
or the lord's castle, and they were laid out according to a regular
plan. The most important feature was the market-square, often
surrounded by arcades with stalls for the sale of the principal
commodities, and with a number of straight streets leading
thence to the city gates.* As for the fortifications, some
time naturally passed before they were completed. Furthermore ,
the governmental machinery would be less complex than in the
older towns. The legal peculiarities distinguishing town and
country, on the other hand, may be said to have been conferred

1 As to the former, see S. Rietschel, Die Civitas auf deutschem
Boden bis zum Ausgange der Karolingerzeit (Leipzig, 1894); an d, for
the newly founded towns, the same author, Markt und Stadt in ihrem

tietschel, Das Burggrafenamt und
deutschen Bischofsstddten wdhrend des
fritheren Mittelalters (Leipzig, 1905).

3 As to the towns as fortresses, see also F. Keutgen, Untersuchungen
uber den Ursprung der deutschen Stadtverfassung (Leipzig, 1895) ; and
" Der Ursprung der deutschen Stadtverfassung " (Neue Jahrbucher
fur das klassiscne Altertum, &c., N.F. vol. v.).

4 See S. Rietschel, Markt und Stadt, and J. Fritz, Deutsche Stadt-
anlagen (Strassburg, 1894).

on the new towns in a more clearly defined form from the
beginning.

An important difference lay in the mode of settlement. There
is evidence that in the quondam Roman towns the German
newcomers settled much as in a village, i.e. each full member of
the community had a certain portion of arable land allotted to
him and a share in the common. Their pursuits would at first be
mainly agricultural. The new towns, on the other hand,
general economic conditions having meanwhile begun to undergo
a marked change, were founded with the intention of establishing
centres of trade. Periodical markets, weekly or annual, had
preceded them, which already enjoyed the special protection of
the king's ban, acts of violence against traders visiting them or on
their way towards them being subject to special punishment.
The new towns may be regarded as markets made permanent.
The settlers invited were merchants (mercatores personati) and
handicraftsmen. The land now allotted to each member of the
community was just large enough for a house and yard, stabling
and perhaps a small garden (50 by 100 ft. at Freiburg, 60 by 100
ft. at Bern) . These building plots were given as free property or,
more frequently, at a merely nominal rent (Wurtzins) with the
right of free disposal, the only obligation being that of building a
house. All that might be required besides would be a common
for the pasture of the burgesses' cattle.

The example thus set was readily followed in the older towns.
The necessary land was placed at the disposal of new settlers,
either by the members of the older agricultural community, or
by the various churches. The immigrants were of widely
differing status, many being serfs who came either with or
without their lords' permission. The necessity of putting a
stop to belated prosecutions on this account in the town court
led to the acceptance of the rule that nobody who had lived in a
town undisturbed for the term of a year and a day could any
longer be claimed by a lord as his serf. But even 'those who
had migrated into a town with their lords' consent could not
very well for long continue in serfdom. When, on the other
hand, certain bishops attempted to treat all new-comers to their
city as serfs, the emperor Henry V. in charters for Spires and
Worms proclaimed that in these towns all serf-like conditions
should cease. This ruling found expression in the famous
saying: Stadtluft macht frei, " town-air renders free." As may
be imagined, this led to a rapid increase in population, mainly
during the nth to I3th centuries. There would be no difficulty
for the immigrants to find a dwelling, or to make a living, since
most of them would be versed in one or other of the crafts in
practice among villagers.

The most important further step in the history of the towns
was the establishment of an organ of self-government, the town-
council (Rat, consttium, its members, Ratmanner, consules, less
frequently consiliarii) , with one, two or more burgomasters
(Bur germeister, magistri civium, proconsules) at its head. (It
was only after the Renaissance that the town-council came to
be styled senate, and the burgomasters in Latin documents,
consules.) As units of local government the towns must be con-
sidered as originally placed on the same legal basis as the villages,
viz. as having the right of taking care of all common interests
below the cognizance of the public courts or of those of their
lord. 6 In the towns, however, this right was strengthened at
an early date by the jtis negotiate. At least as early as the
beginning of the nth century, but probably long before that
date, mercantile communities claimed the right, confirmed by
the emperors, of settling mercantile disputes according to a law
of their own, to the horror of certain conservative-minded clerics."
Furthermore, in the rapidly developing towns, opportunities
for the exercise of self-administrative functions constantly
increased. The new self-governing body soon began to legislate
in matters of local government, imposing fines for the breach

B G. von Below, Die Entstehung der deutschen Stadtgemeinde
(Diisseldorf , 1889) ; and Der Ursprung der deutschen Stadtverfassung
(Dusseldorf, 1892).

F. Keutgen, Urkunden zur stddtischen Verfassungsgeschichte,
No. 74 and No. 75 (Berlin, 1901).

7 86

COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL

of its by-laws. Thus it assumed a jurisdiction, partly concurrent
with that of the lord, which it further extended to breaches
of the peace. And, finally, it raised funds by- means of an
excise-duty, Ungeld (cf. the English malatolta) or Accise, Zeise.
In the older and larger towns it soon went beyond what the bishops
thought proper to tolerate; conflicts ensued; and in. the I3th
century several bishops obtained decrees in the imperial court,
either to suppress the Rat altogether, or to make it subject to
their nomination, and more particularly to abolish the Ungeld,
as detrimental to episcopal finances. In the long run, however,
these attempts proved of little avail.

Meanwhile the tendency towards self-government spread even
to the lower ranks of town society, resulting in the establishment
of craft-gilds. From a very early period there is reason to believe
merchants among themselves formed gilds for social and religious
purposes, and for the furtherance of their economic interests.
These gilds would, where they existed, no doubt also influence
the management of town affairs; but nowhere has the Rat, as
used to be thought, developed out of a gild, nor has the latter
anywhere in Germany played a part at all similar in importance
to that of the English gild merchant, the only exception being
for a time the Richerzeche, or Gild of the Rich of Cologne, from
early times by far the largest, the richest, and the most important
trading centre among German cities, and therefore provided
with an administration more complex, and in some respects more
primitive, than any other. On the other hand, the most important
commodities offered for sale in the market had been subject to
official examination already in Carolingian times. Bakers',
butchers', shoemakers' stalls were grouped together in the
market-place to facilitate control, and with the same object in
view a master was appointed for each craft as its responsible
representative. By and by these crafts or " offices " claimed
the right of electing their master and of assisting him in examin-
ing the goods, and even of framing by-laws regulating the quality
of the wares and the process of their manufacture. The bishpps
at first resented these attempts at self-management, as they had
done in the case of the town council, and imperial legislation
in their interests was obtained. But each craft at the same time
formed a society for social, beneficial and religious purposes,
and, as these were entirely in accordance with the wishes of the
clerical authorities, the other powers could not in the long run
be withheld, including that of forcing all followers of any craft
to. join the gild (Zunftzwang). Thus the official inspection of
markets, community of interests on the part of the craftsmen,
and co-operation for social and religious ends, worked together
in the formation of craft-gilds. It is not suggested that in each
individual town the rise of the gilds was preceded by an organiza-
tion of crafts on the part of the lord and his officers; but it is
maintained that as a general thing voluntary organization could
hardly have proceeded on such orderly lines as on the whole it
did, unless the framework had in the first instance been laid
down by the authorities: much as in modern times the working
together in factories has practically been an indispensable
preliminary to the formation of trade unions. Much less would
the principle of forced entrance have found such ready acceptance
both on the part of the authorities and on that of the men,
unless it had previously been in full practice and recognition
under the system of official market-control. The different names
for the societies, viz. fraternitas, Briiderschaft, officium, Ami,
condictum, Zunft, unio, Innung, do not signify different kinds
of societies, but only different aspects of the same thing. The
word GUde alone forms an exception, inasmuch as, generally
speaking, it was used by merchant gilds only. 1

From an early date the towns, more particularly the older
episcopal cities, took a part in imperial politics. Legally the
bishops were in their cities mere representatives of the imperial
government. This fact found formal expression mainly in two
ways. The Vogt, although appointed by the bishop, received
the " ban," i.e. the power of having justice executed, which
he passed on to the lesser officers, from the king or emperor
direct. Secondly, whenever the emperor held a curia generalis
1 F. Keutgen, AmUr und Ziinfte (Jena, 1903).

(or general assembly, or diet) in one of the episcopal cities, and
for a week before and after, all jurisdictional and administrative
power reverted to him and his immediate officers. The citizens
on their part clung to this connexion and made use of it whenever
their independence was threatened by their bishops, who strongly
inclined to consider themselves lords of their cathedral cities,
much as if these had been built on church-lands. As early as
1073, therefore, we find the citizens of Worms successfully rising
against their bishop in order to provide the emperor Henry IV.
with a refuge against the rebellious princes. Those of Cologne
made a similar attempt in 1074. But a second class of imperial
cities (Reichsstadte) , much more numerous than the former,
consisted of those founded on demesne-land belonging either
to the Empire or to one of the families who rose to imperial
rank. This class was largely reinforced, when after the extinc-
tion of the royal house of Hohenstaufen in the i3th century,
a great number of towns founded by them on their demesne
successfully claimed immediate subjection to the crown. About
this time, during the interregnum, a federation of more than
a hundred towns was formed, beginning on the Rhine, but
spreading as far as Bremen in the north, Zurich in the south,
and Regensburg in the east, with the object of helping to preserve
the peace. After the death of King William in 1256, they
resolved to recognize no king unless unanimously elected. This
league was joined by a powerful group of princes and nobles
and found recognition by the prince-electors of the Empire;
but for want of leadership it did not stand the test, when Richard
of Cornwall and Alphonso of Castile were elected rival kings in
I257. 2 In the following centuries the imperial cities in south
Germany, where most of them were situated, repeatedly formed
leagues to protect their interests against the power of the
princes and the nobles, and destructive wars were waged; but
no great political issue found solution, the relative position of
the parties after each war remaining much what it had been
before. On the part of the towns this was mainly due to lack
of leadership and of unity of purpose. At the time of the
Reformation the imperial towns, like most of the others, stood
forward as champions of the new cause and did valuable service
in upholding and defending it. After that, however, their
political part was played out, mainly because they proved unable
to keep up with modern conditions of warfare. It should be
stated that seven among the episcopal cities, viz. Cologne, Mainz,
Worms, Spires, Strassburg, Basel and Regensburg, claimed a
privileged position as " Free Cities," but neither is the ground
for this claim clearly established, nor its nature well defined.
The general obligations of the imperial cities towards the Empire
were the payment of an annual fixed tax and the furnishing
of a number of armed men for imperial wars, and from these
the above-named towns claimed some measure of exemption.
Some of the imperial cities lost their independence at an early
date, as unredeemed pledges to some prince who had advanced
money to the emperor. Others seceded as members of the
Swiss Confederation. But a considerable number survived
until the reorganization of the Empire in 1803. At the peace
in 1815, however, only four were spared, namely, Frankfort,
Bremen, Hamburg and Liibeck, these being practically the only
ones still in a sufficiently flourishing and economically independ-
ent position to warrant such preferential treatment. But finally
Frankfort, having chosen the wrong side in the war of 1866,
was annexed by Prussia, and only the three seaboard towns
remain as full members of the new confederate Empire under
the style of Freie und Hansestadte. But until modern times
most of the larger Landst&dte or mesne-towns for all intents
and purposes were as independent under their lords as the im-
perial cities were under the emperor. They even followed a
foreign policy of their own, concluded treaties with foreign
powers or made war upon them. Nearly all the Hanseatic towns
belonged to this category. With others like Bremen, Hamburg
and Magdeburg, it was long in the balance which class they be-
longed to. All towns of any importance, however, were for a
considerable time far ahead of the principalities in administration.
1 J. Weizsacker, Der rheinische Bund (Tubingen, 1879).

COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL

787

It was largely this fact that gave them power. When,
therefore, from about the isth century the princely territories
came to be better organized, much of the raison d'etre for the
exceptional position held by the towns disappeared. The towns
from an early date made it their policy to suppress the exercise
of all handicrafts in the open country. On the other hand, they
sought an increase of power by extending rights of citizenship
to numerous individual inhabitants of the neighbouring villages
(Pfalburger, a term not satisfactorily explained). By this and
other means, e.g. the purchase of estates by citizens, many
towns gradually acquired a considerable territory. These
tendencies both princes and lesser nobles naturally tried to
thwart, and the mediate towns or Landstiidtc were finally brought
to stricter subjection, at least in the greater principalities such
as Austria and Brandenburg. Besides, the less favourably
situated towns suffered through the concentration of trade in
the hands of their more fortunate sisters. But the economic
decay and consequent loss of political influence among both
imperial and territorial towns must be chiefly ascribed to inner
causes.

Certain leading political economists, notably K. Bucher
(Die Bevolkerung von Frankfurt a. M. im I4ten und i$ten Jahr-
hundert, i., Tubingen, 1886; Die Entstehung der Volkswirt-
schaft, sth ed., Tubingen, 1906), and, in a modified form, W.
Sombart (Der moderne Kapitalismus, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1902),
have propounded the doctrine of one gradual progression from
an agricultural state to modern capitalistic conditions. This
theory, however, is nothing less than an outrage on history.
As a matter of fact, as far as modern Europe is concerned, there
has twice been a progression, separated by a period of retrogression,
and it is to the latter that Biicher's picture of the agricultural
and strictly protectionist town (the geschlossene Stadtitnrtschaft)
of the I4th and isth centuries belongs, while Sombart's notion
of an entire absence of a spirit of capitalistic enterprise before
the middle of the isth century in Europe north of the Alps, or
the i4th. century in Italy, is absolutely fantastic. 1 The period
of the rise of cities till well on in the I3th century was naturally
a period of expansion and of a considerable amount of freedom
of trade. It was only afterwards that a protectionist spirit
gained the upper hand, and each town made it its policy to
restrict as far as possible the trade of strangers. In this re-
volution the rise of the lower strata of the population to power
played an important part.

The craft-gilds had remained subordinate to the Rat, but
by-and-by they claimed a share in the government of the towns.
Originally any inhabitant holding a certain measure of land,
freehold or subject to the mere nominal ground-rent above-
mentioned, was a full citizen independently of his calling, the
clergy and the lord's retainers and servants of whatever rank,
who claimed exemption from scot and lot, to use the English
formula, alone excepted. The majority of the artisans, however,
were not in this happy position. Moreover, the town council,
instead of being freely elected, filled up vacancies in its ranks by
co-optation, with the result that all power became vested in a
limited number of rich families. Against this state of things
the crafts rebelled, alleging mismanagement, malversation and
the withholding of justice. During the I4th and I5th centuries
revolutions and counter-revolutions, sometimes accompanied
by considerable slaughter, were frequent, and a great variety
of more democratic constitutions were tried. Zurich, however,
is the only German place where a kind of tyrannis, so frequent
in Italy, came to be for a while established. On the whole it
must be said that in those towns where the democratic party
gained the upper hand an unruly policy abroad and a narrow-
minded protection at home resulted. An inclination to hasty
measures of war and an unwillingness to observe treaties among
the democratic towns of Swabia were largely responsible for the

*G. v. Below, Der Untergang der mittelalterlichen Stadtwirtschaft;
Uber Theorien der wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung der Volker; F.
Keutgen, " Hansische Handelsgesellschaften, vornehmlich des I4ten
Jahrhunderts," in Vierteljahrsschrift fur Sozial- und Wirtschafls-
geschichte, vol. iv. (1906).

disasters of the war of the Swabian League in the i4th century.
At home, whereas at first markets had been free and open to
any comer, a 'more and more protective policy set in, traders
from other towns being subjected more and more to vexatious
restrictions. It was also made increasingly difficult to obtain
membership in the craft-gilds, high admission fees and so-called
masterpieces being made a condition. Finally, the number of
members became fixed, and none but members' sons and sons-in-
law, or members' widows' husbands were received. The first
result was the formation of a numerous proletariate of life-long
assistants and of men and women forcibly excluded from follow-
ing any honest trade; and the second consequence, the economic
ruin of the town to the exclusive advantage of a limited number.
From the end of the isth century population in many towns
decreased, and not only most of the smaller ones, but even some
once important centres of trade, sank to the level almost of
villages. Those cities, on the other hand, where the mercantile
community remained in power, like Nuremberg and the seaboard
towns, on the whole followed a more enlightened policy, although
even they could not quite keep clear of the ever-growing
protective tendencies of the time. Many even of the richer
towns, notably Nuremberg, ran into debt irretrievably, owing
partly to an exorbitant expenditure on magnificent public
buildings and extensive fortifications, calculated to resist modern
instruments of destruction, partly to a faulty administration
of the public debt. From the I3th century the towns had issued
(" sold," as it was called)annuities, either for life or for perpetuity
in ever-increasing number, until it was at last found impossible
to raise the funds necessary to pay them.

One of the principal achievements of the towns -lay in the
field of legislation. Their law was founded originally on the
general national (or provincial) law, on custom, and on special
privilege. New foundations were regularly provided by their
lord with a charter embodying the most important points of the
special law of the town in question. This miniature code would
thenceforth be developed by means of statutes passed by the
town council. The codification of the law of Augsburg in 1276
already fills a moderate volume in print (ed. by Christian Meyer,
Augsburg, 1872). Later foundations were frequently referred
by their founders to the nearest existing town of importance,
though that might belong to a different lord. Afterwards, if
a question in law arose which the court of a younger town found
itself unable to answer, the court next senior in affiliation was
referred to, which in turn would apply to the court above, until
at last that of the original mother town was reached, whose
decision was final. This system was chiefly developed in the
colonial east, where most towns were affiliated directly or
indirectly either to Liibeck or to Magdeburg; but it was by no
means unknown in the home country. A number of collections
of such judgments (Schofenspriiche) have been published. It is
also worth mentioning that it was usual to read the police by-laws
of a town at regular intervals to the assembled citizens in a
morning-speech (Morgensprache)?

To turn to Italy, the country for so many centuries in close
political connexion with Germany, the foremost thing to be
noted is that here the towns grew to even greater independence,
many of them in the end acknowledging no overlord whatever
after the yoke of the German kings had been shaken off. On .
the other hand, nearly all of them in the long run fell under the
sway of some local tyrant-dynasty.

From Roman times the country had remained thickly studded
with towns, each being the seat of a bishop. From this arose
their most important peculiarity. For it was largely due to an
identification of dioceses and municipal territories that the nobles
of the surrounding country took up their headquarters in the
cities, either voluntarily or because forced to do so by the citizens,
who made it their policy thus to turn possible opponents into
partisans and defenders. In Germany, on the other hand,

* On this whole subject see Richard Schroder, Lehrbuch der
deutschen Rechtsgeschichte (sth ed., Leipzig, 1907), 56, " Die Stadt-
rechte." Also Charles Gross, The Gild Merchant (Oxford, 1890),
vol. i. Appendix E, " Affiliation of Medieval Boroughs."

7 88

COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL

nobles and knights were carefully shut out so long as the town's
independence was at stake, the members of a princely garrison
being required to take up their abode in the citadel, separated
from the town proper by a wall. Only in the comparatively
few cathedral cities this rule does not obtain. It will be seen
that, in consequence of this, municipal life in Italy was from the
first more complex, the main constituent parts of the population
being the capitani, or greater nobles, the valvassori, or lesser
nobles (knights) and the people (popolo). Furthermore, the
bishops being in most cases the exponents of the imperial power,
the struggle for freedom from the latter ended in a radical rid-
dance from all temporal episcopal government as well. Foremost
in this struggle stood the cities of Lombardy, most of which all
through the barbarian invasions had kept their walls in repair
and maintained some importance as economic centres, and whose
popolo largely consisted of merchants of some standing. As
early as the 8th century the laws of the Langobard King Aistulf
distinguished three classes of merchants (negotiantes), among
whom the majores et potentes were required to keep themselves
provided with horse, lance, shield and a cuirass. The valley of
the Po formed the main artery of trade between western Europe
and the East, Milan being besides the point of convergence for
all Alpine passes west of the Brenner (the St Gotthard, however,
was not made accessible until early in the i3th century). Lom-
bard merchants soon spread all over western Europe, a chief
source of their ever-increasing wealth being their employment
as bankers of the papal see.

The struggle against the bishops, in which a clamour for a
reform of clerical life and a striving for local self-government
were strangely interwoven, had raged for a couple of generations
when King Henry V., great patron of municipal freedom as he
was, legalized by a series of charters the status quo (Cremona,
1114, Mantua, 1116). But under his weak successors the inde-
pendence of the cities reached such a pitch as to be manifestly
intolerable to an energetic monarch like Frederick I. Besides,
the more powerful among them would subdue or destroy their
weaker neighbours, and two parties were formed, one headed
by Milan, the other by Cremona. Como and Lodi complained
of the violence used to them by the former city. Therefore in
1158 a commission was appointed embracing four Roman legists
as representatives of the emperor, as well as those of fourteen
towns, to examine into the imperial and municipal rights. The
claims of the imperial government, jurisdictional and other,
were acknowledged, only such rights of self-government being
admitted as could be shown to be grounded on imperial charters.
But when it came to carrying into effect these Roncaglian decrees,
a general rising resulted. Milan was besieged by the emperor
and destroyed in 1162 in accordance with the verdict of her
rivals. Nevertheless, after a defeat at Legnano in 1 1 76, Frederick
was forced to renounce all pretensions to interference with the
government of the cities, merely retaining an overlordship that
was not much more than formal (peace of Constance in 1183).
All through this war the towns had been supported by Pope
Alexander III. Similarly under Frederick II. the renewal of the
struggle between emperor and pope dovetailed with a fresh out-
break of the war with the cities, who feared lest an imperial
triumph over the church would likewise threaten their independ-
ence. The emperor's death finally decided the issue in their favour.
* Constitutionally, municipal freedom was based on the forma-
tion of a commune headed by elected consuls, usually to the
number of twelve, representing the three orders of capitani,
valvassori and popolo. Frequently, however, the number actually
wielding power was much more restricted, and their position
altogether may rather be likened to that of their Roman prede-
cessors than to that of then- German contemporaries. In all
important matters they asked the advice and support of " wise
men," sapientes, discretions, prudentes, as a body called the
credenza, while the popular assembly (parlamentum, concio,
consilium generate) was the true sovereign. The consuls with the
assistance ofjudices also presided in the law-courts; but besides
the consuls of the commune there were consules de placitis
specially appointed for jurisdictional purposes.

In spite of these multifarious safeguards, however, family
factions early destroyed the fabric of liberty, especially as, just
as there was an imperial, or Ghibelline, and a papal, or Guelph
party among the cities as a whole, thus also within each town
each faction would allege adherence to and claim support by
one or other of the great world-powers. To get out of the dilemma
of party-government, resort was thereupon had to the appoint-
ment as chief magistrate of a podesld from among the nobles or
knights of a different part of the country not mixed up with the
local feuds. But the end was in most cases the establishment of
the despotism of some leading family, such as the Visconti at
Milan, the Gonzaga at Mantua, the della Scala in Verona and
the Carrara in Padua.

In Tuscany, the historic r61e of the cities, with the exception
of Pisa, begins at a later date, largely owing to the overlordship
of the powerful margraves of the house of Canossa and their
successors, who here represented the emperor. Pisa, however,
together with Genoa, all through the nth century distinguished
itself by war waged in the western Mediterranean and its isles
against the Saracens. Both cities, along with Venice, but especi-
ally the Genoese, also did excellent service in reducing the
Syrian coast towns still in the hands of the Turks in the reigns
of Kings Baldwin I. and Baldwin II. of Jerusalem, while more
particularly Pisa with great constancy placed her fleet at the
disposal of the Hohenstaufen emperors for warfare with Sicily.

Meanwhile communes with consuls at their head were formed
in Tuscany much as elsewhere. On the other hand the Tuscan
cities managed to prolong the reign of liberty to a much later
epoch, no podestd ever quite succeeding here in his attempts to
establish the rule of his dynasty. Even when in the second half
of the 1 5th century the Medici in Florence attained to power,
the form at least of a republic was still maintained, and not till
1531 did one of them, supported by Charles V., assume the ducal
title.

Long before the last stage, the rule of signori, was reached,
however, the commune as originally constituted had everywhere
undergone radical changes. As early as the i3th century the
lower orders among the inhabitants formed an organization
under officers of their own, side by side with that of the commune,
which was controlled by the great and the rich; e.g. at Florence
the people in 1250 rose against the turbulent nobles and chose a
capitano del popolo with twelve anziani, two from each of the
six city- wards (sestieri), as his council. The popolo itself was
divided into twenty armed companies, each under a gonfaloniers.
But later the arti (craft-gilds), some of whom, however, can be
shown to have existed under consuls of their own as early as
1203, attained supreme importance, and in 1282 the government
was placed in the hands of their priori, under the name of the
signoria. The Guelph nobles were at first admitted to a share
in the government, on condition of their entering a gild, but in
1293 even this privilege was withdrawn. The ordinamenti della
giustizia of that year robbed the nobility of all political power.
The lesser or lower Rrli, on the other hand, were conceded a
full share in it, and a gonfalonicre della giustizia was placed at
the head of the militia. In the I4th century twelve buoni uomini
representing the wards (sestieri) were superadded, all these
dignitaries holding office for two months only. And besides all
these, there existed three competing chief justices and com-
manders of the forces called in from abroad and holding office for
six months, viz. the podestd, the capitano del popolo, and the
esecutore della giustizia. In spite of all this complicated machinery
of checks and balances, revolution followed upon revolution,
nor could an occasional reign of terror be prevented like that of
the Signore Gauthier de Brienne, duke of Athens (1342-1343).
It was not till after a rising of the lowest order of all, the in-
dustrial labourers, had been suppressed in 1378 (tumulto dei
Ciompi, the wool-combers), that quieter times ensued under the
wise leadership, first of the Albizzi and finally of the Medici.

The history of the other Tuscan towns was equally tumultuous,
all of them save Lucca, after many fitful changes finally passing
under the sway of Florence, or the grand-duchy of Tuscany, as
the state was now called. Pisa, one time the mightiest, had been

COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL

789

crushed between its inland neighbour and its maritime rival
Genoa (battle of Meloria, 1282).

Apart in its constitutional development from all other towns
in Italy, and it might be added, in Europe, stands Venice.
Almost alone among Italian cities its origin does not go back to
Roman times. It was not till the invasions of Hun and Lango-
bard that fugitives from the Venetian mainland took refuge
among the poor fishermen on the small islands in the lagoons
and on the lido the narrow stretch of coast-line which separates
the lagoons from the Adriatic some at Grado, some at Mala-
mocco, others on Rialto. A number of small communities was
formed under elected tribunes, acknowledging as their sovereign
the emperor at Constantinople. Treaties of commerce were
concluded with the Langobard kings, thus assuring a market
for the sale of Imports from the East and for the purchase of
agricultural produce. Just before or after A.D. 700 the young
republic seems to have thrown off the rule of the Byzantine dux
Histriae et Veneliae and elected a duke (doge) of its own, in whom
was vested the executive power, the right to convoke the popular
assembly (conoid) and appoint tribunes and justices. Political
unity was thus established, but it was not till after another
century of civil war that Rialto was definitely chosen the seat
of government and thus the foundation of the present city laid.
After a number of attempts to establish a hereditary dukedom,
Duke Domenico Flabianico in 1032 passed a law providing that
no duke was to appoint his successor or procure him to be elected
during his own lifetime. Besides this two councils were appointed
without whose consent nothing of importance was to be done.
After the murder by the people of Duke Vitale Michiel in 1172,
who had suffered naval defeat, it was deemed necessary to
introduce a stricter constitutional order. According to the
orthodox account, some details of which have, however, recently
been impugned, 1 the irregular popular meeting was replaced by a
great council of from 450 to 480 members elected annually by
special appointed electors in equal proportion from each of
the six wards. One of the functions of this body was to appoint
most of the state officials or their electors. There was also an
executive council of six, one from each ward. Besides these,
the duke, who was henceforward elected by a body of eleven
electors from among the aristocracy, would invite persons of
prominence (the pregadi) in order to secure their assent and co-
operation, whenever a measure of importance was to be placed
before the great council. Only under extraordinary circum-
stances the concio was still to be called. The tenure of the duke's
office was for life. The general tendency of constitutional
development in Venice henceforward ran in an exactly opposite
direction to that of all other Italian cities towards a growing
restriction of popular rights, until in 1296 the great council
was for all future time closed to all but the descendants of a
limited number of noble families, whose names were in that year
entered in the Golden Book. It still remained to appoint a
board to superintend the executive power. These were the
avoogadori di commune, and, since Tiepolo's conspiracy in 1310,
the Consiglio dei Died, the Council of Ten, which controlled the
whole of the state, and out of which there developed in the i6th
century the state inquisition.

While in all prominent Italian cities the leading classes of the
community were largely made up of merchants, in Venice the
nobility was entirely commercial. The marked steadiness in the
evolution of the Venetian constitution is no doubt largely due to
this fact. Elsewhere the presence of large numbers of turbulent
country nobles furnished the first germ for the unending dis-
sensions which ruined such promising beginnings. In Venice, on
the contrary, its businesslike habits of mind led the ruling class
to make what concessions might seem needful, while both the
masses and the head of the state were kept in due subjection to
the laws. Too much stability, however, finally changed into
stagnation, and decay followed. The foreign policy of Venice
was likewise mainly dictated by commercial motives, the chief
objectives being commercial privilege in the Byzantine empire
and in the Prankish states in the East, domination of the Adriatic,

1 H. Kretschmayr, Geschichte von Venedig, vol. i. (Gotha, 1905).

occupation of a sufficient hinterland on the terra firma, non-
sufferance of the rivalry of Genoa, and, finally, maintenance of
trade-supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean through a series of
alternating wars and treaties with Turkey, the last ing monument
of which was the destruction of the Parthenon in 1685 by a
Venetian bomb. At last the proud republic surrendered to
Napoleon without a stroke.

The cities of southern Italy do not here call forspecialattention.
Several of them developed a certain amount of independence
and free institutions, and took an important part in trade
with the East, notably so Amalfi. But after incorporation in
the Norman kingdom all individual history for them came to
an end.

Rome, finally, derived its importance from being the capital of
the popes and from its proud past. From time to time spasmodic
attempts were made to revive the forms of the ancient republic,
as under Arnold of Brescia in the I2th and by Niccol6 di Rienzo
in the I4th century; but there was no body of stalwart, self-
reliant citizens to support such measures: nothing but turbulent
nobles on the one hand and a rabble on the other.

In no country is there such a clear grouping of the towns on
geographical lines as in France, these geographical lines, of course,
having in the first instance been drawn by historical causes
Another feature is the extent to which, in the unruly times
preceding the civic movement, serfdom had spread among the
inhabitants even of the towns throughout the greater part of the
country, and the application of feudal ideas to town government.
In some other respects the constitution of the cities in the south
of France, as will be seen, has more in common with that of the
Italian communes, and that of the northern French towns with
those of Germany, than the constitutions of the various groups of
French towns have among each other. 5

In the group of the miles consulaires, comprising all important
towns in the south, the executive was, as in Italy, in the hands of
a body of consoles, whose number in most cases rose to twelve.
They were elected for the term of one year and re-eligible only
after an interval, and they were supported by a municipal council
(commune consilium, consilium magnum or secretum or generate, or
colloquium) and a general assembly (parlamentum, concio, commune
consilium, commune, universilas civium), which, however, as a
rule was far from comprising the whole body of citizens. Another
feature which these southern towns had in common with their
Italian neighbours was the prominent part played by the native
nobility. The relations with the clergy were generally of a more
friendly character than in the north, and in some cases the bishop
or archbishop even retained a considerable influence in the
management of the town's affairs. Dissensions among the
citizens, or between the nobles and the bourgeois, frequently
ended in the adoption of a podeslat. And in several cities of the
Languedoc, each of the two classes composing the population
retained its separate laws and customs. It is matter of dispute
whether vestiges of Roman institutions had survived in these
parts down to the time when the new constitutions sprang into
being; but all investigators are pretty well agreed that in no
case did such remnants prove of any practical importance.
Roman law, however, was never quite superseded by Germanic
law, as appears from the staluts municipaux. In the improvement
and expansion of these statutes a remarkable activity was dis-
played by means of an annual correctio statutorum carried out by
specially appointed slatutores. In the north, on the other hand,
the carta communiae, forming as it were the basis of the com-
mune's existence, seems to have been considered almost as
something sacred and unchangeable.

The constitutional history of the communes in northern France
in a number of points widely differed from that of these villes
consulaires. First of all the movement for their establishment in
most cases was to a far greater degree of a revolutionary character.
These revolutions were in the first place directed against the
bishops; but the position both of the higher clergy and of the
nobility was here of a nature distinctly more hostile to the
aspirations of the citizens than it was in the south. As a result
the clergy and the nobles were excluded from all membership of

790

the commune, except inasmuch as that those residing in the town
might be required to swear not to conspire against it. The
commune (communia, communa, communio, communitas, con-
juratio, confoederatid) was formed by an oath of mutual help
(sacramentum, jur amentum communiae). The members were
described nsjurati (also burgenses, vicini, amid), although in some
communes that term was reserved for the members of the govern-
ing body. None but men of free and legitimate birth, and free
from debt and contagious or incurable disease were received.
The members of the governing body were styled juris (jurali),
pairs (pares) or echevins (scabini). The last was, however, as in
Germany, more properly the title of the jurors in the court of
justice, which in many cases remained in the hands of the lord.
In some cases the town council developed out of this body; but
in the larger cities, like Rouen, several councils worked and all
these names were employed side by side. The number of the
members of the governing body proper varies from twelve to a
hundred, and its functions were both judicial and administrative.
There was also known an arrangement corresponding to the
German alte und sitzende Rat, viz. of retired members who could
be called in to lend assistance on important occasions. The most
striking distinction, however, as against the villes consulaires was
the elevation of the president of the body to the position of maire
or mayeur (sometimes also called prevdt, praepositus). As else-
where, at first none but the civic aristocracy were admitted to
take part in the management of the town's affairs; but from the
end of the i3th century a share had to be conceded to representa-
tives of the crafts. Dissatisfaction, however, was not easily
allayed; the lower orders applied for the intervention of the
king; and that effectively put an end to political freedom. This
tendency of calling in state help marks a most striking difference
as against the policy followed by the German towns, where all
classes appear to have been always far too jealous of local
independence. The result for the nation was in the one case
despotism, equality and order, in the other individual liberty
and an inability to move as a whole. At an earlier stage the king
had frequently come to the assistance of the communes in their
struggle with their lords. B>tand-by the king's confirmation
came to be considered necessary for their lawful existence.
This proved a powerful lever for the extension of the king's
authority. It may seem strange that in France the towns never
had recourse to those interurban leagues which played so im-
portant a part in Italian and in German history.

These two varieties, the communes and the villes consulaires
together form the group of villes libres. As opposed to these
stand the villes /ranches, also called villes prevotales after the
chief officer, villes de bourgeoisie or villes soumises. They make
up by far the majority of French towns, comprising all those
situated in the centre of the kingdom, and also a large number
in the north and the south. They are called villes franches on
account of their possessing a franchise, a charter limiting the
services due by the citizens to their lord, but political status they
had little or none. According to the varying extent of the
liberties conceded them, there may be distinguished towns
governed by an elective body and more or less fully authorized
to exercise jurisdiction; towns possessing some sort of municipal
organization, but no rights of jurisdiction, except that of simple
police; and, thirdly, those governed entirely by seignorial
officers. To this last class belong some of the most important
cities in France, wherever the king had power enough to withhold
liberties deemed dangerous and unnecessary. On the other
hand, towns of the first category often come close to the villes
libres. A strict line of demarcation, however, remains in the
mutual oath which forms the basis of the civic community in
both varieties of the latter, and in the fact that the ville libre
stands to its lord in the relation of vassal and not in that of
an immediate possession. But however complement assujetlie
Paris might be, its organization, naturally, was immensely more
complex than that of hundreds of smaller places which, formally,
might stand in an identical relationship to their lords. Like
other vtiles franches under the king, Paris was governed by a
prevdt (provost), but certain functions of self-government for

COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL

the city were delegated to the company of the marchands de
I'eau, mercatores aquae, also called mercatores ansati, that is,
the gild of merchants whose business lay down the river Seine,
in other words, a body naturally exclusive, not, however, to
the citizens as such. At their head stood a prevdt des marchands
and four eschevins de la marchandise. Other prtid'hommes were
occasionally called in, and from 1296 prevdt and echevins ap-
pointed twenty-four councillors to form with themselves a
parloir aux bourgeois. The crafts of Paris were organized in
metiers, whose masters were appointed, some by the prevdt de
Paris, and some by certain great officers of the court. In the
tax rolls of A.D. 1292 to 1300 no fewer than 448 names of crafts
occur, while the Livre des metiers written in 1268 by Etienne de
Boileau, then prevdt de Paris, enumerates 101 organized bodies
of tradesmen or women and artisans. Among the duties of these
bodies, as elsewhere, was the guet or night-watch, which neces-
sitated a military organization under quartiniers, cinquantainiers
and dixainiers. This gave them a certain power. But both
their revolutions, under the prevdt des marchands, Etienne Marcel,
after the battle of Maupertuis, and again in 1382, were extremely
short-lived, and the only tangible result was a stricter subjection
to the king and his officers.

An exceptional position among the cities of France is taken
up by those of Flanders, more particularly the three " Great
Towns," Bruges, Ghent and Ypres, whose population was
Flemish, i.e. German. They sprang up at the foot of the count's
castles and rose hi close conjunction with his power. On the
accession of a new house they made their power felt as early
as 1128. Afterwards the counts of the house of Dampierre fell
into financial dependence on the burghers, and therefore allied
themselves with the rising artisans, led by the weavers. These,
however, proved far more unruly, bloody conflicts ensued, and
for a considerable period the three great cities ruled the whole
of Flanders with a high hand. Their influence in the foreign
relations of the country was likewise great, it being in their
interest to keep up friendly relations with England, on whose
wool the flourishing state of the staple industry of Flanders
depended. It is a remarkable fact that the historical position
taken up by these cities, which politically belonged to France,
is much more akin to the part played by the German towns,
whereas Cambrai, whose population was French, is the only city
politically situated in Germany, where a commune came to be
established.

In the Spanish peninsula, the chief importance of the numerous
small towns lay in the part they played as fortresses during the
unceasing wars with the Moors. The kings therefore extended
special privileges (fueros) to the inhabitants, and they were even
at an early date admitted to representation in the Cortes (parlia-
ment). Of greater individual importance than all the rest was
Barcelona. Already in 1068 Count Berengarius gave the city
a special law (usatici) based on its ancient usages, and from the
i4th century its commercial code (libra del consolat del mar)
became influential all over southern Europe.

The constitutions of the Scandinavian towns were largely
modelled on those of Germany, but the towns never attained
anything like the same independence. Their dependence on
the royal government most strongly comes out in the fact of
their being uniformly regulated by royal law in each of the
three kingdoms. In Sweden particularly, German merchants
by law took an equal share in the government of the towns.
In Denmark their influence was also great, and only in Norway
did they remain in the position of foreigners in spite of their
famous settlement at Bergen. The details, as well as those of the
German settlement at Wisby and on the east coast of the Baltic,
belong rather to the history of the Hanseatic League (q.v.).
Denmark appears to be the only one of the three kingdoms
where gilds at an early date played a part of importance.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The only book dealing with the subject in
general, viz. K. D. Hullmann, Stadtewesen des Mittelalters u vols.,
Bonn, 1826-1828), is quite antiquated. For Germany it is best to
consult Richard Schroder, Lehrbruch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte
(5th ed., Leipzig, 1907), 51 and 56, where a bibliography as com-
plete as need be is given, both of monographs dealing with various

COMMUTATION COMO

793

also known as Economites. Emigrants from Wurttemberg also
founded thecommunityofZoarinOhioin 1817, being incorporated
in 1832 as the Society of Separatists of Zoar; it was dissolved
in 1898. The Amana (q.v.) community, the strongest of all
American communistic societies, originated in Germany in the
early part of the i8th century as "the True Inspiration Society,"
and some 600 members removed to America in 1842-1844. The
Bethel (Missouri) and Aurora (Oregon) sister communities were
founded by Dr Keil (1812-1877) m l &44 an <l 1856 respectively,
and were dissolved in 1880 and 1881. The Oneida Community
(q.v.), created by John Humphrey Noyes (181 1-1886), the author
of a famous History of A merican Socialisms ( 1870) , was established
in 1 848 as a settlement for the Society of Perfectionists. All these
bodies had a religious basis, and were formed with the object of
enjoying the free exercise of their beliefs, and though communistic
in character they had no political or strictly economic doctrine
to propagate.

2. The Owenite communities rose under the influence of
Robert Owen's work at New Lanark, and his propaganda in
America from 1824 onwards, the principal being New Harmony
(acquired from the Rappists in 1825); Yellow Springs, near
Cincinnati, 1824; Nashoba, Tennessee, 1825; Haverstraw, New
York, 1826; its short-lived successors, Coxsackie, New York,
and the Kendal Community, Canton, Ohio, 1826. All these had
more or less short existences, and were founded on Owen's
theories of labour and economics.

3. The Fourierist communities similarly were due to the
Utopian teachings of the Frenchman Charles Fourier (q.v.),
introduced into America by his disciple Albert Brisbane (1809-
1890), author of The Social Destiny of Man (1840), who was
efficiently helped by Horace Greeley, George Ripley and others.
The North American Phalanx, in New Jersey, was started in
1843 and lasted till 1855. Brook Farm (q.v.) was started as a
Fourierist Phalanx in 1844, after three years' independent career,
and became the centre of Fourierist propaganda, lasting till 1847.
The Wisconsin Phalanx, or Ceresco, was organized in 1844, and
lasted till 1850. In Pennsylvania seven communities were
established between 1843 and 1845, the chief of which were the
Sylvania Association, the Peace Union Settlement, the Social
Reform Unity, and the Leraysville Phalanx. In New York
state the chief were the Clarkson Phalanx, the Sodus Bay
Phalanx, the Bloomfield Association, and the Ontario Union.
In Ohio the principal were the Trumbull Phalanx, the Ohio
Phalanx, the Clermont Phalanx, the Integral Phalanx, and the
Columbian Phalanx; and of the remainder the Alphadelphia
Phalanx, in Michigan, was the best-known. It is pointed out by
Morris Hillquit that while only two Fourierist Phalanxes were
established in France, over forty were started in the United States.

4. The Icarian communities were due to the communistic
teachings of another Frenchman, Etienne Cabet (q.v.) (1788-
1856), the name being derived from his social romance, Voyage en
Icarie (1840), sketching the advantages of an imaginary country
called Icaria, with a co-operative system* and criticizing the
existing social organization. It was his idea, in fact, of a Utopia.
Robert Owen advised him to establish his followers, already
numerous, in Texas, and thither about 1500 went in 1848. But
disappointment resulted, and their numbers dwindled to less
than 500 in 1849; some 280 went to Nauvoo, Illinois; after a
schism in 1856 some formed a new colony (1858) at Cheltenham,
near St Louis; others went to Iowa, others to California. The
last branch was dissolved in 1895.

See also the articles SOCIALISM; OWEN; SAINT-SIMON; FOURIER,
&c. ; and the bibliography to SOCIALISM. The whole subject is
admirably covered in Morris Hillquit's work, referred to above;
and see also Noyes's History of American Socialisms (1870) ; Charles
Nordhoff's Communistic Societies of the United States (1875) ; and
W. A. Hinds's American Communities (1878; and edition, 1902), a
very complete account.

COMMUTATION (from Lat. commutare, to change), a process
of exchanging one thing for another, particularly of one method of
payment for another, such as payment in money for payment in
kind or by service, or of payment of a lump sum for periodical
payments; for various kinds of such substitution see ANNUITY;

COPYHOLD and TITHES. The word is also used similarly of the
substitution of a lesser sentence on a criminal for a greater. In
electrical engineering, the word is applied to the reversal of the
course of an electric current, the contrivance for so doing being
known as a "commutator" (see DYNAMO). In America, a
"commutation ticket" on a railway is one which allows a person
to travel at a lower rate over a particular route for a certain
time or for a certain number of times ; the person holding such a
ticket is known as a " commuter."

COMNENUS, the name of a Byzantine family which from 1081
to 1185 occupied the throne of Constantinople. It claimed a
Roman origin, but its earliest representatives appear as landed
proprietors in the district of Castamon (mod. Kaslamuni) in
Paphlagonia. Its first member known in Byzantine history
is MANUEL EROTICUS COMNENUS, an able general who rendered
great services to Basil II. (976-1025 ) in the East. At his death
he left his two sons Isaac and John in the care of Basil, who gave
them a careful education and advanced them to high official
positions. The increasing unpopularity of the Macedonian
dynasty culminated in a revolt of the nobles and the soldiery of
Asia against its feeble representative Michael VI. Stratioticus,
who abdicated after a brief resistance. Isaac was declared
emperor, and crowned in St Sophia on the 2nd of September 1057.
For the rulers of this dynasty see ROMAN EMPIRIC, LATER, and
separate articles.

With Andronicus I. (1183-1185) the rule of the Comneni
proper at Constantinople came to an end. A younger line of the
original house, after the establishment of the Latins at Constanti-
nople in 1 204, secured possession of a fragment of the empire in
Asia Minor, and founded the empire of Trebizond (q.v.), which
lasted till 1461, when David Comnenus, the last emperor, was
deposed by Mahommed II.

For a general account of the family and its alleged survivors see
article " Komnenen," by G. F. Hertzberg, in Ersch and Gruber's
Allgemeine Encyklopddie, and an anonymous monograph, Precis
historique de la maison imperiale des Comnenes (Amsterdam, 1 784) ;
and, for the history of the period, the works referred to under
ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER.

COMO (anc. Comum), a city and episcopal see of Lombardy,
Italy, the capital of the province of Como, situated at the S.
end of the W. branch of the Lake of Como, 30 m. by rail N. by
W. of Milan. Pop. (1881) 25,560; (1005) 34,272 (town), 41,124
(commune). The city lies in a valley enclosed by mountains,
the slopes of which command fine views of the lake. The old
town, which preserves its rectangular plan from Roman times,
is enclosed by walls, with towers constructed in the I2th century.
The cathedral, built entirely of marble, occupies the site of an
earlier church, and was begun in 1396, from which period the
nave dates: the facade belongs to 1457-1486, while the east
of the exterior was altered into the Renaissance style, and richly
decorated with sculptures by Tommaso Rodari in 1487-1526.
The dome is an unsuitable addition of 1731 by the Sicilian
architect Filippo Juvara (1685-1735), and its baroque decorations
spoil the effect of the fine Gothic interior. It contains some good
pictures and fine tapestries. In the same line as the facade of
the cathedral are the Broletto (in black and white marble),
dating from 1215, the seat of the original rulers of the commune,
and the massive clock-tower. The Romanesque church of
S.Abondio outside the town was founded in 1013 and consecrated
in 1095; it has two fine campanili, placed at the ends of the aisles
close to the apse. It occupies the site of the 5th-century church
of SS. Peter and Paul. Near it is the Romanesque church of
S. Carpoforo. Above it is the ruined castle of Baradello. The
churches of S. Giacomo (1095-1117) and S. Fedele (i2th century),
both in the town, are also Romanesque, and the apses have
external galleries. The Palazzo Giovio contains the Museo
Civico. Como is a considerable tourist resort, and the steamboat
traffic on the lake is largely for travellers. A climate station
is established on the hill of Brunate (2350 ft.) above the town
to the E., reached by a funicular railway. The Milanese possess
many villas here. Como is an industrial town, having large silk
factories and other industries (see LOMBARDY). It is connected
with Milan by two lines of railway, one via Monza (the main line,

794

COMO, LAKE OF COMORO ISLANDS

which goes on to Chiasso Swiss frontier and the St Gotthard),
the other via Saronno and also with Lecco and Varese.

Of the Roman Comum little remains above ground ; a portion
of its S.E. wall was discovered and may be seen in the garden
of the Liceo Volta, 88 ft. within the later walls: later fortifica-
tions (but previous to 1127), largely constructed with Roman
inscribed sepulchral urns and other fragments, had been super-
imposed on it. Thermae have also been discovered (see V.
Barelli in Notizie degli scam, 1880, 333; 1881, 333; 1882, 285).
The inscriptions, on the other hand, are numerous, and give an
idea of its importance. The statements as to the tribe which
originally possessed it are various. It belonged to Gallia Cis-
alpina, and first came into contact with Rome in 196 B.C., when
M. Claudius Marcellus conquered the Insubres and the Comenses.
In 89 B.C., having suffered damage from the Raetians, it was
restored by Cn. Pompeius Strabo, and given Latin rights with
the rest of Gallia Transpadana. Shortly after this 3000 colonists
seem to have been sent there; 5000 were certainly sent by
Caesar in 59 B.C., and the place received the name Novum
Comum. It appears in the imperial period as a municipium,
and is generally spoken of as Comum simply. The place was
prosperous; it had an important iron industry; and the banks
of the lake were, as now, dotted with villas. It was also im-
portant as the starting-point for the journey across the lake
in connexion with the Splugen and Septimer passes (see CHIA-
VENNA). It was the birthplace of both the elder and the younger
Pliny, the latter of whom founded baths and a library here and
gave money for the support of orphan children. There was a
praefectus classis Comensis under the late empire, and it was
regarded as a strong fortress. See Ch. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa,
Realencyclopadie, Suppl. Heft i. (Stuttgart, 1903), 326.

Como suffered considerably from the early barbarian invasions,
many of the inhabitants taking refuge on the Isola Comacina
off Sala, but recovered in Lombard times. It was from that
period that the magistri Comacini formed a privileged corporation
of architects and sculptors, who were employed in other parts
of Italy also, until, at the end of the nth century, individuals
began to come more to the front (G. T. Rivoira, Origini del-
l' architettura Lombarda, Rome, 1901, i. 127 f.). Como then
became subject to the archbishops of Milan, but gained its
freedom towards the end of the nth century. At the beginning
of the 1 2th century war broke out between Como and Milan,
and after a ten years' war Como was taken and its fortifications
dismantled in 1127. In 1154, however, it took advantage of
the arrival of Barbarossa, and remained faithful to him through-
out the whole war of the Lombard League. After frequent
struggles with Milan, it fell under the power of the Visconti in
1335. In 1535, like the rest of Lombardy, it fell under Spanish
dominion, and in 1714 under Austrian. Thenceforth it shared
the fortunes of Milan, becoming in the Napoleonic period the
chief town of the department of the Lario. Its silk industry
and its position at the entrance to the Alpine passes gave it
some importance even then. It bore a considerable part in the
national risings of 1848-1859 against Austrian rule. (T. As.)

COHO, LAKE OF (the Lacus Larius of the Romans, and so
sometimes called LARIO to the present day, though in the 4th
century it is already termed Lacus Comacinus), one of the
most celebrated lakes in Lombardy, Northern Italy. It lies due
N. of Milan and is formed by the Adda that flows through the
Valtelline to the north end of the lake (here falls in the Maira
or Mera, coming from the Val Bregaglia) and flows out of it
at its south-eastern extremity, on the way to join the Po. Its
area is 555 sq. m., it is about 43 m. from end to end (about 305
m.from the north end of Bellagio),itisfrom i to 25 m. in breadth,
its surface is 653 ft. above the sea, and its greatest depth is 1365
ft. A railway line now runs along its eastern shore from Colico
to Lecco (245 m.), while on its western shore Menaggio is reached
by a steam tramway from Porlezza on the Lake of Lugano (8 m.).
Colico, at the northern extremity, is by rail 1 7 m. from Chiavenna
and 42 m. from Tirano, while at its southern end Como (on the
St Gotthard line) is 32 m. from Milan, and Lecco about the
same distance. The lake fills a remarkable depression which

has been cut through the limestone ranges that enclose it, and
once doubtless extended as far as Chiavenna, the Lake of Mezzola
being a surviving witness of its ancient bed. Towards the south
the promontory of Bellagio divides the lake into two arms.
That to the south-east ends at Lecco and is the true outlet, for
the south-western arm, ending at Como, is an enclosed bay.
During the morning the Tivano wind blows from the north,
while in the afternoon the Breva wind blows from the south.
But, like other Alpine lakes, the Lake of Como is exposed to
sudden violent storms. Its beauties have been sung by Virgil
and Claudian, while the two Plinys are among the celebrities
associated with the lake. The shores are bordered by splendid
villas, while perhaps the most lovely spot on it is Bellagio, built
in an unrivalled position. Among the other villages that line
the lake, the best-known are Varenna (E.) and Menaggio (W.),
nearly opposite one another, while Cadenabbia (W.) faces
Bellagio. (W. A. B. C.)

COMONFORT, IGNACIO (1812-1863), a Mexican soldier and
politician, who, after occupying a variety of civil and military
posts, was in December 1855 made provisional president by
Alvarez, and from December 1857 was for a few weeks consti-
tutional president. (See MEXICO.)

COMORIN, CAPE, a headland in the state of Travancore,
forming the extreme southern point of the peninsula of India.
It is situated in 8 4' 20* N., 77 35' 35" E., and is the terminating
point of the western Ghats. The village of Comorin, with the
temple of Kanniyambal, the " virgin goddess," on the coast at
the apex of the headland, is a frequented place of pilgrimage.

COMORO ISLANDS, a group of volcanic islands belonging to
France, in the Indian Ocean, at the northern entrance of the
Mozambique Channel midway between Madagascar and the
African continent. The following table of the area and popula-
tion of the four largest islands gives one of the sets of figures
offered by various authorities:

Area sq. m.

Population.

Great Comoro ....
Anjuan or Johanna .
Mayotte
Moheli

Total . .

385
145
140
90

50,000
12,000
11,000
9,000

760

82,000

There are besides a large number of islets of coral formation.
Particulars of the four islands named follow.

1. Great Comoro, or Angazia, the largest and most westerly,
has a length of about 38 m., with a width of about 12 m. Near
its southern extremity it rises into a fine dome-shaped volcanic
mountain, Kartola (Karthala), which is over 8500 ft. high, and
is visible for more than 100 m. Up to about 6000 ft. it is clothed
with dense vegetation. Eruptions are recorded for the years
1830, 1855 and 1858; and another eruption occurred hi 1904.
In the north the ground rises gradually to a plateau some 2000 ft.
above the sea; from this plateau many regularly shaped
truncated cones rise another 2000 ft. The centre of the island
consists of a desert field of lava streams, about 1600 ft. high.
The chief towns are Maroni (pop. about 2000), Itzanda and
Mitsamuli; the first, situated at the head of a bay in n 40' S.,
being the seat of the French administrator.

2. Anjuan, or Johanna, next in size, lies E. by S. of Comoro.
It is some 30 m. long by 20 at its greatest breadth. The land
rises in a succession of richly wooded heights till it culminates in a
central peak, upwards of 5000 ft. above the sea, in 12 14' S., 44
27' E. The former capital, Mossamondu, on the N.W. coast, is
substantially built of stone, surrounded by a wall, and com-
manded by a dilapidated citadel; it is the residence of the
sultan and of the French administrator. There is a small but
safe anchorage at Pomony, on the S. side, formerly used as a
coal depot by ships of the British navy.

3. Mayotte, about 21 m. long by 6 or 7 m. broad, is surrounded
by an extensive and dangerous coral reef. The principal heights
on its extremely irregular surface are: Mavegani Mountain,
which rises in two peaks to a maximum of 2164 ft., and Uchongin,

COMPANION COMPANY

795

2100 ft. The French headquarters are on the islet of Zaudzi,
which lies within the reef in 12 46' S., 45 20' E. There are
substantial government buildings and store-houses. On the
mainland opposite Zaudzi is Msap6re, the chief centre of trade.
Mayotte was devastated in 1898 by a cyclone of great severity.

4. Moheli or Mohilla lies S. of and between Anjuan and Grand
Comoro. It is 15 m. long and 7 or 8 m. at its maximum breadth.
Unlike the other three it has no peaks, but rises gradually to a
central ridge about 1900 ft. in height. Fomboni (pop. about
2000) in the N.W. and Numa Choa in the S.W. are the chief towns.

All the islands possess a very fertile soil; there are forests of
coco-nut palms, and among the products are rice, maize, sweet-
potatoes, yams, coffee, cotton, vanilla and various tropical
fruits, the papaw tree being abundant. The fauna is allied to that
of Madagascar rather than to the mainland of Africa; it includes
some land birds and a species of lemur peculiar to the islands.
Large numbers of cattle and sheep, the former similar to the
small species at Aden, are reared as well as, in Great Comoro, the
zebra. Turtles are caught in abundance along the coasts, and
form an article of export. The climate is in general warm, but
not torrid nor unsuitable for Europeans. The dry season lasts
from May to the end of October, the rest of the year being rainy.
The natives are of mixed Malagasy, Negro and Arab blood.
The majority are Mahommedans. The European inhabitants,
mostly French, number about 600. There are some 200 British
Indians, traders, in the islands. The external trade of the islands
has developed since the annexation of Madagascar to France, and
is of the value of about 100,000 a year. Sugar refineries,
distilleries of rum, and sawmills are worked in Mayotte by French
settlers. Cane sugar and vanilla are the chief exports. The
islands are regularly visited by vessels of the Messageries Mari-
times fleet, and a coaling station for the French navy has been
established.

The islands were first visited by Europeans in the i6th century;
they are marked on the map of Diego Ribero made in 1527. At
that time, and for long afterwards, the dominant influence
in, and the civilization of, the islands was Arab. According to
tradition the islands were first peopled by Arab voyagers driven
thither by tempests. The petty sultans who exercised authority
were notorious slave traders. A Sakalava chief who had been
driven from Madagascar by the Hovas took refuge in Mayotte
c. 1830, and, with the aid of the sultan of Johanna, conquered the
island, which for a century had been given over to civil war.
French naval officers having reported on the strategic value of
Mayotte, Admiral de Hell, governor of Reunion, sent an officer
there in 1841, and a treaty was negotiated ceding the island to
France. Possession was taken in 1843, the sultan of Johanna
renouncing his claims in the same year. In 1886 the sultans of
the other three islands were placed under French protection,
France fearing that otherwise the islands would be taken by
Germany. The French experienced some difficulty with the
natives, but by 1892 had established their position. The islands,
as regulated by the decree of the 9th of April 1908, are under the
supreme authority of the governor-general of Madagascar. The
local administration is in the hands of an official who himself
governs Mayotte but is represented in the other islands by
administrators. On the council which assists the governor are
two nominated native notables. In 1910 the sultan of Great
Comoro ceded his sovereign rights to France. In Anjuan the
native government is continued under French supervision.
The budgets of the four islands in 1904 came to some 30,000,
that of Mayotte being about half the total. The chief sources of
revenue are poll and house taxes, and, in Mayotte, a land tax.

The lies Glorieuses, three islets 160 m. N.E. of Mayotte, with
a population of some 20 souls engaged in the collection of guano
and the capture of turtles, were in 1892 annexed to France and
placed under the control of the administrator of Mayotte.

See Notice sur Mayotte et les Comores, by Emile Vienne, one of
the memoirs on the French colonies prepared for the Paris Exhibition
of 1900; Le Sullanat d'Anjottan, by Jules Repiquet (Paris, 1901),
a systematic account of the geography, ethnology and history of
Johanna; Les colonies franf aises (Paris, 1900), vol. ii. pp. 179-197,

in which the story of the archipelago is set forth by various writers;
an account of the islands by A. Voeltzkow in the Zeitschrift of the
Berlin Geog. Soc. (No. 9, 1906), and Carte des lies Comores, by A.
Meunier (Paris, 1904).

COMPANION (through the O. Fr. compaignon or compagnon,
from the Late Lat. companio, cum, with, and panis, bread, one
who shares meals with another; the word has been wrongly
derived from the Late Lat. compagnus, one of the same pagus or
district), a mess-mate or "comrade" (a term which itself has a
similar origin, meaning one who shares the same camera or room).
"Companion" is particularly used of soldiers, as in. the ex-
pression " companion in arms," and so is the title of the lowest
rank in a military or other order of knighthood; the word is also
used of a person who lives with another in a paid position for the
sake of company, and is looked on rather as a friend than a
servant; and of a pair or match, as of pictures and the like.
Similar in ultimate origin but directly adapted from the Fr.
chambre de la compagne, and Ital. camera delta compagna, the
storeroom for provisions on board ship, is the use of "companion "
for the framed windows over a hatchway on the deck of a ship,
and also for the hooded entrance-stairs to the captain's cabin.

COMPANY, one of a number of words like "partnership,"
"union," "gild," "society," "corporation," denoting each
with its special shade of meaning the association of individuals
in pursuit of some common object. The taking of meals together
was, as the word signifies (cum, with, panis, bread,) a character-
istic of the early company. Gild had a similar meaning: but
this characteristic, though it survives in the Livery company
(see LIVERY COMPANIES), has in modern times disappeared.
The word "company" is now monopolized in British usage
by two great classes of companies (i) the joint stock company,
constituted under the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908,
which consolidated the various acts from 1862 to 1907, and (2)
the " public company," constituted under a special act to carry
on some work of public utility, such as a railway, docks, gas-
works or waterworks, and regulated by the Companies Clauses
Acts 1845 and 1863.

i. Joint Stock Companies.

The joint stock company may be defined as an association of
persons incorporated to promote by joint contributions to a
common stock the carrying on of some commercial enterprise.
Associations formed not for "the acquisition of gain" but to
promote art, science, religion, charity or some other useful or
philanthropic object, though they may be constituted under the
Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, seldom call themselves
companies, but adopt some name more appropriate to express
their objects, such as society, club, institute, college or chamber.
The joint stock company has had a long history which can only
be briefly sketched here. The name of "joint stock company "
is or was used to distinguish such a company from the
"regulated company," which did not trade on a joint stock but
was in the nature of a trade gild, the members of which had a
monopoly of foreign trade with particular countries or places (see
Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, bk. v. ch. i. pt. iii.).

The earliest kind of joint stock company is the chartered (see
CHARTERED COMPANIES). The grant of a charter is one of the
exclusive privileges of the crown, and the crown has from time to
time exercised it in furtherance of trading enterprise. Examples
of such grants are the Merchant Adventurers of England,
chartered by Richard II. (1390); the East India Co., chartered
by Queen Elizabeth (1600); the Bank of England, chartered by
William and Mary (1694); the Hudson's Bay Co.; the Royal
African Co.; the notorious South Sea Co.; and in later times the
New Zealand Co., the North Borneo Co., and the Royal Niger Co.
Chartered companies had, however, several disadvantages. A
charter was not easily obtainable. It was costly. The members
could not be made personally liable for the debts of the company:
and once created though only for defined objects such a
company was invested with entire independence and could not be
kept to the conditions imposed by the grant, which was against
public policy. A new form of commercial association was wanted,
free from these defects, and it was found in the common law

79 6

COMPANY

company the lineal ancestor of the modern trading company.
The common law company was not an incorporated association:
it was simply a great partnership with transferable shares.
Companies of this kind multiplied rapidly towards the close of
the I7th century and the beginning of the i8th century, but they
were regarded withstrong disfavour by the law, for reasonsnot very
intelligible to modern notions; the chief of these reasons being
that such companies purported to act as corporate bodies, raised
transferable stock, used charters for purposes not warranted by
the grant, and were or were supposed to be dangerous and
mischievous, tending (in the words of the preamble of the Bubble
Act) to " the common grievance, prejudice and inconvenience
of His Majesty's subjects or great numbers of them in trade,
commerce or other lawful affairs." They were too often and
this no doubt was the real ground of the prejudice against them
utilized by unprincipled persons to promote fantastic and often
fraudulent schemes. Matthew Green, in his poem " The Spleen,"
notes how

" Wrecks appear each day,
And yet fresh fools are cast away."

The result was that by the act (6 Geo. I. c. 18) commonly known
as the Bubble Act (1719) such companies were declared to be
common nuisances and indictable as such. But the act, though
it remained on the statute book for more than one hundred years
and was not formally repealed till 1825, proved quite ineffectual
to check the growth of joint stock enterprise, and the legislature,
finding that such companies had to be tolerated, adopted the
wiser course of regulating what it could not repress. One great
inconvenience of these common law trading companies arose
from their being unincorporated. They were formed of large
fluctuating bodies of individuals, and a person dealing with them
did not know with whom he was contracting or whom he was to
sue. This evil the legislature sought to rectify by empowering
the crown to grant to companies by letters patent without
incorporation the privilege of suing and being sued by a public
officer. Ten years afterwards in 1844 a more important
line of policy was adopted, and all companies with some ex-
ceptions were enabled to obtain a certificate of incorporation
without applying for a charter or special act. The act of 1862
carried this policy one step farther by prohibiting all associations
of more than twenty persons from carrying on business without
registering under the act. These were all useful amendments,
but they were amendments of form rather than substance. The
real vitality of joint stock enterprise lies in the co-operative
principle, and the natural growth and expansion of this fruitful
principle was checked until the middle of the igth century by the
notorious risks attaching to unlimited liability. In the case of
an ordinary partnership, though their liability is unlimited (or
was until the Limited Partnerships Act 1907), the partners can
generally tell what risks they are incurring. Not so the share-
holders of a company. They delegate the management of their
business to a board of directors, and they may easily find them-
selves committed by the fraud or folly of its members to engage-
ments which in the days of unlimited liability meant ruin.
Failures like those of Overend and Gurney, and of the Glasgow
Bank, caused widespread misery and alarm. It was not until
limited liability had been grafted on the stock of the co-operative
system that the real potency of the principle of industrial
co-operation became apparent. We owe the adoption of the
limited liability principle to the clear-sightedness of Lord
Sherbrooke then Mr Robert Lowe and to the vigorous
advocacy of Lord Bramwell. We owe it to Lord Bramwell also
that the principle was made a feasible one. The practical
difficulty was how to bring home to persons dealing with
the company notice that the liability of the shareholders
was limited. Lord Bramwell solved the problem by a
happy suggestion "write it on my tombstone," he said
humorously to a friend. This was that the company should add
to its name the word "Limited" paint it up on its premises,
and use it on all invoices, bills, promissory notes and other
documents. The proposal was adopted by the Legislature and
has worked successfully. While limited companies have been

multiplying at the rate of over 4000 a year, the unlimited
company has become practically an extinct species. The growth
of limited companies is, indeed, one of the most striking
phenomena of our day. Their number may be estimated at quite
40,000. Their paid-up capital amounts to the stupendous sum of
1,850,000,000 and, what is even more significant, as the ist
Viscount Goschen remarks in his Essays and Addresses, is that
" the number of shareholders has grown in a much greater ratio
than the colossal growth of the aggregate capital. The profits and
risks of nearly every kind of business have been spread from year
to year over fresh thousands of individuals, and the middle class
with moderate incomes are more and more participating in that
accumulation of wealth from business of every description which
formerly built up the fortunes of individual traders or of bankers
or of single families."

It is with the limited company then the company limited by
shares as the normal type and incomparably the most im-
portant, that this article mainly deals.

Companies Limited by Shares. The Companies Act 1862, was
intended to constitute a comprehensive code of law applicable to
joint stock trading companies for the whole of the United
Kingdom. Recognizing the mischief above alluded to of
trading concerns being carried on by large and fluctuating bodies,
the act begins by declaring that no company, association or
partnership, consisting of more than twenty persons, or ten in the
case of banking, shall be formed after the commencement of the
act for the purpose of carrying on any business which has for its
object the acquisition of gain by the company, association or
partnership, or by the individual members thereof, unless it is
registered as a company under the act, or is formed in pursuance
of some other act of parliament or of letters patent, or is a
company engaged in working mines within and subject to the
jurisdiction of the Stannaries. Broadly speaking, the meaning of
the act is that all commercial undertakings, as distinguished from
literaryorcharitable associations, shall be registered. "Business"
has a more extensive signification than "trade." Having thus
cleared the ground the act goes on to provide in what manner
a company may be formed under the act. The machinery is
simple, and is described as follows:

" Any seven or more persons associated for any lawful purpose
may, by subscribing their names to a memorandum of association
and otherwise complying with the requisitions of this act in
respect of registration, form an incorporated company with or
without limited liability" ( 6). It is not necessary that the
subscribers should be traders nor will the fact that six of the
subscribers are mere dummies, clerks or nominees of the seventh
affect the validity of the company; so the House of Lords
decided in Salomon v. Salomon & Co., 1897, A. C. 22.

The document to be subscribed the Memorandum of Associa-
tion corresponds, in the case of companies formed under the
Companies Act 1862, to the charter or deed of settle- Memor*
ment in the case of other companies. The form of it is andum of
given in the schedule to the act, and varies slightly
according as the company is limited by shares or
guarantee, or is unlimited. (See the 3rd schedule to the Consolida-
tion Act 1908, forms A, B, C, D.) It is required to state, in the
case of a company limited by shares, the five following matters:

i . The name of the proposed company, with the addition of
the word " limited " as the last word in such name.

2. The part of the United Kingdom, whether England,
Scotland or Ireland, in which the registered office of the company
is proposed to be situate.

3. The objects for which the proposed company is to be
established.

4. A declaration that the liability of the members is limited.

5. The amount of capital with which the company proposes to
be registered, divided into shares of a certain fixed amount.

No subscriber of the memorandum is to take less than one
share, and each subscriber is to write opposite his name the
number of shares he takes.

These five matters the legislature has deemed of such intrinsic
importance that it has required them to be set out in the

COMPANY

797

company's Memorandum of Association. They are the essential
conditions of incorporation, and as such they must not only be
stated, but the policy of the legislature has made them with
certain exceptions unalterable.

The most important of these five conditions is the third, and
its importance consists in this, that the objects defined in the
memorandum circumscribe the sphere of the company's activities.
This principle, which is one of public policy and convenience,
and is known as the " ullra, vires doctrine," carries with it im-
portant consequences, because every act done or contract made
by a company ultra vires, i.e. in excess of its powers, is absolutely
null and void. The policy, too, is a sound one. Shareholders
contribute their money on the faith that it is to be employed in
prosecuting certain objects, and it would be a violation of good
faith if the company, i.e. the majority of shareholders, were to be
allowed to divert it to something quite different. So strict is the
rule that not even the consent of every individual shareholder can
give validity to an ultra vires act.

The articles of association are the regulations for internal

management of the company the terms of the partnership

agreed upon by the shareholders among themselves.

octa- ^ model or specimen set of articles known as Table A
tioa. was given by the Companies Act 1862, and is appended

in a revised form to the Companies (Consolidation) Act
1908. When a company is to be registered the memorandum of
association accompanied by a copy of the articles is taken to the
office of the registrar of joint stock companies at Somerset House,
together with the following documents:

1. A list of persons who have consented to be directors of the
company (fee stamp 55.).

2. A statutory declaration by a solicitor of the High Court
engaged in the formation of the company, or by a person named
in the articles of association as a director or secretary of the
company, that the requisitions of the act in respect of registration
and of matters precedent and incidental thereto have been
complied with (fee stamp 53.).

3. A statement as to the nominal share capital (stamped with
an ad valorem duty of 55. per 100).

4. If no prospectus is to be issued, a company must now
(Companies Act 1907, s. i; Consolidation Act 1908, s. 82) in lieu
thereof file with the registrar a statement, in the form prescribed
by the ist schedule to the act, of all the material facts relating to
the company. Till this has been done the company cannot allot
any shares or debentures.

If these documents are in order the registrar registers the
company and issues a certificate of incorporation (see Companies
(Consolidation) Act 1908, sect. 82); on registration, the
memorandum and articles of association become public docu-
ments, and any person may inspect them on payment of a fee of
one shilling. This has important consequences, because every
person dealing with the company is presumed to be acquainted
with its constitution, and to have read its memorandum and
articles. The articles also, upon registration, bind the company
and its members to the same extent as if each member had
subscribed his name and affixed his seal to them.

The total cost of registering a company with a capital of
1000 is about 7; 10,000 about 34; 100,000 about 280.

The capital which is required to be stated in the memorandum
of association, and which represents the amount which the
company is empowered to issue, is what is known as
the nominal capital. This nominal capital must be
distinguished from the subscribed capital. Subscribed capital
is the aggregate amount agreed to be paid by those who have
taken shares in the company. Under the Companies Act 1900,
Companies Act 1908, s. 85, a " minimum subscription " may be
fixed by the articles, and if it is the directors cannot go to allot-
ment on less: if it is not, then the whole of the capital offered
for subscription must be subscribed. A company may increase
its capital, consolidate it, subdivide it into shares of smaller
amount and convert paid-up shares into stock. It may also,
with the sanction of the court, otherwise reorganize its capital
(Companies Act 1907, s. 39; Companies (Consolidation) Act

Capital.

1908, s. 45), and for this purpose modify its Memorandum of
Association; but a limited company cannot reduce its capital
either by direct or indirect means without the sanction of the
court. The inviolability of the capital is a condition of incorpora-
tion the price of the privilege of trading with limited liability,
and by no subterfuge will a company be allowed to evade this
cardinal rule of policy, either by paying dividends out of capital,
or buying its own shares, or returning money to shareholders.
But the prohibition against reduction means that the capital
must not be reduced by the voluntary act of the company, not
that a company's capital must be kept intact. It is embarked in
the company's business, and it must run the risks of such business.
If part of it is lost there is no obligation on the company to
replace it and to cease paying dividends until such lost capital
is repaid. The company may in such a case write off the lost
capital and go on trading with the reduced amount. But for
this purpose the sanction of the court must be obtained by
petition.

A share is an aliquot part of a company's nominal capital.
The amount may be anything from is. to 1000. The tendency
of late years has been to keep the denomination low, shares
and so to appeal to a wider public. Shares of 100, or
even 10, are now the exception. The most common amount
is either i or 5. Shares are of various kinds ordinary,
preference, deferred, founders' and management. Into what
classes of shares the original capital of the company shall be
divided, what shall be the amount of each class,- and their
respective rights, privileges and priorities, are matters for the
consideration of the promoters of the company, and must depend
on its special circumstances and requirements.

A company may issue preference shares even if there is no
mention of them in the Memorandum of Association, and any
preference or special privilege so given to a class of shares cannot
be interfered with on any reorganization of capital except by a
resolution passed by a majority of shareholders of that class
representing three-fourths of the capital of that class (Companies
(Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 45). The preference given may be
as to dividends only, or as to dividends and capital. The
dividend, again, may be payable out of the year's profits only,
or it may be cumulative, that is, a deficiency in one year is to
be made good out of the profits of subsequent years. Prima
facie, a preferential dividend is cumulative. For issuing pre-
ference shares the question for the directors is, what must be
offered to attract investors. Preference shareholders are given
by the Companies Act 1907, s. 23; Companies (Consolidation)
Act 1908, s. 114, the right to inspect balance sheets. Founders'
shares which originated with private companies are shares
which usually take the whole or half the profits after payment of
a dividend of 7 or 10% to the ordinary shareholders. They are
much less in favour than they used to be.

The machinery of company formation is generally set in
motion by a person known as a promoter. This is a term of
business, not law. It means, to use Chief Justice
Cockburn's words, a person " who undertakes to form an
a. company with reference to a given project and to promotion.
set it going, and who takes the necessary steps to
accomplish that purpose." Whether what a person has done
towards this end constitutes him a promoter or not, is a question
of fact; but once an affirmative conclusion is reached, equity
clothes such promoter with a fiduciary relation towards the
company which he has been instrumental in creating. This
doctrine is now well established, and its good sense is apparent
when once the position of the promoter towards the company
is understood. Promoters to use Lord Cairns's language in
Erlanger v. New Sombrero Phosphate Co., 3 A. C. 1236 "have
in their hands the creation and moulding of the company.
They have the power of defining how and when and in what shape
and under what supervision it shall start into existence and begin
to act as a trading corporation." Such a control over the
destinies of the company involves correlative obligations towards
it, and one of these obligations is that the promoter must not
take advantage of the company's helplessness. A promoter

COMPANY

may sell his property to the company, but he must first see that
the company is furnished with an independent board of directors
to protect its interests and he must make full and fair disclosure
of his interest in order that the company may determine whether
it will or will not authorize its trustee or agent (for such the pro-
moter in equity is) to make a profit out of the sale. It is not a
sufficient disclosure in such a case for the promoter merely to
refer in the prospectus to a contract which, if read by the share-
holders, would inform them of his interest. They are under no
obligation to inquire. It is for the promoter to bring home
notice, not constructive but actual, to the shareholders.

When a company is promoted for acquiring property to work
a mine or patent, for instance, or carry on a going business the
usual course is for the promoter to frame a draft agreement for
the sale of the property to the company or to a trustee on its
behalf. The memorandum and articles of the intended company
are then prepared, and an article is inserted authorizing or requir-
ing the directors to adopt the draft agreement for sale. In
pursuance of this authority the directors at the first meeting
after incorporation take the draft agreement into consideration ;
and if they approve, adopt it. Where they do so in the exercise
of an honest and independent judgment, no exception can be
taken to the transaction; but where the directors happen to be
nominees of the promoter, perhaps qualified by him and acting
in his interest, the situation is obviously open to grave abuse.
It is not too much, indeed, to say that the fastening of an
onerous or improvident contract on a company at its start, by
interested promoters acting in collusion with the directors, has
been the principal cause of the scandals associated with company
promotion.

Concurrently with the adoption of the contract for the acquisi-
tion of the property which is the company's raison d'etre, the
directors have to consider how they will best get the company's
capital subscribed. Down to the passing of the Companies Act
1900 the usual mode of doing this was to issue a prospectus
inviting the public to subscribe for shares. After the act of
1900 the prospectus fell into general disuse. In the year 1903,
out of a total of 3596 companies which registered, only 358
issued a prospectus, the directors preferring, it would seem, to
place the share capital through the medium of brokers, financial
agents and other intermediaries rather than run the risk of
incurring, personally, liability under the stringent provisions
for disclosure contained in the act (s. 10). Of late the prospectus
has, however, returned into favour. Under the act of 1907,
incorporated in the Consolidation Act 1908 (s. 82), a company,
if it does not issue a prospectus, must file a statement of all the
material facts relating to the company.

A prospectus is an invitation to the public to take shares on
the faith of the statements therein contained, and is thus the
basis of the agreement to take the shares; there
therefore rests on those who are responsible for its
issue an obligation to act with the most perfect good
faith uberrima fides and this obligation has been repeatedly
emphasized by judges of the highest eminence. (See the observa-
tions of Kindersley, V.C., in New Brunswick Railway Co. v.
Muggeridge, 1860, i Dr. & Sm. 383, and of Lord Herschell in
Derry v. Peek, 1889, 14 A. C. 376.) Directors must be perfectly
candid with the public; they must not only state what they
do state with strict and scrupulous accuracy, but they must
not omit any fact which, if disclosed, would falsify the statements
made. This is the general obligation of directors when issuing
a prospectus; but on this general obligation the legislature
has engrafted special requirements. By the Companies Act
1867, it required the dates and names of the parties to any
contract entered into by the company or its promoters or directors
before the issue of the prospectus, to be disclosed in the pro-
spectus; otherwise the prospectus was to be deemed fraudulent.
This enactment was repealed by the Companies Act 1000, but
only in favour of more stringent provisions incorporated in the
Consolidation Act of 1908. Now, not only is every prospectus
to be signed and filed with the registrar of Joint Stock Companies
before it can be issued, but the prospectus must set forth a long

Pro-
spectus.

and elaborate series of particulars about the company the
contents of the Memorandum of Association, with the names
of the signatories, the share qualification (if any) of the directors,
the minimum subscription on which the directors may proceed
to allotment, the shares and debentures issued otherwise than
for cash, the names and addresses of the vendors, the amount
paid for underwriting the company, the amount of preliminary
expenses, of promotion money (if any), and the interest (if any)
of every director in the promotion or in property to be acquired
by the company. Neglect of this statutory duty of disclosure
will expose directors to personal liabili ty. For false or fraudulent
statements as distinguished from non-disclosure in a pro-
spectus directors are liable in an action of deceit or under the
Directors' Liability Act 1890, now incorporated in the act of
1908. This act was passed to meet the decision of the House
of Lords in Peek v. Derry (12 A. C. 337), that a director could
not be made liable in an action of deceit for an untrue statement
in a prospectus, unless the plaintiff could prove that the director
had made the untrue statement fraudulently. The Directors'
Liability Act enacted in substance that when once a prospectus
is proved to contain a material statement of fact which is untrue,
the persons responsible for the prospectus are to be liable to pay
compensation to any one who has subscribed on the faith of the
prospectus, unless they can prove that they had reasonable
ground to believe, and did in fact believe, the statement to be
true. Actions under this act have been rare, but their rarity
may be due to the act having had the effect of making directors
more careful in their statements.

Before the passing of the Companies Act 1900, it was a matter
for directors' discretion on what subscription they should go
to allotment. They often did so on a scandalously
inadequate subscription. To remedy this abuse the
Companies Act 1900 (Companies (Consolidation)
Act 1908, s. 85) provided that no allotment of any share capital
offered to the public for subscription is to be made unless the
amount fixed by the memorandum and articles of association
and named in the prospectus as " the minimum subscription "
upon which the directors may proceed to allotment has been
subscribed and the application moneys which must not be
less than 5% of the nominal amount of the share paid to and
received by the company. If no minimum is fixed the whole
amount of the share capital offered for subscription must have
been subscribed before the directors can go to allotment. The
" minimum subscription " is to be reckoned exclusively of any
amount payable otherwise than in cash. If these conditions are
not complied with within forty days the application moneys
must be returned. Any " waiver clause " or contract to waive
compliance with the section is to be void.

An allotment of shares made in contravention of these pro-
visions is irregular and voidable at the option of the applicant
for shares within one month after the first or statutory meeting
of the company (Companies (Consolidation) Act, s. 86). Even
when a company has got what under the name of the " minimum
subscription " the directors deem enough capital for its enter-
prise, it cannot now commence business or make any binding
contract or exercise any borrowing powers until it has obtained
a certificate entitling it to commence business (Companies
(Consolidation) Act 1908, 5.87). To obtain this certificate the
company must have fulfilled certain statutory conditions, which
are briefly these:

(a) The company must have allotted shares to the amount of not
less than the " minimum subscription."

(ft) Every director must have paid up his shares in the same pro-
portion as the other members of the company.

(c) A statutory declaration, made by the secretary of the company
or one of the directors, must have been filed with the
registrar of joint stock companies, that these conditions
have been complied with.

These conditions fulfilled, the company gets its certificate
and starts on its business career, carrying on its business through
the agency of directors, as to whose powers and duties see
DIRECTORS.

The Companies Act as consolidated in the act of 1908, and

COMPANY

799

Meetings.

the regulations under them, treat the directors of a company as
the persons in whom the management of the com-
pany's affairs is vested. But they also comtemplate the
ultimate controlling power as residing in the shareholders. A
controlling power of this kind can only assert itself through
general meetings; and that it may have proper opportunities
of doing so, every company is required to hold a general meeting,
commonly called the statutory meeting, within as fixed by the
Companies Act 1900 three months from the date at which it
is entitled to commence business. This first statutory meeting
acquired new significance under the Companies Act of 1900 and
marks an important stage in the early history of a company.
Seven days before it takes place the directors are required to
send round to the members a certified report informing them
of the general state of the company's affairs the number of
shares allotted, cash received for them, and names and addresses
of the members, the amount of preliminary expenses, the par-
ticulars of any contract to be submitted to the meeting, &c.
Furnished with this report the members come to the meeting
in a position to discuss and exercise an intelligent judgment
upon the state and prospects of the company. Besides the
statutory meeting a company must hold one general meeting
at least in every calendar year, and not more than fifteen months
after the holding of the last preceding general meeting (Com-
panies (Consolidation) Act 1008, s. 64). This annual general
meeting is usually called the ordinary general meeting. Other
meetings are extraordinary general meetings. Notices convening
a general meeting must inform the shareholders of the particular
business to be transacted; otherwise any resolutions passed at
the meeting will be invalidated. Voting is generally regulated
by the articles. Sometimes a vote is given to a shareholder for
every share held by him, but more often a scale is adopted;
for instance, one vote is given for every share up to ten, with an
additional vote for every five shares beyond the first ten shares
up to one hundred, and an additional vote for every ten shares
beyond the first hundred. In default of any regulations, every
member has one vote only. Sometimes preference shareholders
are given no vote at all. A poll may be demanded on any
special resolution by three persons unless the articles require
five (Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 69).

A contract to take shares is like any other contract. It is
constituted by offer, acceptance and communication of the
acceptance to the offerer. The offer in the case of
AwrsAares. snares is usually in the form of an application in
writing to the company, made in response to a pro-
spectus, requesting the company to allot the applicant a certain
number of shares in the undertaking on the terms of the pro-
spectus, and agreeing to accept the shares, or any smaller
number, which may be allotted to the applicant. An allottee
is under the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 86, entitled
to rescind his contract where the allotment is irregular, e.g.
where the minimum subscription has not been obtained. When
an application is accepted the shares are allotted, and a letter
of allotment is posted to the applicant. Allotment is the usual,
but not the only, evidence of acceptance. As soon as the letter
of allotment is posted the contract is complete, even though the
letter never reaches the applicant. An application for shares
can be withdrawn at any time before acceptance. As soon as
the contract is complete, it is the duty of the company to enter
the shareholder's name in the register of members, and to issue
to him a certificate under the seal of the company, evidencing
his title to the shares.

The register of members plays an important part in the

scheme of the company system, under the Companies Act 1862.

The principle of limited liability having been once

member*, adopted by the legislature, justice required not only

that such limitation of liability should be brought

home by every possible means to persons dealing with the

company, but also that such persons should know as far as

possible what was the limited capital which was the sole fund

available to satisfy their claims what amount had been called

up, what remained uncalled, who were the persons to pay,

and in what amounts. These data might materially assist
a person dealing with the company in determining whether
he would give it credit or not; in any case they are matters
which the public had a right to know. The legislature, recog-
nizing this, has exacted as a condition of the privilege of trading
with limited liability that the company shall keep a register
with those particulars in it, which shall be accessible to the public
at all reasonable times. In order that this register may be
accurate, and correspond with the true liability of membership
for the time being, the court is empowered under the Companies
Act 1862, and the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 32,
to rectify it in a summary way, on application by motion, by
ordering the name of a person to be entered on or removed
therefrom. This power can be exercised by the court, whether
the dispute as to membership is one between the company
and an alleged member, or between one alleged member and
another, but the machinery of the section is not meant to be
used to try claims to rescind agreements to take shares. The
proper proceeding in such cases is by action.

The same policy of guarding against an abuse of limited
liability is evinced in the Companies Act 1862, which required
that shares in the case of a limited company should
be paid for in full. The legislature has allowed
such companies to trade with limited liability, but
the price of the privilege is that the limited capital to which
alone the creditors can look shall at least be a reality. It is
therefore ultra vires for a limited company to issue its shares at a
discount; but there was nothing in the Companies Act 1862
which required that the shares of a limited company, though
they must be paid up in full, must be paid up in cash. They
might be paid " in meal or in malt," and it accordingly became
common for shares to be allotted in payment for furniture,
plate, advertisements or services. The result was that the
consideration was often illusory, shares being issued to be paid
for in some commodity which had no certain criterion of value.
To remedy this evil the legislature enacted in the Companies
Act 1867, s. 25, that every share in any company should be held
subject to the payment of the whole amount thereof in cash,
unless otherwise determined by a contract in writing filed with
the registrar of joint stock companies at or before the issue
of the shares. This section not infrequently caused hardship
where shares had been honestly paid for in the equivalent of
cash, but owing to inadvertence no contract had been filed;
and it was repealed by the Companies Act 1900, and the old law
restored. In reverting to the earlier law, and allowing shares
to be paid for in any adequate consideration, the legislature
has, however, exacted a safeguard. It has required the company
to file with the registrar of joint stock companies a return
stating, in the case of shares allotted in whole or in part for a
consideration other than cash, the number of the shares so
allotted, and the nature of the consideration property, services,
&c. for which they have been allotted.

Though every share carries with it the liability to pay up the
full amount in cash or its equivalent, the liability is only to pay
when and if the directors call for it to be paid up. A call must
fix the time and place for payment, otherwise it is bad.

When a person takes shares from a company on the faith of a
prospectus containing any false or fraudulent representations
of fact material to the contract, he is entitled to rescind
the contract. The company cannot keep a contract
obtained by the misrepresentation or fraud of its
agents. This is an elementary principle of law.
The misrepresentation, for purposes of rescission, need not be
fraudulent; it is sufficient that it is false in fact: fraud or
recklessness of assertion will give the shareholder a further
remedy by action of deceit, or under the Directors' Liability Act
1890 (see supra); but, to entitle a shareholder to rescind, he
must show that he took the shares on the faith or partly on
the faith of the false representation: if not, it was innocuous.
A shareholder claiming to rescind must do so promptly. It
is too late to commence proceedings after a winding-up has
begun.

8oo

COMPANY

Trantfer
of stares.

Blank
transfers.

The shares or other interest of any member in a company are
personal estate and may be transferred in the manner provided
by the regulations of the company. As Lord Blackburn
said, one of the chief objects when joint stock com-
panies were established was that the shares should be
capable" of being easily transferred; but though every share-
holder has a prima facie right to transfer his shares, this right
is subject to the regulations of the company, and the company
may and usually does by its regulations require that a transfer
shall receive the approval of the board of directors before being
registered, the object being to secure the company against
having an insolvent or undesirable shareholder (the nominee
perhaps of a rival company) substituted for a solvent and
acceptable one. This power of the directors to refuse a transfer
must not, however, be exercised arbitrarily or capriciously.
If it were, it would amount to a confiscation of the shares.
Directors, for instance, cannot veto a transfer because they
disapprove of the purpose for which it is being made (e.g. to
multiply votes), if there is no objection to the transferee.

It is a common and convenient practice to deposit share or
stock certificates with bankers and others to secure an advance.
When this is done the share or stock certificate is usually
accompanied by a blank transfer that is, a transfer
executed by the shareholder borrower, but with a blank
left for the name of the transferee. The handing over by the
borrower of such blank transfer signed by him is an implied
authority to the banker, or other pledgee, if the loan is not paid,
to fill in the blank with his name and get himself registered as
the owner.

A company can only pay dividends out of profits which have
been defined as the " earnings of a concern after deducting the
expenses of earning them." To pay dividends out of
capital is not only ultra vires but illegal, as constituting
a return of capital to shareholders. Before paying dividends,
directors must take reasonable care to secure the preparation of
proper balance-sheets and estimates, and must exercise their
judgment as business men on the balance-sheets and estimates
submitted to them. If they fail to do this, and pay dividends
out of capital, they will not be held excused, unless the court
should think that they ought to be under the new discretion given
to the court by ss. 32-34 of the Companies Act 1907 (Companies
(Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 279). The onus is on them to show
that the dividends have been paid out of profits. The court as a
rule does not interfere with the discretion of directors in the
matter of paying dividends, unless they are doing something
ultra vires.

By the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, ss. 112, 113, in-
corporating provisions of the act of 1900 (ss. 21-23), as amended
by the act of 1 907 (s. 1 9) , the legislature has made strict
provisions for the appointment and remuneration of
auditors by a company, and has defined their rights and duties.
Prior to the act of 1900 audit clauses, except in the case of
banking companies, were left to the articles of association and
were not matter of statutory obligation.

The " private company " may best be described as an incor-
porated partnership. The term is statutorily defined for the
first time by s. 37 of the Companies Act 1907 (s. 1 2 1 of
Private t h e Consolidating Act of 1 008) . Individual traders and
trading firms have in recent years become much more
alive to the advantages offered by incorporation. They
have discovered that incorporation gives them the protection of
limited liability; that it prevents dislocation of a business by the
death, bankruptcy or lunacy of any of its members; that it
enables a trader to distribute among the members of his family
interests in his business on his decease through the medium of
shares; that it facilitates borrowing on debentures or debenture
stock, and with a view to secure these advantages thousands of
traders have converted their businesses into limited companies.
To so large an extent has this been done that private companies
now form one- third of the whole number of companies registered.
A private company does not appeal to the public to subscribe
its capital, but in the main features of its constitution a private

com-
panies.

company differs little from a public one. It is only in one or two
particulars that special provisions are requisite. It is generally
desired for instance: (i) to keep all the shares among the
members the partners or the family and not to let them get
into the hands of the public; and (2) to give the principal share-
holders, the original partners, a paramount control over the
management. For this purpose it is usual to provide specially in
the articles that no share shall be transferred to a stranger so long
as any member is willing to purchase it at a fair value; that a
member desirous of transferring his shares shall give notice to the
company; that the company shall offer the shares to the other
members; that if within a certain period the company finds a
purchaser the shares shall be transferred to him, and that in case
of dispute the value shall be settled by arbitration or shall be
such a sum as the auditor certifies to be in his opinion the fair
value. So in regard to the management it is common to provide
that the owner or owners of the business shall be entitled to hold
office as directors for a term of years or for life, provided he or
they continue to hold a certain number of shares; or an owner
is empowered to authorize his executors or trustees whilst hold-
ing a certain number of shares to appoint directors. Directors
holding office on these special terms are described as " governing "
or " permanent " or " life " directors. This union of interest
and management in the same persons gives a private company
an unquestionable advantage over a public company.

The so-called " one-man company " is merely a variety of the
private company. The fact that a company is formed by one
man, with the aid of six dummy subscribers, is not in itself (as
was at one time supposed) a fraud on the policy of the Companies
Act, but it is occasionally used for the purpose of committing a
fraud, as where an insolvent trader turns himself into a limited
company in order to evade bankruptcy ; and it is to an abuse of
this kind that the term " one-man company " owes its opprobrious
signification.

Companies Limited by Guarantee. The second class of limited
companies are those limited by guarantee, as distinguished from
those limited by shares. In the company limited by guarantee
each member agrees, in the event of a winding-up, to contribute a
certain amount to the assets, 5, i or IDS. whatever may be
the amount of the guarantee. The peculiarity of this form of
company is that the interests of the members of a guarantee
company are not expressed in any terms of nominal money
value like the shares of other companies, a form of constitu-
tion designed, as stated by Lord Thring, the draftsman of the
Companies Act 1862, to give a superior elasticity to the company.
The property pf the company simply belongs to the company in
certain fractional amounts. This makes it convenient for clubs,
syndicates and other associations which do not require the
interest of members to be expressed in terms of cash.

Companies not for Gain. Associations formed to promote
commerce, art, science, religion, charity or any other useful
object may, with the sanction of the Board of Trade, register
under the Companies Act 1862, with limited liability, but
without the addition of the word " Limited," upon proving to
the board that it is the intention of the association to apply the
profits or income of the association in promoting its objects, and
not in payment of dividends to members (C.A. 1867, s. 23). This
licence was made revocable by s. 42 of the Companies Ace 1007
(Consolidation Act of 1008, ss. 19, 20). In lieu of the word
" Company," the association may adopt as part of its name
some such title as chamber, club, college, guild, institute or
society. The power given by this section has proved very useful,
and many kinds of associations have availed themselves of it,
such as medical institutes, law societies, nursing homes, chambers
of commerce, clubs, high schools, archaeological, horticultural
and philosophical societies. The guarantee form (see supra)
is well adapted for associations of this kind intended as they
usually are to be supported by annual subscriptions. No such
association can hold more than two acres of land without the
licence of the Board of Trade.

Cost-Book Mining Companies. These are in substance
mining partnerships. They derive their name from the fact of

COMPANY

801

the partnership agreement, the expenses and receipts of the
mine, the names of the shareholders, and any transfers of shares
being entered in a " cost-book." The affairs of the company
are managed by an agent known as a " purser," who from time
to time makes calls on the members for the expenses of working.
A cost-book company is not bound to register under the Com-
panies Act 1862, but it may do so.

A company once incorporated under the Companies Act 1862
cannot be put an end to except through the machinery of a
winding-up, though the name of a company which is
commercially defunct may be struck off the register of
joint stock companies by the registrar (s. 242 of the
i (Consolidation) Act 1908, incorporating s. 7 of the act
, as *mmArA by s. 26 of the act of 1900). Winding-up
i of two kinds: (i) voluntary winding-up, either purely volun-
or carried on under the supervision of the court; and (2)
g-up by the court. Of these voluntary winding-up is
r far the more common. Of the companies that come to an end
90% are so wound up; and this is in accordance
with the policy of the legislature, evinced throughout
Companies Acts, that ghar^tmlA-rx should mi**gr their
i affairs winding-up being one of such affairs. A voluntary
i is carried out by the sharrhcldrrs paing a special
requiring the company to be wound up voluntarily,
extraordinary resolution (now A-fim-H by s. 182 of the
(Consolidation) Act 1908) to the effect that it has
proved to the shareholders' satisfaction that the company
ot, by reason of its liabilities, continue its business, and that
t is advisable to wind it up (C.A. 1862, s. 129). The resolution
, generally accompanied by the appointment of a liquidator.
i a purely voluntary winding-up)there is a power given by s. 138
the company or any contributory to apply to the court in
rising in the winding-op, but seemingly by an
lit of the legislature the same right was not given to
This was rectified by the Companies Act 1900, s. 25.
i 27 of the Companies Act 1907 (s. 1 88 of the Consolidation
farther provides for the liquidator under a voluntary
1 summoning a meeting of creditors to determine on
! choke of a liquidator. A creditor may also in a proper case
i an order for continuing the voluntary winding-up iinHr
s supervision of the court. Such an order has the advantage
operating as a stay of any actions or executions pending
: the company. Except in these respects, the winding-up
s a voluntary one. The court does not actively intervene
; set in motion; but it requires the liquidator to bring his
nts into chambers every quarter, so that it may be in-
how the liquidation is proceeding. When the affairs
f the company are'fully wound up, the liquidator calk a meeting,
> accounts before the shareholders, and the company is
1 by operation of law three months after the date of the
; (C.A. 1862, ss. 142, 143)-

respective of voluntary winding-up, the legislature has
certain events in which a company formed under the
Companies Act 1862 may be wound up by the court.
These events are: (i) when the company has passed
a resolution requiring the company to be wound up
the court; (2) when the company does not commence its
; within a year or suspends it for a year; (3) when the
t are reduced to less than seven; (4) when the company
to pay its debts, and (5) whenever the court is of
i that it is just and equitable that the company should be
up (C.A. 1862, s. 79; s. 129 of the Consolidation Act
A petition for the purpose may be presented either by a
litor, a contributory or the company itself. Where the
ition is presented by a creditor who cannot obtain payment
his debt, a winding-up order is ex debito justitiae as against
: company or sham-holders, but not as against the wishes of a
of creditors. A winding-up order is not to be refused
the company's assets are over mortgaged (Companies
107, s. 29; s. 141 of Consolidation Act 1908).
procedure on the making of a winding-up order is now
Ibyss. 7, 8, 9 of the Winding-up Act 1890. The official

VL 26

receiver, as liquidator pro tern., requires a statement of the
affairs of the company verified by the directors, and on it reports
to the court as to the causes of the company's failure and
whether further inquiry is desirable. If he further reports that
in his opinion fraud has been committed in the promotion or
formation of the company by a particular person, the court may
order such person to be publicly examined.

A liquidator's duty is to protect, collect, realize and distribute
the company's assets in due course of administration; and for
this purpose he advertises for creditors, mak^ calls on contribu-
tories, sues debtors, takes misfeasance proceedings, if necessary,
against directors or promoters, and carries on the company's
business supposing the goodwill to be an asset of value with
a view to selling it as a going concern. He may be assisted, like
a trustee in bankruptcy, by a committee of inspection, composed
of creditors and contributories.

When the affairs of the company have been completely wound
up the court is, by s. in of the Companies Act 1862 (s. 127 of
the act of 1008;, to make an order that the company be dissolved
from the date of such order, and the company is dissolved accord-
ingly. A company which has been dissolved may, where neces-
sary, on petition to the court be reinstated on the register
(Companies Act 1880, s. i).

A large number of companies now wind up only to reconstruct.
The reasons for a reconstruction are generally either to raise
fresh capital, or to get rid cf onerous preference shares,
or to enlarge the scope of the company's objects, which ,( lml i tm
is otherwise impracticable owing to the unalterability
of the Memorandum of Association. Reconstructions are carried
out in one of three ways: (i) by sale and transfer of the com-
pany's undertaking and assets to a new company, under a power
to sell contained in the company's memorandum of association,
or (2) by sale and transfer under s. 161 of the Companies Act
1862; or (3) by a scheme of arrangement, sanctioned by the
court, under the Joint Stock Companies Arrangements Act
1870, as amended by the Companies Act 1007, s. 38 (C.A. 1008,
s. 192).

The first of these modes is now the most in favour.

A company, though a mere legal abstraction, without mind
or will, may, it is now well settled, be liable in damages for
malicious prosecution, for nuisance, for fraud, for
negligence, for trespass. The sense of the thing is
that the " company " is a nomen cottectmtm for the
members. It is they who have put the directors
there to carry on their business and they must be answerable,
collectively, for what is done negligently, fraudulently or
maliciously by their agents.

2. Public Companies.

Besides trading companies there is another large class,
exceeding in their number even trading companies, which for
shortness may be called public companies, that is to say, com-
panies constituted by special act of parliament for the purpose
of constructing and carrying on undertakings of public utility,
such as railways, <-anaU harbours, docks, waterworks, gasworks,
bridges, ferries, tramways, drainage, fisheries or hospitals.
The objects of such companies nearly always involve an inter-
ference with the rights of private persons, often necessitate
the commission of a public nuisance, and require therefore the
sanction of the legislature. For this purpose a special act has
to be obtained. A private bill to authorize the undertaking is
introduced before one or other of the Houses of Parliament.
considered in committee, and either passed or rejected like a
public bill. These parliamentary (private bill) committees are
tribunals acknowledging certain rules of policy, taking evidence
from witnesses and hearing arguments from professional advo-
cates. In many of these special acts, dealing as they do with a
similar subject matter, similar provisions are required; and to
avoid repetition and secure uniformity the legislature has passed
certain general acts codes of law for particular subject matters
frequently recurring which can be incorporated by reference
in any special act with the necessary modifications. Thus the

802

COMPANY

Companies Clauses Acts 1845, 1863 and 1869 supply the general
powers and provisions which are commonly inserted in the
constitution of such public company, regulating the distribution
of capital, the transfer of shares, payment of calls, borrowing
and general meetings. The Lands Clauses Consolidation Act
1845 supplies the machinery for the compulsory taking of
land incident to most undertakings of a public character. The
Railway Clauses Consolidation Act, the Waterworks Clauses Acts
1847 and 1863, the Gasworks Clauses Act 1847, and the Electric
Lighting (Clauses) Act 1899 are other codes of law designed
for incorporation in special acts creating companies for the
construction of railways or the supply of water, gas or electric
light. A distinguishing feature of these companies is that, being
sanctioned by the legislature for undertakings of public utility,
the policy of the law will not allow them to be broken up or
destroyed by creditors. It gives creditors only a charge by a
receiver on the earnings of the undertaking the " fruit of the
tree,"

3. British Companies Abroad.

The status of British companies trading abroad, so far as
Germany, France, Belgium, Greece, Italy and Spain are con-
cerned, is expressly recognized in a series of conventions entered
into between those countries and Great Britain. The value of
the convention with France has been much impaired by the
interpretation put upon the words of it by the court of cassation
in La Construction Lim. According to this case the nationality
of a company depends not on its place of origin but on where it
has its centre of affairs, its principal establishment. The result
is that a company registered in Britain under the Companies
Acts may be transmuted by a French court into a French
company in direct violation of the convention. The convention
with Germany, which is in similar terms to that with France,
has also been narrowed by judicial construction. The "power of
exercising all their rights " given by the convention to British
companies has been construed to mean that a British company
will be recognized as a corporate body in Germany, but it does
not follow from the terms of the convention that any British
company rnay as a matter of course establish a branch and
carry on business within the German empire. It must still get
permission to trade, permission to hold land. It must register
itself in the communal register. It must pay stamp duties.

Foreign companies may found an affiliated company or have
a branch establishment in Italy, provided they publish their
memorandum and articles and the names of their directors.
Where no convention exists the status of an immigrant corpora-
tion depends upon international comity, which allows foreign
corporations, as it does foreign persons, to sue, to make contracts
and hold real estate, in the same way as domestic corporations
or citizens; provided the stranger corporation does not offend
against the policy of the state in which it seeks to trade.

There is, however, a growing practice now for states to impose
by express legislation conditions on foreign corporations com-
ing to do business within their territory. These conditions are
mainly directed to securing that the immigrant corporation
shall make known its constitution and shall be amenable to the
jurisdiction of the courts of the country where it trades. Thus,
by the law of Western Australia to take a typical instance,
a foreign company is not to commence or carry on business until
it empowers some person to act as its attorney to sue and be
sued and has an office or place of business within the state, to be
approved of by the registrar, where all legal proceedings may be
served. New Zealand, Manitoba and many other states have
adopted similar precautions; and by the Companies Act 1907,
s. 35; C.A. 1908, s. 274 foreign companies having a place
of business within the United Kingdom are required to file with
the registrar of joint stock companies a copy of the company's
charter or memorandum and articles, a list of directors, and the
names and addresses of one or more persons authorized to accept
service of process. Special conditions of a more stringent nature
are often imposed in the case of particular classes of companies
of a quasi-public character, such as banking companies, building

societies or insurance companies. Regulations of this kind are
perfectly legitimate and necessary. They are in truth only an
application of the law of vagrancy to corporations, and have
their analogy in the restrictions now generally imposed by states
on the immigration of aliens.

4. Company Law outside the United Kingdom.

Australia. Company law in Australia and in New Zealand
follows very closely the lines of company legislation in the
United Kingdom.

In New South Wales the law is consolidated by Act No. 40 of
1 899, amended 1 900 and 1 906. In Victoria the law is contained in
the Acts Nos. 1074 of 1890 and 355 of 1896; in Queensland in
a series of Acts No. 4 of 1863, No. 18 of 1899, No. 10 of 1891,
No. 24 of 1892, No. 3 of 1893, No. 19 of 1894 and No. 21 of 1896;
in South Australia in No. 56 of 1892, amended by No. 576 of
1893; in Tasmania by Nos. 22 of 1869, 19 of 1895 and 3 of 1896;
in Western Australia by No. 8 of 1893, amended 1897 and 1898.

In New Zealand the law was consolidated in 1903.

Canada. The act governing joint stock companies in Canada
is the Companies Act 1902, amended 1904. It empowers the
secretary of state by letters patent to grant a charter to any
number of persons not less than five for any objects other than
railway or telegraph lines, banking or insurance.

Applicants must file an application analogous to the British
memorandum of association- showing certain particulars the
purposes of incorporation, the place of business, the amount of
the capital stock, the number of shares and the amount of each,
the names and addresses of the applicants, the amount of stock
taken by each and the amount and mode of payment. Other
provisions may also be embodied. A company cannot commence
business until 10% of its authorized capital has been subscribed
and paid for. The word " limited " as part of the company's
name is as in the case of British companies to be conspicu-
ously exhibited and used in all documents. The directors are
not to be less than three or more than fifteen, and must be holders
of stock. Directors are jointly and severally liable to the clerks,
labourers and servants of the company for six months' wages.
Borrowing powers may be taken by a vote of holders of two-
thirds in value of the subscribed stock of the company.

South Africa. In Cape Colony the law is contained in No. 25
of 1892, amended 1895 and 1906; it follows English law.

In Natal the law is contained in Nos. 10 of 1864, 18 of 1865,
19 of 1893 and 3 of 1896.

In the Orange Free State in Law Ch. 100 and Nos. 2 and 4 of
1892.

For the Transvaal see Nos. 5 of 1874, 6 of 1874, i of 1894 and
30 of 1904.

In Rhodesia companies are regulated by the Companies
Ordinance 1895 a combination of the Cape Companies Act
1892, and the British Companies Acts 1862-1890.

France. There are two kinds of limited liability companies
in France the sociltS en commandite and the societe anonyme.
The societ6 en commandite corresponds in some respects to the
British private company or limited partnership, but with this
difference, that in the sociele en commandite the managing partner
is under unlimited liability of creditors; the sleeping partner's
liability is limited to the amount of his capital. The French
equivalent of the English ordinary joint stock company is the
sociSte anonyme. The minimum number of subscribers necessary
to form such a company is (as in the case of a British trading
company) seven, but, unlike a British company, the socleti
anonyme is not legally constituted unless the whole capital is
subscribed and one-fourth of each share paid up. Another
precaution unknown to British practice is that assets, not in
money, brought into a company are subject to verification of
value by a general meeting. The minimum nominal value of
shares, where the company's capital is less than 200,000 fcs.,
is 25 fcs.; where the capital is more than 200,000 fcs., 100 fcs.
The societe is governed by articles which appoint the directors,
and there is one general meeting held every year. A sociiti
anonyme may, since 1902, issue preference shares. The doctrine

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY COMPARETTI

803

ntted

that a corporation never dies has no place in French law. A
soctttf. anonyme may come to an end.

Germany. In Germany the class of companies most nearly
corresponding to. English companies limited by shares are
" share companies " (Aktiengesells haften) and " commandite
companies " with a share capital (Kommandilgesellschaften auf
Aklien). Since 1892 a new form of association has come into
nistence known by the name of partnership with limited
liability (Gesellschaften mil beschrankter Haftung], which has
argely superseded the commandite company.

" sftare In forming this paid-up company certain preliminary
apaay." steps have to be taken before registration:

1. The articles must be agreed on;

2. A managing board and a board of supervision must be

appointed ;

3. The whole of the share capita) must be allotted and 25 %, at

least, must be paid up in coin or legal tender notes;

4. Reports on the formation of the company must be made by

certain persons; and

5. Certain documents must be filed in the registry.

In all cases where shares are issued for any consideration,
it being payment in full in cash, or in which contracts for the
lurchase of property have been entered into, the promoters
ust sign a declaration in which they must state on what grounds
,e prices agreed to be given for such property appear to be
itified. In the great majority of cases shares are issued in
irtificates to bearer. The amount of such a share to bearer
ust as a general rule be not less than 50, but registered shares
I 10 may be issued. Balance sheets have to be published
iodically.

Partnerships with limited liability may be formed by two or
ore members. The articles of partnership must be signed by
all the members, and must contain particulars as to
the amount of the capital and of the individual shares.
t / ps . If the liability on any shares is not to be satisfied in
cash this also must be stated. The capital of a limited
tnership must amount to 1000. Shares must be registered,
ilvent companies in Germany are subject to the bankruptcy
w in the same manner as natural persons.
For further information see a memorandum on German
>mpanies printed in the appendix to the Report of Lord Davey's
'ommittee on the Amendment of Company Law, pp. 13-26.
Italy. Commercial companies in Italy are of three kinds:
i) General partnerships, in which the members are liable for all
bts incurred; (2) companies in accomodita, in which some
lembers are liable to an unlimited extent and others within
certain limits; (3) joint stock companies, in which the liability
is limited to the capital of the company and no member is liable
:yond the amount of his holding. None of these companies
s authority from the government for its constitution; all
that is needed is a written agreement brought before the public
in the ways indicated in the code (Art. 90 et seq.) . In joint stock
companies the trustees (directors) must give security. They are
appointed by a general meeting for a period not exceeding four
years (Art. 124). The company is not constituted until the whole
of its capital is subscribed, and until three-tenths of the capital
at least has been actually paid up. When a company's capital is
diminished by one-third, the trustees must call the members
together and consult as to what is to be done.

An ordinary meeting is held once at least every year. Shares
may not be made payable '' to bearer " until fully paid up
(Art. 166). A company may issue debentures if this is agreed
to by a certain majority (Art. 172). One-twentieth, at least, of
the dividends of the company must be added to the reserve fund,
until this has become equal to one-fifth of the company's capital
(Art. 182). Three or five assessors members or non-members
keep watch over the way in which the company is carried on.

United States. In the United States the right to create
corporations is a sovereign right, and as such is exercisable by
the several states of the Union. The law of private corporations
must therefore be sought in some fifty collections or groups of
statutory and case-made rules. These collections or groups of
rules differ in many cases essentially from each other. The acts

beyo
need

regulating business corporations generally provide that the
persons proposing to form a corporation shall sign and acknow-
ledge an instrument called the articles of association, setting
forth the name of the corporation, the object for which it is
to be formed, the principal place of business, the amount of its
capital stock, and the number of shares into which it is to be
divided, and the duration of its corporate existence. These
articles are filed in the office of the secretary of state or in
designated courts of record, and a certificate is then issued
reciting that the provisions of the act have been complied with,
and thereupon the incorporators are vested with corporate
existence and the general powers incident thereto. This certi-
ficate is the charter of the corporation. The power to make
bylaws is usually vested in the stockholders, but it may be
conferred by the certificate on the directors. Stockholders
remain liable until their subscriptions are fully paid. Nothing
but money is considered payment of capital stock except where
property is purchased. Directors must usually be stockholders.

The right of a state to forfeit a corporation's charter for
misuser or non-user of its franchises is an implied term of the
grant of incorporation. Corporations are liable for every wrong
they commit, and in such cases cannot set up by way of protection
the doctrine of ultra vires.

See for authorities Commentaries on the Law of Private Corporations,
by Seymour D. Thompson, LL.D., 6 vols. ; Beach on Corporations,
and the American Encyclopaedia of Law. (E. MA.)

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, a term employed to designate the
study of the structure of man as compared with that of lower
animals, and sometimes the study of lower animals in contra-
distinction to human anatomy; the term is now falling into
desuetude, and lingers practically only in the titles of books or in
the designation of university chairs. The change in terminology
is chiefly the result of modern conceptions of zoology. From the
point of view of structure, man is one of the animals; all in-
vestigations into anatomical structure must be comparative,
and in this work the subject is so treated throughout. See
ANATOMY and ZOOLOGY.

COMPARETTI, DOMENICO (1835- ), Italian scholar, was
born at Rome on the 27th of June 1835. He studied at the
university of Rome, took his degree in 1855 in natural science
and mathematics, and entered his uncle's pharmacy as assistant.
His scanty leisure was, however, given to study. He learned
Greek by himself, and gained facility in the modem language
by conversing with the Greek students at the university. In
spite of all disadvantages, he not only mastered the language,
but became one of the chief classical scholars of Italy. In 1857
he published, in the Rlieinisches Museum, a translation of some
recently discovered fragments of Hypereides, with a dissertation
on that orator. This was followed by a notice of the annalist
Granius Licinianus, and one on the oration of Hypereides on
the Lamian War. In 1859 he was appointed professor of Greek
at Pisa on the recommendation of the duke of Sermoneta. A
few years later he was called to a similar post at Florence,
remaining emeritus professor at Pisa also. He subsequently
took up his residence in Rome as lecturer on Greek antiquities
and greatly interested himself in the Forum excavations. He
was a member of the governing bodies of the academies of
Milan, Venice, Naples and Turin. The list of his writings is
long and varied. Of his works in classical literature, the best
known are an edition of the Euxenippus of Hypereides, and
monographs on Pindar and Sappho. He also edited the great
inscription which contains a collection of the -municipal laws of
Gortyn in Crete, discovered on the site of the ancient city. In
the Kalewala and the Traditional Poetry of the Finns (English
translation by I. M. Anderton, 1898) he discusses the national
epic of Finland and its heroic songs, with a view to solving the
problem whether an epic could be composed by the interweaving
of such national songs. He comes to a negative conclusion, and
applies this reasoning to the Homeric problem. He treats this
question again in a treatise on the so-called Peisistratean edition
of Homer (La Commissione omerica di Pisislrato, 1881). His
Researches concerning the Book of Sindibad have been translated

8 04

COMPASS

in the Proceedings of the Folk-Lore Society. His Vergil in the
Middle Ages (translated into English by E. F. Benecke, 1895)
traces the strange vicissitudes by which the great Augustan
poet became successively grammatical fetich, Christian prophet
and wizard. Together with Professor Alessandro d'Ancona,
Comparetti edited a collection of Italian national songs and
stories (9 vols., Turin, 1870-1891), many of which had been
collected and written down by himself for the first time.

COMPASS (Fr. compas, ultimately from Lat. cum, with, and
passus, step), a term of which the evolution of the various
meanings is obscure; the general sense is " measure " or
" measurement," and the word is used thus in various derived
meanings area, boundary, circuit. It is also more particularly
applied to a mathematical instrument ("pair of compasses")
for measuring or for describing a circle, and to the mariner's
compass.

The mariner's compass, with which this article is concerned,
is an instrument by means of which the directive force
of that great magnet, the Earth, upon a freely-suspended
needle, is utilized for a purpose essential to navigation. The
needle is so mounted that it only moves freely in the horizontal
plane, and therefore the horizontal component of the earth's
force alone directs it. The direction assumed by the needle is not
generally towards the geographical north, but diverges towards
the east or west of it, making a horizontal angle with the true

FIG, i. Compass Card.

meridian, called the magnetic variation or declination; amongst
mariners this angle is known as the variation of the compass.
In the usual navigable waters of the world the variation alters
from 30 to the east to 45 to the west of the geographical
meridian, being westerly in the Atlantic and Indian oceans,
easterly in the Pacific. The vertical plane passing through the
longitudinal axis of such a needle is known as the magnetic
meridian. Following the first chart of lines of equal variation
compiled by Edmund Halley in 1 700, charts of similar type have
been published from time to time embodying recent observations
and corrected for the secular change, thus providing seamen
with values of the variation accurate to about 30' of arc. Possess-
ing these data, it is easy to ascertain by observation the effects
of the iron in a ship in disturbing the compass, and it will be
found for the most part in every vessel that the needle is deflected
from the magnetic meridian by a horizontal angle called the
deviation of the compass; in some directions of the ship's head
adding to the known variation of the place, in other directions
subtracting from it. Local magnetic disturbance of the needle
due to magnetic rocks is observed on land in all parts of the
world, and in certain places extends to the land under the sea,
affecting the compasses on board the ships passing over it. The

general direction of these disturbances in the northern hemisphere
is an attraction of the north-seeking end of the needle; in the
southern hemisphere, its repulsion. The approaches to Cossack,
North Australia; Cape St Francis, Labrador; the coasts of
Madagascar and Iceland, are remarkable for such disturbance
of the compass.

The compass as we know it is the result of the necessities of
navigation, which have increased from century to century. It
consists of five principal parts the card, the needles, the bowl,
a jewelled cap and the pivot. The card or " fly," formerly made
of cardboard, now consists of a disk either of mica covered with
paper or of paper alone, but in all cases the card is divided into
points and degrees as shown in fig. i. The outer margin is
divided into degrees with o at north and south, and 90 at east

FIG. 2. Admiralty Compass
(Frame and Needles).

FIG. 3. Thomson's (Lord Kelvin's)
jCompass (Frame and Needles).

and west; the 32 points with half and quarter points are seen
immediately within the degrees. The north point is marked
with a.fleur de Us, and the principal points, N.E., E., S.E., &c.,
with their respective names, whilst the intermediate points in
the figure have also their names engraved for present information.
The arc contained between any two points is 11 15'. The mica
card is generally mounted on a brass framework, F F, with a
brass cap, C, fitted with a sapphire centre and carrying four
magnetized needles, N, N, N, N, as in fig. 2. The more modem
form of card consists of a broad ring of paper marked with degrees
and points, as in fig. i, attached to a frame like that in fig. 3,
where an outer aluminium ring, A A, is connected by 32 radial

FIG. 4. Section of Thomson's Compass Bowl. C, aluminium cap
with sapphire centre ; N, N', needles; P, pivot stem with pivot.

silk threads to a central disk of aluminium, in the centre of which
is a round hole designed to receive an aluminium cap with a
highly polished sapphire centre worked to the form of an open
cone. To direct the card eight short light needles, N N, are
suspended by silk threads from the outer ring. The magnetic
axis of any system of needles must exactly coincide with the
axis passing through the north and south points of the card.
Single needles are never used, two being the least number, and
these so arranged that the moment of inertia about every
diameter of the card shall be the same. The combination of
card, needles and cap is generally termed " the card "; on the
continent of Europe it is called the " rose." The section of a
compass bowl in fig. 4 shows the mounting of a Thomson card
on its pivot, which in common with the pivots of most other
compasses is made of brass, tipped with osmium-iridium, which
although very hard can be sharply pointed and does not corrode.

COMPASS

805

Fig. 4 shows the general arrangement of mounting all compass
cards in the bowl. In fig. 5 another form of compass called a
liquid or spirit compass is shown partly in section. The card
nearly floats in a bowl filled with distilled water, to which 35%
of alcohol is added to prevent freezing; the bowl is hermetically
sealed with pure india-rubber, and a corrugated expansion
chamber is attached to the bottom to allow for the expansion
and contraction of the liquid. The card is a mica disk, either
painted as in fig. i, or covered with linen upon which the degrees
and points are printed, the needles being enclosed in brass.

Great steadiness of card under severe shocks and vibrations,
combined with a minimum of friction in the cap and pivot, is
obtained with this compass. All compasses are fitted with a
gimbal ring to keep the bowl and card level under every circum-
stance of a ship's motion in a seaway, the ring being connected
with the binnacle or pedestal by means of journals or knife
edges. On the inside of every compass bowl a vertical black
line is drawn, called the " lubber's point," and it is imperative

FIG. 5. Liquid Compass.

A, Bowl, partly in section.

B, Expansion chamber.
D, The glass.

G, Gimbal ring.

L, Nut to expand chamber when

filling bowl.
M, Screw connector.

N, Hole for filling, with screw

plug.

O, O, Magnetic needles.

P, Buoyant chamber.

H, Iridium pivot.

, Sapphire cap.

S, Mica card.

that when the compass is placed in the binnacle the line joining
the pivot and the lubber's point be parallel to the keel of the
vessel. Thus, when a degree on the card is observed opposite
the lubber's point, the angle between the direction in which the
ship is steering and the north point of the compass or course
is at once seen; and if the magnetic variation and the disturbing
effects of the ship's iron are known, the desired angle between
the ships's course and the geographical meridian can be computed.
In every ship a position is selected for the navigating or standard
compass as free from neighbouring iron as possible, and by this
compass all courses are shaped and bearings taken. It is also
provided with an azimuth circle or mirror and a shadow pin or
style placed in the centre of the glass cover, by either of which
the variable angle between the compass north and true north,
called the " total error," or variation and deviation combined,
can be observed. The binnacles or pedestals for compasses are
generally constructed of wood about 45 in. high, and fitted to
receive and alter at pleasure the several magnet and soft iron
correctors. They are also fitted with different forms of suspen-
sion in which the compass is mounted to obviate the mechanical
disturbance of the card caused by the vibration of the hull
in ships driven by powerful engines.

The effects of the iron and steel used in the construction of
ships upon the compass occupied the attention of the ablest
physicists of the igth century, with results which enable navi-
gators to conduct their ships with perfect safety. The hull of
an iron or steel ship is a magnet, and the distribution of its
magnetism depends upon the direction of the ship's head when
building, this result being produced by induction from the
earth's magnetism, developed and impressed by the hammering
of the plates and frames during the process of building. The
disturbance of the compass by the magnetism of the hull
is generally modified, sometimes favourably, more often un-

favourably, by the magnetized fittings of the ship, such as
masts, conning towers, deck houses, engines and boilers. Thus
in every ship the compass needle is more or less subject to
deviation differing in amount and direction for every azimuth
of the ship's head. This was first demonstrated by Commander
Matthew Flinders by experiments made in H.M.S. " Investi-
gator " in 1800-1803, and in 1810 led that officer to introduce
the practice of placing the ship's head on each point of the
compass, and noting the amount of deviation whether to the
east or west of the magnetic north, a process which is in full
exercise at the present day, and is called " swinging ship."
When speaking of the magnetic properties of iron it is usual
to adopt the terms " soft " and " hard." Soft iron is iron which
becomes instantly magnetized by induction when exposed to
any magnetic force, but has no power of retaining its magnetism.
Hard iron is less susceptible of being magnetized, but when
once magnetized it retains its magnetism permanently. The
term " iron " used in these pages includes the " steel " now
commonly employed in shipbuilding. If an iron ship be swung
when upright for deviation, and the mean horizontal and vertical
magnetic forces at the compass positions be also observed in
different parts of the world, mathematical analysis shows that
the deviations are caused partly by the permanent magnetism
of hard iron, partly by the transient induced magnetism of soft
iron both horizontal and vertical, and in a lesser degree by iron
which is neither magnetically hard nor soft, but which becomes
magnetized in the same manner as hard iron, though it gradually
loses its magnetism on change of conditions, as, for example,
in the case of a ship, repaired and hammered in dock, steaming
in an opposite direction at sea. This latter cause of deviation
is called sub-permanent magnetism. The horizontal directive
force on the needle on board is nearly always less than on land,
sometimes much less, whilst in armour-plated ships it ranges
from -8 to -2 when the directive force on land=i-o. If the
ship be inclined to starboard or to port additional deviation
will be observed, reaching a maximum on north and south points,
decreasing to zero on the east and west points. Each ship
has its own magnetic character, but there are certain conditions
which are common to vessels of the same type.

Instead of observing the deviation solely for the purposes of
correcting the indications of the compass when disturbed by the
iron of the ship, the practice is to subject all deviations to
mathematical analysis with a view to their mechanical correction.
The whole of the deviations when the ship is upright may be
expressed nearly by five co-efficients, A. B, C, D, E. Of these A
is a deviation constant in amount for every direction of the ship's
head. B has reference to horizontal forces acting in a longi-
tudinal direction in the ship, and caused partly by the permanent
magnetism of hard iron, partly by vertical induction in vertical
soft iron either before or abaft the compass. C has reference
to forces acting in a transverse direction, and caused by hard iron.
D is due to transient induction in horizontal soft iron, the direc-
tion of which passes continuously under or over the compass.
E is due to transient induction in horizontal soft iron unsym-
metrically placed with regard to the compass. When data of
this character have been obtained the compass deviations may
be mechanically corrected to within i always adhering to the
principal that " like cures like." Thus the part of B caused by
the permanent magnetism of hard iron must be corrected by
permanent magnets horizontally placed in a fore and aft direc-
tion; the other part caused by vertical soft iron by means of
bars of vertical soft iron, called Flinders bars, before or abaft
the compass. C is compensated by permanent magnets athwart-
ships and horizontal; D by masses of soft iron on both sides of
the compass, and generally in the form of cast-iron spheres,
with their centres in the same horizontal plane as the needles;
E is usually too small to require correction; A is fortunately
rarely of any value, as it cannot be corrected. The deviation
observed when the ship inclines to either side is due (i) to hard
iron acting vertically upwards or downwards; (2) to vertical
soft iron immediately below the compass; (3) to vertical induc-
tion in horizontal soft iron when inclined. To compensate (i)

8o6

COMPASS

vertical magnets are used; (3) is partly corrected by the soft
iron correctors of D; (2) and the remaining part of (3) cannot.be
conveniently corrected for more than one geographical position
at a time. Although a compass may thus be made practically
correct for a given time and place, the magnetism of the ship
is liable to changes on changing her geographical position, and
especially so when steaming at right angles or nearly so to the
magnetic meridian, for then sub-permanent magnetism is
developed in the hull. Some vessels are more liable to become
sub-permanently magnetized than others, and as no corrector
has been found for this source of deviation the navigator must
determine its amount by observation. He.nce, however carefully
a compass may be placed and subsequently compensated, the
mariner has no safety without constantly observing the bearings
of the sun, stars or distant terrestrial objects, to ascertain its
deviation. The results of these observations are entered in a
compass journal for future reference when fog or darkness
prevails.

Every compass and corrector supplied to the ships of the
British navy is previously examined in detail at the Compass
Observatory established by the admiralty at Deptford. A
trained observer acting under the superintendent of compasses
is charged with this important work. The superintendent, who
is a naval officer, has to investigate the magnetic character of
the ships, to point out the most suitable positions for the com-
passes when a ship is designed, and subsequently to keep himself
informed of their behaviour from the time of the ship's first trial.
A museum containing compasses of various types invented
during the igth century is attached to the Compass Observatory
at Deptford.

The mariner's compass during the early part of the igth century
was still a very imperfect instrument, although numerous inventors
had tried to improve it. In 1837 the Admiralty Compass Committee
was appointed to make a scientific investigation of the subject, and
propose a form of compass suitable alike Tor azimuth and steering
purposes. The committee reported in July 1840, and after minor
improvements by the makers the admiralty compass, the card of
which is shown in figs. I and 2, was adopted by the government.
Until 1876, when Sir William Thomson introduced his patent com-
pass, this compass was not only the regulation compass of the
British navy, but was largely used in other countries in the same
or a modified form. The introduction of powerful engines causing
serious vibration to compass cards of the admiralty type, coupled
with the prevailing desire for larger cards, the deviation of which
could also be more conveniently compensated, led to the gradual
introduction of the Thomson compass. Several important points
were gained in the latter: the quadrantal deviation could be finally
corrected for all latitudes; frictional error at the cap and pivot was
reduced to a minimum, the average weight of the card being 200
grains; the long free vibrational period of the card was found to be
favourable to its steadiness when the vessel was rolling. The first
liquid compass used in England was invented by Francis Crow, of
Faversham, in 1813. It is*said that the idea of a liquid compass was
suggested to Crow by the experience of the captain of a coasting
vessel whose compass card was oscillating wildly until a sea broke
on board filling the compass bowl, when the card became steady.
Subsequent improvements were made by E. J. Dent, and especially
by E. S. Ritchie, of Boston, Massachusetts. In 1888 the form of
liquid compass (fig. 5) now solely used in torpedo boats and torpedo
boat destroyers was introduced. It has also proved to be the most
trustworthy compass under the shock of heavy gun fire at present
available. The deflector is an instrument designed to enable an
observer to reduce the deviations of the compass to an amount not
exceeding 2 during fogs, or at any time when bearings of distant
objects are not available. It is certain that if the directive forces
on the north, east, south and west points of a compass are equal,
there can be no deviation. With the deflector any inequality in the
directive force can be detected, and hence the power of equalizing
the forces by the usual soft iron and magnet correctors. Several
kinds of deflector have been invented, that of Lord Kelvin (Sir
William Thomson) being the simplest, but Dr Waghorn's is also very
effective. The use of the deflector is generally confined to experts.

The Magnetism of Ships. In 1814 Flinders first showed (see
Flinders's _ Voyage, vol. ii. appx. ii.) that the abnormal values of
the variation observed in the wood-built ships of his day was due
to deviation of the compass caused by the iron in the ship; that the
deviation was zero when the ship's head was near the north and
south points; that it attained its maximum on the east and west
points, and varied as the sine of the azimuth of the ship's head
reckoned from the zero points. He also described a method of
correcting deviation by means of a bar of vertical iron so placed
as to correct the deviation nearly in all latitudes. This bar, now

known as a " Flinders bar," is still in general use. In 1820 Dr T.
Young (see Brande's Quarterly Journal, 1820) investigated mathe-
matically the magnetism of ships. In 1824 Professor Peter Barlow
(1776-1862) introduced his correcting plate of soft iron. Trials in
certain ships showed that their magnetism consisted partly of hard
iron, and the use of the plate was abandoned. In 1835 Captain
E. I. Johnson, R.N., showed from experiments in the iron steamship
" Garry Owen " that the vessel acted on an external compass as a
magnet. In 1838 Sir G. B. Airy magnetically examined the iron
steamship " Rainbow " at Deptford, and from his mathematical
investigations (see Phil. Trans., 1839) deduced his method of correct-
ing the compass by permanent magnets and soft iron, giving practical
rules for the same in 1840. Airy's and Flinders's correctors form the
basis of all compass correctors to this day. In 1838 S. D. Poisson
published his Memoir on the Deviations of the Compass caused by the
Iron in a Vessel. In this he gave equations resulting from the hypo-
thesis that the magnetism of a ship is partly due to the permanent
magnetism of hard iron and partly to the transient induced magnet-
ism of soft iron; that the latter is proportional to the intensity of the
inducing force, and that the length of the needle is infinitesimally
small compared to the distance of the surrounding iron. From
Poisson's equations Archibald Smith deduced the formulae given
in the Admiralty Manual for Deviations of the Compass (ist ed., 1862),
a work which has formed the basis of numerous other manuals since
published in Great Britain and other countries. In view of the serious
difficulties connected with the inclining of every ship, Smith's
formulae for ascertaining and providing for the correction of the
heeling error with the ship upright continue to be of great value to
safe navigation. In 1855 the Liverpool Compass Committee began
its work of investigating the magnetism of ships of the mercantile
marine, resulting in three reports to the Board of Trade, all of great
value, the last being presented in 1861.

See also MAGNETISM, and NAVIGATION; articles on Magnetism
of Ships and Deviations of the Compass, Phil. Trans., 1839-1883,
Journal United Service Inst., 1859-1889, Trans. Insl. Nav. Archil.,
1860-1861-1862, Report of Brit. Assoc., 1862, London Quarterly
Rev., 1865; also Admiralty Manual, edit. 1862-1863-1869-1893-
1900; and Towson's Practical Information on Deviations of the
Compass (1886). (E. W. C.)

History of the Mariner's Compass.

The discovery that a lodestone, or a piece of iron which has
been touched by a lodestone, will direct itself to point in a north
and south position, and the application of that discovery to
direct the navigation of ships, have been attributed to various
origins. The Chinese, the Arabs, the Greeks, the Etruscans,
the Finns and the Italians have all been claimed as originators
of the compass. There is now little doubt that the claim formerly
advanced in favour of the Chinese is ill-founded. In Chinese
history we are told how, in the sixty-fourth year of the reign of
Hwang-ti (2634 B.C.), the emperor Hiuan-yuan, or Hwang-ti,
attacked one Tchi-yeou, on the plains of Tchou-lou, and finding
his army embarrassed by a thick fog raised by the enemy, con-
structed a chariot (Tchi-nan) for indicating the south, so as to
distinguish the four cardinal points, and was thus enabled to
pursue Tchi-yeou, and take him prisoner. (Julius Klaproth,
Letlre d M. le Baron Humboldt sur I'invenlion de la boussole,
Paris, 1834. See also Mailla, Histoire generate de la Chine,
torn. i. p. 316, Paris, 1777.) But, as other versions of the story
show, this account is purely mythical. For the south-pointing
chariots are recorded to have been first devised by the emperor
Hian-tsoung (A.D. 806-820); and there is no evidence that they
contained any magnet. There is no genuine record of a Chinese
marine compass before A.D. 1297, as Klaproth admits. No
sea-going ships were built in China before 139 B.C. The earliest
allusion to the power of the lodestone in Chinese literature
occurs in a Chinese dictionary, finished in A.D. 121, where the
lodestone is defined as " a stone with which an attraction can
be given to a needle," but this knowledge is no more than that
existing in Europe at least five hundred years before. Nor is
there any nautical significance in a passage which occurs in the
Chinese encyclopaedia, Poei-wen-yun-fou, in which it is stated
that under the Tsin dynasty, or between A.D. 265 and 419,
" there were ships indicating the south."

The Chinese, Sir J. F. Davis informs us, once navigated as far
as India, but their most distant voyages at present extend not
farther than Java and the Malay Islands to the south {The
Chinese, vol. iii. p. 14, London, 1844). According to an Arabic
manuscript, a translation of which was published by Eusebius
Renaudot (Paris, 1718), they traded in ships to the Persian Gulf

COMPASS

807

and Red Sea in the gth century. Sir G. L. Staunton, in vol. i.
of his Embassy to China (London, 1797), after referring to the
early acquaintance of the Chinese with the property of the
magnet to point southwards, remarks (p. 445), " The nature and
the cause of the qualities of the magnet have at all times been
subjects of contemplation among the Chinese. The Chinese
name for the compass is ting-nan-ching, or needle pointing to
the south; and a distinguishing mark is fixed on the magnet's
southern pole, as in European compasses upon the northern one."
" The sphere of Chinese navigation," he tells us (p. 447), " is too
limited to have afforded experience and observation for forming
any system of laws supposed to govern the variation of the
needle. . . . The Chinese had soon occasion to perceive how
much more essential the perfection of the compass was to the
superior navigators of Europe than to themselves, as the com-
manders of the ' Lion ' and ' Hindostan,' trusting to that instru-
ment, stood out directly from the land into the sea." The
number of points of the compass, according to the Chinese, is
twenty-four, which are reckoned from the south pole; the
form also of the instrument they employ is different from that
familiar to Europeans. The needle is peculiarly poised, with its
point of suspension a little below its centre of gravity, and is
exceedingly sensitive; it is seldom more than an inch in length,
and is less than a line in thickness. " It may be urged," writes
Mr T. S. Davies, " that the different manner of constructing the
needle amongst the Chinese and European navigators shows the
independence of the Chinese of us, as theirs is the worse method,
and had they copied from us, they would have used the better
one " (Thomson's British Annual, 1837, p. 291). On the other
hand, it has been contended that a knowledge of the mariner's
compass was communicated by them directly or indirectly to
the early Arabs, and through the latter was introduced into
Europe. Sismondi has remarked (Literature of Europe, vol. i.)
that it is peculiarly characteristic of all the pretended discoveries
of the middle ages that when the historians mention them for
the first time they treat them as things in general use. Gun-
powder, the compass, the Arabic numerals and paper, are
nowhere spoken of as discoveries, and yet they must have
wrought a total change in war, in navigation, in science, and in
education. G. Tiraboschi (Storia delta letteratura italiana,
torn. iv. lib. ii. p. 204, et seq., ed. 2., 1788), in support of the
conjecture that the compass was introduced into Europe by the
Arabs, adduces their superiority in scientific learning and their
early skill in navigation. He quotes a passage on the polarity of
the lodestone from a treatise translated by Albertus Magnus,
attributed by the latter to Aristotle, but apparently only an
Arabic compilation from the works of various philosophers. As
the terms Zoron and Aphron, used there to signify the south and
north poles, are neither Latin nor Greek, Tiraboschi suggests
that they may be of Arabian origin, and that the whole passage
concerning the lodestone may have been added to the original
treatise by the Arabian translators.

Dr W. Robertson asserts (Historical Disquisition concerning
Ancient India, p. 227) that the Arabs, Turks and Persians have no
original name for the compass, it being called by them Bossola,
the Italian name, which shows that the thing signified is foreign
to them as well as the word. The Rev. G. P. Badger has, how-
ever, pointed out (Travels of Ludoiiico di Varthema, trans. J. W.
Jones, ed. G. P. Badger, Hakluyt Soc., 1863, note, pp. 31 and 32)
that the name of Bushla or Busba, from the Italian Bussola,
though common among Arab sailors in the Mediterranean, is very
seldom used in the Eastern seas, Da'irah and Beit el-Ibrah
(the Circle, or House of the Needle) being the ordinary appel-
latives in the Red Sea, whilst in the Persian Gulf Kiblah-nameh is
in more general use. Robertson quotes Sir J. Chardin as boldly
asserting " that the Asiatics are beholden to us for this wonderful
instrument, which they had from Europe a long time before the
Portuguese conquests. For, first, their compasses are exactly
like ours, and they buy them of Europeans as much as they can,
scarce daring to meddle with their needles themselves. Secondly,
it is certain that the old navigators only coasted it along, which
I impute to their want of this instrument to guide and instruct

them in the middle of the ocean. ... I have nothing but argu-
ment to offer touching this matter, having never met with any
person in Persia or the Indies to inform me when the compass was
first known among them, though I made inquiry of the most
learned men in both countries. I have sailed from the Indies to
Persia in Indian ships, when no European has been aboard but
myself. The pilots were all Indians, and they used the forestaff
and quadrant for their observations. These instruments they
have from us, and made by our artists, and they do not in the
least vary from ours, except that the characters are Arabic. The
Arabs are the most skilful navigators of all the Asiatics or
Africans; but neither they nor the Indians make use of charts,
and they do not much want them; some they have, but they are
copied from ours, for they are altogether ignorant of perspective."
The observations of Chardin, who flourished between 1643 and
1713, cannot be said to receive support from the testimony of
some earlier authorities. That the Arabs must have been ac-
quainted with the compass, and with the construction and use of
charts, at a period nearly two centuries previous to Chardin's
first voyage to the East, may be gathered from the description
given by Barros of a map of all the. coast of India, shown to
Vasco da Gama by a Moor of Guzerat (about the ijth of July
1498), in which the bearings were laid down " after the manner of
the Moors," or " with meridians and parallels very small (or close
together), without other bearings of the compass; because, as the
squares of these meridians and parallels were very. small, the
coast was laid down by these two bearings of N. and S., and E.
and W., with great certainty, without that multiplication of
bearings of the points of the compass usual in our maps, which
serves as the root of the others." Further, we learn from Osorio
that the Arabs at the time of Gama " were instructed in so many
of the arts of navigation, that they did not yield much to the
Portuguese mariners in the science and practice of maritime
matters." (See The Three Voyages uf Vasco da Gama, Hakluyt
Soc., 1869; note to chap. xv. by the Hon. H. E. J. Stanley,
p. 138.) Also the Arabs that navigated the Red Sea at the same
period are shown by Varthema to have used the mariner's chart
and compass (Travels, p. 31).

Again, it appears that compasses of a primitive description,
which can hardly be supposed to have been brought from Europe,
were employed in the East Indies certainly as early as several
years previous to the close of the i6th century. In William
Barlowe's Navigator's Supply, published in 1597, we read:
" Some fewe yeeres since, it so fell out that I had severall con-
ferences with two East Indians which were brought into England
by master Candish [Thomas Cavendish], and had learned our
language: The one of them was of Mamillia [Manila] in the Isle
of Luzon, the other of Miaco in Japan. I questioned with them
concerning their shipping and manner of sayling. They described
all things farre different from ours, and shewed, that in steade of
our Compas, they use a magneticall needle of sixe ynches long,
and longer, upon a pinne in a dish of white China earth filled
with water; In the bottome whereof they have two crosse lines,
for the foure principall windes; the rest of the divisions being
reserved to the skill of their Pilots." Bailak Kibdjaki, also, an
Arabian writer, shows in his Merchant's Treasure, a work given
to the world in 1282, that the magnetized needle, floated on water
by means of a splinter of wood or a reed, was employed on the
Syrian seas at the time of his voyage from Tripoli to Alexandria
(1242), and adds: " They say that the captains who navigate
the Indian seas use, instead of the needle and splinter, a sort
of fish made out of hollow iron, which, when thrown into the
water, swims upon the surface, and points out the north and
south with its head and tail " (Klaproth, Lettre, p. 57). E.
Wiedemann, in Erlangen Sitzungsberichte (1904, p. 330), translates
the phrase given above as splinter of wood, by the term wooden
cross. Furthermore, although the sailors in the Indian vessels
in which Niccola de' Conti traversed the Indian seas in 1420 are
stated to have had no compass, still, on board the ship in which
Varthema, less than a century later, sailed from Borneo to Java,
both the mariner's chart and compass were used; it has been
questioned, however, whether in this case the compass was of

8o8

COMPASS

Eastern manufacture (Trawls of Varthema, Introd. xciv, and
p 240) We have already seen that the Chinese as late as the
end of the i8th century made voyages with compasses on which
but little reliance could be placed; and it may perhaps be
assumed that the compasses early used in the East were mostly
too imperfect to be of much assistance to navigators, and were
therefore often dispensed with on customary routes. The Arab
traders in the Levant certainly used a floating compass, as did
the Italians before the introduction of the pivoted needle; the
magnetized piece of iron being floated upon a small raft of cork
or reeds in a bowl of water. The Italian name of calamita, which
still persists, for the magnet, and which literally signifies a frog,
is doubtless derived from this practice.

The simple water-compass is said to have been used by the
Coreans so late as the middle of the i8th century; and Dr T.
Smith, writing in the Philosophical Transactions for 1683-1684,
says of the Turks (p. 439), " They have no genius for Sea-
voyages, and consequently are very raw and unexperienced
in the art of Navigation, scarce venturing to sail out of sight of
land. I speak of the natural Turks, who trade either into the
black Sea or some part of the Morea, or between Constantinople
and Alexandria, and not of the Pyrats of Barbary, who are for
the most part Renegado's, and learnt their skill in Christendom.
The Turkish compass consists but of 8 points, the four
Cardinal and the four Collateral." That the value of the
compass was thus, even in the latter part of the i?th
century, so imperfectly recognized in the East may serve
to explain how in earlier times that instrument, long after
the first discovery of its properties, may have been generally
neglected by navigators.

The Arabic geographer, Edrisi, who lived about 1 100, is said
by Boucher to give an account, though in a confused manner,
of the polarity of the magnet (Hallam, Mid. Ages, vol. in. chap.
9, part 2); but the earliest definite mention as yet known of
the use of the mariner's compass in the middle ages occurs in a
treatise entitled De utensilibus, written by Alexander Neckam
in the I2th century. He speaks there of a needle carried on
board ship which, being placed on a pivot, and allowed to take
its own position of repose, shows mariners their course when
the polar star is hidden. In another work, De naturis rerum,
lib. ii. c. 89, he writes, " Mariners at sea, when, through
cloudy weather in the day which hides the sun, or through the
darkness of the night, they lose the knowledge of the quarter
of the world to which they are sailing, touch a needle with the
magnet, which will turn round till, on its motion ceasing, its
point will be directed towards the north " (W. Chappell, Nature,
No. 346, June 15, 1876). The magnetical needle, and its suspen-
sion on a stick or straw in water, are clearly described in La
Bible Cuiot, a poem probably of the i3th century, by Guiot de
Provins, wherein we are told that through the magnet (la manetle
or Vamaniere), an ugly brown stone to which iron turns of its
own accord, mariners possess an art that cannot fail them
A needle touched by it, and floated by a stick on water, turns its
point towards the pole-star, and a light being placed near the
needle on dark nights, the proper course is known (Hist, littirain
de la France, torn. ix. p. 199 ; Barbazan, Fabliaux, torn, ii
p. 328). Cardinal Jacques de Vitry, bishop of Aeon in Palestine
in his History (cap. 89), written about the year 1218, speaks
of the magnetic needle as " most necessary for such as sail the
sea "j 1 and another French crusader, his contemporary, Vincent
de Beauvais, states that the adamant (lodestone) is found in
Arabia, and mentions a method of using a needle magnetizec
by it which is similar to that described by Kibdjaki. In 1248
Hugo de Bercy notes a change in the construction of compasses
which are now supported on two floats in a glass cup. From
quotations given by Antonio Capmany (Questiones Criticas
from the De contemplatione of Raimon Lull, of the date 1272
it appears that the latter was well acquainted with the use o

1 Adamas in India reperitur . . . Ferrum occulta quadam natun
ad se trahit. Acus ferrea postquam adamantem contigerit, at
stellam septentrionalem . . . semper convertitur, undevaideneces
sarius est navigantibus in mari.

he magnet at sea; 8 and before the middle of the I3th century
jauthier d'Espinois alludes to its polarity, as if generally
cnown, in the lines:

" Tous autresi comme 1'aimant decoit [detourne]
L'aiguillette par force de vertu,
A ma dame tor le mont [monde] retenue
Qui sa beaute connoit et apersoit."

Guido Guinizzelli, a poet of the same period, writes: " In
those parts under the north are the mountains of lodestone,
which give the virtue to the air of attracting iron; but because
t [the lodestone] is far off, [it] wishes to have the help of a similar
stone to make it [the virtue] work, and to direct the needle
;owards the star." 3 Brunetto Latini also makes reference to
;he compass in his encyclopaedia Livres dou tresar, composed
about 1260 (Livre i. pt. ii. ch. cxx.) : " For ce nagent Ii marinier
1 1'enseigne des estpiles qui i sent, que il apelent tramontaines,
et les gens qui sont en Europe et es parties deca nagent a la
;ramontaine de septentrion, et Ii autre nagent a cele de midi.
Et qui n'en set la verite, praigne une pierre d'aimant, et troverez
que ele a ij faces: 1'une qui gist vers 1'une tramontaine, et
'autre gist vers 1'autre. Et a chascune des ij faces la pointe
d'une aguille vers cele tramontaine a cui cele face gist. Et por
ce seroient Ii marinier deceu se il ne se preissent garde " (p. 147,
Paris edition, 1863). Dante (Paradiso, xii. 28-30) mentions the
jointing of the magnetic needle toward the pole star. In
Scandinavian records there is a reference to the nautical use of
the magnet in the Hauksbok, the last edition of the Landna-
mabdk (Book of the Colonization of Iceland): " Floki, son of
Vilgerd, instituted a great sacrifice, and consecrated three ravens
which should show him the way (to Iceland) ; for at that time
no men sailing the high seas had lodestones up in northern lands."
Haukr Erlendsson, who wrote this paragraph about 1300,
died in 1334; his edition was founded on material in two earlier
works, that of Styrmir Karason (who died 1245), which is lost,
and that of Hurla Thordson (died 1284) which has no such
paragraph. All that is certain is a knowledge of the nautical
use of the magnet at the end of the I3th century. From T.
Torfaeus we learn that the compass, fitted into a box, was
already in use among the Norwegians about the middle of the
i3th century (Hisi. rer. Noroegicarum, iv. c. 4, p. 345, Hafniae,
1711); and it is probable that the use of the magnet at sea was
known in Scotland at or shortly subsequent to that time, though
King Robert, in crossing from Arran to Carrick in 1306, as
Barbour writing in 1375 informs us, " na nedill had na stane,"
but steered by a fire on the shore. Roger Bacon (Opus majus
and Opus minus, 1266-1267) was acquainted with the properties
of the lodestone, and wrote that if set so that it can turn freely
(swimming on water) it points toward the poles; but he stated
that this was not due to the pole-star, but to the influence of
the northern region of the heavens.

The earliest unquestionable description of a pivoted compass
is that contained in the remarkable Epistola de magnete of Petrus
Peregrinus de Maricourt, written at Lucera in 1269 to Sigerus
de Foncaucourt. (First printed edition Augsburg, 1558. See
also Bertelli in Boncompagni's Bollettino di bibliografia, t. i.,
or S. P. Thompson in Proc. British Academy, vol. ii.) Of this
work twenty-eight MSS. exist; seven of them being at Oxford.
The first part of the epistle deals generally with magnetic
attractions and repulsions, with the polarity of the stone, and
with the supposed influence of the poles of the heavens upon
the poles of the stone. In the second part Peregrinus describes
first an improved floating compass with fiducial line, a circle
graduated with 90 degrees to each quadrant, and provided
with movable sights for taking bearings. He then describes a
new compass with a needle thrust through a pivoted axis, placed
in a box with transparent cover, cross index of brass or silver,
divided circle, and an external " rule " or alhidade provided
with a pair of sights. In the Leiden MS. of this work, which for
long was erroneously ascribed to one Peter Adsiger, is a spurious
passage, long believed to mention the variation of the compass.
* Sicut acus per naturam yertitur ad septentrionem dum sit tacta a
magnete. Sicut acus nautica dirigit marinarios in sua navigatione.
' Ginguene, Hist. lit. de I' Italic, t. i. p. 413.

COMPASS PLANT COMPENSATION

809

Prior to this clear description of a pivoted compass by Pere-
grinus in 1269, the Italian sailors had used the floating magnet,
probably introduced into this region of the Mediterranean by
traders belonging to the port of Amalfi, as commemorated in
the line of the poet Panormita:

" Prima dedit nautis usum magnetis Amalphis."

This opinion is supported by the historian Flavius Blondus
in his Italia illustrata, written about 1450, who adds that its
certain origin is unknown. In 1511 Baptista Pio in his Com-
mentary repeats the opinion as to the invention of the use of
the magnet at Amalfi as related by Flavius. Gyraldus, writing
in 1540 (Libellus de re nautica), misunderstanding this reference,
declared that this observation of the direction of the magnet
to the poles had been handed down as discovered " by a certain
Flavius." From this passage arose a legend, which took shape
only in the i?th century, that the compass was invented in
the year 1302 by a person to whom was given the fictitious
name of Flavio Gioja, of Amalfi.

From the above it will have been evident that, as Barlowe
remarks concerning the compass, " the lame tale of one Flavius
at Amelphus, in the kingdome of Naples, for to have devised it,
is of very slender probabilitie"; and as regards the assertion
of Dr Gilbert, of Colchester (De magnete, p. 4, 1600), that Marco
Polo introduced the compass into Italy from the East in 1 260,' we
need only quote the words of Sir H. Yule ( Book of Marco Polo) :
" Respecting the mariner's compass and gunpowder, I shall say
nothing, as no one now, I believe, imagines Marco to have had
anything to do with their introduction."

When, and by whom, the compass card was added is a matter
of conjecture. Certainly the Rosa Venlorum, or Wind-rose, is
far older than the compass itself; and the naming of the eight
principal " winds " goes back to the Temple of the Winds in
Athens built by Andronicus Cyrrhestes. The earliest known
wind-roses on the portulani or sailing charts of the Mediterranean
pilots have almost invariably the eight principal points marked
with the initials of the principal winds, Tramontano, Greco,
Levante, Scirocco, Ostro, Africo (or Libeccio), Ponente and
Maestro, or with a cross instead of L, to mark the east point.
The north point, indicated in some of the oldest compass cards
with a broad arrow-head or a spear, as well as with a T for
Tramontano, gradually developed by a combination of these,
about 1492, into a fleur de Us, still universal. The cross at the

st continued even in British compasses till about 1 700. Wind-
roses with these characteristics are found in Venetian and
Genoese charts of early I4th century, and are depicted similarly
by the Spanish navigators. The naming of the intermediate
subdivisions making up the thirty-two points or rhumbs of
the compass card is probably due to Flemish navigators ; but
they were recognized even in the time of Chaucer, who in 1391
wrote, " Now is thin Orisonte departed in xxiiii partiez by thi
azymutz, in significacion of xxiiii partiez of the world: al be it
so that ship men rikne thilke partiez in xxxii " (Treatise on the
Astrolabe, ed. Skeat, Early English Text Soc., London, 1872).
The mounting of the card upon the needle or " flie," so as to
turn with it, is probably of Amalphian origin. Da Buti, the
Dante commentator, in 1380 say^s the sailors use a compass at
the middle of which is pivoted a wheel of light paper to turn
on its pivot, on which wheel the needle is fixed and the star
(wind-rose) painted. The placing of the card at the bottom of
the box, fixed, below the needle, was practised by the compass-
makers of Nuremberg in the i6th century, and by Stevinus of
Bruges about 1600. The gimbals or rings for suspension hinged
at right-angles to one another, have been erroneously attributed
to Cardan, the proper term being car dine, that is hinged or
pivoted. The earliest description of them is about 1604. The
term binnacle, originally bittacle, is a corruption of the Portuguese
abitacolo, to denote the housing enclosing the compass, probably
originating with the Portuguese navigators.

The improvement of the compass has been but a slow process

1 " According to all the texts he returned to Venice in 1295 or
as is more probable, in 1296." Yule.

The Libel of English Policie, a poem of the first half of the isth
century, says with reference to Iceland (chap, x.)

" Out of Bristowe, and costes many one,
Men haue practised by nedle and by stone
Thider wardes within a litle while."

Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, p. 201 (London, 1599).

From this it would seem that the compasses used at that time
ay English mariners were of a very primitive description.
Barlowe, in his treatise Magnetical Advertisements, printed in
1616 (p. 66), complains that " the Compasse needle, being the
most admirable and usefull instrument of the whole world, is
both amongst ours and other nations for the most part, so
bungerly and absurdly contrived, as nothing more." The form
lie recommends for the needle is that of " a true circle, having
his Axis going out beyond the circle, at each end narrow and
narrower, unto a reasonable sharpe point, and being pure steele
as the circle it selfe is, having in the middest a convenient
receptacle to place the capitell in." In 1750 Dr Gowan Knight
found that the needles of merchant-ships were made of two
pieces of steel bent in the middle and united in the shape of a
rhombus, and proposed to substitute straight steel bars of small
breadth, suspended edgewise and hardened throughout. He
also showed that the Chinese mode of suspending the needle
conduces most to sensibility. In 1820 Peter Barlow reported
to the Admiralty that half the compasses in the British Navy
were mere lumber and ought to be destroyed. He introduced
a pattern having four or five parallel straight strips of magnetized
steel fixed under a card, a form which remained the standard
admiralty type until the introduction of the modern Thomson
(Kelvin) compass in 1876. (F.H.B.; S.P.T.)

COMPASS PLANT, a native of the North American prairies,
which takes its name from the position assumed by the leaves.
These turn their edges to north and south, thus avoiding the
excessive mid-day heat, while getting the full benefit of the
morning and evening rays. The plant is known botanically as
Silphium laciniatum, and belongs to the natural order Compositae.
Another member of the same order, Lactuca Scariola, which has
been regarded as the origin of the cultivated lettuce (L. saliva),
behaves in the same way when growing in dry exposed places ;
it is a native of Europe and northern Asia which has got introduced
into North America.

COMPAYRE, JULES GABRIEL (1843- ), French educa-
tionalist, was born at Albi. He entered the Ecole Normale
Superieure in 1862 and became professor of philosophy. In
1876 he was appointed professor in the Faculty of Letters of
Toulouse, and upon the creation of the Ecole normale d'institu-
trices at Fontenay aux Roses he became teacher of pedagogy
(1880). From 1881 to 1889 he was deputy for Lavaur in the
chamber, and took an active part in the discussions on public
education. Defeated at the elections of 1889, he was appointed
rector of the academy of Poitiers in 1890, and five years later
to the academy of Lyons. His principal publications are his
Histoire critique des doctrines de V education en France (1879);
Aliments d 'education civique (1881), a work placed on the index
at Rome, but very widely read in the primary schools of France;
Cour& de pedagogic thiorique et pratique (1885, i3th ed., 1897);
The Intellectual and Moral Development of the Child, in English
(2 vols., New York, 1896-1902); and a series of monographs
on Les Grands ducateurs.

COMPENSATION (from Lat. compensare, to weigh one thing
against another), a term applied in English law to a number
of different forms of legal reparation; e.g. under the Forfeiture
Act 1870 (s. 4), for loss of property caused by felony, or under
the Riot (Damages) Act 1886 to persons whose property has
been stolen, destroyed or injured by rioters (see RIOT). It is due,
under the Agricultural Holdings Acts 1883-1906, for agricultural
improvements (see LANDLORD AND TENANT; cf. also ALLOT-
MENTS AND SMALL HOLDIN(^), and under the Workmen's
Compensation Act 1906 to workmen, in respect of accidents in
the course of their employment (see EMPLOYERS' LIABILITY);
and under the Licensing Act 1904, to the payments to be made
on the extinction of licences to sell intoxicants. The term

8io

COMPENSATION

" Compensation water " is used to describe the water given from
a reservoir in compensation for water abstracted from a stream,
under statutory powers, in connexion with public works (see
WATER SUPPLY). As to the use of the word " compensation " in
horology, see CLOCK; WATCH.

Compensation, in its most familiar sense, is however a nomen
juris for the reparation or satisfaction made to the owners of
property which is taken by the state or by local authorities or by
the promoters of parliamentary undertakings, under statutory
authority, for public purposes. There are two main legal theories
on which such appropriation of private property is justified.
The American may be taken as a representative illustration of
the one, and the English of the other. Though not included in
the definition of " eminent domain," the necessity for compensa-
tion is recognized as incidental to that power. (See EMINENT
DOMAIN, under which the American law of compensation, and
the closely allied doctrine of expropriation pour cause d'utilitf
publique of French law, and the law of other continental countries,
are discussed.) The rule of English constitutional law, on the
other hand, is that the property of the citizen cannot be seized
for purposes which are really " public " without a fair pecuniary
equivalent being given to him; and, as the money for such
compensation must come from parliament, the practical result
is that the seizure can only be effected under legislative authority.
An action for illegal interference with the property of the subject
is not maintainable against officials of the crown or government
sued in their official capacity or as an official body. But crown
officials may be sued in their individual capacity for such inter-
ference, even if they acted with the authority of the government
(cp. Raleigh v. Goschen [1898], i Ch. 73).

Law of England. Down to 1845 every act authorizing the
purchase of lands had, in addition to a number of common form
clauses, a variety of special clauses framed with a view to
meeting the particular circumstances with which it dealt. In
1845, however, a statute based on the recommendations of a select
committee, appointed in the preceding year, was passed; the
object being to diminish the bulk of the special acts, and to
introduce uniformity into private bill legislation by classifying
the common form clauses, embodying them in general statutes,
and facilitating their incorporation into the special statutes by
reference. The statute by which this change was initiated was
the Lands Clauses Consolidation Act 1845; an l the policy has
been continued by a series of later statutes which, together with
the act of 1845, are now grouped under the generic title of. the
Lands Clauses Acts.

The public purposes for which lands are taken are threefold.
Certain public departments, such as the war office and the
admiralty, may acquire lands for national purposes (see the
Defence Acts 1842 to 1873; and the Lands Clauses Consolida-
tion Act 1860, s. 7). Local authorities are enabled to exercise
similar powers for an enormous variety of municipal purposes,
e.g. the housing of the working classes, the improvement of
towns, and elementary and secondary education. Lastly, the
promoters of public undertakings of a commercial character,
such as railways and harbours, carry on their operations under
statutes in which the provisions of the Lands Clauses Acts are
incorporated.

Lands may be taken under the Lands Clauses Acts either by
agreement or compulsorily. The first step in the proceedings
is a " notice to treat," or intimation by the promoters of their
readiness to purchase the land, coupled with a demand for
particulars as to the estate and the interests in it. The land-
owner on whom the notice is served may meet it by agreeing to
sell, and the terms may then be settled by consent of the parties
themselves, or by arbitration, if they decide to have recourse
to that mode of adjusting the difficulty. If the property claimed
is a house, or other building or manufactory, the owner has a
statutory right to require the promoters by a counternotice to
take the whole, even although a part would serve their purpose.
This rule, however, is, in modern acts, often modified by special
clauses. On receipt of the counter-notice the promoters must
either assent to the requirement contained in it, or abandon

their notice to treat. On the other hand, if the landowner fails
within twenty-one days after receipt of the notice to treat to
give the particulars which it requires, the promoters may proceed
to exercise their compulsory powers and to obtain assessment
of the compensation to be paid. As a general rule, it is a condi-
tion precedent to the exercise of these powers by a company
that the capital of the undertaking should be fully subscribed.
Compensation, under the Lands Clauses Acts, is assessed in four
different modes: (i) by justices, where the claim does not
exceed 50, or a claimant who has no greater interest than that
of a tenant for a year, or from year to year, is required to give up
possession before the expiration of his tenancy; (2) by arbitra-
tion (a) when the claim exceeds 50, and the claimant desires
arbitration, and the interest is not a yearly tenancy, (6) when the
amount has been ascertained by a surveyor, and the claimant is
dissatisfied, (c) when superfluous lands are to be sold, and the
parties entitled to pre-emption and the promoters cannot agree as
to the price. (Lands become " superfluous " if taken com-
pulsorily on an erroneous estimate of the area needed, or if part
only was needed and the owner compelled the promoters under
the power above mentioned to take the whole, or in cases of
abandonment) ; (3) by a jury, when the claim exceeds 50, and
(a) the claimant does not signify his desire for arbitration, or no
award has been made within the prescribed time, or (6) the
claimant applies in writing for trial by jury; (4) by surveyors,
nominated by justices, where the owner is under disability, or
does not appear at the appointed time, or the claim is in respect
of commonable rights, and a committee has not been appointed
to treat with the promoters.

Promoters are not allowed without the consent of the owner to
enter upon lands which are the subject of proceedings under the
Lands Clauses Acts, except for the purpose of making a survey,
unless they have executed a statutory bond and made a deposit,
at the Law Courts Branch of the Bank of England, as security
for the performance of the conditions of the bond.

Measure of Value. (i) Where land is taken, the basis on
which compensation is assessed is the commercial value of the
land to the owner at the date of the notice to treat. Potential
value may be taken into account, and also good-will of the
property in a business. This rule, however, excludes any con-
sideration of the principle of " betterment." (2) Where land,
although not taken, is " injuriously affected " by the works of the
promoters, compensation is payable for loss or damage resulting
from any act, legalized by the promoters' statutory powers,
which would otherwise have been actionable, or caused by
the execution (not the use) of the works authorized by the
undertaking.

The following examples of how land may be " injuriously
affected," so as to give a right to compensation under the acts,
may be given: narrowing or obstructing a highway which is
the nearest access to the lands in question; interference with
a right of way; substantial interference with ancient lights;
noise of children outside a board school.

Scotland and Ireland. The Lands Clauses Act 1845 extends
to Ireland. There is a Scots enactment similar in character
(Lands Clauses [Scotland] Act 1845). The principles and practice
of the law of compensation are substantially the same throughout
the United Kingdom.

India and the British Colonies. Legislation analogous to the
Lands Clauses Acts is in force in India (Land Acquisition Act
1894 [Act i of 1894]) and in most of the colonies (see western
Australia, Lands Resumption Act 1894 [58 Viet. No. 33], Victoria,
Lands Compensation Act 1890 [54 Viet. No. 1109]; New Zealand,
Public Works Act 1894 [58 Viet. No. 42]; Ontario [Revised
Stats. 1897, c. 37]).

AUTHORITIES. English Law: Balfour Browne and Allan, Com-
pensation (2nd ed., London, 1903); Cripps, Compensation (sth
edition, London, 1905); Hudson, Compensation (London, 1906);
Boyle and Waghorn, Compensation (London, 1903); Lloyd, Com-
pensation (6th ed. by Brooks, London, 1895) ; Clifford, Private Rill
Legislation, London, 1885 (vol. i.), 1887 (vol. ii.) Scots Law. Deas,
Law of Railways in Scotland (ed. by Ferguson; Edinburgh, 1897);
Rankine, Law of Landownership (3rd ed., 1891). (A. W. R.)

COMPIEGNE COMPOSITAE

COMPIEGNE, a town of northern France, capital of an arrond-
issement in the department of Oise, 52 m. N.N.E. of Paris on
the Northern railway between Paris and St Quentin. Pop.
(1906) 14,052. The town, which is a favourite summer resort,
stands on the north-west border of the forest of Compiegne and
on the left bank of the Oise, less than i m. below its confluence
with the Aisne. The river is crossed by a bridge built in the
reign of Louis XV. The Rue Solferino, a continuation of the
bridge ending at the Place de 1'Hotel de Ville, is the busy street
of the town; elsewhere, except on market days, the streets are
quiet. The hotel de ville, with a graceful facade surmounted
by a lofty belfry, is in the late Gothic style of the early i6th
century and was completed in modern times. Of the churches,
St Antoine (i3th and i6th centuries) with some fine Renaissance
stained glass, and St Jacques (i3th and isth centuries), need
alone be mentioned. The remains of the ancient abbey of St
Corneille are used as a military storehouse. Compiegne, from
a very early period until 1870, was the occasional residence of the
French kings. Its palace, one of the most magnificent structures
of its kind, was erected, chiefly by Louis XV. and Louis XVI., on
the site of a chateau of King Charles V. of France. It now serves
as an art museum. It has two facades, one overlooking the Place
du Palais and the town, the other, more imposing, facing towards
a fine park and the forest, which is chiefly of oak and beech and
covers over 36,000 acres. Compiegne is the seat of a subprefect,
and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a communal
college, library and hospital. The industries comprise boat-
building, rope-making, steam-sawing, distilling and the manu-
facture of chocolate, machinery and sacks and coarse coverings,
and at Margny, a suburb, there are manufactures of chemicals
and felt hats. Asparagus is cultivated in the environs. There
is considerable trade in timber and coal, chiefly river-borne.

Compiegne, or as it is called in the Latin chronicles, Com-
pendium, seems originally to have been a hunting-lodge of the
early Prankish kings. It was enriched by Charles the Bald with
two castles, and a Benedictine abbey dedicated to Saint Corneille,
the monks of which retained down to the iSth century the
privilege of acting for three days as lords of Compiegne, with full
power to release prisoners, condemn the guilty, and even inflict
sentence of death. It was in Compiegne that King Louis I. the
Debonair was deposed in 833; and at the siege of the town in
1430 Joan of Arc was taken prisoner by the English. A monu-
aent to her faces the hotel de ville. In 1624 the town gave its
name to a treaty of alliance concluded by Richelieu with the
Dutch; and it was in the palace that Louis XV. gave welcome
to Marie Antoinette, that Napoleon I. received Marie Louise of
Austria, that Louis XVIII. entertained the emperor Alexander
of Russia, and that Leopold I., king of the Belgians, was married
to the princess Louise. In 1814 Compiegne offered a stubborn
resistance to the Prussian troops. Under Napoleon III. it was
the annual resort of the court during the hunting season. From
1870 to 1871 it was one of the headquarters of the German army.

COMPLEMENT (Lat. complementum, from complere, to fill
up), that which fills up or completes anything, e.g. the number
of men necessary to man a ship. In geometry, the complement
of an angle is the difference between the angle and a right angle ;
the complements of a parallelogram are formed by drawing
parallel to adjacent sides of a parallelogram two lines intersecting
on a diagonal; four parallelograms are thus formed, and the
two not about the diagonal of the original parallelogram are the
complementsof the parallelogram. In analysis, a complementary
function is a partial solution to a differential equation (q.v.);
complementary operators are reciprocal or inverse operators,
i.e. two operations A and B are complementary when both
operating on the same figure or function leave it unchanged.
A " complementary colour " is one which produces white when
nixed with another (see COLOUR). In Spanish the word cum-
plimenlo was used in a particular sense of the fulfilment of the
duties of polite behaviour and courtesy, and it came through the
French and Italian forms into use in English, with a change in
spelling to " compliment," with the sense of an act of politeness,
especially of a polite expression of praise, or of social regard and

greetings. The word " comply," meaning to act in accordance
with wishes, orders or conditions, is also derived from the same
origin, but in sense is connected with " ply " or " pliant," from
Lat. plicare, to bend, with the idea of subserviently yielding to
the wishes of another.

COMPLUVIUM (from Lat. compluere, to flow together, i.e.
in reference to the rain being collected and falling through), in
architecture, the Latin term for the open space left in the roof of
the atrium of a Roman house for lighting it and the rooms round
(see CAVAEDIUM).

COMPOSITAE, the name given to the largest natural order of
flowering plants, containing about one-tenth of the whole number
and characterized by the crowding of the flowers into heads.
The order is cosmopolitan, and the plants show considerable
variety in habit. The great majority, including most British
representatives, are herbaceous, but in the warmer parts of the
world shrubs and arborescent forms also occur; the latter are
characteristic of the flora of oceanic islands. In herbaceous
plants the leaves are often arranged in a rosette on a much
shortened stem, as in dandelion, daisy and others; when the
stem is elongated the leaves are generally alternate. The root
is generally thickened, sometimes, as in dahlia, tuberous; root
and stem contain oil passages, or, as in lettuce and dandelion,
a milky white latex. The flowers are crowded in heads (capitula)
which are surrounded by an involucre of green bracts, these

FIG. i.

1. Flower head of Marigold, | nat. size. 3. Head of fruits, nat. size.

2. Same in vertical section. 4. A single fruit,
protect the head of flowers in the bud stage, performing the usual
function of a calyx. The enlarged top of the axis, the receptacle,
is flat, convex or conical, and the flowers open in centripetal
succession. In many cases, as in the sunflower or daisy, the outer
or ray-florets are larger and more conspicuous than the inner,
or disk-florets; in other cases, as in dandelion, the florets are
all alike. Ray-florets when present are usually pistillate, but
neuter in some genera (as Centaurea) ; the disk-florets are herma-
phrodite. The flower is epigynous; the calyx is sometimes
absent, or is represented by a rim on the top of the ovary, or
takes the form of hairs or bristles which enlarge in the fruiting
stage to form the pappus by means of which the seed is dispersed.
The corolla, of five united petals, is regular and tubular in shape
as in the disk-florets, or irregular when it is either strap-shaped
(ligulate), as in the ray-florets of daisy, &c., or all the florets of
dandelion, or more rarely two-lipped. The five stamens are
attached to the interior of the corolla-tube; the filaments are
free; the anthers are joined (syngenesious) to form a tube round
the single style, which ends in a pair of stigmas. The inferior
ovary contains one ovule (attached to the base of the chamber),
and ripens to form a dry one-seeded fruit; the seed is filled with
the straight embryo.

The flower-heads are an admirable example of an adaptation
for pollination by aid of insects. The crowding of the flowers
in heads ensures the pollination of a large number as the result
of a single insect visit. Honey is secreted at the base of the
style, and is protected from rain or dew and the visits of short-
lipped insects by the corolla-tube, the length 'of which is

8l2

COMPOSITE ORDER COMPOSITION

correlated with the length of proboscis of the visiting insect. When
the flower opens, the two stigmas are pressed together below
the tube formed by the anthers, the latter split on the inside,
and the pollen fills the tube; the style gradually lengthens and
carries the pollen out of the anther tube, and finally the stigmas
spread and expose their receptive surface which has hitherto
been hidden, the two being pressed together. Thus the life
history of the flower falls into two stages, an earlier or male
and a later or female. This favours cross-pollination as compared
with self-pollination. In many cases there is a third stage, as
in dandelion, where the stigmas finally curl back so that they
touch any pollen grains which have been left on the style, thus
ensuring self-pollination if cross-pollination has not been effected.

The devices for distribution of the fruit are very varied.
Frequently there is a hairy or silky pappus forming a tuft of
hairs, as in thistle or coltsfoot, or a parachute-like structure
as in dandelion; these render the fruit sufficiently light to be
carried by the wind. In Bidens the pappus consists of two
or more stiff-barbed bristles which cause the fruit to cling to
the coats of animals. Occasionally, as in sunflower or daisy,
the fruits bear no special appendage and remain on the head
until jerked off.

Compositae are generally considered to represent the most
highly developed order of flowering plants. By the massing
of the flowers in heads great economy is effected in the material
required for one flower, as conspicuousness is ensured by the
association; economy of time on the part of the pollinating
insect is also effected, as a large number of flowers are visited
at one time. The floral mechanism is both simple and effective,

FIG. 2. Flowering shoot of Cornflower, f nat. size,
i. Disk-floret in vertical section.

favouring cross-pollination, but ensuring self-pollination should
that fail. The means of seed-distribution are also very effective.
A few members of the order are of economic value, e.g. Lactuca
(lettuce; q.v.), Cichorium (chicory; q.v.), Cynara (artichoke
and cardoon; q.v.), Hdianthus (Jerusalem artichoke). Many
are cultivated as garden or greenhouse plants, such as Solidago
(golden rod), Ageratum, Aster (q.v.) (Michaelmas daisy), Hdi-
chrysum (everlasting), Zinnia, Rudbeckia, Helianthus (sun-
flower), Coreopsis, Dahlia (q.v.), Tagetes (French and African

marigold), Gaillardia, Achillea (yarrow), Chrysanthemum,
Pyrethrum (feverfew; now generally included under Chrysan-
themum), Tanacetum (tansy), Arnica, Doronicum, Cineraria,
Calendula (common marigold) (fig. i), Echinops (globe thistle),
Centaurea (cornflower) (fig. 2). Some are of medicinal value!
such as Anthemis (chamomile), Artemisia (wormwood), Tussilago
(coltsfoot), Arnica. Insect powder is prepared from species of
Pyreihrum.

The order is divided into two suborders: Tubuliflorae,
characterized by absence of latex, and the florets of the disk

FIG. 3. Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris).

1. Disk-floret. 3. Ray-floret.

2. Same cut vertically. 4. Fruit with pappus.

being not ligulate, and Liguliflorae, characterized by presence
of latex and all the florets being ligulate. The first suborder
contains the majority of the genera, and is divided into a number
of tribes, characterized by the form of the anthers and styles,
the presence or absence of scales on the receptacle, and the
similarity or otherwise of the florets of one and the same head.
The order is well represented in Britain, in which forty-two
genera are native. These include some of the commonest weeds,
such as dandelion (Taraxacum Dens-leonis) , daisy (Bellis perennis) ,
groundsel (fig. 3) (Senecio vulgaris) and ragwort (S. Jacobaea);
coltsfoot ( Tussilago Farfara) is one of the earliest plants to flower,
and other genera are Chrysanthemum (ox-eye daisy and corn-mari-
gold), Arctium (burdock), Centaurea (knapweed and cornflower),
Carduus and Cnicus (thistles), Hieracium (hawkweed), Sonckus
(sow-thistle), Achillea (yarrow, or milfoil, and sneezewort),
Eupatorium (hemp-agrimony), Gnaphalium (cudweed), Erigeron
(fleabane), Solidago (golden-rod), Anthemis (may- weed and
chamomile), Cichorium (chicory), Lapsana (nipplewort), Crepit
(hawk's-beard), Hypochaeris (cat's-ear),and Tragopogon (goat's-
beard). -

COMPOSITE ORDER, in architecture, a compound of the
Ionic and Corinthian orders (see ORDER), the chief characteristic
of which is found in the capital (q.v.), where a double row of
acanthus 'leaves, similar to those carved round the Corinthian
capital, has been added under the Ionic volutes. The richer
decoration of the Ionic capital had already been employed in
those of the Erechtheum, where the necking was carved with
the palmette or honeysuckle. Similar decorated Ionic capitals
were found in the forum of Trajan. The earliest example of the
Composite capital is found in the arch of Titus at Rome. The
entablature was borrowed from that of the Corinthian order.

COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put
together), the action of putting together and combining, and the
product of such action. There are many applications of the
word. In philology it is used of the putting together of two
distinct words to form a single word; and in grammar, of the
combination of words into sentences, and sentences into periods,
and then applied to the result of such combination, and to the
art of producing a work in prose or verse, or to the work itself,
[n music " composition " is used both of the art of combining
musical sounds in accordance with the rules of musical form,
and, more generally, of the whole art of creation or invention.
The name " composer " is thus particularly applied to the
musical creator in general. In the other fine arts the word is

COMPOUND COMPROMISE MEASURES

more strictly used of the balanced arrangement of the parts
of a picture, of a piece of sculpture or a building, so that they
should form one harmonious whole. The word also means an
agreement or an adjustment of differences between two or more
parties, and is thus the best general term to describe the agree-
ment, often called by the equivalent German word " Ausgleich,"
between Austria and Hungary in 1867. A more particular use
is the legal one, for an agreement by which a creditor agrees to
take from his debtor a sum less than his debt in satisfaction of
the whole (see BANKRUPTCY). In logic " composition " is the
name given to a fallacy of equivocation, where what is true
distributively of each member of a class is inferred to be true of
the whole class collectively. The fallacy of " division " is the
converse of this, where what is true of a term used collectively
is inferred to be true of its several parts. A common source
of these errors in reasoning is the confusion between the collective
and distributive meanings of the word " all." Composition,
often shortened to " compo," is the name given to many materials
compounded of more than one substance, and is used in various
trades and manufactures, as in building, for a mixture, such as
stucco, cement and plaster, for covering walls, &c., often made
to represent stone or marble; a similar moulded compound is
employed to represent carved wood.

COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together),
a combination of various elements, substances or ingredients,
so as to form one composite whole. A " chemical compound "
is a substance which can be resolved 'into simple constituents,
as opposed to an element which cannot be so resolved (see
CHEMISTRY); a word is said to be 'a " compound " when it is
made up of different words or parts of different words. The
term is also used in an adjectival form with many applications;
a " compound engine " is one where the expansion of the steam
is effected in two or more stages (see STEAM-ENGINE) ; in zoology,
the " compound eye " possessed by insects and Crustacea is one
which is made up of several ocelli or simple eyes, set together so
that the whole has the appearance of being faceted (see EYE);
in botany, the " compound leaf " has two or more separate
blades on a common leaf -stalk; in surgery, in a " compound
fracture " the skin is broken as well as the bone, and there is a
communication between the two. There are many mathematical
and arithmetical uses of the term, particularly of those forms of
addition, multiplication, division and subtraction which deal
with quantities of more than one denomination. Compound
interest is interest paid upon interest, the accumulation of interest
forming, as it were, a secondary principal. The verb " to com-
pound " is used of the arrangement or settlement of differences,
and especially of an agreement made to accept or to pay part
of a debt in full discharge of the whole, and thus of the arrange-
ment made by an insolvent debtor with his creditors (see
BANKRUPTCY); similarly of the substitution of one payment
for annual or other periodic payments, thus subscriptions,
university or other dues, &c., may be "compounded"; a
particular instance of this is the system of "compounding"
for rates, where the occupier of premises pays an increased rent,
and the owner makes himself responsible for the payment of the
rates. The householder who thus compounds with the owner of
the premises he occupies is known as a " compound householder."
The payment of poor rate forming part of the qualification
necessary for the parliamentary franchise in the United Kingdom,
various statutes, leading up to the Compound Householders Act
1851, have enabled such occupiers to claim to be placed on the
rate. In law, to compound a felony is to agree with the felon
not to prosecute him for his crime, in return for valuable con-
sideration, or, in the case of a theft, on return of the goods stolen.
Such an agreement is a misdemeanour and is punishable with
fine and imprisonment.

The name " compounders " was given during the reign of
William III. of England to the members of a Jacobite faction,
who were prepared to restore James II. to the throne, on the
condition of an amnesty and an undertaking to preserve the
onstitution. Until 1853, in the university of Oxford, those
possessing private incomes of a certain amount paid special

dues for their degrees, and were known as Grand and Petty
Compounders.

The corruption " compound " (from the Malay kampung or
kampong, a quarter of a village) is the name applied to the en-
closed ground, whether garden or waste, which surrounds an
Anglo-Indian house. In India the European quarter, as a rule,
is separate from the native quarter, and consists of a number of
single houses, each standing in a compound, sometimes many
acres in extent.

COMPOUND PIER, the architectural term given to a clustered
column or pier which consists of a centre mass or newel, to which
engaged or .semi-detached shafts have been attached, in order
to perform, or to suggest the performance of, certain definite
structural objects, such as to carry arches of additional orders,
or to support the transverse or diagonal ribs of a vault, or the tie
beam of an important roof. In these cases, though performing
different functions, the drums of the pier are often cut out of
one stone. There are, however, cases where the shafts are
detached from the pier and coupled to it by armulets at regular
heights, as in the Early English period.

COMPRADOR (a Portuguese word used in the East, derived
from the Lat. comparare, to procure), originally a native servant
in European households in the East, but now the name given
to the native managers in European business houses in China,
and also to native contractors supplying ships in the Philippines
and elsewhere in the East.

COMPRESSION, in astronomy, the deviation of a heavenly
body from the spherical form, called also the " ellipticity."
It is numerically expressed by the ratio of the differences of the
axes to the major axis of the spheroid. The compression or
" flattening " of the earth is about 1/298, which means that the
ratio of the equatorial to the polar axis is 298:297 (see EARTH,
FIGURE or THE). In engineering the term is applied to the
arrangement by which the exhaust valve of a steam-engine is
made to close, shutting a portion of the exhaust steam in the
cylinder, before the stroke of the piston is quite complete. This
steam being compressed as the stroke is completed, a cushion is
formed against which the piston does work while its velocity is
being rapidly reduced, and thus the stresses in the mechanism
due to the inertia of the reciprocating parts are lessened. This
compression, moreover, obviates the shock which would otherwise
be caused by the admission of the fresh steam for the return
stroke. In internal combustion engines it is a necessary condition
of economy to compress the explosive mixture before it is ignited:
in the Otto cycle, for instance, the second stroke of the piston
effects the compression of the charge which has been drawn into
the cylinder by the first forward stroke.

COMPROMISE (pronounced cdmprSmize; through Fr. from
Lat. compromittere) , a term, meaning strictly a joint agreement,
which has come to signify such a settlement as involves a mutual
adjustment, with a surrender of part of each party's claim.
From the element of danger involved has arisen an invidious
sense of the word, imputing discredit, so that being " com-
promised " commonly means injured in reputation".

COMPROMISE MEASURES OF 1860, in American history, a
series of measures the object of which was the settlement of five
questions in dispute between the pro-slavery and anti-slavery
factions in the United States. Three of these questions grew out
of the annexation of Texas and the acquisition of western territory
as a result of the Mexican War. The settlers who had flocked to
California after the discovery of gold in 1848 adopted an anti-
slavery state constitution on the I3th of October 1849, and
applied for admission into the Union. In the second place it was
necessary to form a territorial government for the remainder of
the territory acquired from Mexico, including that now occupied
by Nevada and Utah, and parts of Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona
and New Mexico. The fundamental issue was in regard to the
admission of slavery into, or the exclusion of slavery from, this
region. Thirdly, there was a dispute over the western boundary
of Texas. Should the Rio Grande be the line of division north of
Mexico, or should an arbitrary boundary be established farther
to the eastward; in other words, should a considerable part of

COMPSA COMTE

the new territory be certainly opened to slavery as a part of
Texas, or possibly closed to it as a part of the organized territorial
section? Underlying all of these issues was of course the great
moral and political problem as to whether slavery was to be
confined to the south-eastern section of the country or be per-
mitted to spread to the Pacific. The two questions not growing
out of the Mexican War were in regard to the abolition of the
slave trade in the District of Columbia, and the passage of a new
fugitive slave law.

Congress met on the 3rd of December 1849. Neither faction
was strong enough in both houses to carry out its own programme,
and it seemed for a time that nothing would be done. On the
zgth of January 1850 Henry Clay presented the famous resolution
which constituted the basis of the ultimate compromise. His
idea was to combine the more conservative elements of both
sections in favour of a settlement which would concede the
Southern view on two questions, the Northern view on two, and
balance the fifth. Daniel Webster supported the plan in his great
speech of the 7th of March, although in doing so he alienated
many of his former admirers. Opposed to the conservatives
were the extremists of the North, led by William H. Seward and
Salmon P. Chase, and those of the South, led by Jefferson Davis.
Most of the measures were rejected and the whole plan seemed
likely to fail, when the situation was changed by the death of
President Taylor and the accession of Millard Fillmore on the
9th of July 1850. The influence of the administration was now
thrown in favour of the compromise. Under a tacit understand-
ing of the moderates to vote together, five separate bills were
passed, and were signed by the president between pth and 2oth
September 1850. California was admitted as a free state, and
the slave trade was abolished in the District of Columbia; these
were concessions to the North. New Mexico (then including the
present Arizona) and Utah were organized without any prohibi-
tion of slavery (each being left free to decide for or against, on
admission to statehood), and a rigid fugitive slave law was
enacted; these were concessions to the South. Texas (q.v.) was
compelled to give up much of the western land to which it had a
good claim, and received in return $10,000,000.

This legislation had several important results. It helped to
postpone secession and Civil War for a decade, during which time
the North-West was growing more wealthy and more populous,
and was being brought into closer relations with the North-East.
It divided the Whigs into " Cotton Whigs " and " Conscience
Whigs," and in time led to the downfall of the party. In the
third place, the rejection of the Wilmot Proviso and the accept-
ance (as regards New Mexico and Utah) of " Squatter Sove-
reignty " meant the adoption of a new principle in dealing with
slavery in the territories, which, although it did not apply to
the same territory, was antagonistic to the Missouri Compromise
of 1820. The sequel was the repeal of the Missouri Compromise
in the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854. Fourthly, the enforcement
of the fugitive slave law aroused a feeling of bitterness in the
North which helped eventually to bring on the war, and helped
to make it, when it came, quite as much an anti-slavery crusade
as a struggle for the preservation of the Union. Finally, although
Clay for his support of the compromises and Seward and Chase
for their opposition have gained in reputation, Webster has been
selected as the special target for hostile criticism. The Com-
promise Measures are sometimes spoken of collectively as the
Omnibus Bill, owing to their having been grouped originally
when first reported (May 8) to the Senate into one bill.

The best account of the above Compromises is to be found in J. F.
Rhodes, History of the United States from tlie Compromise of 1850,
vol. i. (New York, 1896). (W. R. S.*)

COMPSA (mod. Conza), an ancient city of the Hirpini, near the
sources of the Aufidus, on the boundary of Lucania and not far
from that of Apulia, on a ridge 1998 ft. above sea-level. It was
betrayed to Hannibal in 216 B.C. after the defeat of Cannae,
but recaptured two years later. It was probably occupied by
Sulla in 89 B.C., and was the scene of the death of T. Annius
Milo in 48 B.C. Most authorities (cf. Hiilsen in Pauly-Wissowa,
Realencydopiidie, Stuttgart, 1901, iv. 797) refer Caes. Bell.

civ. iii. 22, and Plin. Hist. Nat. ii. 147, to this place, supposing
the MSS. to be corrupt. The usual identification of the site of
Milo's death with Cassano on the Gulf of Taranto must therefore
be rejected. In imperial times, as inscriptions show, it was a
municipium, but it lay far from any of the main high-roads.
There are no important ancient remains.

COMPTON, HENRY (1632-1713), English divine, was the sixth
and youngest son of the second earl of Northampton. He was
educated at Queen's College, Oxford, and then travelled in
Europe. After the restoration of Charles II. he became cornet
in a regiment of horse, but soon quitted the army for the church.
After a further period of study at Cambridge and again at Oxford,
he held various livings. He was made bishop of Oxford in 1674,
and in the following year was translated to the see of London.
He was also appointed a member of the Privy Council, and
entrusted with the education of the two princesses Mary and
Anne. He showed a liberality most unusual at the time to
Protestant dissenters, whom he wished to reunite with the
established church. He held several conferences on the subject
with the clergy of his diocese; and in the hope of influencing
candid minds by means of the opinions of unbiassed foreigners,
he obtained letters treating of the question (since printed at the
end of Stillingfleet's Unreasonableness of Separation) from Le
Moyne, professor of divinity at Leiden, and the famous French
Protestant divine, Jean Claude. But to Roman Catholicism he
was strongly opposed. On the accession of James II. he conse-
quently lost his seat in the council and his deanery in the Chapel
Royal; and for his firmness in refusing to suspend John Sharp,
rector of St Giles's-in-the-Fields, whose anti-papal writings had
rendered him obnoxious to the king, he was himself suspended.
At the Revolution Compton embraced the cause of William and
Mary; he performed the ceremony of their coronation; his old
position was restored to him; and among other appointments,
he was chosen. as one of the commissioners for revising the liturgy.
During the reign of Anne he remained a member of the privy
council, and was one of the commissioners appointed to arrange
the terms of the union of England and Scotland; but, to his
bitter disappointment, his claims to the primacy were twice
passed over. He died at Fulham on the 7th of July 1713. He
had conspicuous defects both in spirit and intellect, but was
benevolent and philanthropic. He was a successful botanist.
He published, besides several theological works, A Translation
from the Italian of the Life of Donna Olympia Maladichini, who
governed the Church during the time of Pope Innocent X., which was
from the year 1644 to 1655 (1667), and A Translation from the
French of the Jesuits' Intrigues (1669).

COMPTROLLER, the title of an official whose business
primarily was to examine and take charge of accounts, hence to
direct or control, e.g. the English comptroller of the household,
comptroller and auditor-general (head of the exchequer and audit
department), comptroller-general of patents, &c., comptroller-
general (head of the national debt office). On the other hand,
the word is frequently spelt controller, as in controller of the
navy, controller or head of the stationery office. The word is
used in the same sense in the United States, as comptroller of
the treasury, an official who examines accounts and signs
drafts, and comptroller of the currency, who administers the
law relating to the national banks.

COMPURGATION (from Lat. compurgare, to purify com-
pletely), a mode of procedure formerly employed in ecclesiastical
courts, and derived from the canon law (compurgatio canonica),
by which a clerk who was accused of crime was required to make
answers on the oath of himself and a certain number of other
clerks (compurgators) who would swear to his character or
innocence. The term is more especially applied to a somewhat
similar procedure, the old Teutonic or Anglo-Saxon mode of trial
by oath-taking or oath-helping (see JURY).

COMTE, AUGUSTE [ISIDORE AUGUSTS MARIE FRANCOIS
XAVIER] (1798-1857), French Positive philosopher, was born
on the i9th of January 1798 at Montpellier, where his father was
a receiver-general of taxes for the district. He was sent for
his earliest instruction to the school of the town, and in 1814

COMTE

815

was admitted to the ficole Polytechnique. His youth was

marked by a constant willingness to rebel against merely official
authority; to genuine excellence, whether moral or intellectual,
he was always ready to pay unbounded deference. That stren-
uous application which was one of his most remarkable gifts in
manhood showed itself in his youth, and his application was
backed or inspired by superior intelligence and aptness. After
he had been two years at the Ecole Polytechnique he took a
foremost part in a mutinous demonstration against one of the
masters; the school was broken up, and Comte like the other
scholars was sent home. To the great dissatisfaction of his
parents, he resolved to return to Paris (1816), and to earn his
living there by giving lessons in mathematics. Benjamin
Franklin was the youth's idol at this moment. " I seek to
imitate the modern Socrates," he wrote to a school friend, " not in
talents, but in way of living. You know that at five-and-twenty
he formed the design of becoming perfectly wise and that he
fulfilled his design. I have dared to undertake the same thing,

hough I am not yet twenty." Though Comte's character and
aims were as far removed as possible from Franklin's type, neither
Franklin nor any man that ever lived could surpass him in the
heroic tenacity with which, in the face of a thousand obstacles,
he pursued his own ideal of a vocation.
For a moment circumstances led him to think of seeking a

ireer in America, but a friend who preceded him thither warned
him of the purely practical spirit that prevailed in the new

ountry. " If Lagrange were to come to the United States, he
could only earn his livelihood by turning land surveyor." So
Comte remained in Paris, living as he best could on something
less than 80 a year, and hoping, when he took the trouble to
break his meditations upon greater things by hopes about himself,
that he might by and by obtain an appointment as mathematical
master in a school. A friend procured him a situation as tutor in
the house of Casimir Perier. The salary was good, but the duties
were too miscellaneous, and what was still worse, there was an
end of the delicious liberty of the garret. After a short experience
of three weeks Comte returned to neediness and contentment.
He was not altogether without the young man's appetite for
pleasure; yet when he was only nineteen we find him wondering,
amid the gaieties of the carnival of 1817, how a gavotte or a
minuet could make people forget that thirty thousand human
beings around them had barely a morsel to eat.

Towards 1818 Comte became associated as friend and disciple
with Saint-Simon, who was destined to exercise a very decisive
influence upon the turn of his speculation. In after years he so
far forgot himself as to write of Saint-Simon as a depraved quack,
and to deplore his connexion with him as purely mischievous.
While the connexion lasted he thought very differently. Saint-
Simon is described as the most estimable and lovable of men,
and the most delightful in his relations; he is the worthiest of
philosophers. Even at the very moment when Comte was con-
gratulating himself on having thrown off the yoke, he honestly
admits that Saint-Simon's influence has been of powerful service
in his philosophic education. " I certainly, " he writes to his most
intimate friend, " am under great personal obligations to Saint-
Simon; that is to say, he helped in a powerful degree to launch
me in the philosophical direction that I have now definitely
marked out for myself, and that I shall follow without looking
back for the rest of my life." Even if there were no such un-
mistakable expressions as these, the most cursory glance into
Saint-Simon's writings is enough to reveal the thread of connexion
between the ingenious visionary and the systematic thinker.
We see the debt, and we also see that when it is stated at the
highest possible, nothing has really been taken either from
Comte's claims as a powerful original thinker, or from his im-
measurable pre-eminence over Saint-Simon in intellectual grasp
and vigour and coherence. As high a degree of originality may
be shown in transformation as in invention, as Moliere and
Shakespeare have proved in the region of dramatic art. In
philosophy the conditions are not different. // faut prendre son
bien ou on le Irou-oe.

It is no detriment to Comte's fame that some of the ideas

which he recombined and incorporated in a great philosophic
structure had their origin in ideas that were produced almost
at random in the incessant fermentation of Saint-Simon's brain.
Comte is in no true sense a follower of Saint-Simon, but it was
undoubtedly Saint-Simon who launched him, to take Comte's
own word, by suggesting the two starting-points of what grew
into the Comtist system first, that political phenomena are as
capable of being grouped under laws as other phenomena; and
second, that the true destination of philosophy must be social, and
the true object of the thinker must be the reorganization of the
moral, religious and political systems. We can readily see what
an impulse these far-reaching conceptions would give to Comte's
meditations. There were conceptions of less importance than
these, in which it is impossible not to feel that it was Saint-Simon's
wrong or imperfect idea that put his young admirer on the
track to a right and perfected idea. The subject is not worthy
of further discussion. That Comte would have performed some
great intellectual achievement, if Saint-Simon had never been
born, is certain. It is hardly less certain that the great achieve-
ment which he did actually perform was originally set in motion
by Saint-Simon's conversation, though it was afterwards directly
filiated with the fertile speculations of A. R. J. Turgot and
Condorcet. Comte thought almost as meanly of Pkto as he did
of Saint-Simon, and he considered Aristotle the prince of all
true thinkers; yet their vital difference about Ideas did not
prevent Aristotle from calling Plato master.

After six years the differences between the old and the young
philosopher grew too marked for friendship. Comte began to
fret under Saint-Simon's pretensions to be his director. Saint-
Simon, on the other hand, perhaps began to fell uncomfortably
conscious of the superiority of his disciple. The occasion of the
breach between them (1824) was an attempt on Saint-Simon 's part
to print a production of Comte's as ifitwereinsomesortconnected
with Saint-Simon's schemes of social reorganization. Not only
was the breach not repaired, but long afterwards Comte, as we
have said, with painful ungraciousness took to calling the
encourager of his youth by very hard names.

In 1825 Comte married a Mdlle Caroline Massin. His marriage
was one of those of which " magnanimity owes no account to
prudence," and it did not turn out prosperously.
His family were strongly Catholic and royalist, and * ***'
they were outraged by his refusal to have the marriage performed
other than civilly. They consented, however, to receive his
wife, and the pair went on a visit to Montpellier. Madame
Comte conceived a dislike to the circle she found there, and this
was the too early beginning of disputes which lasted for the
remainder of their union. In the year of his marriage we find
Comte writing to the most intimate of his correspondents: " I
have nothing left but to concentrate my whole moral existence
in my intellectual work, a precious but inadequate compensation;
and so I must give up, if not the most dazzling, still the sweetest
part of my happiness." He tried to find pupils to board with
him, but only one pupil came, and he was soon sent away for
lack of companions. " I would rather spend an evening,"
wrote the needy enthusiast, " in solving a difficult question, than
in running after some empty-headed and consequential million-
aire in search of a pupil." A little money was earned by an
occasional article in Le Producieur, in which he began to expound
the philosophic ideas that were now maturing in his mind.
He announced a course of lectures (1826), which it was hoped
would bring money as well as fame, and which were to be the
first dogmatic exposition of the Positive Philosophy. A friend
had said to him, " You talk too freely, your ideas are getting
abroad, and other people use them without giving you the
credit; put your ownership on record." The lectures attracted
hearers so eminent as Humboldt the cosmologist, Poinsot the
geometer and Blainville the physiologist.

Unhappily, after the third lecture of the course, Comte
had a severe attack of cerebral derangement, brought on by
intense and prolonged meditation, acting on a system that was
already irritated by the chagrin of domestic discomfort. He did
not recover his health for more than a year, and as soon as

8i6

COMTE

convalescence set in he was seized by so profound a melancholy at
the disaster which had thus overtaken him, that he threw himself

into the Seine. Fortunately he was rescued, and the

shock did not stay his return to mental soundness.

One incident of this painful episode is worth mention-
ing. Lamennais, then in the height of his Catholic exaltation,
persuaded Comte's mother to insist on her son being married
with the religious ceremony, and as the younger Madame Comte
apparently did not resist, the rite was duly performed, in spite
of the fact that Comte was at the time raving mad. Philosophic
assailants of Comtism have not always resisted the temptation
to recall the circumstance that its founder was once out of his
mind. As has been justly said, if Newton once suffered a cerebral
attack without forfeiting our veneration for the Principle.,
Comte may have suffered in the same way, and still not have
forfeited our respect for Positive Philosophy and Positive
Polity.

In 1828 the lectures were renewed, and in 1830 was published
the first volume of the Course of Positive Philosophy. The

sketch and ground plan of this great undertaking had
work. appeared in 1826. The sixth and last volume was

published in 1842. The twelve years covering the
publication of the first of Comte's two elaborate works were
years of indefatigable toil, and they were the only portion of
his life in which he enjoyed a certain measure, and that a very
modest measure, of material prosperity. In 1833 h g was ap-
pointed examiner of the boys who in the various provincial
schools aspired to enter the Ecole Polytechnique at Paris. This
and two other engagements as a teacher of mathematics secured
him an income of some 400 a year. He made M. Guizot, then
Louis Philippe's minister, the important proposal to establish
a chair of general history of the sciences. If there are four
chairs, he argued, devoted to the history of philosophy, that is to
say, the minute study of all sorts of dreams and aberrations
through the ages, surely there ought to be at least one to explain
the formation and progress of our real knowledge? This wise
suggestion, still unfulfilled, was at first welcomed, according to
Comte's own account, by Guizot's philosophic instinct, and then
repulsed by his " metaphysical rancour."

Meanwhile Comte did his official work conscientiously, sorely
as he grudged the time which it took from the execution of the
great object of his thoughts. " I hardly know if even to you,"
he writes to his wife, " I dare disclose the sweet and softened
feeling that comes over me when I find a young man whose
examination is thoroughly satisfactory. Yes, though you may
smile, the emotion would easily stir me to tears if I were not
carefully on my guard." Such sympathy with youthful hope,
in union with industry and intelligence, shows that Comte's
dry and austere manner veiled the fires of a generous social
emotion. It was this which made him add to his labours the
burden of delivering every year from 1831 to 1848 a course of
gratuitous lectures on astronomy for a popular audience. The
social feeling that inspired this disinterested act showed itself
in other ways. He suffered imprisonment rather than serve in
the national guard; his position was that though he would not
take arms against the new monarchy of July, yet being a re-
publican he would take no oath to defend it. The only amuse-
ment that Comte permitted himself was a visit to the opera.
In his youth he had been a playgoer, but he shortly came to the
conclusion that tragedy is a stilted and bombastic art, and after
a time comedy interested him no more than tragedy. For the
opera he had a genuine passion, which he gratified as often as
he could, until his means became too narrow to afford even that
single relaxation.

Of his manner and personal appearance we have the following
account from one who was his pupil: " Daily as the clock
struck eight on the horologe of the Luxembourg, while the
ringing hammer on the bell was yet audible, the door of my
room opened, and there entered a man, short, rather stout,
almost what one might call sleek, freshly shaven, without
vestige of whisker or moustache. He was invariably dressed
in a suit of the most spotless black, as if going to a dinner party;

his white neck-cloth was fresh from the laundress's hands, and
his hat shining like a racer's coat. He advanced to the arm-chair
prepared for him in the centre of the writing-table, laid his hat
on the left-hand corner; his snuff-box was deposited on the
same side beside the quire of paper placed in readiness for his
use, and dipping the pen twice into the ink-bottle, then bringing
it to within an inch of his nose to make sure it was properly
filled, he broke silence: ' We have said that the chord AB,' &c.
For three-quarters of an hour he continued his demonstration,
making short notes as he went on, to guide the listener in repeat-
ing the problem alone; then, taking up another cahier which
lay beside him, he went over the written repetition of the former
lesson. He explained, corrected or commented till the clock
struck nine; then, with the little finger of the right hand brushing
from his coat and waistcoat the shower of superfluous snuff
which had fallen on them, he pocketed his snuff-box, and resum-
ing his hat, he as silently as when he came in made his exit by
the door which I rushed to open for him."

In 1842, as we have said, the last volume of the Positive
Philosophy was given to the public. Instead of that content-
ment which we like to picture as the reward of twelve Cgm /e _
years of meritorious toil devoted to the erection of a tioa ot
high philosophic edifice, Comte found himself in the " Posittvt
midst of a very sea of small troubles, of that uncom- ph " m >(
pensated kind that harass without elevating, and
waste a man's spirit without softening or enlarging it. First,
the jar of temperament between Comte and his wife had become
so unbearable that they separated (1842). We know too little
of the facts to allot blame to either of them. In spite of one or
two disadvantageous facts in her career, Madame Comte seems
to have uniformly comported herself towards her husband with
an honourable solicitude for his well-being. Comte made her
an annual allowance, and for some years after the separation
they corresponded on friendly terms. Next in the list of the
vexations was a lawsuit with his publisher. The publisher had
inserted in the sixth volume a protest against a certain footnote,
in which Comte had used some hard words about Arago. Comte
threw himself into the suit with an energy worthy of Voltaire
and won it. Third, and worst of all, he had prefixed a preface to
the sixth volume, in which he went out of his way to rouse the
enmity of the men on whom depended his annual re-election
to the post of examiner for the Polytechnic school. The result
was that he lost the appointment, and with it one-half of his very
modest income. This was the occasion of an episode, which is of
more than merely personal interest.

Before 1842 Comte had been in correspondence with J. S. Mill,
who had been greatly impressed by Comte's philosophic ideas ; Mill
admits that his own System of Logic owes many valuable j & MilL
thoughts to Comte, and that, in the portion of that
work which treats of the logic of the moral sciences, a radical
improvement in the conceptions of logical method was derived
from the Positive Philosophy. Their correspondence, which was
full and copious, turned principally upon the two great questions
of the equality between men and women, and of the expediency
and constitution of a sacerdotal or spiritual order. When Comte
found himself straitened, he confided the entire circumstances
to Mill. As might be supposed by those who know the affec-
tionate anxiety with which Mill regarded the welfare of any one
whom he believed to be doing good work in the world, he at once
took pains to have Comte's loss of income made up to him, until
Comte should have had time to repair that loss by his own en-
deavour. Mill persuaded Grote, Molesworth, and Raikes Currie
to advance the sum of 240. At the end of the year (1845)
Comte had taken no steps to enable himself to dispense with the
aid of the three Englishmen. Mill applied to them again, but
with the exception of Grote, who sent a small sum, they gave
Comte to understand that they expected him to earn his own
living. Mill had suggested to Comte that he should write
articles for the English periodicals, and expressed his own
willingness to translate any such articles from the French.
Comte at first fell in with the plan, but he speedily surprised and
disconcerted Mill by boldly taking up the position of " high moral

COMTE

817

magistrate," and accusing the three defaulting contributors of
a scandalous falling away from righteousness and a high mind.
Mill was chilled by these pretensions; and the correspondence
came to an end. There is something to be said for both sides.
Comte, regarding himself as the promoter of a great scheme
for the benefit of humanity, might reasonably look for the support
of his friends in the fulfilment of his designs. But Mill and the
others were fully justified in not aiding the propagation of a
doctrine in which they might not wholly concur. Comte's sub-
sequent attitude of censorious condemnation put him entirely
in the wrong.

From 1845 to 1848 Comte lived as best he could, as well as
made his wife her allowance, on an income of 200 a year. His
little account books of income and outlay, with every item
entered down to a few hours before his death, are accurate and
neat enough to have satisfied an ancient Roman householder.
In 1848, through no fault of his own, his salary was reduced to
80. Littr6 and others, with Comte's approval, published an
appeal for subscriptions, and on the money thus contributed
Comte subsisted for the remaining nine years of his life. By
1852 the subsidy produced as much as 200 a year. It is worth
noticing that Mill was one of the subscribers, and that Littre
continued his assistance after he had been driven from Comte's
society by his high pontifical airs. We are sorry not to be able
to record any similar trait of magnanimity on Comte's part.
His character, admirable as it is for firmness, for intensity, for
inexorable will, for iron devotion to what he thought the service
of mankind, yet offers few of those softening qualities that make
us love good men and pity bad ones.

It is best to think of him only as the intellectual worker,
pursuing in uncomforted obscurity the laborious and absorbing

task to which he had given up his whole life. His
method. singularly conscientious fashion of elaborating his

ideas made the mental strain more intense than even
so exhausting a work as the abstract exposition of the principles
of positive science need have been. He did not write down a
word until he had first composed the whole matter in his mind.
When he had thoroughly meditated every sentence, he sat down
to write, and then, such was the grip of his memory, the exact
order of his thoughts came back to him as if without an effort,
and he wrote down precisely what he had intended to write,
without the aid of a note or a memorandum, and without check
or pause. For example, he began and completed in about six
weeks a chapter in the Positive Philosophy (vol. v. ch. 55)
which would fill forty pages of this Encyclopaedia. When we
reflect that the chapter is not narrative, but an abstract exposi-
tion of the guiding principles of the movements of several cen-
turies, with many threads of complex thought running along
side by side all through the speculation, then the circumstances
under which it was reduced to literary form are really astonishing.
It is hardly possible, however, to share the admiration expressed
by some of Comte's disciples for his style. We are not so
unreasonable as to blame him for failing to make his pages
picturesque or thrilling; we do not want sunsets and stars and
roses and ecstasy; but there is a certain standard for the most
serious and abstract subjects. When compared with such
philosophic writing as Hume's, Diderot's, Berkeley's, then
Comte's manner is heavy, laboured, monotonous, without relief
and without light. There is now and then an energetic phrase,
but as a whole the vocabulary is jejune; the sentences are
overloaded; the pitch is flat. A scrupulous insistence on making
his meaning clear led to an iteration of certain adjectives and
adverbs, whichat length deadened the effect beyond the endurance
of all but the most resolute students. Only the interest of the
matter prevents one from thinking of Rivarol's ill-natured
remark upon Condorcet, that he wrote with opium on a page of
lead. The general effect is impressive, not by any virtues of
style, for we do not discern one, but by reason of the magnitude
and importance of the undertaking, and the visible conscien-
tiousness and the grasp with which it is executed. It is by sheer
strength of thought, by the vigorous perspicacity with which
he strikes the lines of cleavage of his subject, that he makes his

way into the mind of the reader; in the presence of gifts of this
power we need not quarrel with an ungainly style.

Comte pursued one practice which ought to be mentioned in
connexion with his personal history, the practice of what he
style hygiene cerebrate. After he had acquired what
he considered to be a sufficient stock of material, and
this happened before he had completed the Positive
Philosophy, he abstained from reading newspapers, reviews,
scientific transactions and everything else, except two or three
poets (notably Dante) and the Imitatio Christi. It is true that
his friends kept him informed of what was going on in the
scientific world. Still this partial divorce of himself from the
record of the social and scientific activity of his time, though
it may save a thinker from the deplorable evils of dispersion,
moral and intellectual, accounts in no small measure for the
exaggerated egoism, and the absence of all feeling for reality,
which marked Comte's later days.

In 1845 Comte made the acquaintance of Madame Clotilde
de Vaux, a lady whose husband had been sent to the galleys
for life. Very little is known about her qualities.
She wrote a little piece which Comte rated so pre-
posterously as to talk about George Sand in the same
sentence; it is in truth a flimsy performance, though it contains
one or two gracious thoughts. There is true beauty in the
saying " It is unworthy of a noble nature to diffuse its pain."
Madame de Vaux's letters speak well for her good sense and
good feeling, and it would have been better for- Comte's later
work if she had survived to exert a wholesome restraint on
his exaltation. Their friendship had only lasted a year when
she died (1846), but the period was long enough to give her
memory a supreme ascendancy in Comte's mind. Condillac,
Joubert, Mill and other eminent men have shown what the
intellectual ascendancy of a woman can be. Comte was as
inconsolable after Madame de Vaux's death as D'Alembert
after the death of Mademoiselle L'Espinasse. Every Wednesday
afternoon he made a reverential pilgrimage to her tomb, and
three times every day he invoked her memory in words of
passionate expansion. His disciples believe that in time the
world will reverence Comte's sentiment about Clotilde de Vaux,
as it reveres Dante's adoration of Beatrice a parallel that
Comte himself was the first to hit upon. Yet we cannot help
feeling that it is a grotesque and unseemly anachronism to
apply in grave prose, addressed to the whole world, those
terms of saint and angel which are touching and in their place
amid the trouble and passion of the great mystic poet. What-
ever other gifts Comte may have had and he had many of the
rarest kind, poetic imagination was not among them, any more
than poetic or emotional expression was among them. His was
one of those natures whose faculty of deep feeling is unhappily
doomed to be inarticulate, and to pass away without the magic
power of transmitting itself.

Comte lost no time, after the completion of his Course of
Positive Philosophy, in proceeding with the System of Positive
Polity, for which the earlier work was designed to
be a foundation. The first volume was published in polity*
1851, and the fourth and last in 1854. In 1848, when
the political air was charged with stimulating elements, he
founded the Positive Society, with the expectation that it
might grow into a reunion as powerful over the new revolution
as the Jacobin Club had been in the revolution of 1780. The
hope was not fulfilled, but a certain number of philosophic
disciples gathered round Comte, and eventually formed them-
selves, under the guidance of the new ideas of the latter half
of his life, into a kind of church, for whose use was drawn up the
Positivist Calendar (1849), in which the names of those who had
advanced civilization replaced the titles of the saints. Guten-
berg and Shakespeare were among the patrons of the thirteen
months in this calendar. In the years 1849, I 8s an d 1 &S 1
Comte gave three courses of lectures at the Palais Royal. They
were gratuitous and popular, and in them he boldly advanced
the whole of his doctrine, as well as the direct and immediate
pretensions of himself and his system. The third course ended

8i8

COMTE

in the following uncompromising terms" In the name of the
Past and of the Future, the servants of Humanity both its
philosophical and its practical servants come forward to claim
as their due the general direction of this world. Their object
is to constitute at length a real Providence in all departments,
moral, intellectual and material. Consequently they exclude
once for all from political supremacy all the different servants
of God Catholic, Protestant or Deist as being at once behind-
hand and a cause of disturbance." A few weeks after this
invitation, a very different person stepped forward to constitute
himself a real Providence.

In 1852 Comte published the Catechism of Positivism. In the
preface to it he took occasion to express his approval of Louis
Napoleon's coup d'etat of the 2nd of December, " a fortunate
crisis which has set aside the parliamentary system and insti-
tuted a dictatorial republic." Whatever we may think of the
political sagacity of such a judgment, it is- due to Comte to say
that he did not expect to see his dictatorial republic transformed
into a dynastic empire, and, next, that he did expect from the
Man of December freedom of the press and of public meeting.
His later hero was the emperor Nicholas, "the only statesman in
Christendom," as unlucky a judgment as that which placed
Dr Francia in the Comtist Calendar.

In 1857 he was attacked by cancer, and died peaceably on
the sth of September of that year. The anniversary is celebrated
Death by ceremonial gatherings of his French and English
followers, who then commemorate the name and
the services of the founder of their religion. By his will he
appointed thirteen executors who were to preserve his rooms
at 10 rue Monsieur-le-Prince as the headquarters of the new
religion of Humanity.

In proceeding to give an outline of Comte's system, we
shall consider the Positive Polity as the more or less legitimate
sequel of the Positive Philosophy, notwithstanding
the deep gulf which so eminent a critic as J. S. Mill
insisted upon fixing between the earlier and the later
work. There may be, as we think there is, the greatest
difference in their value, and the temper is not the
same, nor the method. But the two are quite capable of being
regarded, and for the purposes of an account of Comte's career
ought to be regarded, as an integral whole. His letters when he
was a young man of one-and-twenty, and before he had published
a word, show how strongly present the social motive was in his
mind, and in what little account he should hold his scientific
works, if he did not perpetually think of their utility for the
species. " I feel," he wrote, " that such scientific reputation
as I might acquire would give more value, more weight, more
useful influence to my political sermons." In 1822 he published
a Plan of the Scientific Works necessary to reorganize Society.
In this he points out that modern society is passing
through a great crisis, due to the conflict of two oppos-
ing movements, the first, a disorganizing movement
owing to the break-up of old institutions and beliefs; the second,
a movement towards a definite social state, in which all means
of human prosperity will receive their most complete develop-
ment and most direct application. How is this crisis to be dealt
with? What are the undertakings necessary in order to pass
successfully through it towards an organic state? The answer
to this is that there are two series of works. The first is theoretic
or spiritual, aiming at the development of a new principle of
co-ordinating social relations, and the formation of the system
of general ideas which are destined to guide society. The second
work is practical or temporal; it settles the distribution of
power, and the institutions that are most conformable to the
spirit of the system which has previously been thought out in
the course of the theoretic work. As the practical work depends
on the conclusions of the theoretical, the latter must obviously
come first in order of execution.

In 1826 this was pushed farther in a most remarkable piece
called Considerations on the Spiritual Power the main object
of which is to demonstrate the necessity of instituting a spiritual
power, distinct from the temporal power and independent of it.

Comte'*
philo-
sophic

con-
sistency.

Early
writing.

In examining the conditions of a spiritual power properfor modern
times, he indicates in so many terms the presence in his mind
of a direct analogy between his proposed spiritual power and
the functions of the Catholic clergy at the time of its greatest
vigour and most complete independence, that is to say, from
about the middle of the nth century until towards the end of
the I3th. He refers to de Maistre's memorable book, Du Pope,
as the most profound, accurate and methodical account of the
old spiritual organization, and starts from that as the model to
be adapted to the changed intellectual and social conditions
of the modern time. . In the Positive Philosophy, again (vol. v.
p. 344), he distinctly says that Catholicism, reconstituted as a
system on new intellectual foundations, would finally preside
over the spiritual reorganization of modern society. Much else
could be quoted to the same effect. If unity of career, then,
means that Comte, from the beginning designed the institution
of a spiritual power, and the systematic reorganization of life,
it is difficult to deny him whatever credit that unity may be
worth, and the credit is perhaps not particularly great. Even
the readaptation of the Catholic system to a scientific doctrine
was plainly in his mind thirty years before the final execu-
tion of the Positive Polity, though it is difficult to believe
that he foresaw the religious mysticism in which the task was
to land him. A great analysis was to precede a great synthesis,
but it was the synthesis on which Comte's vision was centred
from the first. Let us first sketch the nature of the analysis.
Society is to be reorganized on the base of knowledge. What
is the sum and significance of knowledge? That is the question
which Comte's first master-work professes to answer.

The Positive Philosophy opens with the statement of a certain
law of which Comte was the discoverer, and which has always
been treated both by disciples and dissidents as the
key to his system. This is the Law of the Three States. *' ""
It is as follows. Each of our leading conceptions, states.
each branch of our knowledge, passes successively
through three different phases; there are three different ways
in which the human mind explains phenomena, each way
following the other in order. These three stages are the Theo-
logical, the Metaphysical and the Positive. Knowledge, or a
branch of knowledge, is in the Theological state, when it supposes
the phenomena under consideration to be due to immediate
volition, either in the object or in some supernatural being. In
the Metaphysical state, for volition is substituted abstract force
residing in the object, yet existing independently of the object;
the phenomena are viewed as if apart from the bodies manifesting
them; and the properties of each substance have attributed to
them an existence distinct from that substance. In the Positive
state, inherent volition or external volition and inherent force
or abstraction personified have both disappeared from men's
minds, and the explanation of a phenomenon means a reference
of it, by way of succession or resemblance, to some other
phenomenon, means the establishment of a relation between
the given fact and some more general fact. In the Theological
and Metaphysical state men seek a cause or an essence; in the
Positive thy are content with a law. To borrow an illustration
from an able English disciple of Comte: " Take the phenomenon
of the sleep produced by opium. The Arabs are content to
attribute it to the ' will of God.' Moliere's medical student
accounts for it by a soporific principle contained in the opium.
The modern physiologist knows that he cannot account for it
at all. He can simply observe, analyse and experiment upon
the phenomena attending the action of the drug, and classify
it with other agents analogous in character."- (Dr Bridges.)

The first and greatest aim of the Positive Philosophy is to
advance the study of society into the third of the three stages,
to remove social phenomena from the sphere of theological and
metaphysical conceptions, and to introduce among them the
same scientific observation of their laws which has given us
physics, chemistry, physiology. Social physics will consist of
the conditions and relations of the facts of society, and will have
two departments, one, statical, containing the laws of order;
the other dynamical, containing the laws of progress. While

COMTE

819

Classifica-
tion of
sciences.

science.

men's minds were in the theological state, political events, for
example, were explained by the will of the gods, and political
authority based on divine right. In the metaphysical state of
mind, then, to retain our instance, political authority was based
on the sovereignty of the people, and social facts were explained
by the figment of a falling away from a state of nature. When
the positive method has been finally extended to society, as it
has been to chemistry and physiology, these social facts will be
resolved, as their ultimate analysis, into relations with one
another, and instead of seeking causes in the old sense of the
word, men will only examine the conditions of social existence.
When that stage has been reached, not merely the greater part,
but the whole, of our knowledge will be impressed with one
character, the character, namely, of positivity or scientificalness ;
and all our conceptions in every part of knowledge will be
thoroughly homogeneous. The gains of such a change are
enormous. The new philosophical unity will now in its turn
regenerate all the elements that went to its own formation. The
mind will pursue knowledge without the wasteful jar and friction
of conflicting methods and mutually hostile conceptions; educa-
tion will be regenerated; and society will reorganize itself on the
only possible solid base a homogeneous philosophy.

The Positive Philosophy has another object besides the
demonstration of the necessity and propriety of a science of
society. This object is to show the sciences as branches
from a single trunk, is to give to science the ensemble
or spirit or generality hitherto confined to philosophy,
and to give to philosophy the rigour and solidity of
Comte's special object is a study of social physics, a
science that before his advent was still to be formed ; his second
object is a review of the methods and leading generalities of all
the positive sciences already formed, so that we may know both
what system of inquiry to follow in our new science, and also
where the new science will stand in relation to other knowledge.

The first step in this direction is to arrange scientific method
and positive knowledge in order, and this brings us to another
cardinal element in the Comtist system, the classification of the
sciences. In the front of the inquiry lies one main division, that,
namely, between speculative and practical knowledge. With
the latter we have no concern. Speculative or theoretic know-
ledge is divided into abstract and concrete. The former is
concerned with the laws that regulate phenomena in all conceiv-
able cases: the latter is concerned with the application of these
laws. Concrete science relates to objects or beings; abstract
science to events. The former .is particular or descriptive; the
latter is general. Thus, physiology is an abstract science; but
zoology is concrete. Chemistry is abstract; mineralogy is
concrete. It is the method and knowledge of the abstract
sciences that the Positive Philosophy has to reorganize in a great
whole.

Comte's principle of classification is that the dependence and
order of scientific study follows the dependence of the phenomena.
Thus, as has been said, it represents both the objective dependence
of the phenomena and the subjective dependence of our means of
knowing them. The more particular and complex phenomena
depend upon the simpler and more general. The latter are the
more easy to study. Therefore science will begin with those
attributes of objects which are most general, and pass on gradually
to other attributes that are combined in greater complexity.
Thus, too, each science rests on the truths of the sciences that
precede it, while it adds to them the truths by which it is itself
constituted. Comte's series or hierarchy is arranged as follows:

(1) Mathematics (that is, number, geometry, and mechanics),

(2) Astronomy, (3) Physics, (4) Chemistry, (5) Biology, (6)
Sociology. Each of the members of this series is one degree more
special than the member before it, and depends upon the facts of
all the members preceding it, and cannot bo fully understood
without them. It follows that the crowning science of the
hierarchy, dealing with the phenomena of human society, will
remain longest under the influence of theological dogmas and ab-
stract figments, and will be the last to pass into the positive stage.
You cannot discover the relations of the facts of human society

without reference to the conditions of animal life; you cannot
understand the conditions of animal life without the laws of
chemistry; and so with the rest.

This arrangement of the sciences, and the Law of the Three
States, are together explanatory of the course of human thought
and knowledge. They are thus the double key of -fhedoubk
Comte's systematization of the philosophy of all the teyot
sciences from mathematics to physiology, and his positive
analysis of social evolution, which is the base of P*"o-
sociology. Each science contributes its philosophy, '"f^-
The co-ordination of all these partial philosophies produces
the general Positive Philosophy. " Thousands had cultivated
science, and with splendid success; not one had conceived
the philosophy which the sciences when organized would
naturally evolve. A few had seen the necessity of extending the
scientific method to all inquiries, but no one had seen how this
was to be effected. . . The Positive Philosophy is novel as a
philosophy, not as a collection of truths never before suspected.
Its novelty is the organization of existing elements. Its very
principle implies the absorption of all that great thinkers had
achieved; while incorporating their results it extended their
methods. . . . What tradition brought was the results; what
Comte brought was the organization of these results. He always
claimed to be the founder of the Positive Philosophy. That he
had every right to such a title is demonstrable to all who dis-
tinguish between the positive sciences and the philosophy which
co-ordinated the truths and methods of these sciences into a
doctrine." G. H. Lewes.

Comte's classification of the sciences has been subjected to a
vigorous criticism by Herbert Spencer. Spencer's two chief
points are these: (i) He denies that the principle of Criticism
the development of the sciences is the principle of on Comte's
decreasing generality; he asserts that there are as c/ass/flcs-
many examples of tht advent of a science being "'
determined by increasing generality as by increasing speciality.
(2) He holds that any grouping of the sciences in a succession
gives a radically wrong idea of their genesis and their inter-
dependence; no true filiation exists; no science develops itself
in isolation; no one is independent, either logically or historically.
Littre, by far the most eminent of the scientific followers of
Comte, concedes a certain force to Spencer's objections, and
makes certain secondary modifications in the hierarchy in
consequence, while still cherishing his faith in the Comtist
theory of the sciences. ]. S. Mill, while admitting the objections
as good, if Comte's arrangement pretended to be the only one
possible, still holds the arrangement as tenable for the purpose
with which it was devised. G. H. Lewes asserts against Spencer
that the arrangement in a series is necessary, on grounds similar
to those which require that the various truths constituting a
science should be systematically co-ordinated although in nature
the phenomena are intermingled.

The first three volumes of the Positive Philosophy contain an
exposition of the partial philosophies of the five sciences that
precede sociology in the hierarchy. Their value has usually been
placed very low by the special followers of the sciences concerned;
they say that the knowledge is second-hand, is not coherent, and
is too confidently taken for final. The Comtist replies that the
task is philosophic, and is not to be judged by the minute
accuracies of science. In these three volumes Comte took the
sciences roughly as he found them. His eminence as a man of
science must be measured by his only original work in that
department, the construction, namely, of the new science of
society. This work is accomplished in the last three volumes of
the Positive Philosophy, and the second and third volumes of the
Positive Polity. The Comtist maintains that even if these five
volumes together fail in laying down correctly and finally the
lines of the new science, still they are the first solution of a great
problem hitherto unattempted. " Modern biology has got
beyond Aristotle's conception; but in the construction of the
biological science, not even the most unphilosophical biologist
would fail to recognize the value of Aristotle's attempt. So for
sociology. Subsequent sociologists may have conceivably to

820

COMTE

remodel the whole science, yet not the less will they recognize the
merit of the first work which has facilitated their labours. "-
Congrcve.

We shall now briefly describe Comte's principal conceptions in
sociology, his position in respect to which is held by himself, and by
Soclo- others, to raise him to the level of Descartes or Leibnitz.
logical Of course the first step was to approach the phenomena
concep- O f human character and social existence with the
expectation of finding them as reducible to general
laws as the other phenomena of the universe, and with the hope of
exploring these laws by the same instruments of observation and
verification as had done such triumphant work in the case of the
latter. Comte separates the collective facts of society and history
from the individual phenomena of biology; then he withdraws
these collective facts from the region of external volition, and
places them in the region of law. The facts of history must be
explained, not by providential interventions, but by referring
them to conditions inherent in the successive stages of social
existence. This conception makes a science of society possible.
Method What is the method? It comprises, besides observa-
tion and experiment (which is, in fact, onlytheobserva-
tion of abnormal social states) , a certain peculiarity of verification.
We begin by deducing every well-known historical situation from
the series of its antecedents. Thus we acquire a bodyof empirical
generalizations as to social phenomena, and then we connect the
generalizations with the positive theory of human nature. A
sociological demonstration lies in the establishment of an accord-
ance between the conclusions of historical analysis and the
preparatory conceptions of biological theory. As Mill puts it:
" If a sociological theory, collected from historical evidence,
contradicts the established general laws of human nature; if (to
use M. Comte's instances) it implies, in the mass of mankind, any
very decided natural bent, either in a good or in a bad direction;
if it supposes that the reason, in average human beings, pre-
dominates over the desires, or the disinterested desires over the
personal, we may know that history has been misinterpreted,
and that the theory is false. On the other hand, if laws of social
phenomena, empirically generalized from history, can, when once
suggested, be affiliated to the known laws of human nature; if
the direction actually taken by the developments and changes of
human society, can be seen to be such as the properties of man and
of his dwelling-place made antecedently probable, the empirical
generalizations are raised into positive laws, and sociology
becomes a science." The result of this method is an exhibition of
the events of human experience in co-ordinated series that
manifest their own graduated connexion.

Next, as all investigation proceeds from that which is known
best to that which is unknown or less well known, and as, in social
states, it is the collective phenomenon that is more easy of access
to the observer than its parts, therefore we must consider and
pursue all the elements of a given social state together and in
common. The social organization must be viewed and explored
as a whole. There is a nexus between each leading group of
social phenomena and other leading groups; if there is a change
in one of them, that change is accompanied by a corresponding
modification of all the rest. " Not only must political institutions
and social manners, on the one hand, and manners and ideas, on
the other, be always mutually connected; but further, this
consolidated whole must be always connected by its nature with
the corresponding state of the integral development of humanity,
considered in all its aspects of intellectual, moral and physical
activity." Comte.

Is there any one element which communicates the decisive

impulse to all the rest, any predominating agency in the course

DecltlYe f social evolution? The answer is that all the other

import- P arts f social existence are associated with, and

ace at drawn along by, the contemporary condition of

't'uai'T' mteUectual development. The Reason is the superior

""lopmeot and preponderant element which settles the direction

in which all the other faculties shall expand. " It is

only through the more and more marked influence of the reason

over the general conduct of man and of society, that the gradual

march of our race has attained that regularity and persevering
continuity which distinguish it so radically from the desultory and
barren expansion of even the highest animal orders, which share,
and with enhanced strength, the appetites, the passions, and even
the primary sentiments of man." The history of intellectual
development, therefore, is the key to social evolution, and the key
to the history of intellectual development is the Law of the Three
States.

Among other central thoughts in Comte's explanation of
history are these: The displacement of theological by positive
conceptions has been accompanied by a gradual rise of an
industrial regime out of the military regime; the great
permanent contribution of Catholicism was the separation which
it set up between the temporal and the spiritual powers; the
progress of the race consists in the increasing preponderance of
the distinctively human elements over the animal elements;
the absolute tendency of ordinary social theories will be replaced
by an unfailing adherence to the relative point of view, and from
this it follows that the social state, regarded as a whole, has been
as perfect in each period as the co-existing condition of humanity
and its environment would allow.

The elaboration of these ideas in relation to the history of the
civilization of the most advanced portion of the human race
occupies two of the volumes of the Positive Philosophy, and has
been accepted by very different schools as a masterpiece of rich,
luminous, and far-reaching suggestion. Whatever additions it
may receive, and whatever corrections it may require, this
analysis of social evolution will continue to be regarded as one of
the great achievements of human intellect.

The third volume of the Positive Polity treats of social
dynamics, and takes us again over the ground of historic evolu-
tion. It abounds with remarks of extraordinary g^.^1
fertility and comprehensiveness; but it is often dynamics
arbitrary; and its views of the past are strained into lathe
coherence with the statical views of the preceding 2?J!?' V *
volume. As it was composed in rather less than six
months, and as the author honestly warns us that he has given
all his attention to a more profound co-ordination, instead of
working out the special explanations more fully, as he had
promised, we need not be surprised.if the result is disappointing
to those who had mastered the corresponding portion of the
Positive Philosophy. Comte explains the difference between his
two works. In the first his " chief object was to discover and
demonstrate the laws of progress, and to exhibit in one unbroken
sequence the collective destinies of mankind, till then invariably
regarded as a series of events wholly beyond the reach of ex-
planation, and almost depending on arbitrary will. The present
work, on the contrary, is addressed to those who are already
sufficiently convinced of the certain existence of social laws, and
desire only to have them reduced to a true and conclusive
system."

The main principles of the Comtian system are derived from
the Positive Polity and from two other works, the Positivlst
Catechism: a Summary Exposition of the Universal
Religion, in Twelve Dialogues between a Woman and a pjsitivist
Priest of Humanity; and, second, The Subjective system.
Synthesis (1856), which is the first and only volume of a
work upon mathematics announced at the end of the Positive
Philosophy. The system for which the Positive Philosophy is
alleged to have been the scientific preparation contains a Polity
and a Religion; a complete arrangement of life in all its aspects,
giving a wider sphere to Intellect, Energy and Feeling than could
be found in any of the previous organic types, Greek, Roman or
Catholic-feudal. Comte's immense superiority over such prae-
Revolutionary Utopians as the Abbe Saint Pierre, no less than
over the group of post-revolutionary Utopians, is especially
visible in this firm grasp of the cardinal truth that the improve-
ment of the social organism can only be effected by a moral
development, and never by any changes in mere political
mechanism, or any violences in the way of an artificial redistri-
bution of wealth. A moral transformation must precede any
real advance. The aim, both in public and private life, is to

COMTE

821

secure to the utmost possible extent the victory of the social
feeling over self-love, or Altruism over Egoism. 1 This is the key
to the regeneration of social existence, as it is the key to that
unity of individual life which makes all our energies converge
freely and without wasteful friction towards a common end.
What are the instruments for securing the preponderance of
Altruism? Clearly they must work from the strongest element
in human nature, and this element is Feeling or the Heart. Under
the Catholic system the supremacy of Feeling was abused, and the
Intellect was made its slave. Then followed a revolt of Intellect
against Sentiment. The business of the new system will be to
bring back the Intellect into a condition, not of slavery, but of
willing ministry to the Feelings. The subordination never was,
and never will be, effected except by means of a religion, and a
religion, to be final, must include a harmonious
svnt hesis of all our conceptions of the external order of
l ^ e universe. The characteristic basis of a religion
is the existence of a Power without us, so superior to
ourselves as to command the complete submission of our whole
life. This basis is to be found in the Positive stage, in Humanity,
past, present and to come, conceived as the Great Being.

" A deeper study of the great universal order reveals to us at
length the ruling power within it of the true Great Being, whose
destiny it is to bring that order continually to perfection by con-
stantly conforming to its laws, and which thus best represents to
us that system as a whole. This undeniable Providence, the supreme
dispenser of our destinies, becomes in the natural course the common
centre of our affections, our thoughts, and our actions. Although
this Great Being evidently exceeds the utmost strength of any, even
of any collective, human force, its necessary constitution and its
peculiar function endow it with the truest sympathy towards all its
servants. The least amongst us can and ought constantly to aspire
to maintain and even to improve this Being. This natural object
of all our activity, both public and private, determines the true
general character of the rest of our existence, whether in feeling
or in thought ; which must be devoted to love, and to know, in order
rightly to serve, our Providence, by a wise use of all the means which
it furnishes to us. Reciprocally this continued service, whilst
strengthening our true unity, renders us at once both happier and
better."

The exaltation of Humanity into the throne occupied by the
Supreme Being under monotheistic systems made all the rest
of Comte's construction easy enough. Utility remains
l ^ e test ^ ever y institution, impulse, act; his fabric
religion. becomes substantially an arch of utilitarian proposi-
tions, with an artificial Great Being inserted at the top
to keep them in their place. The Comtist system is utilitarianism
crowned by a fantastic decoration. Translated into the plainest
English, the position is as follows: " Society can only be re-
generated by the greater subordination of politics to morals,
by the moralization of capital, by the renovation of the family,
by a higher conception of marriage and so on. These ends can
only be reached by a heartier development of the sympathetic
instincts. The sympathetic instincts can only be developed by
the Religion of Humanity." Looking at the problem in this
way, even a moralist who does not expect theology to be the
instrument of social revival, might still ask whether the sym-
pathetic instincts will not necessarily be already developed to
their highest point, before people will be persuaded to accept the
religion, which is at the bottom hardly more than sympathy
under a more imposing name. However that may be, the whole
battle into which we shall not enter as to the legitimateness
of Comtism as a religion turns upon this erection of Humanity
into a Being. The various hypotheses, dogmas, proposals, as to
the family, to capital, &c., are merely propositions measurable
by considerations of utility and a balance of expediencies.
Many of these proposals are of the highest interest, and many of
them are actually available; but there does not seem to be one
of them of an available kind, which could not equally well be
approached from other sides, and even incorporated in some
radically antagonistic system. Adoption, for example, as a
practice for improving the happiness of families and the welfare
of society, is capable of being weighed, and can in truth only be
weighed, by utilitarian considerations, and has been commended
1 For Comte's place in the history of ethical theory see ETHICS.

by men to whom the Comtist religion is naught. The singularity
of Comte's construction, and the test by which it must be tried,
is the transfer of the worship and discipline of Catholicism to
a system in which " the conception of God is superseded " by
the abstract idea of Humanity, conceived as a kind of Personality.

And when all is said, the invention does not help us. We have
still to settle what is for the good of Humanity, and we can only
do that in the old-fashioned way. There is no guidance in the
conception. No effective unity can follow from it, because you
can only find out the right and wrong of a given course by
summing up the advantages and disadvantages, and striking
a balance, and there is nothing in the Religion of Humanity to
force two men to find the balance onthesame side. TheComtists
are no better off than other utilitarians in judging policy, events,
conduct.

The particularities of the worship, its minute and truly
ingenious re-adaptations of sacraments, prayers, reverent signs,
down even to the invocation of a New Trinity, need
not detain us. They are said, though it is not easy to The *
believe, to have been elaborated by way of Utopia. 'aiKi'uae
If so, no Utopia has ever yet been presented in a style
so little calculated to stir the imagination, to warm the feelings,
to soothe the insurgency of the reason. It is a mistake to present
a great body of hypotheses if Comte meant them for hypotheses
in the most dogmatic and peremptory form to which language
can lend itself. And there is no more extraordinary thing in
the history of opinion than the perversity with Which Comte
has succeeded in clothing a philosophic doctrine, so intrinsically
conciliatory as his, in a shape that excites so little sympathy
and gives so much provocation. An enemy defined Comtism
as Catholicism minus Christianity, to which an able champion
retorted by calling it Catholicism plus Science. Comte's Utopia
has pleased the followers of the Catholic, just as little as those of
the scientific, spirit.

The elaborate and minute systematization of life, proper to the
religion of Humanity, is to be directed by a priesthood. The priests
are to possess neither wealth nor material power; they
are not to command, but to counsel ; their authority is to
rest on persuasion, not on force. When religion has be-
come positive, and society industrial, then the influence of the
church upon the state becomes really freeandindependent, which
was not the case in the middle ages. The power of the priesthood
rests upon special knowledge of man and nature; but to this
intellectual eminence must also be added moral power and a
certain greatness of character, without which force of intellect
and completeness of attainment will not receive the confidence
they ought to inspire. The functions of the priesthood are of this
kind: To exercise a systematic direction over education; to
hold a consultative influence over all the important acts of actual
life, public and private; to arbitrate in cases of practical conflict;
to preach sermons recalling those principles of generality and
universal harmony which our special activities dispose us to
ignore; to order the due classification of society; to perform
the various ceremonies appointed by the founder of the religion.
The authority of the priesthood is to rest wholly on voluntary
adhesion, and there is to be perfect freedom of speech and
discussion. This provision hardly consists with Comte's con-
gratulations to the tsar Nicholas on the " wise vigilance " with
which he kept watch over the importation of Western books.

From his earliest manhood Comte had been powerfully im-
pressed by the necessity of elevating the condition of women.
(See remarkable passage in his letters to M. Valat, pp.
84-87.) His friendship with Madame de Vaux had
deepened the impression, and in the reconstructed society
women are to play a highly important part. They are to be
carefully excluded from public action, but they are to do many
more important things than things political. To fit them for
their functions, they are to be raised above material cares, and
they are to be thoroughly educated. The family, which is so
important an element of the Comtist scheme of things, exists
to carry the influence of woman over man to the highest point
of cultivation. Through affection she purifies the activity of

822

COMUS CONANT

man. " Superior in power of affection, more able to keep both
the intellectual and the active powers in continual subordination
to feeling, women are formed as the natural intermediaries
between Humanity and man. The Great Being confides specially
to them its moral Providence, maintaining through them the
direct and constant cultivation of universal affection, in the midst
of all the distractions of thought or action, which are for ever
withdrawing men from its influence. . . . Beside the uniform
influence of every woman on every man, to attach him to
Humanity, such is the importance and the difficulty of this
ministry that each of us should be placed under the special
guidance of one of these angels, to answer for him, as it were, to
the Great Being. This moral guardianship may assume three
types, the mother, the wife and the daughter; each having
several modifications, as shown in the concluding volume.
Together they form the three simple modes of solidarity, or
unity with contemporaries, obedience, union and protection
as well as the three degrees of continuity between ages, by
uniting us with the past, the present and the future. In accord-
ance with my theory of the brain, each corresponds with one of
our three altruistic instincts veneration, attachment and
benevolence."

How the positive method of observation and verification
of real facts has landed us in this, and much else of the same
kind, is extremely hard to guess. Seriously to examine
an encyclopaedic system, that touches life, society
and knowledge at every point, is evidently beyond the
compass of such an article as this. There is in every chapter
a whole group of speculative suggestions, each of which would
need a long chapter to itself to elaborate or to discuss. There is
at least one biological speculation o{ astounding audacity,
that could be examined in nothing less than a treatise. Perhaps
we have said enough to show that after performing a great and
real service to thought Comte almost sacrificed his claims to
gratitude by the invention of a system that, as such, and in-
dependently of detached suggestions, is markedly retrograde.
But the world will take what is available in Comte, while for-
getting that in his work which is as irrational in one way as
Hegel is in another.